MIXING & AGITATION

IN THIS eBOOK
This eBook, created in conjunction with Cleveland Mixer,
is the ultimate resource for engineers looking to increase
mixing or blending efficiency and performance. Get famil-
iar with the 9 most common mixing scenerios, then utilize
the handy calculations to properly understand and size
agitators. Lastly, review the impeller options and identify
which is best for your applications.
T H E P L A N T E N G I N E E R ’ S G U I D E T O A G I TAT I O N D E S I G N A N D F U N D A M E N TA L S

Content Inside
Mixing Process Classification
An in-depth discussion of the nine major classifications of mixing problems ranging
from simple blending, to crystallizations, extraction, and complex chemical reac-
tions.

Basic Design Calculations

The major calculations required to properly understand and size and agitator. In-
cludes horespower, bulk velocity, and shaft critical speed equations among others.

Mixer Impellers
Short review of the major types of impeller designs available, typical flow patterns,
and application examples.

Retrofitting with Hydrofoils

Describes how cost reductions or process improvements can be accomplished with
“flow efficient” Hydrofoil impellers.

About the Source

Cleveland Mixer designs and manufactures mixers and
agitators for a variety of industries, including chemi-
cal processing, food processing, pharmaceutical,
personal care, and water/wastewater treatment.

Since 1939, Cleveland Mixer has provided

solutions and technical expertise to their
customers, supplying them with the durable
equipment and ease of maintenance they need to
achieve their process goals.

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Mixing Process Classifications.

BLENDING OF MISCIBLE LIQUIDS
Blending of miscible liquids is a simple physical mixing consisting of combining two or
more materials until the particles, portions, or drops of each of the components are dis-
seminated within each other satisfactorily. The degree of mixing or intimacy of the par-
ticles is a matter of subjective judgement as to what is necessary. Specific data required
include:
• The relative proportions of the liquids to be blended

• The time available to obtain the final blend

The evaluation of the time available is quite important as it has a considerable effect on
mixer horsepower. Input horsepower is selected to give a certain number of batch turn-
overs in a given time period. By extending the time period, input horsepower can be
decreased, or conversely, increasing the input horsepower will decrease the blend time.

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The number of batch turnovers required to achieve a satisfactory blend is extremely vari-
able. For example, 12 turnovers should blend readily miscible liquids of similar viscos-
ity and density, such as alcohol and water. However, as many as 36 turnovers may be
required for readily miscible liquids of widely different viscosities, such as glucose and
water.

SOLIDS SUSPENSION
Solids suspension is also a simple physical mixing job involving suspending insoluble
solids in a liquid. Specific data required include:
• Percentages of solids, particle sizes, and setting velocities in feet per second

• Ease of wetting of the solids (See also Dispersion)

• Type of suspension required, either (a) uniform suspension of all particles, or (b)
off-bottom suspension of all solids

Type of suspension is extremely important in mixer selection as illustrated in the following

example:

Assume a vessel with working volume of 3,000 gallons containing light liquid with 20%
insoluble solids, of which 1/3 are 10 mesh, 1/3 are 40 mesh, and 1/3 are 200 mesh.
Settling velocities of the largest 1/3 is 10ft. per minute. Horsepower required for various
types of suspension is:
• Uniform Suspension 7½ HP

• Off-bottom Suspension 3 HP

DISPERSION
Dispersion is usually defined as the mixing of two or more non-miscible liquids, or solids
and liquids, into a pseudohomogeneous mass which is more or less stable as measured
by its life before noticeable separation occurs. This can cover a wide range of product

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types from slurries to heavy dispersions, such as pigment pastes, caulking compounds,
etc. Power input per unit volume can vary widely. Conventional propellers or turbines at
typical propeller and turbine speeds are adequate in some applications. In others, higher
speed impellers introducing higher shear and greater intensity of agitation are desirable
to satisfy the dispersing problem in a reasonable time period. Some dispersing applica-
tions can be routine, others may require experimental data to determine the best type of
mixer. Additional data required include:

• Type of dispersion (liquid-liquid, solid in

liquid, gas in liquid)

• Relative amounts of each phase

• Viscosity of final product (if known),

together with details on temporary or in-
terim viscosity conditions which are more
extreme than initial or final conditions

• Rate of addition of one component into

another, and in which order

• If solids are present, some expression as

to ease or difficulty of wetting. Some ma-
terials which are of a light, fluffy nature,
tend to float on the surface of a liquid,
whereas others may tend to form agglom-
erates which resist complete wetting. Both
conditions require greater intensity of
agitation to complete the dispersion

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• Time available to create the dis-

persion. Where the solids content
is low, solids easily wettable,
and agglomerates do not form,
the application and horsepower
requirements are similar to solids
suspension. A change in time
available has very little effect on
horsepower levels since the mate-
rial is usually dispersed as rapidly
as it is added. In more difficult
applications horsepower levels
and available time usually have maximum micron size. Agglomer-

a definite relationship due to the ates formed after initial entrain-

need not only for high shear, but ment of solids may be reduced

for adequate turnover rather easily up to a point, after

which further reduction becomes
• Fineness of dispersion required
exceedingly slow with conven-
to be produced by the mixer. This
tional horsepower levels. Under
applies to solids in liquids disper-
this condition, if time is critical,
sions and is usually designated as
a special high horsepower, high
micron size of particles. Some dis-
shear, high turnover mixer will be
persions are considered complete
required. If subsequent process-
when merely smooth in appear-
ing for particle reduction in other
ance; others may require reduc-
types of equipment, such as roller,
tion of agglomerates to certain

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sand or colloid mills, is planned, must consider the viscosity factor as an in-
this should be stated since it will herent part of the dissolving problem. Input
simplify the dispersing job re- power levels may run to 100 HP or more
quired of the mixer. per 1000 gallons, with high shear being
desirable. Where long dissolving times can
DISSOLVING be tolerated, lower horsepower levels can
Dissolving generally refers to the dissolving be used. Actual times will depend upon
of a solid in a liquid. Here the requirement the material involved, the temperature and
is to provide a good flow rate of liquid particle size.
past the surface of the solids. In general,
for readily soluble crystalline materials, the An easy dissolving application is salt solu-
type of agitation which provides initial wet- tion make-up, as in preparing a 20% sodi-
ting and suspension of all solids will satisfy um chloride brine in a 2000 gallon tank at
the application. In those cases where sol- temperature of 150° F. This will require one
ids are difficult to dissolve or where faster horsepower. On the other hand dissolving
dissolving is desired, higher horsepower 1% carboxy-methyl-cellulose in 2000 gal-
levels are required. lons of water where final viscosities could
run as high as 7500 cps. will require 7½
A different type of dissolving problem is en- to 10 hp. Starch cookers using turbine mix-
countered when the solids are non-crystal- ers are a good example of dispersing and
line materials such as natural and synthetic
rubbers, solid resins, and other commercial
polymers. These materials first soften and
become quite sticky. These particles tend
to agglomerate into larger masses or to
adhere to the vessel walls. The solution in-
creases in viscosity as dissolving proceeds,
with final viscosities becoming extremely
high in solutions having high solids con-
tent. Dissolving applications of this type

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dissolving. At a point in the cooking cycle • Percent of solids in solution

the starch is changed from a slurry to a • Physical characteristics of initial
viscous solution and passes a peak viscos- products, interim changes, and
ity before it is finally diluted. Mixer must be the final product
sized for the viscosity at the peak.
• Temperature
For example, for a 1000 gallon starch • Solubility
batch at 12,000 cps. peak viscosity, 3
• Permissible dissolving time
hp would be satisfactory. At 80,000 cps.
peak viscosity, 7½ hp will be necessary. CRYSTALLIZATION
Another example is dissolving of crumb Crystallization is the reverse of dissolving
rubber in organic solvent. Final vis- and is accomplished either by cooling a
cosities can easily reach 500,000 cps., saturated solution to deposit out crystals, or
1,000,000 cps., or higher depending by heating a solution to drive off the sol-
upon solids content. Dissolving can be vent. The agitator selection usually resolves
accomplished slowly over several hours itself into (1) a heat transfer application
time at moderate horsepower inputs with necessitating good flow of the solution past
large diameter, low speed impellers. Power the heat transfer surfaces and (2) satisfac-
levels in the range of 25 hp per 1,000 tory handling of the crystals being formed.
gallons are typical. Dissolving time can be
reduced by up to 80% by sharply increas-
ing power input and providing high shear
in addition to high fluid turnover. Power
levels in this instance will be in the range
of 200 hp per 1000 gallons.

Data to be provided in dissolving applica-

tions should include:

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The problem of handling crystals usually dictates the choice of an impeller system. Some
crystals are sensitive to fracture and must be agitated gently. Other crystals may tend to
form on cooling surfaces and must be actually scraped off by the impeller. Some crystal-
lizers in continuous flow may be designed to concentrate crystals at the bottom of the
vessel for draw-off. Other applications may require that the crystals be maintained uni-
formly in suspension. In other crystallizers, the solids may deposit out to the extent that
the fluidity is impeded because of the high percentage of solids in suspension.

In general, crystallizers fall into three basic types. The first is a conventional vessel with
either jacket or internal coils or both. The impeller is usually a low speed type to provide
good volumetric flow rates at moderate to low velocity. This type is useful for friable, eas-
ily damaged crystals, or where solids content builds up to a high level.

The second is a conventional vessel fitted with a draft tube in addition to a jacket or
coils. The draft tube provides positive flow control which prevents short circuiting of the
desired flow pattern. Usually higher speed impellers such as propellers are used. This
type is useful where crystal size is not important or not affected by the higher shear type
impeller.

A third type is a vessel used with pusher type impellers such as helical ribbons or gates
running in close proximity or actually scraping the vessel wall or heat exchange surfaces
to continuously remove the crystals from these surfaces as they are formed.

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Additional data required for crystallization A typical example is as follows:

agitation requirements are as follows:
• General description of the pro-
cess with particular emphasis
upon progressive changes in
crystals and slurry characteristics
as crystallization proceeds
A 15,000 gallon crystallizer is equipped
with a central draft tube and used for form-
ing solids at 25% maximum by weight,
settling velocity up to 5 ft. per minute, with
crystals being continually drawn-off at the
tank bottom. Here motion only of the solids

• Sensitivity of crystals is desired, since a higher solids concentra-

tion at the draw-off point is necessary.
• Temperature and pressure of
system

• Description of heat transfer sur-

faces

• Nature of crystals, whether they,

should be maintained in suspen-
sion, or permitted to settle.

• Specific gravities of crystals and

of liquor, particle size of crystal, A 10 HP axial flow impeller to provide mo-
settling velocities. tion only of solids would be suitable.
• Crystal formation rates and
However, if uniformity of crystals in suspen-
method of forming; i.e., do they
sion is desired for other reasons, 15 HP
form as slurry or do they deposit
would be required.
out on heat transfer surfaces.

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HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer applications involve either heating, or cooling, or merely maintaining a
uniform temperature. The latter is the easiest application, with heating next, and cooling
usually the most difficuIt. In processing, heat is transferred by conduction from the wall
of the vessel or surface of the internal heating elements to the contents of the vessel. As
the contents are agitated, heat is carried throughout the mass by convection. Mixing thus
speeds up conduction from heat transfer surfaces, and helps promote heat transfer by
forced convection.

Heating and cooling applications are best handled by providing an adequate flow of
fluid past the heat transfer surfaces, with proper measures taken to insure good top to
bottom turnover of the tank contents. This flow pattern will provide good exchange of
fluid between the center of the tank and tank wall resulting in reasonably uniform tem-
perature of tank contents.

Heat transfer applications may be considered similar to blending. Consequently, for

low viscosity liquids, conventional propeller and turbine mixers are generally used. One
qualification on horsepower levels for low viscosity applications is that, unlike blending,
a point can be reached where an increase in input horsepower does not have any pro-
nounced effect. For higher viscosity liquids, larger diameter lower speed impellers are
usually necessary to obtain the desired flow pattern, with accompanying increases in
horsepower similar to that required in higher viscosity liquid blending.

Complete data on all the contributing factors in a heat transfer agitator application are
often difficult to obtain. As much data as are available should be furnished and should
include the following:

• Tank dimensions and details of tank jacket and/or coils

• Whether heating, cooling, or merely maintaining an existing temperature is re-

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quired. Time available for heating
or cooling
• Are solids present which must
be handled as solids suspension
problem. If so, give details as in
solid suspension applications
• Viscosity of fluids at the tempera-
tures to be encountered
• Details on heating or cooling me-
dia, temperature of batch at start
and at end of cycle
• Specific heats and conductivity of
tank contents
• Is the process material susceptible
to decomposition at the tempera-
ture of the heating medium or can
it solidify at the temperature of the
cooling medium
CHEMICAL REACTION
Reactor agitators are usually treated as one
or more of the other types of agitator appli-
cations such as blending, dissolving, solids
suspensions, heat transfer, extraction, or
gas dispersion, depending upon which of
these promote the reaction. Complete data
as requested under the specific applicable
operation should be furnished.
Some chemical reaction applications are
difficult to classify from that standpoint of
the type of mixing operation. For example,
the reaction of a gas with a liquid promot-
ed by a solid catalyst in suspension usually
involves gas dispersion, solids suspension,
and heat transfer. Applications of this type
are usually evaluated in pilot plant equip-
ment, and pilot plant mixing data should
be made available to the mixer vendor.
These data should include (1) input horse-
power per unit volume (2) the geometrical
relationship of the pilot vessel and mixer
and (3) the peripheral speed of the mixer.
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EXTRACTION
In mixing applications, this is defined as
the separation of one or more components
of a mixture by the use of a solvent liquid.
At least one of the components must be
immiscible with or only partly soluble in the liquid-liquid extraction and in leaching with
extractive liquid so that at least two phases horsepower levels similar to dispersion.
are formed during and following the ex-
traction process. Extraction operations are
commonly broken down into the following:
• Liquid-liquid extraction, in which the
mixture treated is a liquid and the
two phases formed are both liquids
• Leaching, in which one or more
components of a solid mixture are
removed by liquid treatment
• Washing, which is similar to leach-
ing except that the solids removed
are usually present only on the solid
surface rather than throughout the
solid phase
• Precipitive extraction, in which a
homogeneous liquid system of two or
more components is caused to split
into two phases by addition of a third
component
In all these systems, agitation is used to
improve extraction rates by increasing con-
tact areas and mass transfer coefficients.
High shear and high turnover are gener-
ally provided to disperse the phases in
However, washing and precipitive extrac-
tion usually require only mild agitation simi-
lar to blending. Extraction can be carried
on in a single stage vessel, or in a series
of vessels. The continuous countercurrent
extraction column has become of interest
in recent years because it can handle fairly
high flow rates through relatively small mix-
ing areas with a speed-up in process flow
rates.
Extraction processing requirements are so
varied depending on the operation to be
conducted that it is impractical to attempt
to tabulate specific data required. Usually
it is best to try to classify it under one of the
other operations such as solids suspension
or dispersion.
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GAS DISPERSION
Gas dispersion refers to any operation in
which an incoming gas is intimately distrib-
uted throughout a liquid mass, usually with
resultant chemical reaction. The following
features are desired in setting up equip-
ment for this operation:
• Radial type turbines are preferred
to give a combination of shear
and radial discharge pattern
• A sparger ring for gas introduc-
tion below the bottom impeller is
preferred over an injection tube
• Tanks should be tall and narrow
in configuration to provide the
greatest residence time for the
gas, and should be fully baffled
• Multiple impellers are recom-
mended
Impeller systems are designed for relatively
high fluid discharge velocities in order to
disperse the gas into fine bubbles through-
out the liquid. This will retain the gas in
the liquid as long as possible and provide
greater contact surface between the gas
and liquid phases. The liquid in the vessel
will expand by the volume of gas entrained
and it is therefore necessary that adequate
expansion space be provided above the
normal ungassed liquid level. Under con-
ditions of high gas input and/or low tank
pressure the batch may expand consider-
ably resulting in a reduced batch specific
gravity. In order to use the maximum horse-
power capability of the mixer during the
gassing period (when it is needed), two-
speed motors are sometimes used to permit
operation of the agitator at reduced speed
when that batch is in an ungassed and
denser condition. The impeller is then sized
on the basis of fully loading the mixer
when the batch is in a gassed and lower
density condition.
The following generalizations can be made
regarding gas dispersions:
• Increasing the gas input increases
the horsepower requirement to
obtain equal gas dispersions
• Increasing the vessel operating
pressure tends to decrease the
horsepower required for identical
gas rates
• Increasing the operating tempera-
ture increases reaction rates, but
also increases gas volume by
vapor expansion, thereby increas-
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ing the horsepower requirement necessary to produce an equivalent gas dis-

persion at lower temperatures. The increased reaction rate may offset the need
of equal gas dispersion with its higher horsepower requirement

• The gas dispersion required is a function of the mass transfer rate. A given time
cycle can be attained by a high mass transfer rate with relatively small surface
area contact (large bubbles) or by a slower mass transfer rate and a high sur-
face area contact (small bubbles). The horsepower requirement is determined
by the gas bubble size needed to give the desired performance. Horsepower
increases with increasing surface area requirements

Apart from the above factors influencing horsepower inputs is the relative dissolving rate
or reaction rate between gas and liquid. Some gases absorb or react rapidly-particularly
in the initial stages of the reaction. Others are considerably slower to react. The slower
reacting applications require a finer gas dispersion and therefore greater horsepower
input.

Data relating to gas dispersion are as follows:

• Tank details, including all dimensions

• General description of process with indication of reaction rates, if available

• Batch size

• Tank operating pressure and temperature

• Volume of gas input in SCFM

The following examples indicate how reaction rate can affect horsepower input levels:

Vegetable oil hydrogenation goes easily but halogenation of an organic in a Friedl-

Crafts reaction can be quite difficult. A vegetable oil hydrogenator might require about 1
hp/1000 gallons, whereas a halogenator might be in a range as high as 10 hp/1000
gallons.
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Basic Design Calculations.

In the process of selecting an agitator system, many calculations must be performed to in-
sure that the process requirements can be met and that the unit selected is mechanically
sound. Some of the basic equations are discussed below.
Reynolds Number (NRe)
Reynolds Number:
NRe is a dimensionless number that characterizes
10.7 Sg N D2
NRe= the fluid regime at the impeller. By definition, it is
µ
NRe = Reynolds Number the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces, and is

Sg = Specific Gravity of Fluid used as a correlating parameter for impeller Power

N = Rotational Speed (RPM) Number (NP) and Pumping Number (NQ).

D = Impeller Diameter, In.

µ = Viscosity, Cp.
Fig. 1

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Power Number vs. Proximity Factor

Reynolds Number The most neglected power correction fac-
100 tor is the proximity correction (Fig. 3). For
A - 6 - Bladed Radial
B - 4 - Bladed Axial
C - 3 - Bladed Hydrofoil

Proximity Factor
Power Number NP

10
A

B
1
F Prox.
2.0
C

0.1 Viscous Transition Turbulent 1.5

AXIAL
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Reynolds Number NRe 1.0 RADIAL
D

Fig. 2 0.8
C
0.6

Reynolds Number (NP)

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.5

C
Each series of impellers has a characteristic D

NP versus NRe curve as shown in Fig.2. Fig. 3

axial flow impellers, the proximity correc-
At Reynolds Numbers above 10,000, the
tion results from closing the outlet of the
Power Number is constant (in a baffled
impeller. The proximity increases the power
tank). At Reynolds Numbers below 10, the
as a function of ratio of off-bottom clear-
Power Number has a linear inverse rela-
ance to the turbine diameter.
tionship with a slope of minus one.
With radial flow impellers, we are restrict-
With these established curves, we can de-
ing one of the two inlets resulting in initial
termine the proper value of NP for any set
unloading as the impeller is brought closer
of operating conditions (speed, diameter,
to the bottom. The power increases fairly
specific gravity, and viscosity).
rapidly at C/D ratios less than .3.

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Impeller Horsepower Motor Horsepower

NP N3 D5 Sg P
P= (1.52)(1013)
Hp =
(EFF) (% LOAD)
P = Impeller Horsepower Hp = Motor Horsepower
NP = Impeller Power Number Corrected
for Proximity & Reynolds Number P = Impeller Horsepower
N = Rotational Speed (RPM) EFF = Reducer Efficiency
D = Impeller Diameter, In.
Sg = Fluid Specific Gravity
% Load = Motor Loading (90% max.)

Fig. 4 Fig. 5

Impeller Horsepower
Primary Flow
The power required to drive a mixing im-
peller has been empirically determined NQ N D3
in water for fully baffled tanks, correction QP = 231
factors have been developed to correct for
other conditions. The power requirement QP = Primary Flow (GPM)
NQ = Pumping Number
is primarily a function of the impeller de- N = Rotational Speed, RPM
D = Impeller Diameter, In.
sign (NP), the operating speed (N) and the
impeller diameter (D). The specific gravity Fig. 6

is a direct multiplier on power.

Another important impeller calculation is
primary flow, or the impeller displacement.
MOTOR HORSEPOWER (HP) The pumping number is primarily a function
To insure that a given mixing impeller can
of the impeller design, however, correction
operate at the design speed under design
must be made if the impeller is not oper-
conditions, we must be sure adequate mo-
ating in the fully turbulent regime. (NRe >
tor horsepower is available. In addition to
10,000, see Fig. 7). The operating speed
impeller horsepower, we must also account
(N) and impeller diameter (D) also enter
for reducer losses and for possible process
the calculation as shown (Fig. 6).
upsets.
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Pumping Number vs. MECHANICAL DESIGN - SHAFTS

Reynolds Number One undesirable feature of a rotating im-
peller is the hydraulic side force which is
generated. This side force affects the de-
Pumping Number

sign of the auxiliary equipment, such as

the shaft, reducer, and seal, as well as the

102 103 104 105 106

support structure.
Reynolds Number

Fig. 7 Shafts: Basis of Design

Hydraulic Side Force:
Bulk Velocity
F = K N1.67 D3.53 Sg
Qp
VB = 7.48 A
F
K
=
=
Hydraulic Side Force (Pounds)
Constant (Geometry Factor)
N = Rotational Speed (RPM)
D = Impeller Diameter (Feet)
Sg = Specific Gravity
VB = Bulk Velocity, ft/min.
Qp = Primary Flow (GPM)
A = Cross Sectional Area of Tank (ft2)
Bulk velocity is a measure of flow used to Fig. 9
relate relative amounts of mixing.
The basic equation (Fig. 9) is based on
Fig. 8
center mounted agitators in fully baffled
Bulk Velocity tanks. The geometry factor (K) is constant
Bulk velocity is a measure of relative agita- for a given impeller under given mounting
tion. It is defined as unit of flow per unit of conditions. The values of K,as well as the
vessel cross-sectional area (see Fig.8). No powers of N and D have been empirically
factor is included for varying vessel geom- determined for various conditions. Typical
etries, so it is most valuable when consider- values of K for several impellers are shown
ing applications with similar ratios of batch below. It must be remembered that these
depth to vessel diameter. values increase rapidly for off-center mount-

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ing, less than four baffles, vortexing condi- hydraulic side force at maximum for the
tions, or conditions where tank internals mounting condition specified and the maxi-
are not symmetric about the impeller. mum anticipated torque.

Typical K Values
Non-Vortex Vortex
Shafts: Basis of Design
Typical 4-blade 0.0005 0.0025 Torsion and Bending:
axial flow turbine
16
Typical 4-blade 0.0010 0.0050 d3 = �Ss (FL)2 + (Torque)2
radial flow turbine

Since the hydraulic side force has been em-

pirically determined, many equations exist d = Minimum Shaft Dia. (Inches)
Ss = Allowable Shear Stress
and are currently in use by various manu- F = Hydraulic Side Force (Pounds)
facturers and users. As long as a proper L = Shaft Length (Inches)
Torque= Pound-Inches
balance is struck between the allowable
shear stress and the hydraulic side force, a Fig. 10
properly designed shaft will result. The use
of low shear stress to compensate for low Another major area of concern in agita-

hydraulic side force may cause underde- tor shaft design is shaft critical speed. The

sign in the other support structures. critical speed is related to the weight, its
location, and the stiffness of the shaft. The
Fig. 10 shows a standard formula for cal- complexity of equations used to solve for
culating the required size of power trans- critical speed increases rapidly as the num-
mission shafting. The shaft diameter is a ber of steps in the shaft increases. Most
function of the combined loading (torsion critical speed calculations involve some
and bending) and the allowable stress. The form of approximation to reduce the com-
shaft is normally designed to handle the plexity.

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different in diameter than the reducer shaft,

Shafts: Basis of Design or 2) a single stepped shaft with the upper
Critical Speed Calculation: diameter equal to the reducer output shaft
diameter and the lower shaft length is at
NC = 146.4 dA2
(RS-1)c
E
[(L+a)L+ L ][4.13WL + W ]
3 least 75% of the overall shaft length from
1 L e
B

lower bearing to centerline of the lower

NC = First Shaft Critical Speed (RPM)
dA 1 = Upper Shaft Outside Dia. (Inches) impeller.
L = Shaft Length (Bearing to CL Impeller)(Inches)
E = Modulus of Elasticity
a = Bearing Span (Inches) To insure safe operation, the actual operat-
R = IA A is Upper Shaft Moment of Intertia
IB B is Lower Shaft Moment of Intertia ing speed should be less than 60% of the
S = Weight Factor S = 1 for 316, 304 & C.S.
C = Lower Shaft Length (C > .75L)
calculated critical speed. When an appro-
We = Equivalant Weight (Pounds)
WB = Pounds Per Inch of Lower Shaft
priate stabilizer ring or stabilizing fins are
employed, the shaft may be operated up to
Equivalent Weight (We) L2
We = W1 + W2 ( L2 )3... 80% of shaft critical speed.
L1 W2

L1 The equations presented are Cleveland Mixer’s stan-

W1
dard equations, which are used in sizing mixers. The
constants and correction factors are generally empiri-
Fig. 11 cal and, therefore, are not absolute but may vary from
vendor to vendor as might some of the empirical equa-
The equation in Fig. 11 is used to calculate tions.
the shaft critical speed for a single stepped
shaft. It allows for solid or hollow shafts. All
weights such as impellers, couplings, etc.
are transferred to the end of the shaft by
the equivalent weight equation. This equa-
tion is the one which would normally apply
to either 1) an unstepped shaft which is

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Mixer Impellers.
A mixer is any mixing element which is driven by auxiliary equipment, such as shaft,
speed reducer, and electric motor to provide mixing action.

Mixers are generally categorized by the flow pattern they produce relative to the shaft
centerline or the impeller axis in a fully baffled tank. Further, breakdown is based on
relative shear produced. The resulting divisions are: axial flow, radial flow, hi-shear, low-
shear or high flow, and specialized impellers (those which are normally used in unbaf-
fled tanks).

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AXIAL FLOW IMPELLERS

Propeller Hydrofoil Impeller

The primary types of axial flow impellers
are the propeller, pitched blade turbine,
and the hydrofoil designs. The propeller
is restricted to small mixers because of its
weight. The pitched blade is used when a
balance of flow and shear is required. The
hydrofoil offers the best high flow design.
Both are built with cast hubs and bolted
blades in larger sizes.
Pitched Blade

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Fig. 1A Fig. 1B Fig. 1C

AXIAL TURBINE FLOW PATTERNS

The flow pattern produced by a typical axial flow impeller is shown above. When the
vessel is fully baffled and the agitator is center mounted, excellent top to bottom motion
is produced, resulting in good mixing (see Fig. 1B). If the baffles are removed (Fig. 1A),
swirling and vortexing result, mixing becomes very poor and the hydraulic forces on the
impeller increase dramatically. The flow pattern can be improved by moving the agita-
tor off center (Fig. 1C). This will restore most of the top to bottom motion; however, the
hydraulic side forces remain high and if the impeller passes very close to the wall, the
force may become cyclic.

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RADIAL FLOW IMPELLERS

Typical radial flow impellers are shown
at left. Both provide more shear and less
flow per unit of applied horsepower than
the axial flow designs. They are commonly
used on dispersion applications involving
pigments and/or fillers.

The 6 blade design is known as the Rushton

turbine, and is often used on gas disper-
Radial 4 Blade Impeller sions. The center disc prevents channeling
of the gas up the shaft.

Radial 6 Blade Impeller

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Fig. 2A Fig. 2B Fig. 2C

RADIAL TURBINE FLOW PATTERNS

Fig. 2 shows typical flow patterns produced by radial flow impellers. Fig. 2B shows the
flow pattern in a fully baffled tank. Note the tendency to form two agitation zones, each
of which has good top to bottom mixing but reduced interaction between zones. Again,
removing the baffles (Fig. 2A) results in a simple swirling motion, producing little agita-
tion, poor mixing, a vortex, and much higher than normal hydraulic forces. Although
not shown, off-center mounting will provide somewhat better mixing with high hydraulic
forces.

Fig. 2C shows two radial impellers in a fully baffled tank. This situation can be used to
provide a degree of staging. If some degree of control from inlet to outlet is required, this
configuration can be used along with proper location of the inlet and outlet to provide
some control of residence time and reduce short circuiting.

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SPECIALIZED IMPELLERS
Two of the most common specialized impel-
lers are shown at left. Both are primarily
used in high viscosity liquids and produce
flow by displacement with very little shear.
These specialized impellers produce bulk
mixing.

The specific type of impeller to be used is

a direct function of the material characteris-
tics and process requirements, with a final
judgement between types which will work
based on economics.

Helix Impeller
A Side Note On Tank Baffles:
Historically, four baffles, spaced 90 de-
grees apart, have been considered “stan-
dard” with baffle width decreasing as
viscosity increased.

The lack of a radial flow component in the

discharge from hydrofoil impellers results
in (a) less swirling and (b) lower hydraulic
side force.

As a result, hydrofoil designs are operated

very successfully with three baffles, spaced
120 degrees apart.

Anchor Impeller
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Retrofitting With Hydrofoils.

A mixing impeller is used to transfer energy to a fluid system in order to achieve a de-
sired process result.

The power transmitted by the impeller produces flow and head components. The head
term can be further resolved into static head and viscous shear.

“Flow-controlled” mixing applications may be defined as those where the desired pro-
cess result is directly related to the flow. Examples include most blending, solids suspen-
sion, and heat transfer applications.

For many years, the impeller of choice for these jobs was pitched blade turbine, PBT. As
the cost of electrical power increased, the need for “energy efficient” impellers became
obvious.

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PROCESS CONSIDERATIONS RETROFITTING

The process advantage of the Hydrofoil There are two primary reasons why retrofit-
impeller lies in its ‘’flow efficiency;” that is, ting a mixer might be considered:
the ability to maximize the flow produced
A. To achieve the same process result at
per unit of applied power.
a lower operating cost. We assume that
To demonstrate the benefits of a Hydrofoil equal flow translates to equal process re-
retrofit, we use the following Pumping and sults, and look for an impeller comparison
Power Numbers: at constant Q and N. Simple algebraic
manipulation tells us that:
Impeller NQ NP
Hydrofoil XTF3 0.55 0.30 XTF3 Dia. = (1.128) (PBT Dia.)
Pitched PBT 0.79 1.30
B. To obtain a better process result at the
We will restrict our discussion to the turbu-
same operating cost. Here the savings will
lent range of Reynolds Numbers, where NQ
relate to an increase in productivity. For
and NP are constant.
example, a shorter blend time in a batch
The equations of interest are: process, or an increased throughput for a
continuous process. Now our impeller com-
Reynolds Number:
parison is at constant P and N, and:
(10.7)(Sg)(N)(D2)
NRe=
µ XTF3 Dia. = (1.341) (PBT Dia.)
Impeller Power
(NP)(N3)(D5)(Sg)
P= hp
(1.52) (1013)
Impeller Flow
(NQ)(N)(D3)
Q= gpm
(231)

where: N = Impeller speed, RPM

D= Impeller diameter, inches
Sg = Fluid specific gravity
µ= Fluid viscosity, cps
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Hydrofoil retrofitting example:

A plant has three 15,000 gallon slurry tanks in a continuous process that operates 24
hours per day, 335 days per year. The existing mixers each have 30 hp motors, 53”di-
ameter PBT impellers operating at 84 rpm. The mixer shafts are 3” diameter by 150” in
length. Wetted parts are 316ss. The slurry specific gravity is 1.15 and the viscosity is 20
cps.

Case A.

The present level of agitation is satisfactory, but the plant would like to reduce operating
cost. The plant electrical rate is 7¢/kilowatt-hour. We determine that the present mixers
each produce a flow of 42,800 gpm and draw 24.4 impeller horsepower.

Now consider the retrofit Hydrofoil:

• XTF3 Dia. = (1.128) (53) = 60”

• XTF3 Flow = 43,200 gpm

• XTF3 Power Draw = 10.5 hp

The retrofit will provide equal flow at a savings of 13.9 hp per mixer. The electrical cost
savings will be $5,835/year/mixer or $17,500/year total.

As part of the retrofit, the plant could go to 15 hp motors in order to operate at more
reasonable points on the efficiency and power factor curves.

The total cost for Hydrofoil impellers, motors, starters, and installation should not exceed
the first years cost savings.

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Case B.

Consider the same three tanks. The pilot plant has run tests with Hydrofoil impellers that
resulted in an equivalent leaching efficiency at a 12-15% increase in process through-
put rate. The Hydrofoils were operated at the same power levels as the original pitched
blade turbines.

A constant P and N retrofit:

• XTF3 Dia. = (1.341) (53) = 71”

• XTF3 Flow = 71,600 gpm

• XTF3 Power Draw = 24.3 hp

Here the cost of Hydrofoils and installation can be compared to the profits resulting from
increased production.

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MECHANICAL DESIGN In our example at constant flow, the 60”

CONSIDERATIONS XTF3 weighs less that the 53” PBT. In the
constant power example, the 71” XTF3
Hydrofoil impellers produce true axial flow,
weighs more than the 53” PBT so critical
while pitched blade turbines discharge at
speed must be checked. We find that the
45 degrees from the axis. Because of this:
critical speed ratio is higher than good
• Hydrofoils can be run at greater design permits. Our options are:
off-bottom distances and still pro-
• Determine the largest XTF3 that
vide good bottom mixing
will meet the design requirements.
• Less radial flow component results
In this case that would be a 69”
in less side force and lower bend-
diameter XTF3 with P = 21.0 hp
ing moments
and Q = 65,700 gpm
Also, torque loads are reduced at constant
• Locate the original 71” XTF3 high
flow and are the same at constant power.
enough up the shaft so critical
This means that the main mechanical de- speed is no longer a problem. In
sign consideration, when retrofitting, is this case, raising the impeller 18”
the shaft critical speed, and the variable is would result in a safe design
impeller weight.

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CONCLUSION
For many industries, mixing and blending are critical pieces of the process. Before se-
lecting your next mixer, be sure to take all the factors in this eBook into consideration.
Choosing the right mixer can mean the difference between optimal blending efficiency,
and some seriously undesirable results.

Be sure to work with a knowledgeable and experienced vendor to ensure you achieve
the blending results you need in the most efficient way possible.

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