(n

= This chart is a basic guide to the two most commonly used

references on format of research papers and other forms of
APA style is the standard used for writing in the social sci-
ences, psychology, sociology, criminology, health sciences,
. Regardless of the speciflc style rules you're following, univer-
sal techniques for clear and effective writing always appty:
.

F
academic writing: business, economics, and education. Always write cleorly ond simply. Don't adorn your writing
. Americon Psychologicol Associotion IAPAI style MLA style is the standard used for writing in the humanities unnecessarily in an attempt to sound more scholarly.
. Modern Longuoge Associotion (MLAI style (l iteratu re, history, phi losophy, art, etc.). . Make sure each paragraph begins with a topic sentence

u, This chart is only a summary and does not provide a com-

prehensive guide to all APA or MLA writing rules. Complete
guidelines can be found only in the two associations' official
style handbooks:
. Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association (currently in 5th edition)
. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (currently
in 6th edition)
I . Check spelling ond grommor carefully. Enors distract
.J-
Some instructors and editors prefer that their students and
writers follow other style manuals, such as The Chicago
Manual of Style or Strunk and White's The Elements of Style.
Always be sure to follow your instructor or editor's specific
APA and MLA style rules are similar in many ways, but there
are a number of specific differences that reflect the different
needs of scientific research vs. research in the humanities.
For example:
r ln the sciences, scholars place emphasis on current, time-
ly research. Therefore, APA rules require that all citations
include not only the author but also the date of the cited
work. This rule applies both to in-text citations and to cita-
tions on the final "References" page.
. ln the humanities, scholars place emphasis on the author
and the structure and quality of the argument. Therefore,
MLA rules for in-text citations emphasize the author
.
that develops your argument. Develop only one specific
component of your argument in each paragraph.
Use tronsitionol words ond phroses to guide your reader
through the flow of your argument. Sudden, unintroduced
leaps in your reasoning disorient your reader-
r Vsry sentence lengfh ond stnrture Too many short sen-
tences make your writing choppy, whereas too many long
sentences make your writing tedious and hard to follow.
your reader and make your writing less effective.
. Make sure that you do not plogiorize in any way. Plagiarism,
even if unintentional, is a serious offense that immediately

O guidelines. lf you're unsure about which rules to use, ask for Dates of cited works are listed only on the final "Works damages your credibility. Be sure to keep track of all your

vu,
clarification. Cited" page. sources carefully and cite them using the guidelines below
ln all cases, follow the guidelines thot you've been given.

I. FORMATTING THE MANUSCRIPT Specific content of the abstract will vary depending on the nature of your paper:
. Reseorch report: Abstract should include the research topic, characteristics of partici-
pants, experimental method, results (including significance levels), and conclusions.
Theoreticol orticle or review: Abstract should include the topic, organizlng thesis" sources,
. Poper ond morgins: Use standard 8.5"x11" paper with margins of at least 1" on all sides. and conclusions.
.

o-
Foni: Preferred font is 12-point Times Roman, although Courier also is acceptable
. Spocing: Double-space every line, including references.
. Numbering: Number all pages starting with the title page, except pages containing art or fig-
ures. Place numbers in the upper right-hand corner. Put:the first few words of the title to the
left of the page number on every page.
Cose study: Abstract should include the individual or organization under study, the prob-
lem addressed, and the questions raised.
Methodologicol poper: Abstract should include the type of method used, its main fea-
tures, the scope of its applications, and its reliability.

?
. Running heod: Abbreviated title printed at the top of each page of the manuscript. The run-
ning head should be 50 characters maximum, including spaces and punctuation, and should
appear in all capital letters on the upper left-hand corner of the title page.
. Order of sections: Put pages in the following order, each starting on a separate pager Title
page (p. 1); Abstract (p. 2);Main text (starting on p.3), References, Appendixes, Author note,
Effects of Contrast l
Footnotes, Tables, Figure captions, Figures.

Abstract
. Tifle: Concise (10-12 words) and self-explanatory. Avoid redundancies like 'An Analysis of . "
or'An lnvestigation of . . . ." The title should appear in upper- and lower-case letters on the title Beginwiththemostimportantinformationbutdonotrepeatthepapertitle.
or
page, centered and on the top half of the page lf it runs longer than one line, double-space it. in the paper itself' State onl-v tbur
@.^-
u l- . Include only information that appears
t: Authors: Listed in order of contribution, after the title, centered, and double-spaced. lnclude
-+
r G-
first name, middle initial(s), and last name. Separate any suffixes (e g, Jr. or lll) from the last
Mt-f: flveofthemostimportantpoints,theories,and/orfindings.Citeprer-tous
N rr- name with only a space, not a comma.
. terms'
|-.:
O,^E
-f
-
Affiliotion: Name of the institution where the research was conducted. lnclude two affiliations
only if both institutions contributed financially to the study; never include more than two. lf
research relevant to your study
Define all abbreYiations and special

-- 4-{-
the affiliation is not a university or college, include a city or state. For affiliations outside the
United States, include the city, state or province, and country.
except for units of measurement'
Do not exceed 120 *-ords

.
v--

, hrl
Running heod: An abbreviated title (50 characters or less) in all caps, flush left, introduced
r-lY
rEo by the words "Running head:" at the top of the title page but below the page number

'--
--{f
ta-
Q:--
-At

l-_
E-t aegins on the page following the abstract (p. 3). The paper title should appear at the top of
Er _oo the page, centered. The text of the introduction should appear one double space below tie
QD-^
..-l\
t-t
-
-\ Effects of Contrast paper's title No "lntroduction" label is necessary.

-\ o
Running head: EFFECTS OF CONTRAST
ON REACTION TIME
Give the appropriate bockground and context for your study by presenting the probler:n,
explaining its importance, and recognizing previous works that are relevant to your study.
z State the specific purpose of your study. lnclude a formal statement of your h)?ottle{* and a
o)4 -
(, description of the voriobles tested (why they were chosen, how they were manipufaied, lrhat
.=o
EC
ah l- o
u'l
results you expected them to yield and why)
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:E O sro

s ;g !r
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ro
O.
John Q. Author and Susan
Coauthor

UniversitY of the West

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f
o
Sara P' Thirdauthor Effects of Contra-st

+
=g-.€ "a'3 .c UniversitY of the East EffectsofContrastonReactionTimeinaSemanticCategorizationTa-<k
I !
+o
.Ec
Thetextofthepaperstartshere'inanindented(0.5''orfir.etoSe\-en
b'= -R€ ? s o-
paragraph that provides atr lntru-r-
spaces), left-justified, and double-spaced

A clear, precise summary of the article. The abstract should be only one block paragraph in ductiontothesubjectofthepaperTheintroductionshouldbeginonedoubie
length (with no indentations) and should not exceed 120 words. label is necessary'
Place the abstract on the page following the title page (p. 2), with the title 'Abstract" centered space below the paper's title' No "Introduction"
at the top of the page. ''
The introduction continues here '
aegin with the most importont informotion but do not repeat the paper title
lnclude only information that appears in the paper itself State only four or five of the most
important points, theories, and/or findings.
Cite previous research relevant to your study.
Define all obbreviotions and speciol terms, except for units of measurement
 One ouT:'
lmmediately follows the introduction The heading, "Method," should be centered and con- lmmediately follows the Resulis seciion l::he D sc-ss:- s :- e= ):- .z^ :onbine it with
tinuous with the preceding section (do not begin a new page) results in a "Results and Discussion" ol'"Res;,:s::c C:^c -s:^s s3c:::
lnclude enough details so that a reader can replicate your study but not so many details that eegin with a direct statement of whether o:1c: i^e res-:s s-:t3-t -, --' .- g ral hypothesis
the reader gets bogged down in minutiae lf there are any detailed but necessary descrip- Compare your work with the work of oihers ii a::-c:- ::e
tions, put them in the nppendix Comment on the importance of your findi"gs. ,','! s:^e s:-:_, -io--a^:? How can the
Divide the Method section into three continuous subsections labeled "Participants," results be applied? What are the larger irncl:ca:rc^s c'rC-''-t -gs-
"Materials," and "Procedure." The titles for these subheadings should be in italics, flush left,
and continuous with the preceding text:
l. Porticiponts (or Subiects): Describe the selection process for subjects, the total number Begins on a new page, with the iitle "Refererces ce-:e-:: a: --e::: :-:-s page
of subjects chosen, and the number in each subgroup or sample oouble-space all references and use hangirg ride::s se: ''-s: -3 :''='='e^ce flush left and
* lf the subjects are humon, describe basic demographic characteristics, including age, indent subsequent lines)
More !"hc^ "'
(For details on formatting, see Quoting. C:i.r':g a:c Rc'e-:^: -1 33 i,,,
sex, racelethnicity, socioeconomic status, and other relevant variables . First use
" lf the subjects are onimols, describe genus, species, subspecies identification, sex, age,
weight, physiological condition, and details of raising and handling
Aegins on a new page lf there are rnult!ole aore:c;ces
2. Moteriols (or Apporotusl: Describe specialized equipment by giving the model number
and so on lf there is only one appendix s:r-'c.v .2e :
and the name and location of the commercial supplier
lnclude in the appendix all informatior tna: ,,,c- c rg
3. Procedure: lnclude a step-by-step summary of the research or experiment Paraphrase all
instructions unless the details are crucial to the experiment oescribe counterbalancing,
in the main body of the paper ie g , .ists oi s:':-ire:a
code for a computer program.i
randomization and other aspects of experimental design lf you used a language other than
English to gather information, specify the method of translation used, if any
lf you are reporting the results of multiple experiments:
u Use separate Methods and Results sections for each experiment . In the flrst paragraph, state yoL.ir cecari-3::: z=-- z::-s =::-=:
* Use centered headings before the Methods section of each experiment: e g, Experiment 1, -: No ou*s'
. ln the second paragraph, state ary cra^ges - ,, a-- -.- =--:- s
-,=:-:: ny. r l-l -:=:
Experiment2, eIc . a :: ::g-::
ln the third paragraph. acknor',iledge ai1'g-::-s z^a ,,,-: ting
the study or revising the paoer Aiso -e -: C- Z-: sl:: : a'a--=..' icts
of interest Do not acknor,lledge jout?e' ec:c-s -e. e,,,:-s :' ::-:-s = ved
in the paper acceptance process
ln the fourth paragraph, lisi ihe co:taci 3c:s3- s ::-: E:: --
Effects of Contrast

Method
II. STATISTICS, MATH, AND MEASUREMENTS
Participants Always use the metrlc systern lf tire o::g :a s:-c,, ,,,as ::-:-:::: -S -: -Ci-etrlc Unlts,
provide the original units fol!or,reC by -e:: c :c-,e's 3-s

chosen, and the number in each subgroup

or sample ln general, use words for numbers below 10 a:c numerols for numbers '10 or obove
However, always use numerals foi-:
Materials . Numbers below 10 when grouped y,,itl n-:le 's at3,: 'l r _:
model number and the
. Numbers that precede units of rneasure-e--. 5 c:t:
Describe specialized equipment by giving the . Numbers in a list of four or more nuEbers. 3 i.c=:::. :
. =-=:- :-
Statistical or mathematical functions pe:cei:ages ':::s :-:
name and location of the commercial supplier
those interr-ieired
Procedure
. Numbers that represent time, rnoney, scctes c: e sc: e :- -
. Names of books or tables: Chapter 4. Tab,e -
Include a step-by-step summary of the experiment
Paraphrase all Alwoys use words insteod of numerols to begin o sentence: -T-,';=--,-=::-a^s:er-ealed ."
Put a zero before the decimal point in a fraciro: ui ess :^e ''z:::- -e ,e: a.^ te gieater than
instructions unless the details are crucial to
the experlment one (e g , a correlation or probabiliiyl. s -E nir _r= --q
Two decimal places are usually enough
Clossicc r,,:'
Make plurals of numerals by adding an s viiinoli a: atcs:-al^s :rri.s . C a-rs:=

-l-r-
- - - -
Lowercose Greek letters are used for popuiatior sla.:si cs
Itolicized Lotin letlers are used for most sarnpie s.al s:ic,< s:a-::
lmmediately follows the Method section The heading, "Reslrlts," should be centered and con- . ltolicize all statistical symbols except for vector symbois ',,,"r c- s-c; c le:yled in bold, and
1r'---
rr = - -

tinuous with the preceding section Greek letters, subscripts, and superscripts, vrlhich shouic .e,nz'?. : itse stardard font L-S:=:: :

Summarize the data and the statistical methods you used to analyze the data Review all rel- . Use an uppercase italicized N for the total nurnber of pai't c,pa-is JSe a o',,/e:case italicized
lr'---
tr = -- --

evant results, including those that contradict your hypothesis n for subsets of participants. -\:r8o, tr=15 e-=---=
Figures ond tobles: Use figures and tables only when they enhance your ability to communi- . Use parentheses to identify degrees of freedorn and sarnpie size iir a chi-square test
cate the results Do not include a figure or table without mentioning it in the text and describ- Personc :: -
ing briefly what it contains-remember, tables do not necessarily explain themselves (For . C:: ----
details on formatting, see Figures and Tables, other side )
. Space and punctuate equations and formulas as you wouid regular words:
Stotistics: (See Statistics, Math, and Measurements, right)
. In the equation 3l( - U = z. we see that
. Put simple equotions in the text
. Set off complicoted equoiions from the text with two double spaces above and below, num-
bered in the right-hand margin with an Arabic numeral in parentheses
. Layer porentheses as follows: ( ) first, then [ ], and finally { }
and this is the end of the Method section . When placing symbols next to a variable, prime marks come before subscripts, which (gener-
ally) come before superscripts
Results

The Results section immediately follows

the Method section T1-pically' III. OUOTING, CITING, AND REFERENCING
paragraph
you will want to start with an introductory
Fewer thon 40 words: lnclude in the text, surrounded by double quotation marks
Semantic Categorization D ata 40 words or more: Set off from the text in indented block form without quotation marks lf
the quotation contains multiple paragraphs, indent the start of each one 0 5"
UseheadingswithintheResultssectiontoidentifydifferentSetSof To indicote errors in the original source, use sic, italicized and bracketed: ". . . biolgical [sic]"
To indicote chonges in the original source:
data n Use an ellipsis to indicate omission Add a period if the omission comes between sentences
" Use brackets to insert material
* lf someone other than the original author has italicized words for emphasis, add the words
[italics added] in brackets after the words
. Cite quotations in the following ways (depending on quote length and use of author name):
* Horner (rg6) found that "Children raised in stable tivo-parent families . . ." (p. +S8).
* He found that "Children raised . . . " (Horner, t967. p. 438).
* Horner (tg6i found the foliorving:
Children raised . . . lassuming quotation is 40 or more rvords long]. (p. +SB)
. You may need to obtain copyright permission long quotations
. APA style uses the author-date format for in-text citations
. All references cited in the text should also appear in the reference list (except for classical
works and personal communications)
*xz* *xattz*r
*. . the photoeiectric effect (Einstein, r9o6)
o Cronin,ME(1999)ReactiontimeinorangutansSciencelssuesQuarterly,
Einstein's description of the photoelectric effect (rqo6)
* In 19o6, Einstein published a paper on the photoelectric effect.
Twe t* five *ufh*rs
* First use in a paper: Barrett, !!'aters, and Tang Ugg) found . . .
" First use in a paragraph after already used in a paper: Barrett et al. (rgg:) found . . .
* Further uses within the same paragraph: Barrett et al. tound. . .
* Within parentheses, use an ampersand: ... (Barrett. \Vaters, &Tang, LggT)
Feriediecls
t&er* t*:cn five **91:*rs
. First use in o poper:
* Zuckerman et al. (rgBZ) found. . .
. Further uses within the some porogroph:
* Zuckerman et al. found . . .
. lf two or more papers would have the some obbreviotion under APA rules (e g , Einstein,
Rush, and Oppenheimer, 1950, and Einstein, Bohr and Teller, 1950, both would abbreviate
to Einstein et al , 1950), provide as many names as are needed to distinguish between the
papers:
" Einstein, Rush, et al. (rqSo) and Einstein, Bohr, et al. (rqSo) found . . .
Beaks
*Jo *u?hor
. lnclude the title and date:
the book Pregnancy and Pouerty (tgZg)
. IN: Hashford Press.
For articles or book chapters, put the title in double quotation marks:
the study on health care ('America suffers," rgg7)
. lf the writer is listed as 'Anonymolls," cite accordingly: (Anonymous, 1956)
t&aitt,pie er*skc withi* €?:e scme *itetian
. To cite two or more works by the same author, list the author's name once, followed by
the dates of publication in chronological order:
as has been shorvn (Hewlett 1989, 1993, 1gg4)
. To cite different authors, separate the authors using semicolons and list them in the
order in which the works appear in the reference list:
serninai papers in physics (Einstein, 19o5a. r9o5b; Oppenheimer and Bohr,
L94o; Teller, 19S1)
. To separate a major citation from other citations, list the primary source first, followed by
a semicolon, then insert a "see also" before listing the remaining citations in alphabetical
order:
studies suggest (Strickley, rgg7; see also Blake. TggS; NIasters, rg86)
{r*ss*lis€ings
. To cite two or more works published in a single year by the same authors, distinguish
between them in the text and in references by adding a letter to the year:
* Crowley et al., 1923a, r9z3b, rg21c
. lf two authors cited have the some lost nome, give their initials in all references:
* A. J. Einstein and Wilson (r9oS) and,J. C. Einstein and Hartley (rg6r) found . . .
ei*ssi*c€ w*rks
. Classical works, such as the gible and Greek and Roman texts, should be cited in the
text but do not need to be included in the reference list at the end of the paper
. Translations of classical works should be noted: (Plato, trans. zoor) Translations also
ehap?ers *r *rfieies irz b**k*
should be included in the reference list
. When citing specific sections of classical works, use line numbers, chapters, and so on
instead of page numbers, which typically apply only to a single edition
. When citing a reprint of an older work, indicate both the date of the original publication
and the date of the reprint, separated by a slash: (Freud, t9otlt96t)
Farseigl*? e*effi*r{-$nismfi*s':e (such as email, letters, or conversations)
. Cite in the text but do not include in the reference list: (J. NI. Hamilton, personal com-
munication, December t7, zocl3)
{*':diree? r*fere*ees (works not referenced directly but discussed in a secondary source)
. lf you wish to mention an article by Jones that you did not read directly but learned about
in a book by Adamson, cite as follows: Jones's study (as cited in Adamson, 1994)
. lnclude the secondary source (in above example, Adamson) in the reference list
Work* stii{ i* pres$
Werks sf?li ire Fr€ss
. Rather than cite a predicted publication date, indicate that the work is still in press:
(Horace, in press)
Srt*6ne s*{Jrc*s
All works cited in the main text should be included in the references list and vice versa
(aside from exceptions mentioned above)
Start the reference list on a new page, with the title "References" centered at the top
Align the first line of each entry flush with the left margin of the page tndent each subse-
quent line of each entry 0.5" from the left margin (known as "hanging indent format")
List references in olphobeticol order
* lf there are multiple works by the same principal author, order alphabetically by the
second (or third, etc ) author
* lf there are multiple works by the same authors, order by date with earliest work first
* lf there are multiple works by the same authors in the same year, add lowercase letters
after the year (e g , 1991a, 1991b) to distinguish the works Then, alphabetize by title
* Works by anonymous authors should be alphabetized under author name 'Anonymolls "
* Works with no author should be alphabetized by title
Effects of Contrast 23
References
18,24-38
Greet,KT.(2004)Newstatisticalapproachestoreactiontimeresearch
New York: JYB Press
. Generolform:
* Connors, J. L. (tqgg). l)igestion in healthy infants. Scientifi.c fuIothering, 74, 246-
z7B. (14 is the volume number, 246-278 are page numbers)
. Two to six outhors:
" Linne)', ivl ts., & Palurer, G. (1987). Steroid use in prof'essional cycling. Sports
Medicine, Tz, Bg-tzg.
. More thon six outhors:
* Resnick, L. K.. F.riedman, I{. R., Klein, \4'., Hennann, J. S., Ng, A., Zucker, M.,
et al. (rggz). The cognitive behavior of patients undergoing chemotherapv. Ihe
Journal of Cancer Sfrrdies, ZS, 645-787.
. Generol form:
* Norris, G. H., & Canting, L. L. (rg6S). Culture cnd class in Hungary. Bloomington,
. No outhor or editor listed:
* Pregnancy and pouerty: The crists in .Atrorfh American cities. (rgZil.Chicago:
Crarnpton and Sons.
. Edited:
* Crarvford, A. F., & Gregor, 'I. B. (Eds.). (rg8o). LTrban deueloprnent in ilmerica.
Los Angeies: Srnith-Folle;'.
. Revised edition:
" Gonzalez, 1\I. Y. (rgg6). The neutron (Rev. ed). New York: Academic Press.
. Multiple editions:
u Gonzalez, M. Y. (tqgZ). The neutron (3rd. ed). New Yrlrk: Academic Press.
. Multivolume work:
* Lancashire, K. S. (zooo). Peer pressure in ctdolescent intet'action (\rols. 1-3).
Houston, TX: Scribe Press.
. Author some os publisher:
* American Psychiatric A"ssociation. (1994). Dtagnostic and stofisficcl manual of
mental disorders (+th ed.). \Arashington, DC: Author. (Use the word "Author" for
publisher )
. Non-English book:
* Galvin, E. G. (rqBB). Les.ieux d'enfants [Chiidren's games_1. Paris: Marceaux.
. English tronslotion of non-English book:
u Galvin, E.G. (tggo). Children's gotnes (T.C.Thomas &Y. H. Serron, Trans.). Nerv
York: Academic Press. (Originai rvork published rgBB)
. Encyclopedio or dictionory with outhor or editor lisled:
* Harris, T. F. (rgSS) Dictionary of geology (grd ed., Vols. z-3). Princeton, NJ: Dalton.
. Encyclopedio or dictionory with no outhor or editor listed:
* Cro.fton's clictionctrg of collocluial English (4th ed.). (rqqS). Kansas City, MO:
Crofton Press.
. Generql form:
u Nguyen, C. F. (rqBS). Maritai communication. In E. R. Bailey & H. A. IVlcArthur
(Eds.), Essays on nrcrriage (pp.43-98). London: Sociological press.
. Two outhors, two editors:
u Clarke, E., &Anderson, B.(tgg}. Heart disease and sodium intake. In E. J. Yang and
M. V. Egan (Eds.), Cardiac an'est: Risk.factnrs (pp.roo-rz3). NewYork: Doone.
. ln o multivolume work:
* Piaget, F. (tqZB). Hypersensitivity in toddlers. In E. L Stern (Ed.), Deuelopmental
psychology: VoIs. t-z.Infancy to early childhood. Berlin: Deutsche Press.
. With different series ond volume editors:
* Roy, L. L. (rggg). Personality disorders. In E. H. Ford (Series Ed.) &,J. L. Durst (Vol.
Ed.), Child deuelopment: VoI. z. Socis.I clfsorders (znd ed., pp. 12-19). illiami: Moore.
. ln on encyclopedio:
* Hailey', T. G. (tgqo). Quantum mechanics.InThe neu, erTcAlopae.clia Britaruica
(Vol. 5, pp. 1oo-126). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica.
o Do not list year, volume, or page numbers until the work is published
" Parr, A. (in press). Ihe testosterone effect. Journal of Gender and Sexual Studies.
. lnternet-only periodicol:
* Srnith, P., & Kay, L. S. (zoot, May B). Properties of aloe. Today's Medicine, t7,52-34.
Retrieved April t6, 2oot, from http://wwrv.tmedicine.corn/article/zoor_5/aloe.htm
. Generol form for olher online documents:
* O'Neill, S. K., & Bror,vn, F. (zcloo). Geriatric health care tn Canadct. Retrieved
January 3, 2oo2, from http://wrvr,v.eldercares.org/health-care/canada.htm
. ldentifY the lnternet location by using the appropriate address (e g, a uniform resource
locator (URL), file transfer protocol (FTP) address, telnet address, gopher address, etc )
. Double-check to make sure that you spell the address correctly Keep in mind that some
types of lnternet addresses may be case-sensitive
. Never insert a hyphen to break an lnternet address across lines lf an address does not
fit on one line, break it only after a slash or before a period
. when citing a multi-page lnternet document, provide the title and URL of the starting or
home page
e#$"Tiru#H* #3* *T{-69ft StmH