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Examining a hybrid model for e-satisfaction

and e-loyalty to e-ticketing on airline websites

Article in Journal of Air Transport Management · May 2014

Impact Factor: 0.91 · DOI: 10.1016/j.jairtraman.2014.01.006

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Examining a hybrid model for e-satisfaction and e-loyalty to

e-ticketing on airline websites
Naeimeh Elkhani a, *, Sheida Soltani a, Mir Hadi Moazen Jamshidi b,1
a
Department of Information System, Faculty of Computing, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Skudai, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
b
Department of Management, Payame Noor University, Tehran

a b s t r a c t
Keywords: In the air transportation industry, web-based marketing has already been widely applied to service
Airline website quality frequent customers as well as to attract new ones. The importance of attracting new customers and
E-SERVQUAL
keeping existing ones loyal to e-ticketing on airline websites is crucial. Accordingly, this study proposes
Marketing mix 4Ps
Expectancy Disconfirmation Theory
an integrated model for evaluating the effectiveness of airlines’ websites from a customer point of view.
E-satisfaction This model is based on the three perspectives of the marketing mix 4Ps, E-SERVQUAL and Expectancy
E-loyalty Disconfirmation Theory. E-marketing and E-SERVQUAL features are divided into three dimensions,
specifically information, system and service disconfirmations. The methodology was applied based on
Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and was administered to online customers who carry out e-ticketing
via an airline website. The results show that customer disconfirmations have a positive significant impact
on overall customer e-satisfaction. The significance of this relationship was more considerable in the
service dimension of e-marketing, as well as the system dimensions of E-SERVQUAL and e-marketing.
Moreover, overall e-satisfaction was found to mediate the relationship between customer dis-
confirmations and consumer e-loyalty.
Ó 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction also for the provision of electronic/paperless tickets, as well as

Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) have revolu-
tionized the whole business world. They can provide powerful
strategic and tactical tools for organizations which, if properly
applied and used, lead to great advantages in promoting and
strengthening their competitiveness. The airline industry in
particular has fostered a dependency on ICTs since a number of
airline functions rely greatly on them. The popularity of the Internet
and e-commerce technologies have provided a platform for air
transportation companies to bypass intermediaries such as travel
agents and transact with their customers directly (Nyshadham,
2000; Tsai et al., 2005). One of the most valid solutions for
attracting more customers and enhancing business values is to sell
low-fare air tickets and facilitate boarding processes, such as e-
ticketing and online check-in, through an airlines’ own website
(Wei and Ozok, 2005). Airlines are increasingly resorting to the
Web, not only as a useful tool by which to obtain information but
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ60 1114247210.
E-mail addresses: Naeimeh.Elkhani@gmail.com (N. Elkhani), Iranjamshidi.hadi@
gmail.com (M.H.M. Jamshidi).
1
þ98 91412246209.
transparent and clear pricing led by both proactive and reactive
yield management, financial incentives for self-booking online,
online promotions, powerful customer relationship management
systems and online advertising strategies (Yu, 2008).
A direct relationship with customers causes airlines to pay more
attention to determine what customers want and do not want
(Chen and Chang, 2005). Accordingly, this allows airlines to gain a
closer relationship with their customers. In this regard, companies
have long viewed striving for customer satisfaction as an important
goal. The extant literature substantiates the positive effects of
customer satisfaction on desirable outcomes. Most importantly,
satisfaction is seen as being the major determinant of subsequent
loyalty (Anderson and Sullivan, 1993; Szymanski and Henard, 2001;
Fassnacht and Köse, 2007; Blattberg et al., 2009). Therefore, as
online retailing is increasing in importance, analysis is required to
understand the drivers of satisfaction and loyalty within website e-
quality.
Evaluating website quality in previous research has been
applied based on the three approaches, namely information sys-
tems (IS), marketing and a mixture of these two (Chiou et al., 2008;
Chiou et al., 2010). The E-SERVQUAL model which was proposed by
Parasuraman et al. (2005) is the most well-known model with the
IS approach for analyzing website quality. In the context of airline

0969-6997/$ e see front matter Ó 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2014.01.006
 N. Elkhani et al. / Journal of Air Transport Management 37 (2014) 36e44
websites, prior studies (e.g., Lee and Wu, 2011; Llach et al., 2012;
Forgas et al., 2012) have used the adapted criteria of original E-
SERVQUAL for evaluating customer satisfaction and loyalty. More-
over, in recent years, a marketing approach, namely the Web-
Marketing Mix (WMM) has been used to evaluate website qual-
ity. With this approach, Chiou et al. (2010) proposed a strategic
evaluation framework for website quality including information,
agreement and settlement phases. Here the criteria for evaluating
website quality are categorized into four factors, product, promo-
tion, price and place (the ‘4Ps’), and are used in the case of online
travel agencies to evaluate website quality. As regards a mix of IS
and marketing approaches for evaluating airlines’ websites, Tsai
et al. (2011) proposed a model which was applied to analyze the
websites of five air transportation companies in Taiwan based on
the point of view of experts in the industry.
However an assessment of previous research dealing with the
evaluation of airline website quality shows that there is still the
existence of a significant gap. This mainly relates to the evaluation
of airline website quality based on the mixed or integrated E-
SERVQUAL and 4Ps model considering the customer point of view.
For evaluating the customer point of view, this study integrates
Expectancy Disconfirmation Theory (EDT) with the proposed
mixed model; this theory still remains unexplored in the literature.
EDT has five measurement methods for evaluating customer
satisfaction; among them is the Additive Difference Model (ADM)
which is used in this research.
Accordingly, this study aims to: first, propose a hybrid model to
define the airline website quality criteria from both 4Ps and E-
SERQUAL perspectives in three e-quality dimensions covering in-
formation, system and service respectively. Following that, EDT will
be mixed with the marketing mix 4Ps and E-SERVQUAL to measure
customer disconfirmations separately in each dimension of airline
website e-quality criteria. This subsequently leads to the creation of
a multi-dimension model to measure customer satisfaction and
loyalty regarding website e-service and e-marketing criteria. Sec-
ond; the proposed model will be examined with an airline website
to determine whether each of the disconfirmation dimensions have
a positive effect on overall customer e-satisfaction. In addition, it
will seek to establish whether overall e-satisfaction plays a medi-
ating role between customer disconfirmations and e-loyalty.
This paper is organized as follows. First, a literature review is
provided on the concept of E-SERVQUAL, the marketing mix 4Ps
and EDT, in the context of airline website quality. Second, a con-
ceptual framework is built by formulating hypotheses on the effects
of customer disconfirmations from E-SERVQUAL and e-marketing
criteria on customer overall e-satisfaction and e-loyalty. Thereafter,
the empirical study is described by presenting the methodology,
followed by the hypotheses testing. Finally, the paper closes with a
discussion of the results, implications and conclusions.
2. Literature review
2.1. The perspective of e-quality and E-SERVQUAL
The term e-quality is a requirement for effective web-based
marketing. Marketing performance of an e-commerce website re-
lies on its capability to deliver quality customer service. A great deal
of effort has been devoted to assessing the e-quality of websites
according to various dimensions. A review by Balfagih et al. (2008)
shows that six models designed to evaluate the quality of e-com-
merce websites have been used commonly in previous studies.
These are the: DeLone & McLean E-commerce Model (DeLone and
McLean, 2004); ISO 9126 Quality Model (ISO/IEC, 2001); WebQual
4.0 Model (Barnes and Vidgen, 2003); Palmer’s Model (Palmer,
2002); Stefani & Xenos Quality Model (Stefani and Xenos, 2001),
37
and SERVQUAL model (Parasuraman et al., 1988). However, ac-
cording to previous studies such as Ladhari (2009), it seems that the
most widespread criteria used to assess service quality in an elec-
tronic context is E-SERVQUAL by Parasuraman et al. (2005). This is
an adaptation of the well-known SERVQUAL criteria designed to
assess quality of services in general. Originally, E-SERVQUAL was
structured into 22 items grouped into four dimensions, namely
efficiency (the ease and speed of accessing and using the site),
fulfillment (the extent to which the site’s promises about order
delivery and item availability are fulfilled), system availability (the
correct technical functioning of the site) and privacy (the degree to
which the site is safe and protects customer information). In the
context of airline websites, prior studies (e.g., Lee and Wu, 2011;
Llach et al., 2012; Forgas et al., 2012) have used the adapted
criteria of the original E-SERVQUAL model for the purposes of
evaluating customer satisfaction and loyalty.
2.2. The marketing mix and the 4Ps
The marketing mix and 4Ps are useful to highlight some unique
aspects of e-marketing (Kalyanam and McIntyre, 2002). The defi-
nition of 4Ps in e-marketing, and particularly in the airline website
context, can be explained in the following manner:
Product: air transportation companies provide an array of travel
information (e.g., product, destination, flight) on their websites to
enhance the product offerings, and facilitate web-based marketing
(Ho and Lee, 2007). The perceived uniqueness of information
concerning product detail and variety, product comparison and
ease of cancellation or modification of ordered products are
differentiated features that would potentially increase the interests
of online customers (Chiou et al., 2010).
Price: the e-marketing environment enables online differenti-
ated pricing strategies. Differentiated pricing includes last minute
discounts, web-only prices and other online-only deals for various
tourism products (Han and Mills, 2006). Price information includes
all relevant charge details, price comparisons and competitive
prices which are the criteria for website evaluation of pricing
(Chiou et al., 2010).
Promotion: in an e-commerce environment, the virtual value
chain can offer several venues to advertise products and services.
For example, a company may advertise discounts to customers
through its website. With airlines, special travel packages or dis-
counted packages are offered to attract the interest of internet
users. Criteria such as advertising promotion and discounts, as well
as reputation and credibility of the site, are important (Chiou et al.,
2010).
Place: the basic function of place is to provide a transactional
channel, such as online reservations, reservations tracking and
online payment (Ho and Lee, 2007). Chiou et al. (2010) identified
the criteria for place evaluation of websites as ease of finding target
information, ease of understanding and reading, up to date content,
content relevancy and usefulness, ease of navigation, product
search, loading speed and processing, efficient and quick linkage,
ease of access, ease of online transaction, as well as a convenient
payment method.
2.3. Expectancy Disconfirmation Theory (EDT)
In order to measure customer satisfaction, EDT is introduced as
an important theory which can measure customer satisfaction from
the perceived quality of products or services (Oliver, 1980;
Patterson and Johnson, 1997; Spreng and Page, 2003). EDT has
two well-known variables, expectation or desire, and experience or
perceived performance. These variables are defined in two different
time periods. Expectation or desire are related to the pre-purchase
38 N. Elkhani et al. / Journal of Air Transport Management 37 (2014) 36e44
time period, and experience or perceived performance are related
to the after-purchase time period. The difference between initial
expectation and perceived experience is known as disconfirmation
of expectation (Bhattacherjee and Premkumar, 2004; Oliver, 1980;
Spreng and Page, 2003). The result of this difference is that dis-
confirmation of expectation can be either positive or negative.
When customer perceived performance about the quality of a
specific product or service is better than customer expectation,
positive disconfirmation will occur. Conversely, if the customer
perceives the performance as being worse than they expected
about the quality of a specific product or service, negative discon-
firmation will emerge. According to Yi (1990) positive disconfir-
mation will lead to customer satisfaction, while negative
disconfirmation means perceived performance of products or ser-
vices have not succeeded in attracting customer satisfaction.
EDT has been applied by many researchers in different fields to
acquire better understanding of customer expectations and re-
quirements in relation to attracting their satisfaction. These fields
include marketing, tourism, information technology, repurchase
behavior and retention (Oliver, 1980; Fallon and Schofield, 2003;
Bhattacherjee and Premkumar, 2004; Hsu et al., 2006; Patterson
and Johnson, 1997) and airline websites (Chen, 2008; Finn et al.,
2009).
EDT has five measurement methods for evaluating customer
satisfaction, among them is the Additive Difference Model (ADM).
This model provides a more distinct assessment in comparison
with other methods. Prior studies in the field of evaluating airline
websites, for instance Chen (2008), used one of the measurement
methods of EDT based on Parasuraman et al. (1994) known as
Difference score (DIFF) for measuring customer satisfaction. In
addition, Finn et al. (2009) used another measurement method of
EDT, based on Churchill and Surprenant (1982), known as Better
than/worse than (BTWT) for measuring airline customer satisfac-
tion of website quality. To the best of our knowledge, none of the
studies of airline websites have used ADM for assessing customer
satisfaction concerning airline website quality.
Due to the problems associated with the use of difference scores
such as low reliability (which assumes pre-use expectations are the
same as retrieved expectations), the difference component of the
operationalized ADM is a subjective assessment of the difference
between standard and performance and is not actually a difference
score. Thus the operationalizations of the constructs are as follows:
X pages. EF5: ability to get on site quickly. SysA1: availability of
DC ¼ ei ðSDCi Þ
where DC ¼ desires congruency for the product, ei ¼ a weighting
parameter that is the consumer’s evaluation of the goodness or
poorness of the difference between the expected and the actual
performance. SDCi ¼ the consumer’s subjective perception of the
congruency between their desires (D) regarding attribute i and the
performance of the product (PP) on attribute i. The ADM method has
appeared to work well in both a service setting and in a product
setting (Spreng and Page, 2003). In addition, this operationalization
is a more general form of other combinatorial methods such as the
ideal point model (e.g., Teas’s 1993 “evaluative performance” model).
3. The proposed model and hypothesis
For the purposes of evaluating customer e-satisfaction, we need
to know the customer point of view in relation to combination-
oriented features related to IS and marketing factors. To evaluate
website quality, we used E-SERVQUAL features as an IS approach
with the four dimensions being efficiency (EF), system availability
(SysA), fulfillment (FUL), and privacy (PRI). This was adapted from
Evaluating airline’s website
E-SERVQUAL E-marketing
Information System Service Information System Service
Efficacy Place
Fulfillment Price
Privacy Product
System Availability Promotion
Fig. 1. Proposed model comprised of E-SERVQUAL and e-marketing measures.
the original criteria using airline website studies. We then catego-
rized E-SERVQUAL features into three dimensions of e-quality,
namely information quality, system quality and service quality
(DeLone and McLean, 2004; Lee and Wu, 2011; Llach et al., 2012) as
described below:
(1) Information quality is the quality of the information pro-
duced and delivered by a system as perceived by the user
(Lee and Kozar, 2006; Negash et al., 2003). In our proposed
model, the information quality dimension includes infor-
mation efficiency with two items of E-SERVQUAL, as follows:
EF1: easy-to-find information that is needed on the site
including business-related (e-ticketing) and general infor-
mation. EF2: helpful information: business-related (e-tick-
eting) and general information.
(2) System quality is not only a measure of the information
processing system itself but also an engineering-oriented
performance characteristic (Ahn et al., 2007; Negash et al.,
2003). A high level of system quality may provide users
with more convenience, privacy and faster responses. In our
proposed model, system quality includes system efficiency
with three items, system availability with two items, and
privacy with two items, as follows: EF3: ease of getting
anywhere on the site (ease of navigation). EF4: fast loading of
site. SysA2: the site does not crash. PRI1: the site does not
share personal information with other sites. PRI2: site
adequately protects credit card information.
(3) Service quality refers to the overall support delivered by the
website (i.e., how well a delivered service level matches
customer expectations) (Ahn et al., 2007; Lee and Kozar,
2006). In the current study, service quality comprises ser-
vice efficiency with one item, and fulfillment with two items:
EF6: ability to complete a transaction quickly. FUL1: ease of
canceling or modifying a reservation. FUL2: searching
mechanism (flight search).
From the perspective of e-marketing, our model categorized the
criteria of Chiou et al. (2011) for the 4Ps in the three dimensions as
shown below:
(1) Information quality
Price: price detail including all relevant charge details; Place:
up-to-date content, relevance of information; Promotion: adver-
tising promotion and discount; and Product: product detail and
variety (flight selection, seat selection, meal selection).
 N. Elkhani et al. / Journal of Air Transport Management 37 (2014) 36e44
(2) System quality
Price: price comparison; Place: convenient payment method;
Promotion: reputation and credibility of the site; Product: product
comparison (offered flights).
(3) Service quality
Price: competitive price; Place: ease of online transaction, on-
line assistant and help function; Promotion: promotion and dis-
count to members and nonmembers; Product: possibility of
canceling or modifying flight.
The proposed model for evaluating airline website quality is
shown in Fig. 1. EDT is added to Fig. 1 to evaluate customer dis-
confirmation. However, a single stage disconfirmation for all E-
SERVQUAL features or for all e-marketing features is unlikely to
adequately account for the complexity of quality evaluation of
websites. Our model will measure customer disconfirmation from
the specific features in each e-quality dimension using both E-
SERVQUAL and e-marketing criteria. If a customer realizes that the
perceived information of a product or service satisfies their ex-
pectations, then this positive disconfirmation successfully leads to
customer satisfaction. Thus, we hypothesize that customer positive
information quality disconfirmation in both E-SERVQUAL and e-
marketing aspects exert a positive influence on customer satisfac-
tion. Hence, in both aspects of E-SERVQUAL and e-marketing, we
hypothesize as follows:
H1: customer information disconfirmation has a positive direct
influence on overall customer e-satisfaction. (H1a and H1b)
H2: customer system disconfirmation has a positive direct in-
fluence on overall customer e-satisfaction. (H2a and H2b)
H3: customer service disconfirmation has a positive direct in-
fluence on overall customer e-satisfaction. (H3a and H3b)
Past studies have suggested that service quality satisfaction af-
fects loyalty and post-purchase behavior (Oliver, 1980; Anderson
and Sullivan, 1993). Also, e-satisfaction has been found to be the
principal antecedent of e-loyalty (Chiou, 2004) and intention to
recommend (Finn et al., 2009). In order for satisfaction to affect
loyalty, frequent and accumulated satisfaction is necessary, such
that episodes of individual satisfaction are aggregated and mixed.
In our study, overall e-satisfaction is the result of customer dis-
confirmation aggregations in the aspects of E-SERVQUAL and e-
marketing. We anticipate that overall customer e-satisfaction from
disconfirmations will lead to customers being encouraged to create
new business with the airline websites in the future and retain
customer loyalty to e-ticketing. Hence, on the basis of Flavian et al.
(2006) we relate overall customer e-satisfaction to e-loyalty, by
determining specifically:
H4: overall customer e-satisfaction with an airline website has a
positive influence on customer e-loyalty to the airline com-
pany’s website.
Moreover, there is evidence in literature studies which shows
how customer e-satisfaction mediates the relationship between
customer disconfirmations and loyalty components. For example,
the model proposed by Finn et al. (2009) indicates that overall
satisfaction has a mediating effect between system disconfirmation
and intention to recommend. Further, there is a link between of-
fering disconfirmation and intention to recommend. In the context
of airline website, we defined e-loyalty explicitly by the intention to
re-purchase and intention to recommend. We hypothesize that
overall e-satisfaction mediates the relationship between six
39
dimensions of customer disconfirmations and e-loyalty. With the
six dimensions of customer disconfirmations including informa-
tion, system, and service disconfirmation, we conjecture as follows:
H5: customer overall e-satisfaction mediates the effects of dis-
confirmations on consumer e-loyalty.
The proposed model for analyzing the hypotheses is shown in
Fig. 2.
4. Methodology
4.1. Measures
As discussed, the model in this study was adapted from the
original E-SERVQUAL. The measures of E-SERVQUAL comprise four
dimensions including efficacy, fulfillment, privacy, and system
availability for airline websites. From the perspective of E-SERVQ-
UAL, the model is based on 12 items categorized in three di-
mensions, namely information quality, system quality, and service
quality. From the perspective of e-marketing, our model catego-
rized 17 criteria for 4Ps in the same three dimensions. For the
measurement criteria of overall e-satisfaction, the first question has
two set answers which are based on Spreng and Page (2003); while
the second question is adapted from Finn et al. (2009). In relation to
e-loyalty, two questions of Lee and Wu (2011) and Llach et al. (2012)
have been adapted. Table 1 provides a detailed summary of items
measured through multi-item criteria for the measurement of the
constructs in which responses from the participants were
measured.
4.2. Sample and data collection
The study was carried out with the online customers of the
AirAsia airline website. These customers comprised a selection of
students, lecturers and staff members from Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia, who had carried out online ticketing booking at least once
on the website. The respondent sample was drawn from two cul-
tural groups of online customers, specifically Malaysian residents
and international customers. 357 questionnaires were handed out
personally and a total of 309 questionnaires were returned, which
made a response rate of 86 percent. Of the returned questionnaires,
nine were incomplete and these were excluded from the data
analysis. The remainder comprised 300 completed questionnaires.
Table 2 presents the demographic information.
4.3. Analysis
The two components of the ADM measure of desires disconfir-
mation were captured by first asking the subject the following
E-serv Disc 1
H1a
E-serv Disc 2
H2a
H5
E-serv Disc 3 H3a
Overall H4
E-loyalty
E-satisfaction
E-mark Disc 1 H1b
H2b
E-mark Disc 2
H3b
E-mark Disc 3
Fig. 2. Disc 1: information disconfirmation, Disc 2: system disconfirmation, and Disc 3:
service disconfirmation.
40 N. Elkhani et al. / Journal of Air Transport Management 37 (2014) 36e44
Table 1
Measurement scales.
Constructs Measures
ESD1 E-S-D-1: easy to find information I need on the site
including business-related (e-ticketing) and general
information.
E-S-D-2: helpful information (business-related (e-ticketing)
and general information).
ESD2 E-S-D-3: easy to get anywhere on the site (ease of
navigation).
E-S-D-4: loads its pages fast.
E-S-D-5: get on site quickly.
E-S-D-6: availability of site for business.
E-S-D-7: site does not crash.
E-S-D-8: site does not share personal information with
other sites.
E-S-D-9: site protects information about credit card.
ESD3 E-S-D-10: complete a transaction quickly.
E-S-D-11: easy to cancel or modify reservation.
E-S-D-12: ease of searching mechanism (flight search)
EMD1 E-M-D-1: price detail including all relevant charges details
E-M-D-3: up-to-date business-related (e-ticketing) content
E-M-D-4: relevance of business-related (e-ticketing)
information
E-M-D-5: advertising promotion and discount
E-M-D-6: product detail and variety (flight selection)
E-M-D-7: product detail and variety (seat selection)
E-M-D-8: product detail and variety (meal selection)
EMD2 E-M-D-9: price comparison
E-M-D-10: ease of online transaction
E-M-D-11: convenient payment method
E-M-D-12: reputation and credibility of the business
website
E-M-D-13: product comparison (offered flights with
different price and flight-time for specific demand)
EMD3 E-M-D-14: competitive price
E-M-D-15: online assistant and help in business (e-
ticketing)
E-M-D-16: promotion and discount to members and
nonmembers
E-M-D-17: possibility of canceling or modifying flight
Overall I am. with my use of airline website.
e-satisfaction Overall, how would you rate your experience on this site?
E-loyalty I will do more business with the website in the future.
I encourage friends and relatives to do business with the
website.
question: “In comparison to the quality level of each aspect that you
desired, how big was the difference between what you wanted and
what the airline website actually provided?” A 7-likert scale for
each of the 29 attributes was provided and anchored by the
following: 1 ¼ “exactly as I desired” and 7 ¼ “extremely different
than I desired.” Second, following each of these scales was a mea-
sure that asked: “How good or bad is this difference?” This was
directed on an 11-point scale anchored by responses of: 5 ¼ “very
bad” and þ5 ¼ “very good,” as well as 0 ¼ “neither bad nor good.”
For the first two questions of overall e-satisfaction the measures of
a 5-likert scale (1 ¼ “not at all positive” and 5 ¼ “extremely posi-
tive”; 1 ¼ “extremely displeased” and 5 ¼ “extremely pleased”)
were used. Further, in relation to the third question of overall e-
satisfaction, responses ranging from 1 ¼ “extremely dissatisfied”
and 5 ¼ “extremely satisfied” were considered. For e-loyalty, two
questions were adapted on the 5-likert scale and ranged from
1 ¼ “strongly agree” to 5 ¼ ”strongly disagree”.
Moreover, we used a Partial Least Squares (PLS) analysis as
implemented in SmartPLS to estimate both the measurement
model and the structural model (Hansmann and Ringle, 2004). This
technique is considered adequate since the distribution of the data
deviates from normality and PLS makes no distributional assump-
tions (Fornell and Cha, 1994). Thus, the following measures were
implemented: first, the measurement model was assessed, in
which construct validity and reliability of the measures are key.
Second, the structural model with hypotheses is tested. In addition,
for assessing goodness-of-fit measures, the model fit was tested in
LISREL 8.7.1.
5. Results
5.1. Validity and reliability
Convergent and discriminant validity was used to assess the
construct validity of the instruments used. Composite reliability
(CR) values should be greater than 0.7 while the average variance
extracted (AVE) should be above 0.5. The results of CR and AVE are
shown in Table 3. All AVEs were 0.778 or higher and all CRs were
0.925 or higher. These results supports the convergent validity of
each of the constructs. As shown in Table 4, all AVE square roots
surpass the correlations with the other constructs which means
discriminant validity of the scales is affirmed.
Internal consistency of the measures exists if Cronbach alpha,
composite reliability (CR) and item loadings of each criterion all
exceed 0.7 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). As shown in Table 5, the
coefficients of Cronbach’s alpha for the six constructs were in
excess of 0.70, ranging from 0.804 to 0.915. These results are
acceptable, with all composite reliability (CR) findings being 0.824
or higher. Similarly, all factor loadings were 0.737 or higher for both
company. Therefore, internal consistency is met by this model.
5.2. Disconfirmation result
To operationalize the ADM measure of desires disconfirmation,
we allocated customers’ responses to two scores as follows:
SDCi ¼ How big was the difference between what you wanted and
what the airline website actually provided? (1 ¼ “exactly as I
desired” and 7 ¼ “extremely different than I desired”) and ei ¼ How
good or bad is this difference? (5 ¼ “very bad” and þ5 ¼ “very
good,” with 0 ¼ “neither bad nor good”). Accordingly, these data
were multiplied for each attribute of the ADM formula. Thus, the
range of data which resulted from the multiple of ei in SDCi was
[35, þ35] for each attribute. The data were normalized in a spe-
cific range [C, D] ¼ [1, 5] for each attribute A to become a range
corresponding with the response of overall e-satisfaction and e-
loyalty. The normalization was undertaken with the one technique
of normalization known as Min Max Normalization (appearing as
the formula below) and then used for data analysis.
 
ðA  Minimum value of AÞ
B¼ *ðD  CÞ þ C
ðMaximum value of A  Minimum value of AÞ
The result of disconfirmations is demonstrated in six di-
mensions as shown in Table 6. It indicates that, after normalization
of data in the range of [1, 5], all disconfirmations show a mean of
more than three which indicates positive customer dis-
confirmations in all six dimensions. Among the disconfirmations’
mean, EMD3 and EMD2 show a significantly positive disconfirma-
tion, followed by ESD2 and EMD1 respectively.
5.3. Model fit
The overall fit of the structural model was checked initially by
examining c2, the goodness of fit index (GFI), the adjusted goodness
of fit index (AGFI), the normalized fit index (NFI), the comparative
fit index (CFI), as well as the root mean square error of approxi-
mation (RMSEA) applied to a test model fit. The recommended
acceptance of a good fit to a model requires that the obtained GFI,
AGFI, NFI and CFI values should be greater than or equal to 0.90. In
 N. Elkhani et al. / Journal of Air Transport Management 37 (2014) 36e44 41

Table 2 step-1: the relationship between independent variables (six dis-

Demographics of information. confirmations) and mediator (overall e-satisfaction); step-2: the
Frequency Percentage relationship between independent variables (six disconfirmations)
18e24 100 33.33
and dependent variable (e-loyalty); and step-3: the relationship
25e34 117 39 among independent variable (six disconfirmations), mediator
35e40 83 27.67 (overall e-satisfaction) and dependent variable (e-loyalty) respec-
Total 300 100 tively. In order to demonstrate whether overall e-satisfaction me-
Male 176 58.67
diates the effects of the six disconfirmations on e-loyalty, the
Female 124 41.33
Total 300 100 standardized beta value for the six disconfirmations and e-loyalty
Local 113 37.67 in step-2 needs to be substantially larger than the same variable
International 187 62.33 displayed in step-3. Table 8 illustrates the three steps involved
Total 300 100
when assessing the mediation effect of overall e-satisfaction. The
results indicate that after the addition of overall e-satisfaction, all
the b in step-3 are less than in step-2. However, most of them are
Table 3 still meaningful. Thus, overall e-satisfaction partially mediates the
Convergent validity. relationship between ESD1, ESD3, ESD4, ESD6 and e-loyalty. How-
Constructs AVE Composite reliability ever, the results of b show that, after adding overall e-satisfaction,
the b in step-3 has become less than is required to account for a
EMD1 0.632 0.923
EMD2 0.669 0.866 meaningful path between ESD2, ESD5 and e-loyalty. Thus, in the
EMD3 0.656 0.884 case of ESD2 and ESD5, overall e-satisfaction fully mediates the
ESD1 0.701 0.824 relationship between them and e-loyalty. Table 9 explains the
ESD2 0.641 0.925
result of t-value and b for the mediator concerning overall e-
ESD3 0.676 0.862
LOY 0.778 0.875
satisfaction.
SAT 0.693 0.871
6. Discussion

addition to that, an acceptable value of RMSEA should range from
0.05 to 0.08 (Hair et al., 1998). By using a correlation matrix among
29 measurement variables, SEM analysis is performed against the
proposed conceptual model. The SEM results depicted are:
c2 ¼ 515.57 (p ¼ <0.001), df ¼ 231, GFI ¼ 0.96, AGFI ¼ 0.90,
NFI ¼ 0.96, CFI ¼ 0.93 and RMSEA ¼ 0.71 respectively. The results
indicate a good fit for the structural model.
5.4. Hypothesis testing
Regarding the evaluation of the model, we estimated that path
coefficients (the coefficients of the relationships between variables)
would confirm the research hypotheses. We performed hypothesis
testing by following the recommendation of Chin (1998) that the
significance of each path’s coefficient can be estimated by t- tests
using bootstrapping with 500 subsamples. The result of hypothesis
testing including the mean, standard deviation, t-value and b are
indicated in Table 7. Our results supported the hypotheses with six
paths from disconfirmations positively influencing overall e-
satisfaction.
The suggested hypotheses, H1a, H1b, H2a, H2b, H3a, H3b, have
been confirmed based on the resulting b and t-value. Moreover, the
results showed the customer overall e-satisfaction to have a posi-
tive direct influence on e-loyalty (b ¼ 0.270, t-value ¼ 4.59) sup-
porting H4. This is carried out by means of three steps as follows:
The empirical analysis has led to several findings. First, our re-
sults gained from analyzing the influence of customer dis-
confirmations on overall e-satisfaction are consistent with general
EDT literature (e.g., Oliver, 1980; Patterson and Johnson, 1997;
Spreng and Page, 2003). Also, they are consistent with research in
the context of airline websites such as Finn et al. (2009). These
studies found that customer system disconfirmation (including the
criteria of home page, order, and offering disconfirmation) has a
positive direct impact on satisfaction levels. Thus our results indi-
cate that the positive result of customer perception is quite
different between what they expect from the quality of (website
and e-business) services and what they perceived as the direct
influence on customer e-satisfaction. The result of measured dis-
confirmations by the formulation of ADM shows that the percep-
tion of the customer is positive in all dimensions of
disconfirmations. Accordingly, it was estimated that the positive
disconfirmation results produced a positive impact in e-satisfaction
as confirmed by the b in the path analysis.
Second, the result of the path analyses conducted between
overall e-satisfaction and e-loyalty indicates that overall customer
e-satisfaction from multiple disconfirmations has a positive influ-
ence on e-loyalty. We defined e-loyalty explicitly as the intention to
re-purchase and intention to recommend the service. Thus our
result is consistent with past research studies which have shown
that overall e-satisfaction has a positive effect on the intention to
recommend the service (e.g., Finn et al., 2009). It is also consistent

Table 4
Discriminant validity. R- square for satisfaction and loyalty is 0.82 and 0.68 , respectively.

AVE EMD1 EMD2 EMD3 ESD1 ESD2 ESD3 LOY SAT

a
EMD1 0.632 0.794
EMD2 0.669 0.715 0.817a
EMD3 0.656 0.633 0.690 0.810a
ESD1 0.701 0.723 0.688 0.725 0.837a
ESD2 0.641 0.642 0.771 0.772 0.738 0.801a
ESD3 0.676 0.651 0.695 0.658 0.570 0.662 0.822a
LOY 0.778 0.629 0.693 0.682 0.573 0.721 0.797 0.882a
SAT 0.693 0.630 0.711 0.648 0.688 0.763 0.788 0.761 0.832a
a
Diagonal elements are the square roots of average variance extracted (AVE).
42 N. Elkhani et al. / Journal of Air Transport Management 37 (2014) 36e44

Table 5 of psychology, information systems and marketing. Second, we

Internal consistency. differentiated between customer information disconfirmation,
Items Factor loading system disconfirmation and service disconfirmation with both E-
ESD1 (CR [ 0.923; a [ 0.903)
SERVQUAL and e-marketing. Therefore, the proposed multi-
E-S-D-1 0.818 dimension model of disconfirmation has the advantage of exam-
E-S-D-2 0.856 ining the interaction between customer and airline websites in a
ESD2 (CR [ 0.866; a [ 0.804) more dynamic fashion by tracing customer disconfirmation at each
E-S-D-3 0.785
level.
E-S-D-4 0.781
E-S-D-5 0.887 In addition, two practical implications can be drawn. First, it is
E-S-D-6 0.737 apparent that online consumer satisfaction is formed by the
E-S-D-7 0.796 customer disconfirmation of both E-SERVQUAL and e-marketing
E-S-D-8 0.887
attributes. The results indicate that some disconfirmation aspects
E-S-D-9 0.811
ESD3 (CR [ 0.883; a [ 0.825)
have a more significant impact on overall customer e-satisfaction.
E-S-D-10 0.754 Thus, the quality-base response of airline websites in such aspects
E-S-D-11 0.848 plays an important role in gaining customer satisfaction and ulti-
E-S-D-12 0.859 mately retaining their loyalty. For example, disconfirmation of e-
EMD1 (CR [ 0.824; a [ 0.875)
marketing in the service dimension has the most significant direct
E-M-D-1 0.765
E-M-D-2 0.813 impact on overall e-satisfaction. Also, the second and third
E-M-D-3 0.823 important disconfirmation dimensions which have relatively more
E-M-D-4 0.836 importance are system dimensions of E-SERVQUAL and e-market-
E-M-D-5 0.808 ing. Therefore, website developers and decision-making managers
E-M-D-6 0.775
E-M-D-7 0.751
should ensure that the website back-end (system quality) is capable
E-M-D-8 0.781 of providing prompt, complete and secure transactions and replies
EMD2 (CR [ 0.925; a [ 0.905) to customer queries (e-business). Moreover, the results confirm the
E-M-D-9 0.805 mediation role of customer e-satisfaction between customer (E-
E-M-D-10 0.848
SERVQUAL and e-marketing) disconfirmations and customer e-
E-M-D-11 0.811
E-M-D-12 0.781 loyalty. Thus, our findings have significant implications for airline
E-M-D-13 0.776 website practitioners who are seeking to increase the volume of
EMD3 (CR [ 0.861; a [ 0.860) online customers and are eager to know how to satisfy online
E-M-D-14 0.799 consumers and retain their loyalty to their website.
E-M-D-15 0.851
E-M-D-16 0.853
E-M-D-17 0.816 7. Conclusions
SAT (CR [ 0.875; a [ 0.915)
SAT1 0.799 This research has provided insight into differentiating factors
SAT2 0.851
that are significant antecedents in the multi dimensions of
SAT3 0.830
LOY (CR [ 0.871; a [ 0.879) customer disconfirmation. These dimensions may not capture all
LOY1 0.882 the features that would be useful to explain customer disconfir-
LOY2 0.850 mation in each dimension. However, disconfirmation stages remain
to be investigated by further research in order to extend more
related features. In addition, since the model was only conducted
on one airline website, future studies should focus on investigating
with studies showing overall e-satisfaction has a positive impact on the proposed model on different airline websites. Also, since this
behavioral intention, including the intention to recommend as well survey was conducted on those who were educated to university
as the intention to repurchase (e.g., Chen, 2008). level, future studies need to extend the sample of other re-
Third, as regards the results indicated in Table 8 step-3, overall spondents in order to confirm the validity of the model.
e-satisfaction plays a partial mediator role in ESD1, ESD3, ESD4, and Overall, the current study followed three empirical objectives.
ESD6 respectively. In these cases, adding overall e-satisfaction to First, the direct impact of online customer disconfirmations on
the relationship between ESD1, ESD3, ESD4, ESD6 and e-loyalty overall e-satisfaction was examined; second, the direct impact of
does not result in the elimination of a direct relationship between overall e-satisfaction on e-loyalty was investigated, and third, the
ESD1, ESD3, ESD4, ESD6 and e-loyalty. However, ESD2 and ESD5, mediating role of overall e-satisfaction between disconfirmations
with full mediation impact, do so. In total, mediation results indi- and e-loyalty was considered. The results of the first and third
cate that enhancing customer e-satisfaction regarding these six objectives were consistent with previous studies such as those of
dimensions of disconfirmation would be significantly helpful to Finn et al. (2009). These confirmed a positive direct impact of
retain customers’ loyalty when using the airline website for e- customer disconfirmations on customer overall e-satisfaction, as
ticketing. well as the mediating role of overall customer e-satisfaction
Although the mediation role of e-satisfaction was more signifi- existing between customer disconfirmations and e-loyalty. How-
cant in ESD2 and ESD5, it has also made a meaningful role in the ever, from a theoretical aspect, the model provided a better un-
mediation of rest disconfirmations. These results are consistent derstanding of the category of customer disconfirmations in both
with previous studies. In particular, they emphasize that airlines aspects of E-SERVQUAL and e-marketing. The result of the second
should pay special attention to meeting customers’ needs and ex- objective was consistent with a study by Baia et al. (2008) which
pectations regarding E-SERVQUAL and e-marketing attributes confirmed that customer satisfaction from website quality has a
which result in increased customer satisfaction with websites. positive impact on purchase intention.
Consequently, more satisfied customers lead to more loyal ones. Finally, airline websites are powerful tools designed to attract
This research has two major theoretical contributions. First, we new customers to airline companies, as well as seeking to retain the
blended EDT with E-SERVQUAL and e-marketing with the theories loyalty of existing customers. To reach this aim, proper
 N. Elkhani et al. / Journal of Air Transport Management 37 (2014) 36e44 43

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