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3/30
Text: Acheson.
Cooperative effect of ejecting spores: a pack of spores goes farther than one
spore does.
fi xf y fi1 .
We want to neglect the fluctuation f 1 and only keep xf y. By central limit
theorem
fi1
xf y ?1
N
where N is the number of molecules (heuristically). How small do we want
1
fi
xf y to be? If one can tolerate a ten percent error then
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
?1 0.1 ñ N 100.
N
Thus the box has to contain 100 molecules, which means that the continuum
approach can be used if the side of the box contains about 5 molecules, or
about 1 nm. In nature most things are ¡¡ 1 nm. Cells are 1 µm, cell
membranes are 10 nm thick. One can plot the average velocity xf y v.s.
side length of the box. Once above the critical side length (1 nm) it’s con-
stant until 100 nm, where it starts to grow. It is fluctuating under 1 nm.
After 100 nm it is macroscopic cut-off. The constant region is a good average
length scale.
4/1
Idea: We can define fields that describe the average/summed motions of the
molecules that make up the field, e.g. define a velocity field upx, tq where
u : Rn R Ñ Rn . upx, tq means the average velocity of all molecules in a box
centered at x at time t. What fields are needed to describe what the fluid is
doing?
• velocity, defined by
1 ¸
vi .
N i
• density, defined by
°
mi
i
,
V
where mi is mass of molecule i and V is the volume.
• energy
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
• (linear) momentum
Linear momentum: If particle i has mass mi and velocity vi , then the mo-
mentum is mi vi . We define ppx, tq to be the average momentum of particles
in box. Thus the linear momentum density is defined by
¸
ppx, tq
1
mi vi .
V i
If we assume that tvi u and tmi u are uncorrelated, and this is empirically
validated, then
°
¸
ppx, tq NV N1
i mi vi
mi vi
V i
° ° ° °
p by uncorrelation q NV Ni mi Ni vi i mi
V
i vi
N
ρpx, tqupx, tq.
Kinetic energy is defined by
¸
1
2V
mi vi2 12 ρu2 p?q,
i
where u |u| (it may not defined in the way of summation since we could
2 2
Consider a particle bounces off from a small surface. Then force is exerted
due to collisions between molecules and the walls of the container. So this
force is exerted in the wall-normal direction. There might be tangent forces
but they are viscosity rather than pressure.
4/3
vi u δvi
where the former gives us the kinetic energy density and the latter represents
the internal kinetic energy (temperature). Now consider pressure. Consider
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
a particle bounces on the wall and gives a normal force. Define a pressure
field ppx, tq, p : Rn 1 Ñ R s.t. if I consider a small (”infinitesimal”) (it cannot
be too small for physical constraint though) element of wall with area dA
and normal n pointing outward, then the force on he element is
ppx, tqndA,
i.e. the pressure is average force (by area) on the wall.
NB:
1. If we change the orientation of the element ndA, then the magnitude of
the pressure should stay the same.
2. In the absence of a solid boundary, ppx, tqndA is the rate of momentum
transferred across the square element from particles starting from above the
element to below the element. Because of Newton’s third law, there is an
equal opposite transfer of momentum ppx, tqndA from molecules below the
element to above the element. Thus ppx, tq can be defined even if we don’t
have a solid surface.
3. Pressure has unit of mN2 P a.
f px, tq i fi
,
V
where fi is the force on particle i due to, e.g. gravitational field, electromag-
netic field, and V is the volume. The force we are going to consider is the
gravity force, which is given by
°
f px, tq ρg,
mi g
i
V
where ρ is the density.
§2 Hydrostatics
The study of fluids that are not in motion (u 0) (the boring case). Consider
a control volume, which is a volume of space, containing fluid, and enclosed
by an orientable, piecewise smooth surface B Ω. There can be no net force
acting on the fluid contained in Ω. Thus
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
pndS.
BΩ
This cannot be balanced with the pressure from inside to outside because
that force act to the fluid outside. Now we break Ω up into infinitesimal
volume elements dV . The body force on that element if f px, tqdV . Thus the
total body force is
»
f px, tqdV.
Ω
Thus the force balance reads
» »
»
Bψ dV
Ω B xi
ni ψdS
BΩ
if n is the outward normal vector. Thus
»
pf ∇pqdV 0.
Ω
Since Ω can be any control volume we have
f ∇p 0
if f, ∇p are both continuous. If body force is due to fluid weight then f ρg,
then
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
ρg ∇p 0.
Consider a peaker of water. We have ~g gez and at the free surface z 0
we have pp0q pa which is the atmospheric pressure. Thus
dp
dz
ρg ñ p ρgz pa.
Now consider putting a toy boat in the peaker. Want to calculate the buoy-
ant upthrust on the toy boat? (To be continued)
4/6
No class on Wednesday.
p ρgz pa .
We assumed that ρ is a constant (wewill revisit this assumption). Also we
showed that
Bp Bp 0, Bp ρg.
Bx By Bz
We want to integrate the pressure force over the submerged boundary of B Ω.
Call the submerged boundary by B Ωs , the boundary in the air by³ B Ωa , and
the intersection of Ω and the water level line by B Ωf . What is BΩs pndS?
Also
» »
ρgzn dS ρgzndS
BΩs BΩs YBΩf
since z 0 on B Ωf . Now we can use the Gauss’ theorem on this closed
surface by
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
» » »
ρpx, tqdV .
³
(iii) Total mass in Ω is M Ω
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
ρu ndS.
Ω Bt BΩ
By Gauss’ theorem
»
Bρ ∇ pρuqdV 0.
Ω Bt
Since Ω is arbitrary we have:
Bρ ∇ pρuq 0
Bt
except possibly on some measure zero set.
I ρudV.
Ω
dI
dt
forces acting on fluid in Ω (body forces)
pressure force acting over boundary
rate of which momentum is carried out of Ω through BΩ.
4/10
Last time:
B »
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
Name the terms by (1)-(3) in order. We can see that (1), (2) are the same
as hydrostatic force balance:
» »
For (3) we can break it into contributions from area elements ndS. In time
δt all fluid contained i a parallelopiped with face ndS and the momentum of
fluid in parallelopiped (PP) is
punδtqdSρu.
So the rate of momentum loss is
» »
»
ρupu nqdS.
Bt Ω
ρudV
BΩ
pndS
Ω
f dV
BΩ
By Gauss’ theorem
»
B pρuqdV ∇pdV » »
f dV ∇ pρuuqdV
»
Ω Bt Ω Ω Ω
∇ pρuuqj
3
¸ B pρu u q.
i1
B xi i j
Since Ω is arbitrary we have
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
pAq Bρ ∇ pρuq 0.
Bt
We can expand (B) using product rule to get
Bρ Bu ρu ∇u u∇ pρuq ∇p
u
Bt ρ
Bt f
ñ ρ BBut ρu ∇u ∇p f
by eliminating terms using (A). This is called the Euler’s equation. Now we
have 5 unknowns (ρ, u, p) but we only have 4 equations. Thus we need an
equation of state for the fluid as a final equation in the form p ppρq. E.g.
for an ideal gas at constant entropy
p
p0
p ρρ qγ
0
p p0 p1pρ0qpρ ρ0q.
For the ideal gas equation
p1 pρ0 q
γp0
.
ρ0
Also we define c p1 pρ0 q and we will see that c is the speed of sound in
a
dp c2 dρ.
Note that although ρ might not change very much since c is large p will have
significant change. Now we can estimate terms in Euler’s equation. Suppose
flow is over a body with typical dimension L and typical velocity of flow U .
About typical quantities it does not matter so much which quantities one
uses (like length or height of car). But the estimates will not change much.
Then
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
ρ0 U 2
ρu ∇u .
L
2
If L is length of car and ρUL is large, then it will still be large if L is chosen
instead to be the height of car. By Euler’s equation we have
ρ0 U 2
∇p ρu ∇u
L
2 2
ñ c Ldρ dp
L
ρ0 U
L
2
ñ dρ
ρ
U
c2
0
where the LHS represents the relative change in density. The mach number
M a Uc is a dimensionless number. However we can see that
.
∇ u 0,
i.e. u is an incompressible vector field, and the equation (B) does not change.
Also we can solve for p since we have 4 equations so we are not going to drop
p term.
4/13
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
x x L, u u U
where denotes the non-dimensionalized variables. We can non-dimensionalize
time by setting
t t
L
.
U
From the equation
Bu ρu ∇u ∇p
ρ
Bt F
we can see that the LHS has typical quantity ρ0LU and ∇p
2 ∆p
. Thus (by
linearization in last class and for non-dimensionalized p , ρ )
L
p p0 ρ0 U 2 p px , t q
U2
ρ ρ0 ρ0 ρ px , t q.
c2
From conservation of mass:
Bρ pu ∇qρ 0
Bt ρ∇u
U B ρ U2 U
pρ0 ρ px , t qq ∇ u Ma2 ρ0 pu ∇ qρ 0
U
Ma2 ρ0
L B t
ρ0
c2 L L
B ρ
ñ Ma p Bt
2
ρ ∇ u pu ∇qρq ∇ u 0.
Thus the dominant balance in the equation is
∇ u 0.
In summary Euler’s equations for an inviscid, incompressible fluid read
pAq ∇u0
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
Could the second equation be derived from force balance? We want to show
that the LHS is exactly the product of density with the acceleration. Consider
a particle moving with the fluid and
x1 pt ∆tq x1 ptq
a lim .
∆t Ñ0 ∆t
Observe that
since we have
Suppose a particle x xptq is moving through a field θpx, tq, how quickly
does θ change as observed by the particle? The expression is
13
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
cuboid with dimension ∆x∆y∆z of fluid. Consider the force balance in the
x-direction and let the center of the left square face to be p0, 0, 0q. Then
ρdxdydz
Dux
Dt
pp0, 0, 0qdzdy ppdx, 0, 0qdzdy Fx dxdydz.
However
ppdx, 0, 0q pp0, 0, 0q dx
Bp
Opdx2 q
Bx p0,0,0q
so
Dux
ρ
Dt
px Fx Opdxq,
which is the x-component of (B). Now we have 4 unknowns and 4 equations.
We need boundary conditions on the Euler equations. One class of BCs comes
from considering flow over moving bodies. On surface of body consider an
element moving with velocity of u and the object (car) moving at velocity U .
Consider a pilbox(bunker)-shaped control volume. Let the frame speed be
u1 u U.
Create a thin element with dS as one face. We can see that the total fluid
flow across all faces is zero (to be continued).
4/14
u1 uU
where U is the velocity of the object. The conservation of mass in pillbox Ω
reads
»
u1 ndS 0.
? BΩ
Sinceh dS, the contribution from the sidewalls of the pillbox is much
smaller than the contribution from flat faces. Also there is no fluid flow on
the face of the object. Thus is we let B Ωf be the flat face in the fluid we have
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
u1 ndS 0 ñ u1 n 0
BΩf
over the entire boundary of the body. Thus on the boundary of the body
unU n
which is called the no through-flow boundary condition. What BCs should
be applied at the interface between two fluids? We can generalize to two
fluids but now we consider the fluid/air interface. Let’s assume the interface
is given by a function
z hpx, y, tq.
Let the upper part be fluid 2 (air) and the lower part be fluid 1 (could be
water). Want to write the normal velocity BC as a constraint on hpx, y, tq.
By the no through-flow condition we know that if we start a piece of fluid at
the interface, we can’t leave the interface. This means that according to an
observer moving with the fluid
D
Dt
pz hq 0 at z h
ñ Dz
Dt
Dh
Dt
0
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
ui n 0 @i 1, 2
we can obtain
p1 p2
which is the dynamic BC.
§4 Vorticity
Define
ω ∇ u p∇ ^ uq.
How to interpret this?
(1) If C is any closed curve and S is any surface spanning C, then by Stokes’
theorem
» »
u dS ω ndS.
C S
It tells us the circulation or swirl of u around C.
ωz BBuxy BBuyx .
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
Image labeling with dye two small perpendicular fluid elements with length
dx along x and y axes. How does this pair of vectors change due to fluid
flow? In time ∆t the movement of points are
4/15
To continue the topic from last time let u ux , v uy . Then the new
positions are
θy BBuy ∆t
so
1 Bv Bu
1 θx θy
2 ∆t
p
2 Bx By
q 1
2
ωz .
Thus vorticity can be understood as the rotation rate of the fluid. Why
is vorticity important? Knowing the vorticity allows us to reconstruct the
velocity fluid. Given
ω ∇u
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
how much can we say about u? (For more information see P.G. Saffman
”Vortex dynamics”). Given any vector field such as u, we can decompose it
into a sum of potentials:
u∇A ∇Φ
(Helmholtz’s theorem), where WLOG we may assume that ∇ A 0 (gauge
condition). Thus
∇ u ∇ p∇ Aq.
By vector calculus (see Acheson’s book for formula and denote ∆ by ∇2 ):
∇2 A ∇p∇ Aq ∇ p∇ Aq ∇ p∇ Aq
since ∇ A 0. Thus
w ∇2A
ω px1 , tq 3 1
»
ñ Apx, tq 4π 3 }x x1} d x .
1
R
What about Φ? Since ∇ u 0 we have
0 ∇ p ∇ Aq ∇2 Φ ∇2 Φ.
To solve this equation and determine ∇Φ uniquely (or Φ up to some additive
constant). It is enough to have Neumann BC, i.e. we need to know n ∇Φ
on any boundary. Let uA ∇ A we have
n ∇Φ n u n uA
and we can get n u by the no through-flow BC, i.e.
nunU
on rigid boundaries where U is the velocity of the body. Thus
n ∇Φ n U n uA.
It means that we can determine u by the vorticity field ω! Why is this not
a GRE question (not merely a brain storming)? Can we write down an
equation for the vorticity field? By Euler’s equation
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
ρp
Bu u ∇uq ∇p
Bt F.
F ∇V
for some potential V . E.g.
V ρgz
for the gravitational body force. Now we want to take the vorticity of the
equation. Recall the identity for a, b, c P R3 :
a pb cq pa cqb pa bqc.
Also if we replace b by ∇ we have
ra p∇ cqsi
¸ B cj ¸ B ci .
j
aj
B xi j
aj
B xj
Let a c u to get
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
ñ r∇ pb cqsi
¸ B pc b q ¸ B pb c q.
j
B xj j i j
B xj j i
Thus
∇ω 0
∇u0
by that ω ∇ u and incompressibility. Thus
Bω pu ∇qω pω ∇qu 0
Bt
Dω
Dt
pω ∇qu.
4/17
Note:
xpsq X ps, tq
where
BX ps, tq ωpX ps, tq, tq.
Bs
The vortex line will behave like a material line by the equation.
2. If ω is initially 0, then Dω
Dt
0 @t ¥ 0 ñ ω 0.
3. Define a stream line by (for fixed t ¡ 0 and curve parameter s)
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
xpsq X ps, tq
where
BX ps, tq upX ps, tq, tq.
Bs
If all stream lines start very far away from a body and ω Ñ 0, then Dω 0
on the stream line, so ω 0 (as a BC of u). One can think of a car as an
Dt
example.
u ∇Φ.
Since ∇ u 0 by incompressibility we have
∇2 Φ 0
and we have Dirichlet BCs.
5. Consider 2D flow to explain the equation for the vorticity. By last time
Dω
p B
ω ∇qu ω pu, v, 0q 0.
Dt Bz
Thus for 2D flow we have
Dω
Dt
0
so if we have vorticity ω at t 0, we can treat ω as a passive scalar field.
ρ
Du
Dt
∇p ∇V.
Since
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
Bu ρpu ∇qu ρ
B ∇φ ρpp∇φq ∇q∇φ
ρ
Bt Bt
we have
∇pρ
Bφ ρ
p∇φq2 q ∇p ∇V
Bt 2
ñ ρ BBφt ρ 2
2
u p V Aptq
ñp Bφu2
V Aptq
ρ
Bt2
ρ
since
» »
AptqndS Aptq
0 ndS
for any closed surface. Knowing the value of ppx0 , tq @t ¡ 0 for a point x0 in
the fluid the generalized Bernoulli is enough to calculate ppx, tq completely
since one can solve the Laplace equation for φ to get both φ, u and one knows
V.
• if there are no free surfaces then we cannot solve for Aptq. In this
case only ∇p shows up in Euler’s equations, and this is unaffected by
changing p to p Aptq.
V constant,
1 2
p ρu
2
which is the Bernoulli’s principle. We can look at dominant balance. If
p V 0
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
we just have the hydrostatic force balance. If the body force is not important
then
ρu const.
1 2
p
2
We can use this to explain e.g. the curving of base ball when spinning.
However the explanation of why plane flies by Bernoulli’s principle is wrong
because there is no reason why the air flows above and below the wing should
meet in the end. Also planes can fly up side down. Now consider a sphere
traveling at constant velocity. How much force must be applied to the sphere
to keep it moving at constant velocity? We want to solve the PDEs in the
rest frame of the sphere. Thus far from the sphere we have
u U ez
where U is the speed of the ball and z points to the direction that the ball
moves. Let the sphere radius be a. Fluid far from the ball has parallel stream
lines so the flow is irrotational. Thus
u U ez ∇φ
where ∇φ Ñ 0 as r Ñ 8, where r is in the spherical coordinate. On surface
of sphere by no through flow condition:
u n 0 ñ pU ∇φq er 0 on r a
ñ U cos θ BBφr 0 on r a.
Also
1 B 2 Bφ B psin θ Bφ q 0
∇2 φ 0 ñ pr Br q 1
r2 B r r2 sin θ B θ Bθ
since φ φpr, θq by symmetry.
4/20
Continuing last time, we want to solve the Laplace equation by the separation
of variables. See ”Field Theory Handbook” by Moon & Spencer. Define
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
φ RprqΘpθq.
To match the boundary condition we ansatz
f prq Brα .
Substitute into the equation to get
αpα 1q 2 0 ñ α 2, 1.
The term r cos θ should have zero coefficient since ∇φ 0 as r Ñ 8. By the
boundary condition on r a we have
2B
a3
U 0 ñ B 1 3
2
Ua .
F pndS.
r a
By the generalized Bernoulli principle
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
u2 pu er q2 pu eθ q2 pu eϕq2 pu eθ q2
by ϕ symmetry and the no through flow condition. Since u U ez ∇φ
we have
1 Bφ
u eθ U sin θ
32 U sin θ.
1
r Bθ
U sin θ U sin θ
2
Thus by the generalized Bernoulli’s principle
p ρU 2 sin2 θ.
9
8
Because we have symmetry we know that the force is in z-direction. Thus
» » »
F ez ppn ez qdS 9 2
p cos θdS U ρ cos θ sin2 θdS
r a r a 8 r a
» π
9π 2 2 4 π
9π 2 2
4
U ρa 3
sin θ cos θdθ 16
U ρa sin θ
0
0.
0
We should check the dimension by noting that U 2 ρ has the unit of the pres-
sure by the generalized Bernoulli’s principle and a2 has the unit of the area.
This is known as D’Alembert’s paradox, which states that a steadily moving
bodies in irrotational flow experience no force. This means that airplanes
don’t fly! That’s why we should introduce viscous forces. One can see that
effect by seeing the vortex flow after airplanes.
§5 Viscous forces
Take two parallel plates separated by fluid. One wants to investigate the
”stickiness” of the fluid. If we move the upper plate by a speed U then the
velocity profile of the fluid will be linear given that we move slow enough
with velocity U on top and 0 on the bottom. We need to apply a force in
the direction of U to keep the plate moving. Define the stress that needs to
be apply as
stress, τ force,
area, A
F
U
µ ,
h
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
where h is the distance between two plates. Also the constant of proportion-
ality is the same if one repeats the experiment with the same liquid, and the
constants are different between different fluids. We call µ the viscosity of the
fluid. What are the units of µ? By the defining equation
rµsr Uh s rτ s N m2 or P a
ñ rµs P a s.
For air µ 105 P a s, and for water 103 P a s. With this in mind we
revisit the conservation of momentum. Consider an arbitrary control volume
Ω. Then the equation reads
4/22
»
B pρuqdV »
ρupu nqdS
» » »
Ω Bt
pndS F dV Tn dS
BΩ BΩ Ω BΩ
where the last term is viscous force acting on B Ω. Tn is the stress (force/area)
exerted by fluid on the positive side of the element on fluid on the negative
side of the element. By Newton’s third law:
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
Tn Tn.
§5.2 Defining tensors
F Fiei.
This is invented by Einstein and it is said that Einstein said it was his greatest
achievement (a sense of humor!). What really makes F a vector is that we
can calculate its components w.r.t. any orthonormal basis, i.e. if we define a
new basis te1i u3i1 by rotating the original basis tei u3i1 . Bases are related by
a rotation matrix tLij u, where
Lij e1i ej .
What are the components of F in the new basis?
F Fj ej Fj1e1j .
Thus
Fi1 Lij Fj .
Examples include u, ∇p, F . Define now a rank r tensor tensor A (with r
underlines) to be a set of nr numbers Ai1 ...ir , i1 , ..., ir 1, 2, ..., n that trans-
forms according to a generalization of the transforms for vectors. Let Ai1 ...ir
27
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
be components of A in tei u and A1i1 ...ir be those in te1i u. Then the transfor-
mation is
J 0 1
1 0
is isotropic.
Rank 3: The alternating tensor is isotropic, where is defined by
Define
Sn Tn pn
to be all surface forces acting on B Ω. Claim:
Sn nσ
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
4/24
Consider the tetrahedron from the last time. The total surface force is
OpLdS q Sn dS OpLdS q
Sn dS
center of face 0
so we can approximate the force by that at the origin. Now we consider the
momentum loss, which is
ρupu nqdS ρuu ndS ρuu exdSx ρuu ey dSy ρuu ey dSz OpLdS q
»
ρuu ndS
BΩ
We can use the same trick and evaluate all u at the origin. However
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
ndS 0
BΩ
so the momentum fluxes do not show up in dominant balance of equation.
Now since Sx is the projection of S on yz-plane we have
dSx nxdS
and similarly for y, z-directions. Also by symmetry
Sex Se . x
Thus
Sn nσ
where
σ rSe Se Se sT .
x y z
We claim (and have to prove) that σ is a rank 2 tensor. To see this consider
how σ must transform under the coordinate rotation L define
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
1 L L σ q 0 @m 1, 2, 3.
ñ n1k pσkm ki mj ij
Since all the terms in the bracket does not depend on n1k we can take n as
an arbitrary vector. Thus
1 L L σ
σkm 0 @k, m 1, 2, 3.
ki mj ij
ρuu ndS
» »
n σdS.
Bt Ω
ρudV
BΩ Ω
F dV
BΩ
Since Ω is arbitrary we have
B pρuq ∇ pρuuq F ∇σ
Bt
where
∇σ BBσxij ej .
i
Thus (as before)
ρ
Du
Dt
F ∇ σ.
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
We can clearly see that u does not measure fluid deformation (imagine taking
a walk with a water bottle). Actually all rigid body motions pu U Ω xq
do not deform fluid. Thus we care about how nearby points move relative to
each other. Suppose two points start at x and x δx. Then rate of separation
is
p∇uqij BBuxj
i
is a rank 2 tensor. Note that δx will change if the two points rotate around
each other, or are in rigid body rotation. To exclude rigid body rotations
write
∇u E A
where
21 p∇u p∇uqT q
E
A p∇u p∇uqT q
1
2
is the anti-symmetric part pAij Aji q. Claim: A measures rotation and E
measures deformation. Pf. of claim:
32
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
δx A Ω δx
for
A32
Ω A13 .
A21
4/27
To estimate viscous stress we first observe that it does not depend on u since
if fluid moves together there’s no viscous stress. Also it does not depend on
rotation so we want to decompose ∇u. As in last time write
∇u E A
where A describes the local rotation of the fluid. Relative motion of particles
is
pδx ∇qu.
Calculate
δy p BBuyx BBuxy q
δz p BBuzx BBuxz q
δx A δxj Aji Buy Bux δz p BBuzy BBuyz q
1
δxp
Bx By
2
ωz δy ωy δz 1
21 2 ω δx,
where ω ∇ (ω represents the rate of rotation), i.e. δx A is a rigid body
rotation with velocity 12 ω. We can use the index notation to write
ωi ijk BBuxk
j
33
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
1 Bum δx 12 pδkl δim δil δkmq BBuxm δxk 12 BBxui δxk 12 BBuxk δxk
2
ijk jlm
B xl k l k i
E 31 trpE qI pE 31 trpE qI q
where the last part is called the deviatoric part. If we let 13 trpE q λ we have
λδx
δx ptrpE qI q λδy .
1
3
λδz
This part gives the radiation flow where inflow or outflow depends on λ 0
or λ ¡ 0. Let Ed be the deviatoric part of E. Then in some coordinate
system since trpEd q 0:
λ1
δx Ed δx λ2
pλ1 λ2 q
where λ1 , λ2 ¡ 0. Locally the flow is around a saddle point. They call this a
straining flow. Any velocity field can be locally decomposed in this way and
34
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
Big Idea: Make viscous stress 9E. Writing the total viscous surface stress
as τ we get
τ σ pI 9 E.
Idea 1:
σ pI αE
which is almost true but might give you some trouble in compressible fluids.
Instead we can multiply the RHS by a rank 4 tensor! I.e.
Thus
Ekk BBuxk ∇ u
k
which is zero in incompressible fluid. Define α1 α3 2µ we have
τ 2µEd p 2µ
3
α2 qp∇ uqI
and we only have the first term in RHS for incompressible fluid. We call
2µ
3
α2 to be κ. Recall Cauchy’s equation
35
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
ρ
Du
Dt
∇σ F
Ed E 12 p∇u p∇uqT q.
Then
ρ
Du
Dt
µ∇ p∇u p∇uqT q ∇p F.
Calculate
4/29
∇ u 0.
NB:
1. (a) The equations are hard to solve computationally because of the non-
linear advection.
(b) Incompressibility means that p needs to be solved for along with u, but
there is no explicit evolution equation for p. People use method of lines to
solve the equation. But we only get an ODE for u but not p, and we have an
36
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
2. Can we ever neglect terms in the momentum equation? Ignore for now
body force (or absorb it into pressure if the force in conservative, i.e. define
P p V where F ∇V ). Then
Du
ρ
Dt
∇P µ∇2 u.
u U u , x Lx , ....
Then we get
ρU 2 Du ∇ P µU 2
L Dt
L L2
∇ u .
We can compare the term (1) (term on LHS) and the term (3) (second term
on RHS). We call (1) the acceleration term, often called inertial force and
(3) the viscous stress term. Thus
p1q p ρUL q ρU L . Re
2
p3q p µU L
q
2
u
which is the Reynolds number. If Re 1 the viscous stresses dominate,
which is called the Stokes limit. For micro-organisms (small L) we often have
Re 1. If Re 1 the NS equations become
0 ∇p µ∇2 u
0 ∇ u.
In order to keep p (otherwise the system is over-determined) in the equation
we need
p p
µU
L
by balancing (2) (the first term in RHS above) and (3). Then
37
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
ρU 2 Du
∇ P
µU 2
L Dt
µU
L2 L2
∇ u
ñ Re Du ∇ P ∇2 u .
Dt
If Re ¡¡ 1 e.g. because U is large, then we might want to simplify to
ρ
Du
Dt
∇P
where P P ρU 2 , which is the Euler’s equation! The facts like D’Alembert’s
paradox indicates that this might be the wrong equation to look at. But the
boundary layer theorem developed in the first 20th century gives the insight
that we drop an order in space derivative, so the Euler’s equation is a singu-
lar limit of the NS equations. This is resolved by boundary layer theory.
Interface between 2 fluids: Consider again a pillbox across the two fluids.
The same argument as we used for Euler’s equation is (in absence of surface
tension)
nσ 0.
For Stoke’s limit we can show existence and uniqueness given these BCs.
pu ∇qu u BBz u 0.
Also
∇u
Bu 0
Bz
38
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
Examples: (a) Couette problem: Consider there are two plates and the upper
plate is moving at velocity U0 ez where the z direction is parallel to two
plates. Also suppose two plates are distance h apart. We seek a solution
u upx, y qez , where y-direction is perpendicular to the plates. The x, y
components of NS equations read
0
Bp 0
Bx
0
Bp 0
By
ñ p ppzq.
Since the problem should be translationally invariant in the z direction we
can see that p should be a constant. We can also see it mathematically by
0
dp
µ∇2 u
dz
where the first term depends only on z and the last term only depends on
x, y, which means that
dz
dp
const.
d2 u
µ 0.
dy 2
By the no-slip boundary conditions up0q 0, uphq U0 we have
upy q
U0 y
.
h
We can justify our definition of viscous stress from here. What is viscous
stress on the surface y h? To calculate the force we need to calculate
39
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
where n ey , i.e. the normal points into the fluid. We can calculate either
since the pressure does not do anything to the z-direction. The z component
of force is
pey σq ez σyz .
Recall that
pδij µp
Bui Buj q.
σij
B xj B xi
When i 2, j 3 we have
0 µp0
Bu q µ Bu
σyz
By By
which means that the total stress is
µUh 0
and the fluid pulls back the upper plate.
5/1
No class on May 6th (Wednesday) May 8th (Friday). The make up lecture
will be on May 6th (Tuesday) and May 12th (Tuesday) from 3pm to 4pm in
MS 5138. Office hour is moved from May 6th 1-2pm to May 5th 1-2pm.
u uprqez .
40
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
upaq 0.
Since this is a rectilinear flow we get the incompressibility for free. The r-
component of N-S reads (though it gets a little complicated in cylindrical
coordinates)
0
Bp 0 ñ p ppz q.
Br
The z-components of N-S reads
0 pr q.
dp µ d du
dz r dr dr
dp
Since dz depends only on z and the Laplacian depends only on r we know
that they are both constant. If the pipe length is L then
dp
dz
L∆p .
Now we have to solve the ODE
p
µ d du
r q
r dr dr
∆p
L
r
du
dr
2µL
∆p 2
r A
u
∆p 2
r A log r B.
4µL
Since up0q is not infinite we know that A 0. Now by upaq 0 we have
u pa r2q.
∆p 2
4µL
We may want to relate the total amount of flow in pipe to ∆p L
. What is the
total amount of fluid passing through a cross-section of the pipe in unit time?
The flow rate is
» a » a 4
Q 2π pa2r r3qdr πa8µL
π∆p ∆p
urdr .
0 2µL 0
41
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
This is called the Hagen-Poiseuille law. What about force balance? Actually
the viscous force on the pipe wall balances the pressure force on the end.
u upz, tqex .
This is again a rectilinear flow and we get the incompressibility for free. The
y, z-components of N-S read
0
Bp , 0 Bp
By Bz
ñ p ppx, tq.
For the x-component since this is not a Stokes flow we have
Bu Bp B2u .
ρ
Bt Bx µ
Bz2
By the boundary condition we have
U0 t ¡ 0
"
up0, tq
0 t¤0
.
p p0 ptq Aptqx.
We know that Aptq 0 because we are not applying a large pressure on the
ends of the system. Thus
Bu µ B2u .
ρ
Bt Bz2
Thus u satisfies a diffusion equation with diffusivity
42
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
ν.
µ .
ρ
Now we look for a similarity solution, i.e.
upz, tq B ptqf p q.
z
Lptq
Rule of thumb: If one has a problem without an obvious length scale one can
try the similarity solution (cf. Barenblatt’s book). To figure out B ptq, Lptq
we use the BC
B ptq U0 .
Balance the terms in equation to get (let L be the length scale in z-direction)
?
ρu
t
µu
L2
ñL νt.
Now we ansatz
upz, tq U0 f pη q
where
η ?zνt , ν . µρ .
The change of variable formulas read
B Bη B Bt B η B B
Bt Bt Bη Bt Bt 2t Bη Bt
B Bη B Bt B ?1 B .
Bz Bz Bη Bz Bt νt B η
5/4
upz, tq U0 f pη q, η ?zνt .
43
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
f2
η 1
f 0
2
by the method of integrating factors. So
» η
d 1 η2
pf e 4 q 0 ñ f pηq A e 4 ds
s2
B.
dη 0
We can interpret it by the error function
» x
erfpxq ?2π eu du.
2
0
Thus
f pη q Ãerfp q
η
B.
2
By the BCs we have
à U0 , B U0
since erfp0q 0, erfp8q 1. If we plot z versus upz, tq for fixed t we can see
an exponential decay in z. When t ¡ 0 is larger it decays more slowly. The
thickness of the boundary?layer (literally, has nothing to do with boundary
layer theory) scales with νt.
§6 Stokes Flow
ñ Re 10 10106 10 105 1.
6 6
Thus the fluid flows for such organisms are dominated by viscosity and are
described by the Stoke’s equations
0 ∇p µ∇2 u F
∇ u 0.
NB:
(i) Equations are linear and instantaneous. If pu1 , p1 q, pu2 , p2 q are solutions
to the force-free Stokes’ equations, then pu1 u2 , p1 p2 q is also a solution.
(ii) Equations are reversible: If pu, pq solves the PDEs for some set of BCs
u U on B Ω, then pu, pq solves the same PDEs with BC u U on
BΩ. Videos on reversibility: a dye dot in silicon oil with different rotation
direction, why bacteria use helix flagellate to swim instead of a fin.
(iii) Knowing the rate of strain tensor E defines fluid velocity u uniquely up
to rigid body motion (even we throw out the vorticity!). Specifically, if u1 , u2
have the same rate of strain tensor E, then
u2 u1 U Ωx
for some constants U, Ω.
Suppose we know E and the velocity fluid at some point: u0 upx0 q. Given
any other point x1 can I calculate upx1 q? If we have ∇u we can certainly
recover upx1 q, i.e.
» x1 » x1
upx1 q u0 pdx ∇qu u0 dx pE Aq.
x0 x0
5/5
Lemma If two velocity fields u1 , u2 have the same rate of strain tensor E,
then u2 u1 is a rigidbody motion, i.e.
u2 u1 U Ω x.
45
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
» 0
» 0
BAij dX px1 x0qA
x1 x0
dXi Aij
x1 x0
Xk
BXk i i i ij xx
0
by the integration by parts. The latter one is the rotation term and we want
to write the first term in terms of E. Recall that (and by dX dx)
BAij BAij 1 B p Buj Bui q
B Xk B xk 2 B xk B xi B xj
12 BBx p BBxuj BBuxk q 12 BBx p BBxui BBuxk q BBx Ejk BBx Eik .
i k j j k i i j
Thus if I know E I can calculate upx1 q given upx0 q and Apx0 q. Thus if u1 , u2
have the same rate of strain field E, then for fixed x1 P Ω and any x2 P Ω:
where U u1 px1 q u2 px1 q and Ω is the rotation rate associated with A1 px1 q
.
A2 px1 q since it is still anti-symmetric, i.e.
Ω pω1px1q ω2px1qq.
1
2
Stokes equations
∇p ∇2 u F 0
∇u0
or
46
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
∇σ9 F 0 p1q
∇u0 p2q
where σ is the stress tensor. Consider any velocity field u satisfying ∇ u
0. Take u p1q and integrate over the fluid filled domain to get
»
pu p∇ σq u F qdV 0.
Ω
Now we want to use the divergence theorem. Recall that
»
B pqdV »
ni pqdS.
Ω B xi BΩ
To use the theorem write
u p∇ σ q uj
Bσij B puσ q ∇ pσ uq σ : p∇uq,
Bxi Bxi j ij
where B : C Bjk Ckj for rank 2 tensors (matrices). Thus the integral
equation becomes
» » »
n σ u dS F u dV σ : ∇u dV.
BΩ Ω Ω
This is called the principle of virtual work. The LHS represents the external
virtual work and the RHS represents the internal virtual work. Recall that
σ pI 2µE.
Thus
∇u E A .
Consider
n σ u dS F u 2µE : E dV
BΩ Ω Ω
where E is the rate of strain tensor for u . Corollaries: Given a domain Ω
with 2 kinds of disjoint boundaries B Ωu on which u is specified, and B Ωσ on
which n σ is specified, which satisfy
pf. Assume otherwise, i.e. Dpu1, p1q, pu2, p2q that both satisfy all of the BCs
and the equations. Define
δu u2 u1 , u δu.
Now by the equation
µ∇2 u1 ∇p1 F 0
µ∇2 u2 ∇p2 F 0
ñ µ∇2δu ∇δp 0.
Thus the principle of virtual work reads
» »
5/11
HW2 will be posed and is due on May 27 (Wed). Makeup lecture is at 3pm
in MS 5138 tomorrow.
48
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
δu u2 u1 .
We were able to show from the weak form that
» »
2µ n δσ δudS.
δE : δEdV
Ω BΩ
Since on B Ωu u is specified ñ δu 0, and that on B Ωσ n σ is specified
ñ n δσ 0 we know that the RHS is zero. Now
¸
δE : δE δEij δEij pδEij q2 ¥ 0,
i,j
The reason to care more about uniqueness than existence is that often we
construct solution explicitly, which is the way it is useful. The uniqueness
tells us that it is valid since it is the only solution. Also the proof tells us
why N-S equations are different from the Euler equation.
2µ E : EdV
Ω
will be shown in the homework to represent the rate of viscous dissipation
within the fluid.
49
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
» » » » »
d 1 2
ρu dV ρu undS
1 2
F udV nσ udS 2µ E : EdV.
dt Ω 2 BΩ 2 Ω BΩ Ω
The last term is like a friction and causes the fluid to heat up.
(d) Let pu, pq be the solution to the force-free Stokes’ equations within Ω
with u U px, tq on the boundary B Ω. If ũ is any vector field that satisfies
∇ ũ 0 and ũ U px, tq on B Ω, then
» »
2µ E : EdV ¤ 2µ Ẽ : ẼdV
Ω Ω
with equality iff u ũ, where Ẽ 21 p∇ũ p∇ũqT q. This means that the so-
lution u is the minimally dissipative incompressible vector field that satisfies
the BCs.
pf. Let δu u ũ. We can’t apply the principle of virtual work (PVW)
immediately since ũ does not satisfy the equations. Then if δE E Ẽ
»
2µ δE : δEdV ¥ 0.
However
pẼ E q : pẼ E q Ẽ : Ẽ E : E 2E : pE Ẽ q.
δE : δE
Now recall the PVW: if pu, pq satisfies the Stokes’ equations and u is any
incompressible vector field. Then
» » »
n σ u dS F u dV 2µ E : E .
BΩ Ω Ω
50
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
u BΩ 0, F 0.
Thus
»
2µ E : pE Ẽ qdV 0.
Ω
Back to the previous result we have
» » »
0¤ δE : δEdV Ẽ : Ẽ E : E 2E : pE Ẽ qqdV Ẽ : Ẽ E : E.
Ω Ω Ω
Thus
» »
2µ Ẽ : ẼdV ¥ 2µ E : EdV.
Ω Ω
If the equality holds then
»
δE : δEdV 0 ñ δE 0 a.e.
Ω
which means that u ũ by the lemma that E determines the velocity u.
(e) Lorentz reciprocal theorem: let pu, pq be a solution to the Stokes’ equation
with body force F , and pû, p̂q also be a solution to the Stokes equation with
body force F̂ in the same domain Ω. By letting u û in PVW
» » »
51
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
5/12
∇2 φ A
for irrotational flow u ∇φ.
p1q µ∇2 u ∇p 0
p2q ∇ u 0.
Now we want to get rid of p. Take curl of p we have by the communitivity
of ∇2 and ∇ we have
µ∇2 p∇ uq 0 ñ ∇2 ω 0,
i.e. ω is a harmonic function. If we cansolve the Laplace equation for ω
we can reconstruct u. But BCs on u do not easily translate into BCs on ω.
However if u is 2D (i.e. u upx, y qex v px, y qey ) (and also can do something
similar if u is axis-symmetric) we can consider ∇ u 0. This is equivalent
to saying that D some function ψ px, y q with
u
Bψ , v Bψ .
By Bx
It’s easy to check that if u has the form it satisfies the equation. To see
that u satisfying the equation has the form we can construct ψ by setting
ψ p0q 0 and for x px, y q:
» x
ψ px, y q pudy vdxq.
0
If we can show that ψ is well-defined then ψ is the function we want. This
is the case iff the integrand is an exact differential, i.e.
52
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
dψ udy vdx.
One can prove by the Green’s formula that the integral on closed curves
is zero in simply connected domain, but ψ can be defined for connected
domains. dψ is an exact differential iff
Bpvq Bu ,
By Bx
i.e. ∇ u 0. ψ is called the stream function of the flow. ψ can be viewed
as the Hamiltonian in the sense of 266A.
∇2 ω 0 ô ∇2p∇2ψq 0 ô ∇4ψ 0,
i.e. ψ is a biharmonic function.
p BBψy dY Bψ dX qds
» x2
ds Bx ds
x1
» x2
d
ds
pψpX psqqqds ψpx2q ψpx1q
x1
53
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
(d) Lines on which ψ is constant are streamlines of the flow. Recall that a
streamline is a curve that is everywhere parallel to u. To see this we want
to show equivalently that u is perpendicular to the normal of the curve of
constant ψ. calculate
t ∇ψ 0
on the surface. Also by the no-slip flow BC the tangential component of u
is also zero on the surface. Suppose x1 is on the surface and x2 x1 dn,
where dn is a normal vector with small length. Then
so we must have n ∇ψ 0 on the surface. Now let’s apply all of this in-
formation (also example on HW2). Consider flow in a wedge with angle 2α
54
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
with a rotating roller inside. Next time we will work on this example by the
biharmonic equation. The fluid will have a surprising flow pattern.
5/13
Suppose we have a 2D flow with non-zero Re over an object that has some
corners. What does flow look like near corners? If the object has an corner
with degree more that π one imagines that the flow will follow the shape of
the corner, which is wrong! Near the corner we can calculate a different Re
because the length of the whole body should not affect the flow. We can
use the distance r from the corner as the length scale. Thus the Reynolds
number near the corner is
Re
Ur
.
ν
Thus for all points sufficiently close to the corner Re 1 and the flow
obeys the Stokes’ equations. One can use the same idea for a flat surface but
one may not get interesting phenomena. Thus let’s solve Stokes’ equations
in the edge as in the last class. Consider a wedge with angle 2α and a roller
in it. Let x be the symmetry axis and y be the perpendicular axis. Also we
can consider the polar coordinates. The BCs read
u 0 on θ α.
Assume the flow is symmetric, i.e. if
ur 1r BBψθ , uθ BBψr .
55
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
∇4 ψ 0 @α θ α
with BCs
ψ 0 θ α
Bψ 0 α.
Bθ θ
Also we have to match the flow outside of the corner. We can look for the
solutions with just these BCs now. We have two ideas leading to the same
solutions. Idea 1: Use the dimensional analysis (self-similar function of the
second kind), i.e.
ψ pr, θq rβ f pθq.
Idea 2: Guess a separable solution
ψ pr, θq RprqΘpθq
and this will work if Rprq rβ . Now we substitute the ansatz into the
equation. Recall that
1 B B 1 B2 2 β
∇4 rβ f pθq p∇2 q2 rβ f pθq p pr q qrf 0
r Br Br r2 B θ2
∇2 prβ 2 pβ 2 f f 2 qq 0.
To simplify the equation define
β 2f f2 F pθq.
56
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
Then
β 2f f2 A cospβ 2qθ
ñ f pθq B cos βθ a cospβ 2qθ
being the combination of the homogeneous and the inhomogeneous parts. a
depends on A but A is arbitrary so we may as well say that a is arbitrary.
By f pαq 0 we have
(ii) If α À 77o , then all e-values are complex, so if α À 77o then we need to
interpret ψ rβ f pθq as ψ <prβ f pθqq.
57
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
ψn rβ fnpθq.
n
5/15
In last time if we look at flow flowing in the corner rather than a rotating roller
as the boundary condition, then there are infinitely many anti-symmetric ed-
dies in the wedge.
µ∇2 u ∇p 0.
Let’s define a function π s.t.
p µ∇2 π.
We can find it by e.g.
ppx1 q 3 1
»
π pxq
1
4π }x x1} d x .
Then the Stokes’ equation becomes
58
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
∇2 pu ∇π q 0,
i.e. there is some harmonic function A with
u ∇π 2A.
We also need ∇ u 0, i.e.
∇ p∇π 2Aq 0
ñ ∇2π 2∇ A.
Since A is harmonic a Particular Integral (particular solution) of the equation
can be
πP I x A.
To check this write
BBx2 pxj Aj q
2
∇2 π P I
i
2 BBxxj BBAx j xj
B2Aj
B xi B xi
i i
2 BBAx j 2∇ A
j
π πP I πhomog
where ∇2 πhomog 0. We can also read this backwards, and observe that if
πhomog and Aare any pair of harmonic functions then
u ∇πhomog ∇px Aq 2A
and
p 2µ∇ A
59
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
which solve the Stokes’ equation. The difficulty with these potentials is that
is hard to boil down the BCS for them. The representation of pu, pq by P N
potentials pA, πhomog q (usually called pA, χq) is not unique. We can impose
the gauge condition as
πhomog 21 x E 8 x
for some second rank constant tensor E 8 (for proof see Landau & Lench).
Then
u E 8 x,
indicating the flow far from the region we care. What are the harmonic vector
fields A? Look for solutions to ∇2 A 0 except potentially at x 0. Recall
that in 3D
Φ1 φ 1r
Φ2 ∇φ rx3
since BBxri xr
i
by r2 xj xj . We can keep going to get
Φ 3 ∇Φ2 ∇p rx3 q ∇x
r 3
∇p 3 qx
r
1
rI3 3
xx
r5
.
We can calculate this by
Φ4 ∇pΦ3q
and so on. In general we can generate solutions Φn which are n 1 tensors.
Actually they are the spherical harmonics. Any solution to ∇2 B 0 where
60
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
A a1 Φ1 a2 Φ2 A2 Φ2 a3 Φ3 A3 : Φ3
where a’s are vectors, A2 is a rank 2 tensor and A3 is a rank 3 tensor.
The rule is to generate a rank m tensor for each φn we can multiply by a
rank n pm 1q and a rank n pm 1q tensor except for the case that
n pm 1q 0.
NB: We can construct a complete set of harmonic functions from the Φn by
Φn r2n 1
Φpn 1q
which goes to infinity as r Ñ 8.
What problem does Φ1 1r solve? If A ar for some constant vector a and
πhomog 0, then
ax
p 2µ∇ A 2µa ∇p q
1
2µ 3
r r
and
xa
u ∇px Aq 2A ∇p
r
q 2a
r
xpxr3 aq ar .
5/18
No class on Friday (5/22). Extra office hour (2-3 in MS 7911) and class (3-4
MS 5138) on Tuesday (5/26).
Πhomog 12 x E 8 x, A,
in terms of which
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
A aΦ1
a
r
we will have
a px aqx ax
u p q ap q , p 2µ 3 .
I xx
r r 3 r r 3 r
It’s good to check the dimension when doing vector calculus. We know that
A looks like 1r so ∇px Aq should also looks like 1r , which is the case since x
has the same dimension with r. What Stokes flow problem does this velocity
field solve?
µ∇2 u ∇p 0 except at x 0.
We could guess that there is a singularity at x 0. Recall that Stokes
equation can be written alternatively as
∇σ 0
where
σ 2µE pI
is the stress tensor. Thus the equation now reads
∇σ 0 except at x 0.
Integrating the equation over any volume Ω enclosing the origin will tell us
if there is δ pxq on RHS. In this case we have
(i)
σ µ ur rµ2
because E ∇u ur , or
σ p rµ2
so it doesn’t matter which term to use. Then
» »
62
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
(ii) By
»
δ prqdV 1
one can formally write
δ prq
1
.
r3
Thus the dimensional analysis on Stokes equation
1
r3
∇p µ∇2u
reads
ñ p r12 , u 1r .
We are now convinced that
∇ u 0,
i.e. we have a Green’s function solution with unknown body force b (imagine
a point body force in the Stokes equation). Need to evaluate the integral
»
n σdV.
Ω enclosing 0
Calculate
∇pa xq x
∇u ∇p
1
r
q a
r3
pa xrq3∇ x pa xq∇p r13 q x
ax pa xqI 3pa xqxx
xa
r3
r3
r3 r5
.
One should be careful about the order. In this calculation one follows the
rule that the index for the derivative is always in the front. However we see
63
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
E pa r 3xqI 3
pa xqxx
r5
and
b
»
n σdS 6µ
»
pa xqx dS 6µa »
xxdS.
BΩ BΩ R4 R4 BΩ
Since the integral is an isotropic tensor we have
»
xxdS λI
BBR
since I is the only rank 2 isotropic tensor. To get λ one can do the integrals
on the diagonal or take the trace of both sides, which gives
»
4
R2 dS 3λ ñ R2 4πR2 3λ ñ λ 4πR .
B BR 3
Thus
»
4
b 4 6µa p I q 8πµa.
6µa 4πR
xxdS
R BBR R 4 3
Thus the velocity field associated with a point force with strength b is
u p q b.
1 I xx
8πµ r r3
The idea of integral method approximates moving bodies by collection of
point forces with unknown strength. One solves for b in the scheme. This is
called the Stokeslet solution, also written as
u Gpxq b Gpx, 0q b
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
upxq Gpx, x0 q b
where
Gpx, x0 q p
I px x0qpx x0q q 1 .
}x x0} }x x0}3 8πµ
5/20
u U. u1
From the BCs we have u Ñ 0 as r Ñ 8 and that u U on the sphere
surface. We can solve the problem by
65
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
ã αU
for some α that could depend on a. b depends on either a or U U . But A
needs to be linear in U , meaning that scaling U or rotating U should result
in corresponding changes in A, and neither of the guess satisfies it, so b 0.
For c the only way to make a rank 2 tensor is
c 9U U,
which is not linear in U so it does not work. Finally for d we use the same
reasoning for ã to see that
d βU.
Thus we have
A p Ir 3xx q.
αU
βU
r3 r5
To calculate u write
αU x
u ∇p
r
2β Ur3 x q 2A
αpU xqx pU xqx 2A
αU
r
r3
2β
U
r3
6β
r5
αU α
pU xqx 4βU 12β pU xqx .
r r3 r3 r5
Now we apply BC that u U for r a, which implies
U p 4β qU
α
a a3
p aα3 12β
a5
qpU xqx 0
since we want to eliminate the term with vector x for not interfering with
the U component. Thus
αa 4β
a3
1
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
aα3 12β
a3
0
3
ñ α 34 a, β 16
a
.
Thus
a3 a3
u Up q p q p q
3a 3 a
U x x
4r 4r3 4 r3 r5
in the object moving frame (u1 is the velocity in the object rest frame). Now
we want to calculate the force on the sphere. To simplify the calculation let
the object be Ω B p0, aq and a big ball B p0, Rq containing B p0, aq. Then
» » »
Ua p q.
3 I xx
4 r r3
Thus the total force is
8πµ p U aq 6πµaU,
3
4
i.e. a force 6πµaU needs to be applied on the sphere to maintain its motion.
One can estimate the diffusion constant by
D 6πµa
kB T
,
67
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
5/26
HW2 discussion
3(a): Consider two particles under gravity. Suppose they drift together. Now
consider the reversed problem by reversing the direction of the gravity. Then
by the reversibility of the Stokes’ problem the particles should drift apart.
However if one looks at the problem it is just the same problem as before, so
they also have to drift together, a contradiction.
3(c): The initial conditions from the paper does not work! They are sup-
posed to have chaotic behavior, and since the equations come from the Stokes’
equations, the trajectories are reversible!
5(b): Ansatz
u upx, y qez .
Since BBzp is a constant we can write
µ∇2 u G
with
u 0 on x a, y a.
We can write the solutions as a sum of particular integral (specific solution)
and a homogeneous part, i.e.
u uP I uhomog
with
∇2 uhomog .
We can write
u pa y2q
1G 2
uhomog .
2µ
To satisfy the boundary conditions we need
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
u Apa2 x2 qpa2 y 2 q.
However if we try to minimize the term Ω D we will get A 0. But recall
³
2µ E:E n σ u 2µ E : E ∆p un
Ω BΩT Ω
z 0
in this problem. Thus we can get A by the minimization! This will give us
an approximation (like finite element method) to the flow.
Micro-swimmers
Bacteria & archaea swim with rigid helical tails that rotate like corkscrews.
Also sperm & protists, fungi etc have flexible beating tails. Some algae have
two flagella that are used to perform breaststrokes. To explain the swimming
69
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
λ ¡¡ 2a.
One can do it by considering many stokeslets on the boundary and use the
Green functions. However it turns out the right order of accuracy is the
replace the stokeslets with strength Fpsq distributed along the center line
x Xpsq. Need to calculate Fpsq. If points at x Xpsq have velocity upsq,
then
» l
upsq Gpxpsq, xps1 qq Fps1 qds1 .
l
It seems that it leads to a singular integral. However we care about velocity
on the boundary so it is of distance a away from the center. Now consider
the integral near s. Since F should not change much around s we have
Fps1 q Fpsq.
We can not to it to G, but instead we have
ps s1q2.
a
a2
Thus
5/27
70
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
upsq p I
ps s1q2 rps s1q2 a2s
a
8πmu l a2
3
2
2ppsqppsq log .
l
a
Thus
Fpsq
upsq pI ppsqppsqq log .
l
4πµ a
Note that
pI ppsqppsqqpI ppsqppsqq I
1
2
since |ppsq| 1. Thus we can solve for F by
Fk log
2πµ
l
uk
a
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
FK log
4πµ
l K
u
a
because uk ppsq |uk | and uK ppsq 0. Our swimming experience comes
from swimming pool, where one pushes the water back to get momentum.
However there is no momentum term in the Stokes’ equations. Thus we
have to think differently.Consider a flagellum passing a wave rightward with
velocity V when the head is held fixed. What is the swimming velocity U?
Note that V, U are of opposite direction. It’s hard to choose a reference
frame since even if one holds the head of the organism the flagellum still
moves. Lighthill chose a good reference frame moving rightward with V in
which the wave form is stationary. This reference frame is non-inertial but
it does not have pseudo force since there is no inertial force in the Stokes’
equation. Since the velocity of the fluid is U when the head is held fixed,
in this frame the velocity of the fluid is V U. Also the flagellum is sliding
with tangential speed c. If the equation of the flagellum in this frame is
pX ps ctq, Y ps ctq, Z ps ctqq with s being the arc-length, then the tangent
vector is (we define X 1 ¡ 0)
pV U qX 1ps ctq c
and the normal component is
pV Uq 1 X 1 ps ctq2 .
a
Fk ζkuk
FK ζKuK.
5/29
Consider the micro-organism from last time. The velocity of the fluid near
the flagellum has two components: V U and a tangential speed c. The
total force in x direction (to the right) from element at s is
72
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
xy 1
L
ds.
Consider two cases:
(i) Suppose that the flagellum is not attached to anything (hopefully not
indicating anything about male psychology) and no external forces act upon
the flagellum. In this case F 0.
(ii) If on the other hand the swimer does have a head of a sphere of radius
R. Then
F 6πRµU 0.
We will consider case (ii) since it does not make a big difference. Then
p1 xX 12yqp ζζ 1q K
U
ζ k
.
V ζ
p1 xX 12yq xX 12y 6πRµ
K
k ζ L k
cxX 1 y V.
We can see that xX 12 y 1 and 1 only if the flagellum is straight. We can
see that the quantity
ζK .
ζk
γ
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
6/1
§8 Thin-Film Flow
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
slope bottom above a line with the floor moving rightward (x-direction) with
velocity U . Let the left height be h1 and right height in h2 with h1 ¡ h2 and
length L. Let hpxq be the height of the bottom. The Reynolds number is
Re
UL
.
ν
Assume also that h1 L and h1 h2 . If components of velocity field are
u and w, then how do u, w scale? Assume u U . By the incompressibility
Bw Bu ñ w U ñ w p h1 qU.
Bz Bx h1 L L
If
1,
. h1
L
then w U . Now non-dimensionalize all variables by
U 2 B u U 2 B u
pL1 BBxp µU 2 B 2 u B2u q
ρ
L B x
u ρ
L
w
Bz h21
p Bx2 Bz2
h21 ρU L B u B u p1 h21 B p B2u 2B u
2
p qpu Bx
L2 µ
w
Bz q µU L Bx Bz2
B x 2 .
Note that the scaling for LHS is 2 Re. Thus we can neglect it even if we
don’t know Re a priori. Also we can neglect the RHS term with 2 . Now
we want to know the scaling of p. Dropping the *’s the z-component of the
momentum equation reads
ρU 2 B w B w q p1 B p B2w q
L
pu Bx w
Bx h1 B z h21
p
µU 2
Bz2
3 Repu
Bw Bw
w q
p1 h1 B p
p
B2w B2w
2 2 q.
Bx Bz µU B z Bz2 Bx
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
balances. Idea 1: If the 1.z, 2.z (first and second terms in z-component
equation) are balanced, then
p1 µU
h
.
1
So 1.x 2
2.x so
B2u 0 ñ u U p1 z q
Bz2 hpxq
where z hpxq is the bottom of the bearing. Idea 2: If 1.x 2.x, then
p1 µUh2L
1
and
dp B 2 u
dx B z 2
0
with BCs u 1 when z 0 and u 0 when z h. Thus
upz q 1 z pz hq.
z 1 dp
h 2 dx
How do we calculate the pressure gradient? How do we calculate w? We can
use the incompressibility equation where w is not of order op1q! Write
Bw Bu
Bz Bx
with BCs w 0 on z 0, w 0 on z h. However there might be no way
for a first order equation to satisfy two constraints. Despite of this we should
not be worried (as is Prof.Roper). If we use Idea 1 then integration gives
» z
Bu B pz z2 q z2 Bh
w
0 Bx Bx 2h 2h2 B x
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
which is not consistent with the BCs. Thus Idea 1 is not correct. On the
other hand with Idea 2 w 0 on z h can be used to determine dxdp
. Now we
reformulate it to solve the problem. We showed that it is useful to calculate
the flux
» h
q
.
udz.
0
Then
q h2 121 dx
dp 3
h.
Thus w 0 at z h implies
0 w z h
B » h
udx
dq
Bx 0 dx
.
This means that the total flux through any of the surface is conserved. Thus
dp
dx
h62 12q
h3
.
We still have to know what q is.
6/3
0
Bp
Bz
0
Bp B2u
Bx µ
Bz2
Bu Bw .
Bx Bz
By the equation derived last time
dp
dx
6µU
h2
12µq
h3
,
where q is the flux across any fixed surface. We still need to calculate q. To
solve for p (q equivalently) we need to know the pressure BCs. Under many
77
272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
conditions we can assume the same value of p at both sides of the bearing.
∆p
µU
.
L
In last class we showed that pressure differences within gap scale like p1
µU L
h2
. Thus the dimensions ratio is
∆p
p1
2.
So we can neglect the pressure difference.
Thus
» L » L
rps 0 6µU
L
x 0
1
h2
dx 12µq
1
h3
dx
0 0
so
³L
1
q 1 0
U³
2 L
h2
1
dx
.
0 h3 dx
If we define
h1 h2
α
L
and let hpxq be linear we have
dx
dh
α
and
1
h1 U h1h2
qU
h1 h1 h2 .
h1 2
1
h21 2
2
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
nE
Bw U
Bz L
while p µU
h
. So the pressure is dominant in the expressions. Thus the total
upward normal force on body is
h1 h2
» L
FN pp p0qdx 6µU
α 2
plog
h1
h
2p
h h
qq.
0 2 1 2
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
1 ñ w u.
h
L
By the similar dimensional analysis we know that we can neglect inertial
terms and x-derivative term to get
B
0 ρg µ 2
p B 2
w
Bz Bz
0
Bp µ B2u .
Bx Bz2
To find a dominant balance first notice that we should keep ρg term since it
is why the droplet spreads. If µ BBzw2 ¡¡ BBzp we have
2
p
µU
h
and
Bp µU µU µ B2u .
Bx hL L2 Bz2
This means that the pressure does not show up anywhere, which is not good.
Thus we keep BBzp and get
p ρg ph z q pa
because p pa on z h. Substitute into the second equation to get
ρg BBhx µ BBzu2 0.
2
By no-slip BC on u
u 0 on z 0.
By the dynamic boundary condition
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
6/5
Evaluation of instruction
q px, tq
» h
ρgh
3
Bh .
3µ B x
udz
0
ñ BBht 3µ
ρg B 3 B h
Bx ph Bx q 0
which is the Reynolds’ equation. From 266C we are supposed to be pro-
grammed to see that there is a similarity solution
ρg H 4 H3
H
t
µ l2
ñ l2
ρg
µt
.
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
» pq
L t
hpx, tqdx A ñ H ptqlptq A
Lptq
since lptq Lptq. Thus
2
H5 Aρgµt
and
A3 ρgt 1
lptq p q5 .
µ
We can see after solving hpx, tq that Lptq η0 lptq. From this we can con-
struct and solve a second order ODE for f (Note). We can observe the form
of lptq to see the dependence of spreading speed on various variables.
Surface tension
What’s the energy we get by gluing two square fluid pieces together. We
have experimentally
kT V 1eV
where V is the potential energy one gets by gluing them together. The LHS
is the thermal energy and kT ¥ V means that thermal disturb can break
the fluid, which is not the case. Consider a cuboid with nx , ny , nz cubes of
fluid in x, y, z directions. The energy of droplet is (calculating the number
of contacting squares)
3 aΩ3 pV q
1VΣ
2 a2
where a is the side length of a cube, Ω is the volume of the cuboid, and Σ is
the surface area of the cuboid. The first term is same for all droplets having
the same size. However the second term changes with the surface area of the
droplet. Thus a droplet of fluid has a surface energy
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
γΣ
where
V
.
2a2
We already know that a 3Å and we have an estimate for V . Thus
20mN {m ¤ γ ¤ 1000mN {m
where
rγ s energy
area
force
length
.
Consider a disk with radius R on the surface of a fluid (with e.g. air above).
Then the energy of the disk is
E γπR2.
If we expand the radius of the disk by δR we have
δE 2γπRδR.
If the total inward force acting at edge is F , then
F δR δE ñ F 2πRγ.
Thus the force per length of perimeter is
F
2πR
γ.
Thus γ can be interpreted as the force per length on the edge of an element
on the water surface. Now consider a water strider. Why does it not sink?
First observe it is heavier than water so it doesn’t float. Consider a leg in a
water (Note). If the θ is the angle between the outward tangent and the y
axis the force per unit length of leg is
2γ cos θ
so the total force is
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272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
2Lγ cos θ
where L is the length of the leg. To see how this force act on a droplet
consider a droplet of radius R. Consider virtually stretching the sphere by
δR. The energy is
E 4πR2γ
so the change of surface energy is
8πRδRγ.
δE
The work done against pressure is pdV p4πR2 δR., where p is the pressure
on the boundary of the droplet created by the surface tension. Thus
p
2γ
R
which is called the Young-Laplace law. Consider a straw connecting two
bubbles with radii R1 , R2 , R1 ¡ R2 with bubble 1 on the left side. Since the
pressure is larger for the smaller bubble the air goes leftward and the small
bubble goes away. This is important for foams in industry. Now consider
another example with a straw in your drink in pizza hut. We can observe
that the fluid surface in the straw is higher due to a pressure difference of
pa and pa ∆pcapillary , and the fluid in the straw has a curved-up shape (Note).
84