WORLD WAR TWO | BRITISH OCCUPATION OF ICELAND

A largely forgotten chapter of the Second World War was

the occupation of neutral Iceland by British forces in 1940.
Alex Bowers looks at the importance of that occupation
and its implementation through ‘Operation Fork’
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A Cold
Reception
T
he landmass constituting
the nation of Iceland has
remained relatively untainted
for centuries - largely barren
and volcanic, with minimal
development beyond a string of
coastal towns and villages. In May
1940, the population of the country
was a mere 120,000, most of whom
relied on fishing as well as sheep
ranching and exporting goods
to Europe. Granted home rule in
1874, Iceland became a fully
sovereign state on 1 December
BRITISH OCCUPATION OF ICELAND | WORLD WAR TWO
1918 but remained in personal
union with the King of Denmark.
Denmark also represented Icelandic
foreign and defence interests,
however, when the German war-
machine swept through Europe and
occupied Denmark in April 1940, the
Icelandic government had no choice
but to suspend this arrangement.
With no military force of her own,
Iceland continued to remain neutral
- but, within a month, the war
would come to her shores by other
means.
Strategic interest in occupying Iceland BELOW
Ships of the Atlantic
could arguably be dated back to the
Fleet steam from
1930s, with a sudden and noticeable Reykjavik, seen
influx of German presence on the from USS New York,
island. In 1938, a number of German July 1941. Astern:
aviation experts arrived, offering free Arkansas, Brooklyn
instruction in piloting gliders. This and Nashville.
(VIA NHHC)
immediately raised British suspicions
as it was considered that these ‘lessons’ OVERLEAF
could be a means of compiling maps and British war graves
in Fossvogur
discovering suitable landing grounds.
Cemetery,
This paranoia amongst British Officials Reykjavik.
was further indulged when German (VIA MAGNÚS ÞÓR
anthropology teams arrived to survey  HAFSTEINSSON)
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WORLD WAR TWO | BRITISH OCCUPATION OF ICELAND

the island, and Lufthansa attempted ABOVE

The British
to establish a commercial air service.
heavy cruiser
Meanwhile, U-boats began to visit HMS Norfolk at
Reykjavik while German-Icelandic trade Akureyri harbour,
increased rapidly. North Iceland, 17
As the war got into its stride, and the October 1943.
Battle of the Atlantic began to rage in Photo taken
from the flight
not-too-distant-seas, both Allied and deck of USS
Axis forces started to look to Iceland Ranger. Grumman
and its strategic positioning once more. Wildcats are on
Having control over Iceland’s landmass her deck.
would be a fantastic opportunity for (VIA MAGNÚS ÞÓR
HAFSTEINSSON)
both sides to establish air and naval bases
across the country, and hopefully sway RIGHT
the ongoing Atlantic campaign in their Allied troops land
favour. In the words of an unidentified under the watchful
German Naval Officer: “Whoever has eyes of Icelandic
Iceland controls the entrances into and civilians.
(VIA NHHC)
exits from the Atlantic.”

A LARGE CROWD OF PROTESTERS
On 28 April 1940, Winston Churchill,
then the First Lord of the Admiralty,
had initiated planning to establish a
British presence on Iceland. With
Denmark under Nazi occupation, the
United Kingdom offered assistance to
Iceland “as a belligerent and an ally,” but
the Icelandic government were quick
to decline and reaffirm their neutrality.
Despite the set-back of being denied
access to the country for military
purposes, Britain still intended to land.
The War Cabinet were quick to side
with the Admiralty and the occupation
of Iceland under the name “Operation
Fork” began to take shape.
Planning was swift, with a force of
around 800 British military personnel
setting sail for Iceland on 8 May,
commanded by Colonel Robert Sturges.
The occupation force was built up
from the 2nd Royal Marine Battalion
of the 101st Royal Marine Brigade, and
included three batteries of artillery and
a small intelligence detachment. They
were accompanied by two destroyers
for the journey across the Atlantic and
were due to enter Reykjavik Bay on the
morning of 10 May. On that very same
day, many hundreds of miles away, the
Germans launched their ‘Blitzkreig’
assault in the west, thereby ensuring the
relegation of what was happening in
Iceland to a mere sideshow.
Ahead of the convoy, a single Walrus
aircraft was dispatched to scout the
waters leading up to the capital city
looking for enemy submarine activity,
but miscommunications had led to
the aircraft circling Reykjavik, thus
alerting residents and officials alike to
the approaching British force. A large
crowd of protesters and a 70-strong
police force congregated at the harbour
to greet their intrusive visitors with a
cold reception as the British warships
entered Reykjavik harbour. Meanwhile,
the Icelandic government prepared
warning statements to the encroaching
fleet announcing their violation of
Icelandic neutrality. Despite the obvious
reluctance of the Icelanders for British
forces to land, a 400-strong detachment
of Royal Marines were met with no
resistance.
The next step of the initial occupation
plan required the securing of
telecommunication facilities, radio
stations and meteorological offices as
well as arresting any German citizens lest
they alert enemy forces as to the details
of the British operation. The highest

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priority arrest was that of German consul
Werner Gerlach, a fanatical member
of the Nazi party, who, under orders of
the highest level, had been tasked with
winning Icelanders over to the German
cause. For the likes of Werner Gerlach
and others who shared his ideologies,
Iceland was a Germanic paradise of “pure
racial superiority”. He had been assigned
to encourage the population of Iceland
to join the Nazi pursuit of racial purity,
but had instead been met with what he
described as “a great disappointment.”
His arrest and capture in the German
consulate had been swift, although the
circling Walrus aircraft had bought
Dr. Gerlach enough time to burn vital
documents before British forces had
even landed.
While British forces secured the rest
of Reykjavik, small detachments were
sent to Hvalfjörður (a fjord), Sandskeið,
Kaldaðarnes and other pivotal landing
areas where a potential German
BRITISH OCCUPATION OF ICELAND | WORLD WAR TWO
LEFT
the European mainland meant that ideas
A British military
camp near of a German expedition against Iceland
Reykjavik at the quickly evaporated.
time of the US
occupation of 1941. ONGOING CLASHES OF OPINION
(VIA NHHC)
As the first day of the occupation drew
to a close, the British government
recognised the country’s anger over
the operation and appeased the
protest by promising compensation,
trade agreements, non-interference
in domestic Icelandic affairs and the
promise that troops would be withdrawn
at the war’s end. Within days of the
formal protest declared by the Icelandic
government, the British occupation
was grudgingly accepted and the local
population were asked to consider the
Armed Forces as guests and 
RIGHT
counter-offensive could occur. In the British soldiers
stationed in
following weeks, defences would also Akranes, West
be built in many of these locations as Iceland, march on
well as across the Northern coast of the main street of
Iceland to deter German air raids. These the village after
defensive units scattered across the church. Officers
are chatting
country would never see action, as the
outside the church
much-feared German invasion would while the soldiers
fail to materialise. A German counter- return to camp.
offensive had been considered during (VIA MAGNÚS ÞÓR
the early stages of the British occupation HAFSTEINSSON)
called “Operation Ikarus,” although it
was quickly dismissed. Despite Hitler’s
anger over British control of Iceland, BELOW
Operation Ikarus would be consigned to British soldiers
the drawing board after it was deemed at the British
impractical. With Iceland being in the headquarters in
Akranes. They
middle of British-controlled waters, are from the 1/5
holding the country and supplying Yorkshire Regiment.
German forces would be troublesome (VIA MAGNÚS ÞÓR
and dangerous, while other events on HAFSTEINSSON)
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WORLD WAR TWO | BRITISH OCCUPATION OF ICELAND
show them all courtesies. Meanwhile,
the United States of America, although
not yet a contender in the war,
recognised and accepted Britain’s move
as a necessary step to forestall German
invasion.
On 17 May, the initial British
detachment was relieved by 147th Brigade
(1/6th Duke of Wellington’s Regiment,
1/7th Duke of Wellington’s Regiment,
1/5th West Yorkshire Regiment) of the
49th Division. With the relative success
of Operation Fork, Colonel Sturges’
Marine battalion returned to the United
Kingdom on 19 May and their relieving
forces positioned strategically throughout
the capital and across the entire island.
With the occupation now in full swing,
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Icelanders found themselves deeply
divided in opinion over what effect the
British presence would have on their
homeland. Some believed that Iceland
might have the opportunity to prosper
under the military-control of Great
Britain, and with the prospect of coming
out of a severe financial depression.
Meanwhile, others simply could not abide
a totally unwanted and unexpected take-
over. It is now largely considered that
Britain brought infrastructure advances
to Iceland with the building of roads
and hospitals, as well as development of
transportation and communication. Even
today, however, the occupation is often
still a topic of heated debate.
Despite the ongoing clashes of opinion,
marching columns of British troops and
Union Jack flags flying in towns and
cities soon became normal within the
Icelandic community. The vast majority
of the population were able to go about
their everyday lives with only minor
interference from their newly acquired
guests. An agreement was struck
between the two governments that no
more than 2,200 countrymen would be
hired to work for the occupation forces.
The rest were required to continue their
livelihoods of farming and fishing, so as
to ensure the country’s stability.
‘CHILDREN OF THE SITUATION’
Fears of a German invasion continued
into June 1940, with the British
Government requesting that Ottawa
send reinforcements from Canada. The
call was answered with the arrival of “Z
Force,” under the command of Brigadier
L.F. Page, on 16 June. The Canadian
detachment consisted of a brigade-sized
TOP LEFT unit of HQ staff, as well as one Infantry
A British sentry in
battalion from the Royal Regiment of
Reykjavik harbour,
6 July 1941. Canada. Two additional battalions for “Z
(VIA NHHC) Force”, Les Fusiliers Mont-Royal and the
Cameron Highlanders of Ottawa, arrived
ABOVE
on 9 July. This brought the garrison
Destroyer HMCS St
Croix in Reykjavik
of Iceland to the size of a composite
as USAAC P-40s division.
operate overhead. Canadian involvement in Iceland’s
(VIA NHHC) occupation would be short lived, and
BELOW
by the end of October,1940, “Z Force”
Universial Carriers would begin its withdrawal from
at Hvalfjord, one of the country. Ottawa, preferring to
the first meetings concentrate forces in one locale with
of British troops its own command, requested that her
with the Icelandic
population.
units be replaced by further British
(VIA MAGNÚS ÞÓR reinforcement. On 21 October,1940,
HAFSTEINSSON) The 70th Brigade sailed from Britain to
relieve the Canadian forces and arrived
on 25 October with 10th Durham Light
Infantry, 11th Durham Light Infantry
and 1st Tyneside Scottish. In exchange,
a large proportion of the Canadian
“Z Force” was shipped out to the UK,
with only the Cameron Highlanders of
Ottawa staying to over-winter in Iceland
until April 1941.
By July 1941, over 25,000 British
troops were stationed in Iceland with
the construction of naval facilities,
coastal guns, AA batteries and the
presence of anti-submarine trawlers
now making the country a defensive
stronghold against potential attack.
With foreign troops now marginally
integrated into Icelandic society, both
the native population and the British
Military Officials strongly discouraged
fraternisation between local women
and soldiers. Many of the women who
chose to be courted by Allied soldiers
were often labelled as “prostitutes”,
or else were accused of “betraying the

homeland.” A large proportion of these
liaisons occurred during the very early
stages of occupation, with many women
either eloping with their respective
soldiers or bearing their children. In
1941 alone, it was recorded that a total of
255 children had been born of British or
Allied soldiers stationed in Iceland. These
children were called ‘ástandsbörn’ (or,
‘children of the situation.’)
AMERICAN GARRISON
As Iceland endured the occupation, the
United States of America had begun
to play a more active part of the war.
On 10 April 1941, the USS Niblack
had engaged a German U-boat off the
coast of Iceland when it attacked nearby
Allied merchant vessels. These would
become the first shots the US Armed
Forces would fire during the course of
the Second World War. Despite this
further intervention in the ongoing
U-boat campaign, the United States
still identified itself as a neutral country.
Growing more and more concerned
about the prospect of entering the war,
President Franklin D. Roosevelt had
begun to devise a plan to further aid the
Allied cause. On 28 May 1941, the US
President held a meeting with British
Ambassador Lord Halifax to discuss the
possibility of America taking over the
responsibility for Iceland. Churchill,
anxious to draw the Americans into
the war against the Axis, accepted the
offer without hesitation. Now, all that
remained was to ship US troops to
Iceland for “overseas duty” and relieve
the British garrison. Before American
BRITISH OCCUPATION OF ICELAND | WORLD WAR TWO
soldiers could land, however, the
Roosevelt administration required a
specific invitation from the Icelandic
government as both nations were
presently neutral at the time. This was
received on 1 July 1941, with the 6th
Marine Regiment of California setting
sail from Newfoundland, Canada, the
next day. Along with a heavy escort
of US battleships and cruisers, the
American military detachment arrived in
Reykjavik harbour on 7 July 1941.
After more than a year of British
servicemen walking the streets of
Reykjavik, it seemed that, for most
of them, their time on the island had
drawn to a close. The British departure
was expected to begin promptly, with
only 146th Brigade and assorted support
and administrative forces remaining to
represent the UK on the island. While
the American garrison established itself
across the country, the vast majority
of British forces begun to gather their
equipment for their final departure. For
many of the local population, this only
meant the replacement of the Union
ABOVE Jack with the Stars and Stripes, with
US Marine Robert very little else changing in the way they
C. Fowler is
welcomed warmly
conducted their lives. Alhough they
by British Gunner had not been originally welcomed with
Harold Ricardi, as open arms, some of those British soldiers
the Marines arrive might be missed – especially those who
at a British base in had married into Icelandic families. For
Iceland.
them, this meant saying goodbye to
(VIA NHHC)
loved ones who would eventually go on
BELOW to fight in mainland Europe – uncertain
Winston Churchill of when, or if, they would ever return.
reviewing the
US 6th Marine
Regiment, 16
ATTACK ON PEARL HARBOR
August 1941. Due to delays caused by American
(VIA NHHC) logistical problems and supply
difficulties, the British 70th Brigade
would remain in Iceland until
December 1941. Meanwhile, the
majority of the detachment stayed
until April of the following year when
147th Brigade and HQ elements of
49th division were both withdrawn.
Now a belligerent in the war after the
attack on Pearl Harbor, the United
States were wholeheartedly prepared
and equipped to take on full military
responsibility for Iceland for the
remaining duration of the war.
By the summer of 1943, the last
British Army troops were gone; leaving
only small detachments of the Royal
Navy and Royal Air Force present on
the island, alongside ever-growing
numbers of American servicemen.
Although their influence was minimal,
Britain continued to keep Royal Navy
units stationed in Iceland right up until
the last year of the war. Meanwhile, the
Royal Air Force detachment remained
in place until March 1947 - despite
initial agreements to remove any
remaining occupation forces from the
country at the end of the war. With
their eventual return to the UK, the
British occupation of Iceland was
officially over, although since the initial
cold reception it was true to say that
the stance of the Icelanders to their
occupiers had thawed somewhat across
those seven years.
There can be little doubt that
occupation and the denial of Iceland
as an Axis base was important in the
Allied conduct of hostilities. However,
Operation Fork, important as it was, is
a relatively forgotten and overlooked
chapter of the Second World War. 
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