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This can prevent our competitors from making the same product.
Utility patents
Design patents
Living plant patents
Adaptive thinking
-This means improving carefully selected ideas by slight modification.
Metastable state
-Properties are not only a function of their current condition, but also of their processing.
Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek theory
Explains why the ocean’s salinity causes rivers to form deltas
Ingredient improvements
-It is often useful for ingredients to have properties that are strong functions of temperature or
pH, because this allows the product’s activity to be triggered.
The intellectual property generated in product design is conveniently split into patents and trade
secrets.
Patent - a contract between the inventor and the government.
If the inventor convinces the government that the invention is new, then the government gives
the inventor exclusive rights to the invention for ta considerable time.
Patents are valuable because they grant a period when the inventor can earn higher profits and
hence more easily recover development costs.
The inventor receives two thirds of the sales if the product is the first of its type to reach the
market. The price earned during the original period can be considerably higher when the product
is protected by a patent.
Patent can be international.
Trade secrets - nonpublic information used in manufacturing product.
- may be a special catalyst or important steps in activating the catalyst.
- may not contain any new information but just particular information
- an example is PIN number on a money card
- not legal property
Two forms of vulnerability of products with trade secrets:
o When an employee changes jobs.
o When one of our competitors independently discovers the secrets and patents it.
In making the decision as to whether to seek a patent or keep a trade secret, some companies
have tried a third way.
1. They present it as a poster at some minor technical meeting that they expect will be
poorly attended.
2. The company then keeps a careful, notarized record of what was in the poster,
including the trade secrets.
3. The chances that the secret will be noticed by a competitor are remote.
4. If a competitor does in the future discover and patent it, the original discoverer can
then refer back to the poster section.
5. An earlier disclosure invalidates the patents and avoids license fees.
Useful
Novel
Nonobvious
If the inventor has disclosed the invention in a printed publication, he has 1 year from the date of
disclosure to apply for a patent within the United States.
Nonobvious means that the differences between the new product and earlier products must be
sufficient that they are not obvious to one having ordinary skill in the art to which the invention
pertains.
Conditions set by US Supreme Court to consider an invention nonobvious:
o The scope and content of the prior art
o The differences between the art and the claimed invention
o The level of ordinary skill in the field of the invention
US patent laws divide the inventive process into two steps: conception and reduction to practice.
Conception – formation by the inventor of a definite idea of the complete invention.
Actual reduction to practice requires construction of a device or preparing a composition. The
inventor must demonstrate that the invention fulfills its intended purpose. This actual reduction
to practice often includes getting missing information by using some methods.
If a patent is infringed, the patent holder is entitled to the payment of a reasonable license fee. If
it can be shown that the infringement was willful, damages of two to three times this amount may
be awarded.
Crucial points to remember about intellectual property law:
o It is complex.
o Intellectual property law has little to do with justice.
Going backward from the target molecule o simple precursors is exactly what “the
disconnection approach” by Stuart Warren to organic synthesis is designed to achieve.
FINAL SPECIFICATION
Strategy for final specification:
1. Define the product structure
2. Rank the product’s most important attributes
3. Review any chemical triggers
Unsafe condition: another term for hazard. It is a condition which if not corrected can reasonably
be expected to result in failure and/or injury. It is not a function of probability but rather of the
consequence of the causal factors.
Reliability: a measure of the capability of a part or a system to operate without failure in the service
environment. It is always expressed as a probability; e.g. a reliability of 0.999 implies that there is
probability of failure of 1 part in every 1000.
Safety: is relative protection from exposure to hazards. A thing is safe if its risks are judged to be
acceptable.
STANDARDS: makes sure that society receives a minimum level of safety and performance.
They are a set of rules that tell what must be done in particular situations.
EPA Standard AP-50: sets the maximum annual average concentration of sulphur dioxide at 80
microgram/m3 and the maximum 24-h average at 365 microgram/m3.
Mandatory standards: issued by the governmental agencies, and violations are treated
like criminal acts for which fines and/or imprisonment may be imposed
Voluntary standards: prepared by a committee of interested parties (industry suppliers
and users, government, and the general public), usually under the sponsorship of a technical
society or a trade association.
Design (specification) standards: specify the acceptable levels of technical details, such
as minimum flow rate and minimum yield strength.
Performance standards: specify the minimum performance characteristics without
specifying the individual technical details. It can include design specification as examples
of current state-of-the-art methods of meeting the performance criteria
Benefit-cost analysis: most common approach in risk assessment. There’s a difficulty is that
benefits are counted in lives saved while costs are in monetary terms.
Willingness to pay: method in which people are asked directly what they would be willing to pay
to avoid danger or harm.
Conventional engineering design: disregards the fact that materials properties, the dimensions of
the components, and the externally applied loads are stochastic in nature.
Time period of constant failure rate: a period in which failures can be considered to occur at
random from random overloads or random flaws. These failures follow no predictable pattern.
Wearout period of accelerating failure rate: period during which materials and components
begin to age and wear rapidly.
Mean life: the average life of the No components put on test or in service, measured over the entire
life curve out to wearout.
Mean time to failure (MTTF): the sum of the survival time (up time) for all of the components
divided by the number of failures. It is applied to any period in the life of the component.
Mean time between failures (MTBF): the mean time between two successive component
failures. MTBF is similar to MTTF, but is applied for components or systems that are repaired.
Redundant system: a system in which the components are arranged to give parallel reliability, so
as to say, there is more than one mechanism for the system functions to be carried out.
Full Active Redundancy System : all but one component may fail before the system fails.
Partial Active Redundancy System: certain components can fail without causing system failure
but more than one component must remain operating to keep the system operating.
One-Horse Shay
To design all components to have equal life so that the system will fall apart at the
end of its useful lifetime just as the legendary one-horse shay did.
Absolute Worst-case Approach-It is a very conservative approach and it often leads to
overdesign.
CAUSES OF UNRELIABILITY
1. Design Mistakes.
a. Incomplete information on loads and environmental conditions
b. Erroneous calculations
c. Poor selection of materials
2. Manufacturing Defects.
a. Poor surface finish or sharp edges that lead to fatigue cracks
b. Decarburization or quench cracks
c. Manufacturing errors cause by the production work force
3. Maintenance.
4. Exceeding design limits.
5. Environmental Factors.
MINIMIZING FAILURE
1. Margin of Safety
Variability in strength has a major impact on the probability of failure, so that
failure can be reduced with no change in the mean value if the variability of the
strength can be reduced.
2. Derating
The reliability of equipment is increased if the maximum operating conditions are
derated below their nameplate values.
3. Redundancy
Existence of parallel paths may result in load sharing so that each component is
derated and has its life increased by a longer than normal time.
Standby unit wears one much more slowly than the operating unit does.
4. Durability
This requires the decision to spend more money on high performance materials so
as to increase service life and reduce maintenance costs.
5. Damage Tolerance
When a crack occurs, it will be detected soon enough after its occurrence so that
the probability of encountering loads in excess of the residual strength is very
remote.
6. Ease of Inspection
If the structure is not capable of this, then the stress level must be lowered until
the initial crack cannot grow to a critical size during the life of the structure.
7. Simplicity
It reduces the chance for error and increases the reliability. The simpler the
equipment needed to meet the performance requirements, the better the design.
8. Specificity
The greater the degree of specificity, the greater the inherent reliability of design.
Output event – event that should be developed or analyzed further to determine how it can occur
Independent Event – event that does not depend on other components within the system for its
occurrence.
Normal Event – event that is expected to occur during system operation.
Undeveloped Event – event that has not been developed further because of lack of information or
it is not of sufficient consequence.
FAILURE MODES
Four general causes of specific modes of failure of engineering components:
Quality control refers to the action throughout the engineering and manufacturing of a
product to prevent and detect product deficiencies and product safety hazards.
The American Society for Quality (ASQ) defines quality as the totality of features and
characteristics of a product or service that bear on ability to satisfy a given need.
In a narrower sense, “quality control” refers to the statistical techniques employed in
sampling production and monitoring the variability of the product.
LINEAR PROGRAMMING is the most widely used applied technique, especially in business
and manufacturing situations.
NONLINEAR PROGRAMMING is used in most mechanical design problems.
This information can be used to identify the improvements that could be achieve if the feasible
domain were modified, which would point out directions for technological improvement.
DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING
It is a mathematical technique that is well suited for the optimization of staged processes.
The word “dynamic” in the names of this technique has no relationship to the usual use of the word
to denote change with respect to time. It is related to the calculus of variations and is not related
to linear and nonlinear programming methods.
It was developed by Richard Bellman in the 1950. It is a well-developed optimization
method.
JOHNSON’S METHOD
A method of optimum design that is especially suited to the non-linear problems found in
the design of mechanical elements such as ears, roller bearings, and hydrodynamic journal bearings
has been developed by R.C. Johnson.
It often requires significant effort to reduce the system equation to a form suitable for an
optimization study. However, the benefit of the method is that it gives considerable insight into
the nature of and possible solution to the problem.
GENETIC ALGORITHMS
These are based on the laws of evolution. Its approach is a stochastic optimization method,
involve reducing a large number of possible design to set of genetic codes, expressed as a string
of 1s and 0s. It follows a survival of the fittest strategy, where members of the design population
compete.
SIMULATED ANNEALING
It is a stochastic method that addresses the category of combinatorial optimization
problems. The method has been used to automate digital circuit layout in 2-D and it is being used
to study the layout of mechanical and electromechanical components in the product architecture.
TEMPERATURE- the probability is an exponential function of a parameter.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
Quality assurance is concerned with all corporate activities that affect customer
satisfaction with the quality of the product. There must be quality assurance
department with sufficient independence from manufacturing to act to maintain
quality. This group is responsible for interpreting national and international codes and
standards in terms of each purchase order and for developing written rules of operating
process.
There must also be procedures for maintaining the identity and traceability of materials
and semi-finished parts while in the various stage of processing. Definite policies and
procedures for dealing with defective material and parts must be in place. There must
be a way to decide when parts should be scrapped, reworked or downgraded to a lower
quality level.
Quality control is not something that can be in place and then forgotten. There must
be procedures for training, qualifying and certifying inspectors and other QC
personnel. Funds must be available for updating inspection and laboratory equipment
and for the frequent calibration of instruments.
ISO 9000
An important aspects of quality assurance is the audit of the quality system against
written standards. The most prevalent quality standard is ISO 9000, and its companion
standards, that are issued by the International Organization for Standards (ISO).
ISO 9000 has become required by companies doing business in the European
Community, and since it is a worldwide marketplace, companies around the world
have been scrambling to become ISO 9000 certified.
QUALITY IMPROVEMENT
Pareto diagram
Cause-and-Effect Analysis