Soil Mechanics Assist. Prof. Dr. Rafi' M. S.

Soil Mechanics
Topics in Soil Mechanics
1. Soil Definition and Formation
2. Index and Physical Properties of soil
3. Flow of Water in Soil
4. Seepage Through Soils and Flow Nets
5. Soil Compaction
6. Stresses in a Soil Mass
7. Compressibility and Consolidation of Soil
8. Shear Strength
9. Lateral Earth Pressure
10. Slope Stability

LABORATORY
• Field Collection of Soil Samples and Water Content Determination.
• Liquid and Plastic Limits of Soil
• Shrinkage Limit of Soil
• Specific Gravity of Soil Solids
• Grain Size Analysis – Mechanical Method
• Grain Size Analysis – Hydrometer Method
• Moisture – Density Relationships (Compaction Test)
• Determination of In-Place Soil Density
• Coefficient of Permeability ( Constant and Falling Head Methods)
• Consolidation Test
• Unconfined Compression Testing
• Direct Shear Test
• Triaxial Tests

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Soil Mechanics Assist. Prof. Dr. Rafi' M. S.

Text book:
Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th. edition: Das B. M. (2002).

References:

1- Physical and Geotechnical Properties of Soils, 2nd. edition: Bowles J.E. (1992)
2- Soil Mechanics, 6th. edition: Craig R.F. (1997)
3- Advanced soil Mechanics: Das B.M. (1984)
4- Soil Mechanics: Lambe T.W. & Whitman R.V. (1969)
5- Basic Soil Mechanics by Whitlow
6- Geotechnical Engineering : Soil Mechanics by Cernica
7- An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering by Holtz and Kovacs
8- Soil Mechanics by Verruiji Arnold (2006)

9-
10-

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Soil Mechanics Chapter 1: Soil Definition & Formation

CHAPTER ONE
1. Introduction
Why do we, as engineers, study "soil mechanics"?
In brief, because all branches of civil engineering require an
understanding of soils and their behavior under load.

2. Soil definitions
There are different meanings for the term "soil"
- In Engineering:
Soil is a relatively loose agglomerate of mineral, with or without
organic materials and sediments, found above the bed rock that can
relatively be easily broken down into their constituent particles.
Or soil is aggregate of mineral particles, and together with air and/or
water in their void spaces which form three-phase system.

- In Geology:
Soils are just decomposed and disintegrated rocks
generally found in the thin upper part of the crust and
capable of supporting plant life.

3. Soil Mechanics
Is the branch of geotechnical engineering that deals
with the engineering properties of soils and its
behavior under stresses and strains by applying the
basic principles of mechanics including kinematics,
dynamics, fluid mechanics and the mechanics of
materials.
So that the soil is an engineering material whose
properties and behavior must understand in order to
build with it or upon it.

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Soil Mechanics Chapter 1: Soil Definition & Formation

4. Engineering problems related to soil mechanics

1- Soil as foundation
The soils are used as a foundation material to support
structures and embankments.
When firm soil is:
 NEAR THE SURFACE UP TO 3m:
use shallow foundations such as spread or combined or
mat.
 AT DEEP DEPTH > 3m FROM SURFACE:
use deep foundations such as piles or drilled shafts.

2- Soil as a construction material

The following should be considered:

a. TYPE OF SOIL
b. QUALITY CONTROL OF COMPACTED SOIL
- Highway Pavement s
- Zoned earth dams and embankments
- Earth filling

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Soil Mechanics Chapter 1: Soil Definition & Formation

Zoned earth dams

o Upstream and downstream
shells are of coarse sand and
gravel,
o Clay core to control leakage,
o Rock toe to give more stability.

Highway pavements
o Flexible pavement: Subbase,
base and wearing courses,
o Rigid pavement: reinforced
concrete and wearing courses.

Heave in Expansive Soils

These soils due to the presence of the montmorillonite clay mineral has
large swelling potential when being in contact of water. As a result
detrimental effects will be noticed as cracks of walls, sidewalks, car
parks, or any light structure etc…. However, the effect of heave can be
eliminated or reduced by one of the following solutions:
(a) A compacted subbase material of not less
than 0.5m thick was to be placed in two
layers below the foundations level; each of
0.25m thickness compacted to at least 95% of
the maximum dry density modified Proctor
test,
(b) Air gap left under the building and around
the foundations or piles. But, this solution is
costly because it needs holes to be augered
into soil and placing steel shells then concrete
base plugs and piles were poured (cast).

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Soil Mechanics Chapter 1: Soil Definition & Formation

Shear Failure of Soil

Grain Elevator

Shear Failure
of Soil Slope

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Soil Mechanics Chapter 1: Soil Definition & Formation

5. The unique nature of soils

Soils are heterogeneous rather than homogeneous
o Anisotropic rather than isotropic
o Soil is neither purely elastic nor purely plastic, so it is
visco-elastic material and therefore, its stress-strain
relationship is not linear or straight line.

6. Soil Formation:
Soil is any uncemented or weakly cemented accumulation (due to
organic matter or carbonates or oxides precipitated between
particles) of mineral particles formed as a result of weathering
and erosion of rocks (due to some factors such as: (i) geology,
(ii) climate, (iii) vegetation) with void spaces between the
particles filled with water and / or air.

Processes of Soil Formation

Freezing and thawing,
Physical or mechanical weathering Temperature changes,
Causes disintegration of the rocks Erosion by action of wind or water or
into smaller particle sizes due to glaciers,
Activity of plants, animals & human.
Chemical weathering
Decomposes the minerals in rocks Oxidation , Hydration, Hydrolysis
Carbonation, Leaching.
by

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Soil Mechanics Chapter 1: Soil Definition & Formation

Classification of Soils According to its Formation

Parent Rock

Residual soil Transported soil

~ in situ weathering of parent rocks ~ weathered and
transported far away
(by physical & chemical agents)
by wind, water, ice, …etc..

Parent Rock

~ formed by one of these three different processes

Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

formed by cooling of formed by gradual formed by alteration

molten magma (Lava) deposition, and in layers of igneous &
e.g., limestone, shale sedimentary rocks by
e.g., granite pressure/temperature
e.g., marble

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Soil Mechanics Chapter 1: Soil Definition & Formation

Residual Soils
Formed by in situ weathering of parent rocks.
Transported Soils
Transported by Special Name
 Wind “Aeolian deposits (dust)”
“Sand dunes”

 Sea (salt water) “Marine deposits”

 Lake (fresh water) “Lacustrine deposits”

 River “Alluvial deposits”

 Ice “Glacial deposits”

Main Classes of Soils

Soil Type Type of Grains Predominant Size Inter-grain Bonding
quartz, feldspars,
Gravels rounded and/or 2mm < D < 76mm Frictional
angular

Sands same as above .075mm < D < 2mm Frictional & chemical

primarily quartz Frictional, chemical,

Silts 2mm < D < 0.075
2mm mm
flake−like grains electrical
micah, kaolinite,
bentonite, etc.
Clays D < 2mm Chemical & electrical
very small plate−
like grains

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Soil Mechanics Chapter 1: Soil Definition & Formation

The inter-particle forces

There are two types of bonds
1. Primary bonding
a. Covalent bonds
b. Ional bond
c. Metallic bonds

2. Secondary bonds
a. Hydrogen bonds
b.Van der waals bonds

7. Soil structure and fabric

Soil Structure: Is both the geometric, skeletal arrangement of the
particles, or mineral grains, and the inter-particle forces which may
act on them. Soil structure includes gradation, arrangement of
particles, void ratio, bonding agents, and associated electrical forces.

Soil Fabric: Is a term to describe the "structure" of clays. Fabric

denotes the geometric arrangement of the mineral particles in a clay
mass as observed by optical or electron microscopes. The geometric
arrangement includes particle spacing and pore size distributions.
Factors affecting soil structure
* shape
* size
* mineralogical composition of soil particle
* nature and composition of soil water

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Soil Mechanics Chapter 1: Soil Definition & Formation

• Structure of Granular Soils

The structure in coarse grained or granular soils is characterized as
single grained structure. It occurred by the settlement of sands or
gravels in water as a result of gravitational surface forces. Hence, grain
to grain contact results without any bond between them.
Single grained soils may be loose, or dense depending on the way in
which the soil grains are packed together as shown in figure (7).
Packing of soil grains, or any other particulate medium, is strongly
influenced by both particle size distribution and particle shape. In
optimum packing, shear strength is increased because there is more
particle contact, providing additional lateral support.

(a) loose structure (b) dense structure

Fig. 7: An idealization of sand (coarse-grained) soil structure

• Structure of Cohesive Soils

Seldom does a pure clay deposit exist naturally; it is always
contaminated with silt and/or fine sand particles as well as colloidal
(<0.001 mm) sizes. Colloids, sometimes called rock flour, are the
byproduct of rock abrasion and do not posses clay mineral properties
even though the size range is similar.
A complete description of the structure of a fine grained cohesive soil
requires knowledge of both the inter-particle forces and the geometrical
arrangement, or fabric, of the particles.
The inter-particle forces have a significant effect on the arrangement of
the clay particles. If the resultant of the forces is a net repulsion then a
face-to-face dispersed structure will be created as in clay soil with pure
or fresh water and shown in Fig. (8-a). Whereas, a net attraction results in
an edge-to-face flocculated structure as in salty clays shown in Fig.(8-b)
Therefore, marine clays generally have a more open structure than
fresh water clays.

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Soil Mechanics Chapter 1: Soil Definition & Formation

In cohesive soils especially in silt and rock flour, due to cohesion,

the soil particles were arranged in chains surrounding large voids
with face-to-face contacts known as honeycombed structure, Fig.(8-c).

a: Dispersed structure b: flocculated structure

c: Honeycomb clay structure

Fig. 8: Different structures of clay

8. Clay Mineral s
Clay particles that exhibits plasticity when mixed with water
are called clay minerals. They are mainly produced from the
weathering of feldspars and micas. Their basic structural units
consists of two types:-
1. Silica Tetrahedron 2. Alumina or Magnesia Octahedron
Si2O3(OH)2 Al2(OH)6 or Mg3(OH)6
Six Hydroxyl or Oxygen Atoms
Three Oxygen Atom
One Silicon Atom One Aluminium
or
Magnesium Atom

Fig. 9: Clay minerals basic units

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Soil Mechanics Chapter 1: Soil Definition & Formation

For simplicity:
 Silica Tetrahedral is represented by (Silica sheet):

Si

 Alumina Octahedral is represented by by (Gibbsite sheet):

G
and
 Magnesia Octahedral is represented by by (Brucite sheet):

Silicon and aluminum may be partially replaced by other

elements in the sheets, this being known as isomorphous
substitution (which means the substitution of one kind of atom
by another with no change in the crystalline particle).

 Tetrahedral sheet = Several tetrahedrons joined together

Tetrahedron
Hexagonal
hole

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Soil Mechanics Chapter 1: Soil Definition & Formation

Weathering action on rocks produces large number of clay

minerals with common property of affinity, but in widely
differing amounts, for water. Some of the most common clay
minerals are the following:
1. Kaolinite  (OH)8Al4Si4O10
Al
Si
Typically
70-100 Al
7.2 Ao
layers Si
joined by strong H-bond Al
no easy separation
Si
Al joined by oxygen
Si sharing

Kaolinite is a two-layer sheet consists of a silica sheet and

gibbsite or brucite sheet with about 7.2 Ao (one angstrom = 10-8
cm) thick. There is limited isomorphous substitution due to
the repeating silica-alumina or silica-magnesia sheets are held
together tightly by hydrogen bonding and secondary valence
forces.
Halloysite
It differ from kaolinite by:
 being more randomly stacked, so that a single molecule
of water may enter between the 7.2 A units.
 the elemental sheets are rolled into tubes.

 (OH)8Al4Si4O10.4H2O

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Soil Mechanics Chapter 1: Soil Definition & Formation

Si
2. Illite
Al
Si
joined by K+ ions
Si
Fit into the hexagonal holes
Al 9.6Ao
between Si-sheets
Si
 Illite is a three-layer
sheets linked together Si
in series by fairly weak Al
bonding due to (non-
Si
exchangeable) ions held
between them.
 It is derived principally from muscovite (mica) and biotites and
sometimes called mica clay.
 (OH)4 ky(Si8-y . Aly) (Al4 . Mg6 . Fe4 . Fe6)O20 ; where y = 1 - 1.5

3. Montmorillonite
 Also called Smectite; expands on contact with water.
 Has the same basic structure as Illite. But, the spacing between
combined sheets is occupied by water and cations other than
potassium, and therefore, the bond between them is very weak.
Si
Al
Si
H2O
Si
easily separated Al 10Ao
by water
Si
H2O
Si
joined by weak
Van der Waal’s bond Al
Si

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Soil Mechanics Chapter 1: Soil Definition & Formation

 A highly reactive (expansive) clay

 (OH)4Al4Si8O20.nH2O swells on contact with water

high affinity to water

 Thus, Kaolinit soils swell least, Illite soils have medium

swelling and Montmorillonite soils have large swelling on
contact with water being adsorbed between the combined
sheets.
Bentonite
 Montmorillonite family
 Used in drilling oil wells, soil exploration as a drilling
mud, and as clay grout (stopping leaks).

9. Important properties of clay minerals

A. Adsorbed Water
 A thin layer of water tightly held to particle; like a skin

 1-4 molecules of water (1 nm) thick

adsorbed water
 more viscous than free water

- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -

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Soil Mechanics Chapter 1: Soil Definition & Formation

B. Clay Particle in Water

adsorbed water

- -
1nm
- -
- - 50 nm
- - free water
- -
- - double layer
- - water

The combination of the negative charged mineral surface and the

positively charged spaces around the mineral forms what is
known as the diffuse double layer or just the double layer water.

Diffuse Double Layer

Water molecules are of dipolar nature, since the hydrogen
atoms are not symmetrically arranged around the oxygen atoms;
this mean that a molecule of water is like a rod with positive and
negative charges at opposite ends. These dipoles can be attracted
toward clay particles-surfaces in three forms as:
(a) Attraction between negatively charged faces of clay particles and
positive ends of dipoles,
(b) Attraction between cations (in the double-layer-water formed upon
an addition of more water) and the negatively charged ends of
dipoles. The cations are in turn attracted by the negatively charged
faces of clay particles.
(c) Sharing of hydrogen atoms in water molecules by hydrogen
bonding between the oxygen atoms in the clay particles and the
oxygen atoms in water molecules.

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Soil Mechanics Chapter 1: Soil Definition & Formation

Diffuse electric double layer

C. Cation Concentration in Water

 Cation concentration drops with distance from clay particle

+ clay particle +

- +- - + cations
+ +
+ + + + - - ++ + - +
+ - + -+ + + -
+ + + + +
-
++ +
-+ + + + - -
+ + +
+ + + + +- +
+ - +
+
- + + + ++ - - +
+ +
+ + -
+
+ + + + +
+- +
- + + - + + + + +
- + + +- -+ + + - +
+ + +
+ +

+ double layer + free water

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Soil Mechanics Chapter 1: Soil Definition & Formation

Clay particles usually carry negative electrical charges on their

surfaces in dry condition due to one or more of the following
factors:-
i. isomorphous substitution,
ii. surface disassociation of hydroxyl ions,
iii. absence of cations in the crystal lattice,
iv. adsorption of anions,
v. presence of organic matter.
Of these possible causes, the first factor is the most important. But,
when clay be on contact with water or salts, these charges were
balanced by cations attracted to the particle surfaces.
The ions absorbed on the soil particle may exchange places with
another ion within a diffuse double layer. For example, when lime is
added to wet clay mixture that contains sodium, the calcium ions
will replace the sodium ions. This process is known as cation
exchange, and the ions involved as exchangeable ions.

Cation Exchange Capacity (C.E.C)

known as exchangeable cations

 Capacity to attract cations from the water (i.e., measure of

the net negative charge of the clay particle)
 Measured in meq/100g (net negative charge per 100g of clay)
milliequivalents

 The replacement power is greater for higher valence and

larger cations which can be arranged in a series in terms of
their affinity for attraction as:
Al3+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > NH4+ > K+ > H+ > Na+ > Li+
This series indicates that for example, Al3+ ions can replace
Ca2+ ions, and Ca2+ ions can replace Na+ ions.
 The CEC of kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite clay
minerals are 3, 25 and 100 mE/100 gm, respectively.

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Soil Mechanics Chapter 1: Soil Definition & Formation

D. Surface area
The smaller and more flaky a particle is the greater will be
its surface area. The ratio of surface area per gram of mass
is termed the specific surface (Ss) of the soil.
Approximate
Specific
Grain size adsorbed
Mineral surface (Ss)
(d) μm water content
m2/g
(%)
Quartz sand 100 0.02 0.001

Kaolinite 0.3 – 2.0 20 1

Illite 0.2 – 2.0 80 4

Montmorillonite 0.01 – 1.0 800 40

Summary - Clays
 Clay particles are like plates or needles. They are negatively
charged.
 Clays are plastic; Silts, sands and gravels are non-plastic.
 Clays exhibit high dry strength and slow dilatancy.

 Montmorillonites have very high specific surface, cation

exchange capacity, and affinity to water. They form reactive
clays.
 Montmorillonites have very high liquid limit (100+), plasticity
index and activity (1-7).
 Bentonite (a form of Montmorillonite) is frequently used as
drilling mud.

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