JAG Volume 3 - Issue 1 - 2001

Mapping and modelling mass movements and gullies in

mountainous areas using remote sensing and GIS
techniques

J Alfred Zinckl, Jaime L6pez2, Graciela I Metternichtj,

Dhruba P Shresthal and Lorenzo Wzquez-Selem4

1 ITC, Division of Soil Sciences, PO Box 6, 7500 AA Enschede, the Netherlands (fax: +31-53-4874-379; phone: +31-53-4874-322; e-mail:
zincka@itc.nl)
2 Apartado Aereo 5057, Santa Marta, Colombia
3 Curtin University of Technology, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia
4 UNAM, lnstituto de Geografla, Ciudad Universitaria, CP 04510, D.F. Mexico

KEYWORDS: mass movements, gullies, mapping, moni- characteristics. In both cases, the soil material frequently
toring, modelling, hazard assessment, remote sensing, conditions the initiation and development of the erosion
GIS processes and, at the same time, is affected by them.
There are also dynamic relationships between gullies and
mass movements themselves, since small landslides or
ABSTRACT earth slumps often convert into gully heads, while gullies
frequently expand laterally through mass wasting. Mass
Natural as well as human-induced mass movements and gullies are
severe environmental hazards. Remote sensing data offer promising
movements and gullies are processes of multiple ori-
possibilities for identification and monitoring. But their effective use gin/causes and the initiation mechanisms might take
in mountainous areas is hampered by cloud effects and relief-con- place at the terrain surface or beneath. They are chaotic
trolled factors, which cause geometric distortions and shadow phenomena, triggered by sudden alteration of the envi-
areas, among other constraints. Nevertheless, aerial photographs ronmental equilibrium and generating catastrophic dam-
and satellite images (visible, infrared and microwave bands), or
ages Common factors, such as the complexity of the
combinations thereof, have been successfully used to discriminate
and delineate landslide and gully types. GIS modelling of mass
processes and interactions, the catastrophic character of
movements and gullies, using ancillary information in combination the events, and the difficulty in predicting their spatial
with remote sensing data, is rapidly developing. The shortcomings and temporal occurrence, contribute to making deter-
of deterministic modelling of such chaotic phenomena as mass ministic modelling cumbersome in both cases.
movements and gullies highlight the relevance of GIS-assisted
approaches to exploratory and predictive modelling. This paper
However, the development of modern earth observation
describes practical applications of remote sensing and GIS for map-
techniques, in particular the availability of multitemporal
ping, monitoring, exploring cause-effect relationships and assessing
hazards of mass movements and gullies in hilly and mountainous remote sensing data, improves the mapping and moni-
areas. toring possibilities. Similarly, GIS techniques facilitate the
integration of multiple data layers and spatial simulation
to explore cause-effect relationships. Such issues have
INTRODUCTION been addressed by a number of authors from different
Mass movements and gullies are severe environmental perspectives, focussing on mass movements and/or gul-
hazards in mountainous areas. Both erosion processes, lies specifically, or environmental hazards in general. In
especially mass movements, cause extensive material and this context, research with significant input of remote
human losses, which are often blamed in official statistics sensing and/or GIS has focused on a variety of aspects,
on primary causes such as earthquakes or hurricanes. including mapping and monitoring approaches [Kienholz
Mass movements probably constitute the single most et al, 1983; Pike, 1988; McKean et al, 1991; Palacio-
widespread hazard on the earth’s surface. For instance in Prieto & Lopez-Blanco, 1994; Verstappen, 1995;
New Zealand, one of the few countries that has a coun- Chowdhury & Flentje, 1996; lrigaray et al, 1996; Liener
trywide landslide map, 36% of the territory shows for- et a/, 1996; Rosenbaum & Popescu, 1996; Duan & Grant,
merly or presently active mass movements [Eyles, 19831. 20001, the scale at which hazard maps are prepared for
regional, local and site planning purposes [Rengers et a/,
Although the basic processes are fundamentally differ- 1992; van Westen, 1993; Leroi, 19961, the synergy
ent, mass movements and gullies share some common obtained from merging different kinds of remote sensing

43
Mapping and modelling mass movements and gullies JAG l Volume 3 - Issue 1 - 2001

data [Koopmans & Forero, 1993; Buchroithner, 1995; phenomena. For instance, a recent study conducted by
Singhroy, 1995; Metternicht & Zinck, 1998; Singhroy et Kniveton et al [ZOO01 shows that high temporal resolu-
al, 19981, the integration of remote sensing and GIS tion data can be used to provide early warning of atmos-
techniques [Leroi et a/, 1992; Garcia-Melendez et al, pheric conditions likely to initiate debris flow events.
1998; Metternicht & Fermont, 1998; Metternicht &
Zinck, 19981, and simulation modelling and hazard pre- RELIEF-INDUCED CONSTRAINTS ON THE USE OF REMOTE
diction [Bocco et a/, 1990; Wilson, 1996; Fujita et al, SENSING DATA
1996; Leroi et a/, 1996; Zinck, 1997, 1999; Fabbri & Strong relief variations cause geometric and climatic con-
Chung, 1999; Shrestha & Zinck, 1999; Kniveton et a/, straints to the efficient use of remote sensing in moun-
ZOOO]. tainous areas. Topography and elevation produce distor-
tions, which are reflected in anomalous height differ-
Our paper addresses some issues related to the use of ences, scale differences, relief displacements and shadow
remote sensing for mapping and monitoring purposes. areas, among others. They also cause climatic conditions
Further, it describes and illustrates several GIS-assisted to change from the bottom of the valleys to the summit
approaches to modelling gully and mass movement haz- of the ridges, with effects on temperature, humidity,
ards, using examples drawn from research work devel- cloud formation, snow cover and grey tones
oped at ITC by advanced students. [Buchroithner, 19951. The delineation of gullies and mass
movements is particularly affected by such geometric and
climatic restrictions, as they are usually elongated fea-
MAPPING tures, which develop parallel to the slopes over long dis-
DATA RESOLUTION REQUIREMENTS tances and may cross several bioclimatic elevation belts.
The application of remote sensing to environmental stud- A variety of technical solutions including digital elevation
ies, including the mapping and monitoring of mass and illumination models, multi-seasonal and multi-direc-
movements and gullies, is controlled by the spatial, spec- tional remote sensing data, haze and atmospheric cor-
tral and temporal resolutions of the data. Spectral data rections, radar and stereo data, interferometry and GPS,
resolution does not refer only to the number of spectral is available to correct for relief, scale, shadow, weather
bands offered by the sensor, but also to the ability of and snow effects (Table 1).
specific portions of the electromagnetic spectrum to pro-
vide enough spectral separability amongst surface fea- Changes in topographic parameters, such as slope gradi-
tures related to mass movements or gully formation ent, aspect and orientation with respect to sun elevation,
processes. This requires a good understanding of the create illumination variations which cause the reflectance
interactions between ecosystem characteristics and values from the same surface cover type to vary. This pro-
incoming solar radiation or artificially propagated elec- duces an elongation of the training samples in the fea-
tromagnetic energy, such as in the case of radar sensors ture space plots and induces a bias towards either fully
[Lunetta, 19991. illuminated or fully shaded slopes. Furthermore, the
application of multispectral classification algorithms,
The spatial resolution of the sensor determines the scale based on statistical pattern recognition, assumes that the
at which the data may be useful for mass movement or training samples be normally distributed. The latter is
gully analysis and mapping. The concept of a minimum generally not the case in areas of rugged topography,
map unit, which makes it possible to consistently delin- with frequent slope gradient and aspect variations caus-
eate the smallest ground features of interest over a ing large illumination differences, and this requires thus
selected area, is an important consideration when estab- some kind of data transformation to approach normality.
lishing spatial data requirements. Lunetta [ 19991 recog- In a case study of land use classification in the Likhu
nises that remotely sensed data should support a mini- Khola watershed, Nepal, Shrestha & Zinck [2001] used
mum map unit, characteristic of the process or feature intensity normalisation of multispectral data to remove
being mapped. His view is supported by the current trend the topography-induced constraints for land degradation
of using spatially explicit approaches based on available assessment. This approach solved the problem caused by
remote sensing, GIS and digital terrain analysis tech- biased sampling of the training pixels. The effect of data
niques, which allow researchers to consider local hetero- normalisation in the feature space plots is shown in
geneity of the landscape, such as discussed by Duan & Figure 1.
Grant [2000] and Shroder & Bishop [19981.
LANDSLIDE MAPPING
Finally, temporal resolution is determined by the revisit- A variety of approaches has been used for landslide map-
ing cycle of the sensor. Ideally, the data acquired for ping, including on-ground monitoring, remote sensing,
mass movement or gully mapping should have a tempo- factor overlay, statistical models, and geotechnical
ral resolution higher than the changes evidenced by the process models [Duan & Grant, 20001. Singhroy [19951,

44
Mapping and modelling mass movements and gullies JAG l Volume 3 - Issue 1 - 2001

TABLE 1: Problem-and-solution matrix regarding relief-induced factors influencing remote sensing data use in high-mountain regions
[Buchroithner, 19951.
REMOTE SENSING CARTOGRAPHY AND HIGH MOUNTAINS
PROBLEM SOLUTION REMARKS

Relief High acquisition altitude Displacement, Reduction

Small FOV Displacement, Reduction
Stereo data Also multi-sensoral
Digital elevation models Also from remote sensing. Stereo data
Shape from shading SAR application
lnterferometry Shadow problem. Remains most accurate
relief information
GPS

Scale effects Stereo data Intrinsic scale changes

Digital elevation models Permits mono-plotting, geocoding
GPS

Shadow Multi-seasonal data Also multi-sensoral

Multi-directional radar Illumination differences
Digital elevation models Base for illumination models
Digital illumination models CPU-intensive integration
Grey value ratioing Simple. Not for completely dark slopes
Solar noon satellites Shadow minimisation

Weather, Haze, Clouds Multi-seasonal data (high temporal resolution) Also multi-sensoral
Haze correction Simple approach
Atmospheric correction Problem of data availability
Radar Cloud penetration

Snow cover Multi-seasonal data (high temporal resolution) Also multi-sensoral

Passive microwaves Snow type mapping
Radar Penetration to ground
Snow type mapping

among others, has shown that mass movement features

in a mountainous environment can be identified from
remote sensing data, including the discrimination of dif-
ferent types of landslide (eg, rock slumps, block slides,
debris lobes and slide scars) and the detection of condi-
tioning factors such as faults and rupture lines. The use
of airborne SAR data made it possible to recognise geo-
morphic patterns, while the combination of SAR and TM
data added additional information on the vegetation
cover.

The comparative advantages of different kinds of remote

sensing data and their integration to extract selective
information on landslide characteristics (eg, distribution
and classification) and factors (eg, slope, lithology,
geostructure, neotectonics and land use/land cover) are
also discussed by Singhroy [1995]. Overall, airphotos are
(b)
judged to be the best data source for the identification
and mapping of a large number of landslide-related fea-
tures, while integrated satellite remote sensing data,
combining optical and microwave ranges, are superior to
the use of individual bands (Table 2). Using study exam-
ples from Canada, Singhroy et a/ [I9981 assessed the
usefulness of integrated SAR/TM images and SAR inter-
ferometric techniques for landslide inventory and charac-
terisation. They reached the following conclusions applic-
able to mountainous terrains: (1) RADARSAT SAR inci-
dence angles varying from 40° to 59” provide the most
FIGURE 1: Feature space plots before (a) and after (b) data nor-
suitable imagery to map landslides; (2) the interferomet- malisation (units in reflectance values in eight-bit format), Likhu
ric SAR technique allows easy recognition of landslide Khola watershed, Nepal [Shrestha & Zinck, 2001].

45
Mapping and modelling mass movements and gullies JAG l Volume 3 - Issue 1 - 2001

TABLE 2: Remote sensing guideline for geohazard assessment [Singhroy, 19951

LANDSLIDES SPACEBORNE AlRBORNE /NTEGRAT/ON

V/R SAR SAR AIRPHOTOS SARIVIR (TM)

Distribution P P E E E
Classification A E A
Factors controlling
slope stability
Geomorphology of slopes P P A E A
Lithology P P
Structure A A E E E
Neotectonics A
Landusellandcoverlinfrastructure E A A E E

E= Excellent; A= Average; P = Poor

features on steep valley slopes; and (3) a combination of the gullies: (1) natural vegetation (mainly shrubs), (2) fal-
airborne SAR and TM images is appropriate to monitor low land (bare during dry season), (3) slightly eroded
retrogressive slope failures. areas (mainly sheet erosion), (4) moderately eroded areas
(mainly rill erosion), (5) badlands (mainly gully erosion),
GULLY MAPPING and (6) miscellaneous land (ephemeral riverbeds and
Individual gullies are elongated, narrow features that are stone pavements).
difficult to identify at medium and small scales. More
often, gullies develop into large ramified badland areas, In the above study, gullies showed low reflectance in the
which are easier to map from remote sensing data. In a visible and near infrared. This can be attributed to a
case study developed in the intra-mountainous basin of shadow effect caused by the depth and surface irregu-
Cochabamba, eastern Bolivian Andes, the possibility of larities of the gullies, which traps the incoming light and
discriminating gullied badlands from other kinds of sur- reduces the reflectance (Figure 2). In the middle infrared,
face features was assessed using Landsat TM and JERS-1 reflectance remained lower than that of the other fea-
SAR data [Metternicht, 1996; Metternicht & Zinck, tures because of the surface roughness component.
19981. Six information classes were considered, referring After merging Landsat TM and JERS-1 SAR data, the
to terrain surface components spatially intermingled with energy backscattered by the gullied areas remained rela-

50

n Badlands
45 n Moderately eroded areas
Slightly eroded areas
40 0 Miscellaneous land
0 Fallow land

35
n Vegetation

1 2 3 4 5 6

LANDSAT TM BANDS (1 to 7)

FIGURE 2: Digital numbers of selected surface components from Landsat TM bands, Sacaba valley, Bolivia [Metternicht, 19961.The
X-axis represents the visible (1, 2, 3). near infrared (4), middle infrared (5, 7) and thermal (6) bands of the Landsat TM sensor.

46
Mapping and modelling mass movements and gullies
tively low, but became more variable so that the separa-
bility of the gullies from the other erosion features and
surface components slightly improved (Figure 3).
The effect of data fusion on spectral class separability
was assessed using transformed divergence (TDij), a mea-
sure to select the best band combination for pixel
labelling. Output values are usually scaled between 0 and
2000. For TDij>l600, good separability between classes i
and j can be expected [Richards, 19931. In the study case
[Metternicht, 19961, best between-class separability was
obtained when combining JERS-1 SAR (L-band) and TM
bands 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, causing all transformed diver-
gence values to cross the threshold figure of 1600. This
is particularly the case between badlands and miscella-
neous land, as well as between badlands and moderate-
ly eroded areas. The improvement of class separability is
also reflected in the spatial distribution of the gullies
before and after data merging. With Landsat data alone,
gullies appear as large undifferentiated areas.
Comparatively, Landsat and JERS-1 SAR data together
produce a sharper spatial segmentation of the gullies.
However, in any case of band combination or data
fusion, the class accuracy for gullies remained low (54
percent), when compared to the other surface compo-
nents included in the study. This is because gullies are
heterogeneous areas including variable mixtures of nat-
ural vegetation, stone pavements and eroded soils. The
180
1
160
1 c] Fallow land
140 -
120 -
3 4
LANDSAT TM SANDS (1 to 7’) and JEW-1
FIGURE 3: Digital numbers of selected surface components from Landsat TM and JERS-1SAR bands, Sacaba valley, Bolivia
[Metternicht, 19961.The X-axis represents merged Landsat TM and JERS-1SAR data (1 to 7), and JERS-1SAR data alone (8).
47
JAG l Volume 3 - Issue 1 - 2001
intricate distribution of branching gullies generates
impure pixels, whose spectral reflectances are mixtures
of the reflectances of the individual components. Thus
the issue is not one of spectral confusion, but one of
spectral mixing of the surface components within a sin-
gle pixel. To solve this problem, a linear mixture model
including five pure end-members (n-l), one of them
being pure gullies, was applied to a 6-band Landsat TM
data set (the thermal range being excluded). The proce-
dure is described in Metternicht & Fermont [1998]. This
made it possible to generate an error map from spectral
unmixing. The error between the original map and the
root-mean-square image representing the best-fit output
proportion map was lower than 1 percent in 36 percent
of the classified area, and between 1 and 10 percent in
63 percent of the area. Only 1 percent of the classified
area had an error greater than 10 percent. These results
were further used to improve the image classification.
The efficiency of the different portions of the spectrum
(ie, visible, infrared, thermal and microwave) to properly
separate gullies from the other selected surface compo-
nents was assessed using a procedure based on the per-
centage of spectral confusion, derived from the trans-
formed divergence analysis, in relation to the total num-
ber of training samples [Metternicht, 19961. Applying
this criterion to the study case, the different regions of
the electromagnetic spectrum performed relatively well
when separating gullies from fallow land and from slight-
n Badlands
w Moderatelyeroded areas
H Slightlyeroded areas
0 Miscellaneousland
n Vegetation
5 6 7 8
SAR (8) DATA
Mapping and modelling mass movements and gullies JAG l Volume 3 - Issue 1 - 2001

ly and moderately eroded areas. In contrast, major spec- vide the conditions for geomorphic stability [Zinck,
tral confusions occurred between gullies and surfaces 19961.
covered with rock fragments and stone pavements, espe-
cially in the visible and infrared ranges. Similarly, the vis- Mass movements, as well as gullies, are chaotic phenom-
ible and microwave ranges performed poorly in discrimi- ena. They occur when the terms of a meta-stable equi-
nating between gullies and vegetation cover (Figure 4). librium situation drastically and suddenly change. The
This study shows that regardless of the satellite sensor, activating factor might be abnormal rainfall or an earth-
spectral band combinations and/or image classification quake. The conditioning factors include properties of the
algorithm applied, accurate detection of gullies requires vegetation cover, topography, geomorphodynamics,
contextual knowledge to improve the between-class geological structure and hydrogeological behaviour. But
spectral separability. In particular, knowledge about the it is the intrinsic nature of the soil material which deter-
relationship between gullies, their characteristic surface mines its propensity to mass wasting, mainly through its
features, and geomorphic positions is needed. mechanical and hydrological properties. The rheological
contrast between consecutive soil horizons creates
planes susceptible to functioning as shear surfaces.
MODELLING When the actual moisture content of the soil mantle
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS exceeds the water holding capacity and/or the Atterberg
Attempts to model mass movements and gullies have limits, a mass movement hazard exists. A simple graphi-
been made from different perspectives [van Westen & cal comparison between water-potential or consistence
Terlien, 19961. Ideal modelling would be deterministic, profiles and the real moisture contents of the soil cover,
which aims at explaining erosion phenomena through preferably as time series, allows identification of areas
the mechanics of the processes. Mechanistic modelling where a mass movement potential builds up during criti-
would allow one to predict the geomorphic response cal periods of the year [Zinck, 1986, 19961. While deter-
from the properties of the soil or substratum material, ministic models able to explain and predict mass move-
thus from its intrinsic susceptibility. For instance, when ment hazards require further elaboration, the simple
the micro-fabric of the material is deflocculated, thus in graphical correlation between consistence and moisture
liquid state, the expected geomorphic response would be profiles can be used as a basis for designing rhexistatic
mudflow. Similarly, with a dispersed micro-fabric and a models. To improve the basic conceptual framework for
plastic consistence, the predicted mass movement would deterministic modelling of mass movements, better
be solifluction. An aggregated micro-fabric and semi- understanding of the relationships between the micro-
solid consistence would promote sliding. In contrast, a fabric of the soil material and the geomorphic response
flocculated micro-fabric and solid consistence would pro- must still be achieved. As quite some progress is needed

45 VISIBLE INFRARED q THERMAL q MICROWAVE

40-

35-

30-

25

20

15

10

Ve: Natural vegetation Fa: Fallow land SI: Slightly eroded areas
MO: Moderately eroded areas Ba: Gullied badlands Rf: Rock fragments and stone pavements

FIGURE4: Spectral confusion among terrain surface features, Sacaba valley, Bolivia [Metternicht, 19963.

48
Mapping and modelling mass movements and gullies JAG l Volume 3 - Issue 1 - 2001

before deterministic modelling of mass movements and

gullies can be fully undertaken, the current shortcomings
can be partially compensated by G&assisted modelling,
including exploratory and predictive approaches [Zinck,
1997, 19991.

EXPLORATORY APPROACH
Exploratory models attempt to identify non-explicit
cause-effect relationships between environmental hazard
types (eg, soil erosion processes) and affected soil types
(ie, soil map units) in order to predict, from these rela-
tionships, soilscape areas potentially exposed to degra-
dation. Because it relies on relatively simple GIS opera-
tions, cartographic modelling is an exploratory mode fre-
SLOPE IN %
quently implemented to this end [Bocco et al, 19901. The
_ KW”NrrAtlE4 ___________ ?hOFTOTAL
GUUJED
*REpI
overlay of information layers, usually represented by
series of thematic single-attribute maps, allows high- FIGURE 5: Observed gullied areas per slope gradient units at
Huasca de Ocampo, Mexico [Vazquez-Selem & Zinck, 19941.
lighting of areas of coincidence between factors presum-
ably controlling erosion processes and features resulting
from these processes.

60
Erosion features caused by gullies or mass movements
are not randomly distributed on the landscape. They
50
develop in response to a combination of controlling fac- iis
tors The simple overlay of a gully distribution map on % 40
top of maps representing environmental factors, such as 9
3
geoforms, slope gradients, soils, lithologic units and land 2 30
0
use types, highlights the degree of spatial coincidence rp
20
between gully occurrence and specific factors. Such car-
tographic coincidence helps identify the most favourable 10
combination of conditions and reveals underlying cause-
effect relationships. 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 i lb 11

Cartographic modelling through thematic map overlay DOMINANT SOIL UNITS

was performed in a volcanic area located about one hun- m % OF UNIT AREA % OF TOTAL GULLIED AREA

dred kilometres northeast of Mexico City, in Huasca de (1) Ustifluvents-Fluvaquents

Ocampo County [Vdzquez-Selem & Zinck, 19941. (2) Ustorthents (frequently Lithic)
Frequency graphs were established for each forming fac- (3) Ustorthents-Ustropepts
(4) Ustropepts (shallow: Typic and Lithic)
tor to highlight the conditions most favourable to the (5) Ustropepts (deep: Typic and Fluventic)
occurrence of gullies. For example, nearly half of the (6) Typic or Lithic Ustropepts-Lithic Ustorthents-Typic
total gullied area corresponds to a narrow slope gradient Haplustalfs
(7) Typic Ustropepts-Typic Haplustalfs
range of 4-7 percent (Figure 5). Thus, gully erosion does (8) Typic Haplustalfs
not increase proportionally to slope gradient and, in this (9) Typic Paleustalfs-Typic Haplustalfs
sense, substantially deviates from the principles govern- (10) Typic Argiustolls-Typic Haplustolls
(11) Fluventic Ustropepts-Typic Argiustolls-Typic Haplustalfs
ing rill and sheet erosion.

Similarly, the overlay of the gully map and the soil map
shows that most gullies develop on Alfisols (Figure 6). In
fact, about 90 percent of the gullied surface within the
study area concentrates on deep Paleustalfs, although
these soils account for only 39 percent of the total area.
Alfisols in this area are composed of two main layers: a
colluvial cover material, 40 to 60 cm thick, which lies on
a buried Bt horizon belonging to a truncated subsoil. The
surface of discontinuity between the two materials is
marked by ancient human artefacts (2400 years BP). The
FIGURE 6: Observed gullied areas per dominant soil units at
Huasca de Ocampo, Mexico [Vazquez-Selem & Zinck, 19941.
difference of permeability between the well-structured
colluvial cover and the highly clay-dispersible subsoil
favours horizontal water flow along percolines, from
which gullies initiate. In contrast, the areas covered with
Mollisols are virtually free of gullies, although these soils
occur in conditions of slope and land use similar to those
of the Alfisols.

49
Mapping and modelling mass movements and gullies JAG l Volume 3 - Issue 1 - 2001

PREDICTIVE APPROACH
Predictive models usually implemented in GIS are based
on rules and expert knowledge. Such models lack deter-
ministic capability, because they neither simulate nor
explain the mechanisms involved in gully formation or
mass wasting. They are built on the results of the
exploratory analysis, which identifies cause-effect rela-
tionships from the spatial coincidence between observed
erosion features (eg, gullies, landslides) and landscape
factors. Such models are not able to take into considera-
tion, for the purpose of prediction, the role played by the
activating factors (ie, exceptional rainfalls, earthquakes)
in triggering the processes. The modelling rules are main-
ly based on the conditioning factors of the environment
(eg, slope, vegetation cover, rock substratum) and a few
soil properties. This type of model is able to (1) repro-
duce the spatial distribution of existing gullies for valida-
tion purposes and (2) predict the potential occurrence of
gullies in areas with favourable conditions.
To illustrate the above considerations, a set of nested
models was developed to confirm observed gullies and
assess the hazard of potential gullies in the same Huasca
de Ocampo area of central Mexico, where the explorato-
ry models were developed [Vazquez-Selem & Zinck,
19941. The assessment rules mobilise only the area per-
centages covered by observed gullies in the units of the
thematic maps representing environmental factors. Six
environmental factors were selected on the assumption
that they contribute, in one way or another, to gully for-
mation: geoforms, lithologic units, slope gradients, slope
shapes, dominant soils and land uses. Two criteria were
implemented to account for the area percentages: (1) the
percentage of area with observed gullies in each themat-
ic map unit, and (2) the percentage that the observed
gullied area in each thematic map unit represents in rela-
tion to the total extent of gullies (562 ha) within the
whole study area (8009 ha). The first criterion was con-
sidered more diagnostic than the second one, because it
is independent of the total gullied area and thus reflects
better the intrinsic susceptibility of each thematic map
unit to gully formation. To establish class limits, critical
threshold values of area percentages were determined by
iteration from the graphics showing the frequency of
gullies per classes of environmental factors (eg, Figures 5
and 6).
Using these rules, six models were established with
decreasing boundary conditions (Table 3). The first
model, for instance, takes into account only the themat-
ic map units with a high percentage of observed gullied
area (more than 10 percent or more than 15 percent
according to the environmental factor considered). Such
a combination of rules is highly selective, since only a
few units satisfy the requirements. As a consequence,
the gullied area estimated by model 1 is small. But, at the
same time, the model is efficient because a large pro-
portion of the calculated gullied area corresponds to
existing gullies. The other models operate with less
restrictive rules in decreasing order.
The relative efficiency of the various models in corrobo-
rating observed gullies is presented in Figure 7. The total
gullied surface area of 562 ha is equivalent to 7 percent
of the study area. An ideal model would confirm 100
percent of the gullied area with only 7 percent of the
study area. Thus, an efficient model is one which approx-
imates this optimum performance. To assess the efficien-
cy of the models, the gullied area calculated by each
model was compared to the area percentage of existing
gullies properly confirmed. Accordingly, models Zb, 3a,
3b and 4a are the best predictors.

TABLE 3: Rule-basedspatial models for gully prediction at Huasca de Ocampo, Mexico [Nzquez-Selem & Zinck, 19941

Geopedologic Lithologic Slope gradient Slope shape Dominant soil Landuse

map (7) map map map map map

Model 1 > 15 % >15% >lO% > 15 % > 15 % >lO%

unit area unit area unit area un’it area unit area unit area

Model 2 [>lO% unit area >15% unit area >5% unit area or >lO% unit area ~10% unit area >5% unit area
and >lO% total or >30% total >5% total gullied or ~20% total
gullied area] or gullied area area gullied area
>15% unit area

Model 3 >5% unit area >5% unit area >5% unit area >5% total ~5% unit area ~-3% unit area
and >5% total or >5% total gullied area
gullied area gullied area

Model 4 >2% unit area >2% unit area ~2% unit area ~2% unit area >2% unit area >2% unit area

Model 5 SO% unit area >O% unit area >O% unit area 20% unit area >O% unit area >O% unit area

Model 6 no gullies no gullies no gullies no gullies no gullies no gullies

(1) Only geomorphic component of the geopedologic map taken into account
Examples: “>I 5% unit area” means that only units in which observed gullres cover >15% of the area of the unit are considered rn the model’s calculations;
“>5% total gullied area” means that only unrts that contain ~-5% of the total gullied area within the study area are considered In the model’s calculatrons.

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Mapping and modelling mass movements and gullies JAG l Volume 3 - Issue 1 - 2001

5a % of total study area = (total area calculated by the model/

.5b
total study area) x 100
% of total gullied area = (gullied area calculated by the model/
total gullied area) x 100

ideal model
Type “a” models: Including all thematic maps except the
geomorphic component of the geopedologic map
(see Table 3)
2a
Type “b” models: based on the geomorphic component
of the geopedologic map alone (see Table 3)
Intersection model of 3-l 6% slopes and Alfisols
Intersection model of 5-l 1% slopes and highly susceptible
geoforms

3
20

d la
10 FIGURE 7: Relative efficiency of rule-based models for gully
prediction at Huasca de Ocampo, Mexico [Vazquez-Selem &
Zinck, 19941.
I I I I I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

% OF TOTAL STUDY AREA

to describe the environmental factors and establish haz-

ard severity classes. In the Coello river valley, central
cordillera of the Colombian Andes, a model was devel-
E
oped to identify areas favourable to the potential devel-
z 40
ifi
opment of mass movements in a volcanic ash cover
% 30 [L6pez & Zinck, 19911. Criteria used included slope class-
9 es, susceptibility classes of the material on the basis of
3
2 20 its physico-mechanical properties, and distribution of
0
observed mass movements. For hazard zoning, a geope-
dological map was used as vector to extrapolate over
the whole basin the causal model established in sample
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 areas (Figure 9). Previous to extrapolation, the structural
GULLY HAZARD UNITS
homogeneity of the soil properties and the spatial
m % OFUNIT AREA % OF TOTAL GULLIEO AREA
homogeneity of the soil units were validated, by testing
3ully hazard severity classes
1) Very high
2) High
3) Moderate
4) Low
5) Very low
6) No hazard

FIGURE 8: Observed gullied areas per gully hazard units at

Huasca de Ocampo, Mexico [Vazquez-Selem & Zinck, 19941.

In addition to confirming existing gullies, the models can

also be used to identify areas that meet conditions
favourable to the potential development of gullies. Since
the models are organised per decreasing order of con-
straints, this sequence also represents a decreasing scale
of hazard severity. Model 1 identifies areas strongly
prone to future gully initiation. Models 2 to 6 indicate
decreasing hazard rates (Figure 8).

Instead of operating only on the basis of area criteria, FIGURE 9: Mass movement hazard zones in the upper Coello
predictive models can directly use concrete parameters river basin, Colombia [L6pez & Zinck, 19911.

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Mapping and modelling mass movements and gullies JAG l Volume 3 - Issue 1 - 2001

Ingaray, C., T. Ferndndez & J. Chacon, 1996. Inventory and analysis

the normal distribution of the selected parameters and
of determining factors by a GIS in the northern edge of the
using geostatistics to characterise their spatial variabili- Granada Basin (Spain). In: K. Senneset (Ed.), Landslides.
ty. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 1915-I 921.
Kienholz, H., H. Hafner, G. Schneider 8 R. Tamrakar, 1983.
Mountarn hazards mapping in Nepal’s Middle Mountains, Maps
CONCLUSIONS
of land use and geomorphic damages (Kathmandu-Kakani area).
Gullies and mass movements are severe environmental Mountain Research and Development 3(3): 195-220.
hazards because of the damages they cause and because Knrveton, D.R., P.J. de Graff, K. Granica & R.J. Hardy, 2000. The
they are difficult to control. development of a remote sensing based technique to predict
Remote sensing data substantially contribute to the map- debris flow triggering conditions in the French Alps.
International Journal of Remote Sensing 2 l(3): 429-434.
ping and monitoring of landslide and gully erosion fea-
Koopmans, B.N. & R.G. Forero. 1993. Airborne SAR and Landsat
tures, but their use is limited by relief-controlled factors,
MSS as complementary Information source for geological haz-
which cause geometric distortions and atmospheric con- ard mapping. Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing 48(6): 28-37
straints Leroi, E., 1996. Landslide hazard - Risk maps at different scales:
Best results are obtained when improving class separabil- objectives, tools and developments. In: K. Senneset (Ed.),
Landslides. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 35-51.
ity through the integration of multi-source data (eg,
Leroi, E., F. Pontarollo, J.D. Gascuel & M.P. Gascuel, 1996.
merging visible, infrared and microwave data) and when
Development of a 3-D model for block trajectories, based on
applying techniques such as linear spectral unmixing to synthetic imagery and stress vs. deformation laws. In: K.
remove spectral confusions caused by the presence of Senneset (Ed.), Landslides. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 271-278.
contrasting surface features in single pixels. Leroi, E., 0. Rouzeau, J.-Y. Scanvic, C.C. Weber & C.G. Vargas,
The complexity of formation and evolution hampers 1992. Remote sensing and GIS technology in landslide hazard
mapping in the Colombran Andes. Episodes 15(l): 32-33.
deterministic modelling of gullies and mass movements.
Liener, S., H. Kienholz, M. Liniger 8 B. Krummenacher, 1996.
More empirical G&assisted approaches, based on rules SLIDISP - A procedure to locate landslide prone areas. In: K.
and expert knowledge, make it possible to explore rela- Senneset (Ed.), Landslides. Balkema. Rotterdam, pp. 279-284.
tionships between forming factors and spatial distribu- Lopez, J. & J.A. Zinck, 1991. GIS-assisted modelling of soil-induced
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potentially exposed to hazards because they meet
Lunetta, R., 1999. Applications, project formulation, and analytical
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Change Detection: Environmental Monitoring Methods and
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Mapping and modelling mass movements and gullies JAG l Volume 3 - issue 1 - 2001

Resource Assessment, Monitoring and Management, 9-l 1 RESUME

March 1999, IIRS, Dehradun. Indian Institute of Remote Des mouvements en masse et des ravinements naturels ou pro-
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RESUMEN
Los movimientos en masa y las cdrcavas, que Sean naturales 0
inducidos por actividades humanas, representan severos riesgos
ambientales. Los datos obtenidos por teledeteccion ofrecen posi-
bilidades prometedoras para la identification y el seguimiento.
Pero, su uso efectivo en areas montariosas queda limitado por
efectos de nubes y factores controlados por el relieve, 10s cuales
causan distorsiones geometrjcas y areas de sombra, entre otras
limitaciones. Sin embargo, fotografias aereas e imagenes sateli-
tdrias (en las bandas del visible, del infrarrojo y de las microon-
das), o combinaciones de estas, han sido utilizadas exitosamente
para diferenciar y delinear tipos de deslitamiento y carcava. La
modelizaci6n de movimientos en masa y carcavas en SIG, usan-
do information contextual en combination con datos de telede-
teccion, se esta desarrollando rapidamente. Las limitaciones de
la modelizacion deterministica de fenomenos caoticos coma son
movimientos en masa y carcavas subrayan la importancia de 10s
enfoques basados en SIG para la modelizacion exploratoria y
predictiva. Este articulo describe aplicaciones practicas de telede-
teccion y SIG para mapear, monitorear, explorar relaciones de
causa a efecto, y evaluar riesgos de movimientos en masa y c6r-
cavas en areas de colinas y montaiias.

53