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NAPOLEON'S BUTTONS
1 7 M O L E C U L E S T H AT C H A N G E D H I S T O R Y
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Peppers, nutmed, and cloves were an essential motive for exploration
and expansion during the 15th century. These spices were highly valued
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Both Cloves and Nutmeg are very similar in shape, but are classified as
different molecules. Nutmeg is classified as an isoeugenol compound.
Isoeugenol compunds are compounds that plants use as a nautural
insectiside against predators. Nutmeg in particular was believed to
repel the the Black Plaugue because of it characteristiclly repeled
disease carrying fleas. In contrast, Cloves are eugenols. (Le Couteur &
Burreson 19-35)
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(assets.kaboose.com)
Ch.3: Gluclose
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(www.peoriaendocrine.com)
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Ch.4: Cellulose
cellulose.
(orums.verizon.com)
The cellulose molecule is shaped in long chains. When these chains are
packed closely together then they make the rigid, insoluble fiber that
plant cell walls are constructed of. The same bundling and twisting of
the cellulose molecule is required to make textile fibers also. Another
unlikely use for cellulose, besides the use of it in cotton clothing, is that
it can be used as an explosive molecule. It was discovered in the 1830s
that cellulose, when combined with a concentrated form of nitric acid,
and then poured into water would yield a highly flammable and
explosive white powder. This white powder became known as
guncotton. Guncotton was found to be highly unstable and extremely
sensitive, an inconvenient property when talking about explosives.
Because of this fact, gun powder remained the dominant force in the
explosives market. Guncotton was not a complete failure however.
Chemists were able to use the nitrocellulose compound and form some
of the first films used in photography. In fact, the photography and
movie industry would probably look quite different without cellulose.
(Le Couteur & Burreson 70-86)
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(http://kenoath.files.wordpress.com/2008/12/explosion.jpg)
Silk was first discovered by the Chinese in c.2600 BCE. Princess Hsi-
ling-shih first learned of this valuable thread when an insect cocoon fell
into her tea and she realized that the silk could be unwound and was
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viable for textile use. The cocoon that fell into the Chinese Princess's
tea was a silkworm's (Bombyx mori) cocoon. Ever since then, silk has
been obtained from the silkworm. In order to harvest the silk, the
silkworm cocoons must be heated to kill the chrysalis inside and then
boiled in water to dissolve a sticky secretion that was produced b the
silkworm to hold the silk threads together. Pure silk is then unwound
from the cocoons and spun onto reels. Over the next 200 years, the silk
trade flourished. The production of silk was a heavily guarded Chinese
secret, but eventually the method of silk production spread to other
countries and started new industries throughout the Mediterranean
and East Asia. (Le Couteur & Burreson 105-122)
These silkworms will soon spin themselves into a cocoon made of silk.
(wikimedia.org)
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Nylon is best known for its use in women's' hosiery, but it was also used
as toothbrush bristles, fishing lines and nets, for surgical sutures, and
for coating electrical wires. When WWII struck most nylon production
was diverted for military use and made into tire chords, mosquito nets,
weather balloons, rope, or parachute shrouds. (Le Couteur & Burreson
105-122)
Ch. 7: Phenol
(data2.collectionscanada.gc.ca)
Phenol is not only Lister's antiseptic molecule. The term, Phenol refers
to any compound that has an OH
group attached directly to a benzene ring. There are literally hundreds
of thousands of different phenols ranging from capsaicin, zigerone, and
vanillin which are ingredients in flavorings, to Tetrahydrocannabinol
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(boomeria.org)
Phenol is responsible for the first use of antiseptic surgery, and created a new
(www.cem.msu.edu)
Chapter 8: Isoprene
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smelly mess. This was a problem of rubber for many years to come. The
various rubber compounds would become hard and brittle during the
winter, and would melt during the hot summer months. In 1839, nearly
100 years after the caoutchoc sap's discovery and numerous other
failed attempts at forming viable rubber compounds, Charles Goodyear
discovered that adding powdered sulfur to rubber could absorb the
excess moisture that made the substance sticky during the summer. (Le
Couteur & Burreson 141-161)
Rubber, over the course of the 200 years since it was first
discovered in the forests of Ecuador, has become a staple
in Global Society. It has become a military as well as an
industrial necessity. Many times through the course of
our day, we forget to recognize the significance that
rubber plays on our lives. With out the small rubber
gaskets, or hoses, or rubber tires, rubberized waterproof
clothing, or something as mundane as rubber bands, our
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Ch. 9: Dyes
The dye industry goes back several thousand years. The early dies
were obtained mainly through plants roots, leaves, bark or berries.
Most of the dies produced did not adhere permanently to untreated
fibers and therefore fabrics had to be treated with mordants, which are
compounds designed to help fix the color to the textile fiber. While
many dies in c.3000 BCE were highly treasured and very expensive
there was several problems with the dyes themselves. The dyes were
difficult to obtain, color range was limited, and the colors were not
strong, but faded quickly to dull colors in the sunlight. Dyes are organic
compounds that are Incorporated into the fibers of textiles. The
molecular structure of these compounds allows the absorption of
certain wavelengths of light from the visible structure. The relationship
between the wavelength absorbed and the chemical structure depends
on the presence of double bond alternating with single bonds. The
Primary colors, Blue, Red, and Yellow all come from either Indigoton,
alizarin, or crocetin respectivly. (Le Couteur & Burreson 162-
180)
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Indigotin
(chm.bris.ac.uk)
<span class=
Alizarin
(www.knowledgerush.com)
Crocetin
(www.cyberlipid.ogg/images)
For
thousands
of years,
medicinal
herbs have
been used
to treat a
variety of
ailments
such as
wounds,
sickness,
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In the 1960s, norethindrone was isolated for use in the first oral
contraceptive which came to be known as the pill. The pill brought on
the "Free Love" movement of the 60s, as well as women's liberation
movement, the rise of feminism and, eventually, the breakdown of the
family. (Le Couteur & Burreson 201-222)
A more primitive form of birth control was the use of the female
hormone, progesterone. Progestesterone is released naturally by the
female's body during pregnancy to suppress ovulation, and therefore,
prevents the woman from getting pregnant again, during her first
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Norethindrone
(dailymed.nlm.nih.gov)
During the Iron Age, millions of women and children were burned at
the stake, hanged, or tortured because they were accused of being
witches. Many of the accused confessed to flying during the night to
have meetings with the Devil and to cast hexes on their enemies. While
many confessed after severe torture, other accused "witches" sincerely
believed that they had been on a magical adventure. It is now believed
by historians that one of the widely used "potions" of the witches was
an alkaloid, a compound with hallucinogenic properties. (Le Couteur
& Burreson 223-245)
Alkaloids are extremely toxic and affect the central nervous system. Alk
(Le Couteur & Burreson 223-245)
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(www.telegraph.co.uk)
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Use of Tobacco was first discovered in Latin America and the brought
back to Europe by Christopher Columbus. The use of tobacco spread
wildly throughout Europe because of its addictive qualities. Tobacco
has at least 10 different alkaloids, the most common being Nicotine.
Biologically, Nicotine acts as a stimulant in small doses and a
depressant in large doses. Furthermore, it has been discovered that
nicotine is 1000 times more potent when it is absorbed through the
skin than when it is taken orally. Nicotine is also used as an extremely
effective natural pesticide.(Le Couteur & Burreson 246-268)
Caffeine is naturally found in tea leaves, coffee beans, cacao pods, and
cola nuts. When in the body, caffeine goes to the brain where it blocks
the absorption of adenosine at the synaptic gap. Adenosine slows down
the firing of Neurotransmitters which therefore makes you tired, but if
caffeine inhibits the absorption of this neurotransmitter, then it
explains caffeine's awakening effect. Caffeine is also toxic as well as
highly addictive, it is estimated that 80g-100g is the lethal dose for an
adult. But, it is nearly impossible to consume that much caffeine at one
time.
Olive Oil
(64.76.64.42/luvebras//images/fotos/Aceite-de-Oliva_108.jpg)
Oleic Acid is the main ingredient in Olive Oil. Olive Oil, a valued trade
item, was the driving force of the Mediterranean societies. This golden
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Another Reason why olive oil was so valued was because it did not spoil
as quickly as other oils. This is due to olive oil's lower proportion of
polyunsaturated fatty acids is 10% lower than other oils. Furthermore,
olive oil contains small amounts of polyphenols and vitamin E and K.
These molecules are all antioxidants, which play an important role in
the natural preservation of of the olive oil. (Le Couteur & Burreson
270-290)
Salt (media.rd.com)
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effective method of collecting salt in any climate. Brine salt also lacks
the impurities of sea salt and is more desired and therefore, more
expensive. Rock salt is the dried remains of of old oceans or seas. These
salt deposits must be mined out of the earth. (Le Couteur & Burreson
291-308)
There are many more uses for salt than just for flavor. Salt has been
used for centuries as a preservative of meats, by removing water from
the tissue. Salt is also vital to the human body. Salt is responsible for
maintaining the electrolyte balance, generating the electrical impulses
in neurons, and it is a necessary component in the production of
hydrochloric acid, which is an essential component of the digestive
juices in our stomachs. Symptoms of lack of salt are weight loss, loss of
appetite, cramps, nausea, and in extreme cases, vascular collapse and
death. in contrast, an excess of salt causes high blood pressure which
can result in heart, kidney, or liver disease. (Le Couteur & Burreson
291-308)
(http://www.topnews.in/usa/files/CFC.gif)
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could be applied through a spray can. (Le Couteur & Burreson 308-
330)
Because CFCs are not easily decomposed, after use they rise into the
atmosphere. There, they act as a catalyst for the decomposition of
ozone (O3). This destruction of ozone takes the ozone layer out of
equillibruim. The ozone layer is important because it protects us from
the most dangerous ultraviolet rays from the sun. It estimated that for
every 1% of ozone depletion, 2% more harmful ultraviolet rays
penetrate the earth's atmostphere.(Le Couteur & Burreson 308-330)
Malaria parasite
(www.corante.com)
Malaria is a nasty
little parasite that is
the greatest killer of
humanity for all
time. In other cases
of epidemics, an
infected person runs
the risk of spreading
the disease to 4-10
people, but if the
person has malaria,
then that person can
possible infect 100
other people. The Malaria parasite is found in the blood and is
transmitted and spread when mosquitos bite people. Symptoms of
malaria include intense fever, chills, terrible headache, and muscle
pains. Eventually, an infected patient will become jaundiced, lethargic,
and confused before lapsing into a coma and dying. (Le Couteur &
Burreson 330-350)
Quinine, an alkaloid from the bark of Cinchona genus has proved very
effective against fighting malaria. the cinchona bark was made into a
tea and drunken to relieve fevers most likely caused by malaria. The
demand for quinine had become so great over the years that the
cinchona trees would sound be extinct if the rate of harvest continued.
Therefore, the compound was synthesized into chloroquine.
Chloroquine was an effective treatment for around forty years and then
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Home
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