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Department of
Agriculture
The
Forest Service
Woody Plant
Agriculture
Handbook
727
Seed Manual
April 2008
The
Woody
Plant
Seed
Manual
Agricultural
Handbook
727
Cover photo
The scientific names for the seeds shown on the cover are identified by the key
and photo below. Seeds 2 and 7 have had their wings removed by cleaning.
3 1
4
5
8 6
7
1
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in
all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin,
age, disability, and where applicable, sex, marital status, familial status,
parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, political
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from any public assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to
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communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape,
etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice
and TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director,
Office of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington,
D.C. 20250-9410, or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD).
USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.
2
United States
Department of
Agriculture
The
Forest Service Woody Plant
Agriculture
Handbook 727
Seed Manual
April 2008
Introduction • i
Dedication
This handbook on the seeds of woody plants would not be possible if not for the pioneering work of many individuals in
past years. They worked without the modern laboratory and information retrieval services that we now routinely use and
take for granted. Their early efforts in the first half of the 20th century solved many seed problems and pointed the way for
later research on numerous subjects. Without them, our body of knowledge about the seeds of woody plants would not be
what it is today. Many contributed, but for their extensive work and leadership, we dedicate this book to the following
pioneers:
Acknowledgments
The development and publication of this book was supported by the USDA Forest Service’s Research and Development
(R&D) and State and Private Forestry (S&PF) National Offices as well as by R&D’s Southern and Northeastern Research
Stations, which supported Dr. Bonner and Ms. Nisley, respectively. We especially thank Drs. Jerry Sesco and Robert Lewis,
Deputy Chiefs (retired) for Research and Development; Dr. Peter Roussopoulus, Director of the Southern Research Station;
Dr. Michael T. Rains, Director of the Northeastern Research Station; and Debra Dietzman, Communications Director at the
Northeastern Research Station, for their continued financial and personal support.
We also thank John K. Francis (retired after many years at the International Institute of Tropical Forestry), Robert P.
Karrfalt (S&PF, Regeneration, Nurseries, and Genetics Resources National Team), Susan E. Meyer (Rocky Mountain
Research Station), Peyton W. Owston (retired from the Pacific Northwest Research Station), and John C. Zasada (retired
from the (North Central Research Station), the regional coordinators who solicited and organized the authors of the 236
genera.
We are grateful to Dr. Stanley R. Krugman for getting this effort going and sharing his experiences from the production of
AH 450, Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States (1974). Sharon Friedman, Jacob L. Whitmore, Calvin Bey, Sam Foster,
and Marilyn Buford served as our liaisons to the R&D National Office; Karl Dalla Rosa and Hal Brockman were the
liaisons to S&PF; and Frank Burch to National Forest Systems. Becky Loth, at the National Seed Laboratory served
admirably as the webmaster of our interim website, and Laura Cricco, Phyllis Grinberg, Jean B. Holland, Pamela Huntley,
Barbara Johnson, and Kathy McManus, all of the Northeastern Research Station, provided much appreciated administrative
and computer support.
Rebecca G. Nisley of the USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, Hamden, Connecticut, is acknowledged as
principle editor for style and grammer.
Introduction v
Invasives vii
Part 3 Appendices
Contents • iii
Introduction
The first comprehensive handbook on the seeds of trees the same vein, pollen handling has been dropped; interested
and shrubs produced by the USDA Forest Service was readers should refer to the handbook by Bramlett and others
USDA Misc. Pub. 654, Woody-Plant Seed Manual. The (1993). A chapter on nursery practices has been added to the
manuscript was ready for publication in 1941, but World current book, not to serve as a complete technical reference
War II delayed publication until 1948. The boom in tree on the subject, but to point out the seed considerations in
planting in the 1950s and 1960s created a large demand for current nursery operations. Good technical manuals on nurs-
seeds and exposed the gaps in our knowledge concerning ery production of woody plants are those of Duryea and
production and quality of seeds of woody plants in Dougherty (1991), Landis and others (1990–95), Liegel and
general. Venator (1987), and Williams and Hanks (1976). Readers
Realization of this condition led to the revision and con- needing additional information on vegetative reproduction
siderable expansion of the manual, resulting in publication should consult Dirr and Heuser (1987).
of USDA Agric. Handbk. 450, Seeds of Woody Plants in the Part 2 has been expanded to include almost 1,300 taxa in
United States, in 1974. Seed data were presented for about 236 genera. Most of the additions are either tropical species
800 species, varieties, and sub-species in 188 genera, con- that are grown in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands,
siderable more than the 420 species and 140 genera in the Hawaii, and the Pacific territories or native species that have
1948 edition. The 1974 Handbook proved to be very popu- increased in value for wildlife or environmental plantings in
lar both in this country and abroad, leading to five printings recent years. Many of these latter are shrubs from the west-
and translations in several other languages. More than a ern United States. Information is presented by genus in
quarter-century after its publication, however, numerous alphabetical sequence as before. Data have typically been
advances in tree seed technology have dictated that a new grouped under the following headings: growth habit, occur-
revision is needed; the result is the current volume. rence, and use; flowering and fruiting; collection, extraction,
The major audience for this book, as for its two prede- and storage of seeds; pregermination treatments; germina-
cessors, is those who are involved in the growing and plant- tion tests; and nursery practices. For genera without much
ing of trees and shrubs. Their involvement can be collection information, some of these headings have been combined. In
and sale of seeds, production of nursery stock (both bare- general, the minimum standard for inclusion has been suffi-
root and container), or planting itself. Planting for commer- cient information to collect and germinate the seeds.
cial forest production is the traditional mainstay of tree Readers with wider interests in tropical species should con-
planting, but planting for wildlife food, watershed protec- sult Khullar and others (1991), Ng (1992), Schmidt (2000),
tion, urban environmental improvement, ornamental Tompsett and Kemp (1996), and Vozzo (2002). An excellent
enhancement, wetland mitigation, and carbon sequestration reference on propagation of native plants of the Pacific
are all on the increase. Ecosystem management, now com- Northwest is the work by Rose and others (1998).
monly used in the management of many federal and other If authors of the 1974 genus chapters were still working
governmental forest lands, has decreased the use of planting for the Forest Service, they were given the opportunity to
to regenerate the forests and has increased the role of natu- write the updated version. Some did, and a number of retired
ral regeneration. Those who apply these practices will find authors also asked to be a part of the revision. If very little
this book useful also in the data on flowering and seed pro- rewriting was done because of a dearth of new information
duction. Although the book is not intended to be a detailed about a genus since 1974 (and there were a few of these),
textbook on seed ecology and physiology, there is sufficient names of the 1974 authors remain on the chapters. If new
scope and depth to the material included to make it useful to information required extensive rewriting, then the new
anyone who studies seeds. For additional information on authors got primary credit. In most cases, 1974 authors who
these topics, readers should consult the recent works by are now deceased also got credit for their contributions.
Baskin and Baskin (2000) and Farmer (1997). There were 95 authors engaged in the updating of this man-
The organization of this book follows that of the earlier ual (page 1182), and they all deserve our thanks .
manuals. Part 1 comprises seven chapters that provide gen- Recruitment of authors and coordination of their activities
eral principles on seed biology, genetic improvement, har- were primarily carried out by a group of regional coordina-
vesting and conditioning, storage, testing, seed certification, tors: Franklin T. Bonner, John K. Francis, Robert P. Karrfalt,
and nursery practices. The chapter on genetic improvement Susan E. Meyer, Peyton Owston, and John C. Zasada.
combines two chapters from the 1974 Handbook but does One major change in the current book deals with
not include the extensive technical information provided in nomenclature. A decision was made to use the nomenclature
1974. Genetic improvement of tree and shrub species is now system under development by the USDA Natural Resources
too common and widespread to be covered adequately in a Conservation Service as part of a government-wide attempt
chapter in a seed manual. For complete treatments on this to adopt standard nomenclature for plants, insects, etc. of
subject, readers are referred to Zobel and Talbert (1984). In North America. This on-line database (PLANTS 2004)
Introduction • v
became the primary nomenclature resource. A second (seeds per square meter and seeds per square foot ). A table
resource was needed for numerous non-native plants; for of conversion factors is again included before the glossary
this purpose the USDA Agricultural Research Service (page 1193).
Genetic Resources Program (GRIN 1999) was adopted. The vast majority of the line drawings and photographs
Other valuable data on plant nomenclature came from used in the 1974 Handbook have been used again in this
Hortus third, by the Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium at volume. For new species, efforts were made to collect spec-
Cornell University (LHBH 1976). Use of these resources for imens for new photographs that are similar in style and
nomenclature resulted in numerous name changes, which background to those of the 1974 Handbook. In most cases
may be confusing in some cases. For example, Libocedrus this was done, but samples were not available for every new
(in the 1974 Handbook) is now Calocedrus; Castanopsis is species. As a result, line drawings from other publications
now Chrysolepis. The Table of Contents for part 2 makes were utilized.
this transition easier by listing the old names where appro- The glossary has been expanded by several dozen
priate. Some genera have been divided or placed into differ- terms; a few have been dropped. Others have been altered
ent families also, and numerous species names have been to reflect current usage. Most terms of seed biology and
changed. We have attempted to include all 1974 Handbook seed technology have been defined according to the glos-
names that are now synonyms in the genus chapters. In sary of the IUFRO Working Party S2.01.06 “Seed
addition, we have provided the scientific names and authori- Problems” (Bonner 1984).
ties for fungi from Farr and others (1989). Scientific names Those who use this book should realize that much new
of insects, birds, and wild mammals have been taken from information on seeds of woody plants has appeared in print
numerous accepted sources. since the current chapters were finalized. Efforts to improve
Another change in the current book is a shift from the utilization of our forest and range resources continue,
English to metric units. The metric system of measurements and new information is constantly discovered and put to
is now the “official” system of the United States, and it is use. Like the seed manuals published before, this one will
commonly used in most USDA Forest Service publications. not be the last, although the next revision may be a digital
To assist users who are not yet comfortable with this, we data base. Until another revision takes place, however,
have included both metric and English values for the most genus chapters will be periodically updated with new infor-
commonly used values in seedling production: number of mation on the website that was established during the
seeds per unit weight (seeds per pound and seeds per kilo- current revision: www.nsl.fs.fed.us.
gram), and number of seeds to sow per unit of bed area
References
Baskin CC, Baskin JM. 1998. Seeds: ecology, biogeography, and evolution of LHBH [Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium]. 1976. Hortus third: a concise dic-
dormancy and germination.. New York: Academic Press. 672 p. tionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York:
Bonner FT. 1984. Glossary of seed germination terms for tree seed Macmillan. 1290 p.
workers. Gen.Tech. Rep. SO-49. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Liegel LH,Venator CR. 1987. A technical guide for forest nursery manage-
Southern Forest Experiment Station. 4 p. ment in the Caribbean and Latin America. Gen.Tech. Rep. SO-87. New
Bramlett DL, Askew GR, Blush TD, Bridgwater FE, Jett JB, eds. 1993. Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station.
Advances in pollen management. Agric. Handbk. 698. Washington, DC: 98 p.
USDA Forest Service. 101 p. Ng FSP. 1992. Manual of forest fruits, seeds, and seedlings.Volumes 1 and 2.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- Kepong, Malaysia: Forest Research Institute of Malaysia. 997 p.
agation; from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. PLANTS. 2004. The PLANTS database [available at
Duryea ML, Dougherty PM, eds. 1991. Forest regeneration manual. http://plants.usda.gov/plants]. Baton Rouge, LA: USDA NRCS, National
Dordrecht,The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 433 p. Plant Data Center.
Farmer RE Jr. 1997. Seed ecophysiology of temperate and boreal zone Rose R, Chachulski CE, Haase DL. 1998. Propagation of Pacific Northwest
forest trees. Delray Beach, FL: St. Lucie Press. 253 p. native plants. Corvallis: Oregon State University Press. 248 p.
Farr DF, Bills GF, Chamuris GP, Rossman AY. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant Schmidt L. 2000. Guide to handling of tropical and subtropical forest seed.
products in the United States. St. Paul: American Phytopathological Humlebaek, Denmark: Danida Forest Seed Centre. 511 p.
Society. 1252 p. Tompsett PB, Kemp R. (comp.) 1996. Database of tropical tree seed
GRIN [Germplasm Resources Information Network]. 2004. GRIN [available research (DABATTS). Richmond, Surrey, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens
at www.ars-grin.gov]. Beltsville, MD: USDA ARS, National Germplasm Kew. 263 p.
Resources Laboratory. Vozzo JA, ed. 2003. Tropical tree seed manual. Agric. Handb. 721.
Khullar P, Thapliyal RC, Beniwal BS,Vakshasya RK, Sharma A. 1991. Forest Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 899 p.
seed. Dehra Dun, India: Indian Council of Forestry Research & Education. Williams RD, Hanks SH. 1976 [slightly revised 1994]. Hardwood nursery
409 p. guide. Agric. Handbk. 473. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 78 p.
Landis TD,Tinus RW, McDonald SE, Barnett JP. 1990B95. The Zobel B,Talbert J. 1984. Applied forest tree improvement. New York: John
container tree nursery manual,Volumes 2–5. Agric. Handbk. 674. Wiley & Sons. 505 p.
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 523 p.
Invasives
We remind our readers that listing species in this book tion campaigns! Other plants that have escaped from horti-
is not necessarily a recommendation to use them! Many cultural uses—broom, burning bush, oriental bittersweet,
species that earlier in the twentieth century were recom- Japanese barberry, etc.—are also members of this infamous
mended and even planted by various federal and state agen- company. Finally, there are invasive plants such as ailanthus
cies as erosion control and wildlife plants—multiflora rose, and royal paulownia that arrived here accidentally. We sin-
autumn-olive, and Russian-olive, for example—are now cerely hope that the information contained in this new manu-
considered invasive non-natives and are targets of eradica- al may be of help in efforts to control woody invasives.
Introduction • vii
Part 1 Principles and General Methods
of Producing and Handling Seeds
Chapter 1 Seed Biology Chapter 5 Seed Testing
Franklin T. Bonner Robert P. Karrfalt
Introduction Introduction
Flowering Plants Sampling
Reproductive Cycles Sample Identification
Flowering Moisture Tests
Fruit and Seed Development Purity, Noxious Weed Content, and
Dormancy Seed Weight Tests
Germination Sowing Rates
References Buying and Selling Seeds
Test Limitations and Variation
Chapter 2 Genetic Improvement of Forest Trees Scheduling Seed Tests
Clark W. Lantz Commercial Trade of Tree, Shrub, and
Introduction Native Plant Seeds
Concepts of Genetic Improvement References
Starting a Tree Improvement Program
Deployment of Genetically Improved Materials Chapter 6 Certification of Tree Seeds and
Molecular Biology Other Woody Plant Materials
Tree Improvement Cooperatives Robert D. Mangold and Franklin T. Bonner
The Future Introduction
References Certification in Agriculture
Certification in Forestry
Chapter 3 Seed Harvesting and Conditioning Native Shrubs and Grasses
Robert P. Karrfalt Federal Seed Act and Labeling Laws
Introduction Outlook for Certification
Harvesting References
Seed Cleaning and Conditioning
Post-Harvest Storage Chapter 7 Nursery Practices
Extraction Thomas D. Landis
Cleaning and Upgrading Introduction
Quality Control Terminology
References The Target Seedling
Types of Nurseries
Chapter 4 Storage of Seeds Propagation Options
Franklin T. Bonner Bareroot Nursery Cultural Practices
Introduction Container Nursery Cultural Practices
Factors Affecting Longevity of Seeds Pest Management
Storage Facilities Summary
Storage Recommendations References
Other Management Considerations
References
Introduction • ix
Libocedrus (see Calocedrus) 313 Picea 793 Spiraea 1067
Ligustrum 663 Pieris 807 Styrax 1071
Lindera 667 Pinus 809 Swietenia 1075
Liquidambar 670 Pithecellobium (see also Albizia) 848 Symphoricarpos 1078
Liriodendron 674 Platanus 850 Syringa 1083
Lithocarpus 678 Platycladus (see also Thuja) 854
Lonicera 682 Populus 856 T
Lophostemon 689 Prosopis 872 Tamarix 1087
Lupinus 691 Prunus 875 Taxodium 1089
Lycium 694 Pseudotsuga 891 Taxus 1092
Psorothamnus 907 Tectona 1099
M Ptelea 910 Tetradymia 1102
Maclura 697 Pterocarpus 913 Thespesia 1105
Magnolia 700 Purshia 916 Thuja (see also Platycladus) 1108
Mahonia (see also Berberis) 706 Pyrus 922 Tilia 1113
Malosma (see Rhus) 954 Toona 1119
Malus 712 Q Torreya 1121
Melia 718 Quercus 928 Toxicodendron (see Rhus) 954
Menispermum 720 Triadica 1125
Menodora 721 R Tristania (see Lophestemon) 689
Metasequoia 723 Rhamnus (see also Frangula) 939 Tsuga 1127
Mitchella 726 Rhododendron 943
Morella (see Myrica) 733 Rhodotypos 952 U
Morus 728 Rhus 954 Ulex 1140
Myrica 733 Ribes 961 Ulmus 1143
Robinia 969 Umbellularia 1150
N Rosa 974
Nama 738 Roystonea 981 V
Nandina 740 Rubus 984 Vaccinium 1154
Nemopanthus 743 Vernicia (see also Aleurites) 1160
Nyssa 745 S Viburnum 1162
Sabal 997 Vitex 1168
O Salix 1000 Vitis 1171
Oemleria 749 Salvia 1010
Olea 753 Sambucus 1014 W
Olneya 757 Sapindus 1019 Washingtonia 1173
Osmaronia (see Oemleria) 749 Sapium (see Triadica) 1125
Ostrya 759 Sarcobatus 1022 Y
Oxydendrum 761 Sassafras 1025 Yucca 1175
Schinus 1027
P Sciadopitys 1030 Z
Paraserianthes (see also Albizia) Senna 1032 Zamia 1178
764 Sequoia 1034 Zanthoxylum 1180
Parkinsonia 766 Sequoiadendron 1037 Ziziphus 1183
Parthenocissus 769 Serenoa 1039 Zuckia (see also Grayia) 1185
Paulownia 772 Shepherdia 1043
Penstemon 774 Sideroxylon 1047
Peraphyllum 778 Simmondsia 1049
Persea 781 Solanum 1052
Phellodendron 783 Sophora 1055
Philadelphus 786 Sorbaria 1057
Photinia (see Heteromeles) 585 Sorbus 1059
Physocarpus 790 Spathodea 1065
Seed Biology
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Contents
Introduction 4 Insects 20
Flowering Plants 4 Pathogens 21
Reproductive Cycles 4 Birds 22
Flowering 4 Mammals 22
Initiation 5 Maturity and Dispersal 23
Phenology 5 Indices of maturity 23
Influencing factors 6 Physical 23
Temperature 6 Chemical 24
Light 6 Shedding and dispersal 24
Moisture 6 Dormancy 25
Nutrition 7 Types of Dormancy 25
Physiology 7 Seedcoat (or external) dormancy 25
Manipulation of flowering 7 Embryo (or internal) dormancy 25
Juvenile Phase 7 Morphological dormancy 26
Mature Phase 7 Combined dormancy 26
Structure and Development 8 Double dormacy 26
Pollination 10 Secondary dormancy 26
Pollen grain development 10 Overcoming Dormancy 26
Pollen dispersal 11 Seedcoat dormancy 26
Pollen viability and flower receptivity 11 Cold water soak 26
Pollination in angiosperms 11 Hot water soak 26
Pollination in gymnosperms 12 Hot wire 26
Fertilization 12 Acid treatment 27
Reproductive Abnormalities 12 Mechanical treatments 27
Polyembryony 12 Internal dormancy 27
Parthenocarpy 12 Stratification (chilling) 27
Agamospermy 13 Incubation and stratification 27
Fruit and Seed Development 13 Chemical treatment 27
Morphological Development 13 Combined treatments 27
Angiosperms 13 Variation in Dormacy 28
Gymnosperms 14 Germination 28
Physiological Development 16 Environmental Factors 28
Moisture content 16 Moisture 28
Stored food reserves 17 Temperature 29
Hormones 18 Light 29
Factors That Influence Seed Production 20 Aeration 30
Physiological factors 20 Biochemical Changes 30
Weather 20 Physical Development 31
Biotic factor 20 References 32
Table 1–Chapter 1, Seed Biology: times of flower initiation in selected species as determined from microscopic
examination of buds
Time of initiation
Species Location Male Female
Sources: Anderson and Guard (1964), Fraser (1962), Lester (1963), Macdonald and Mothersill (1987), Mergen and Koerting (1957), Owens and Molder (1974, 1977,
1979), Owens and Pharis (1971), Owens and Smith (1964),Takaso and Tomlinson (1990),Wetzstein and Sparks (1983, 1984).
Fleshy—part of the fruit wall comprised of fleshy or pulpy tissue with relatively high moisture content
Synconium A type of pseudocarp in which achenes are actually borne on the inside
of a hollow receptacle, as in Ficus
Sorosis A fruit derived from the ovaries of several flowers, as in Morus
Coenocarp A fruit incorporating ovaries, floral parts, and receptacles of many
flowers, as in Artocarpus
or within their seedcoats: true fir, hemlock, and incense- flowering in the interval between pollination and fertiliza-
cedar (Calocedrus Endl.). The resin makes seeds sticky and tion. In a few species, such as western juniper (Juniperus
more difficult to handle in all phases of extraction and occidentalis Hook) and Alaska-cedar, the fruit grows before
cleaning. Most gymnosperm seeds are winged, but there are fertilization occurs and attains almost full size during the
exceptions: baldcypress, yew, torreya, and some pines. first growing season, a full year or more before the seeds are
These pines are often called the “nut” pines: Swiss stone physiologically mature. Seed collectors must be aware of
pine, piñyon (Pinus edulis Engelm.), chilgoza pine (P. gera- this condition to avoid collecting cones with immature
diana Wall.), etc. Wings may be loosely adhering structures fruits. In Alaska-cedar, there are distinct color differences
that are easily separated from the seeds, as in most pines, or between immature and mature cones (Harris 1990), and
they may be integral parts of the seedcoat, as in Douglas-fir, position of cones on the branches is an indicator for both
longleaf pine, and incense-cedar. species. Gymnosperm fruit classification is much simpler
Cones of gymnosperms that require more than 1 year to than that of angiosperms (table 3) (modified from Krugman
mature generally remain small during the first year after and others 1974).
Premature cone shedding can also be important in gym- respect to moisture: orthodox and recalcitrant. Orthodox
nosperms. It is most common several weeks after anthesis, seeds are seeds that can be dried to low moisture levels
when pollination has not occurred, but can also result from (below 10% of fresh weight) without losing viability.
damage from frost, hail, drought, insects, or pathogens Recalcitrant seeds cannot be dried below rather high levels
(Owens and Blake 1985; Sedgley and Griffin 1989; Sweet (25 to 50%, depending on the species) without losing viabil-
1973). There are also losses from what Bramlett (1972) ity. This sensitivity to desiccation has important implications
described as “physiological drop,” when there were no visi- in the storage of seeds, and chapter 4 contains a broader dis-
ble signs of external injury. In general, the physiology of cussion of this subject.
immature cone abscission is much less understood than pre- Among orthodox seeds, the dry types (tables 2 and 3)
mature fruit shedding in angiosperms (Sedgley and Griffin are generally shed from the trees at rather low moisture con-
1989). tents. Exact measurements of the moisture levels at which
shedding occurs are hard to find, but some preliminary data
Physiological Development suggest a range of about 10 to 15% for sweetgum, green
The growth of fruits that starts soon after fertilization (or ash, and boxelder (Acer negundo L.) (Bonner 1996). The
prior to fertilization in a few species) involves a complex fleshy fruits (tables 2 and 3) also contain orthodox seeds,
array of physiological processes and conditions. These but because they are still enclosed in the fleshy tissues of the
processes are generally similar for fruits of most temperate fruits, they are shed at higher moisture contents. Black cher-
trees, and they produce comparable trends in size, weight, ry fruits, for example, are shed at fruit moisture contents of
and moisture content. A typical pattern of development for 70 to 75% (Bonner 1975). Seed moisture contents are not
dry fruits is provided by the single-seeded samaras of green quite as high, but they are much higher than those that are
ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.) (figure 6). Fresh found in species with dry fruits. Some examples of seed
weight, dry weight, and moisture content increase slowly moisture contents from fleshy fruits at shedding are 34% for
through early summer. By the end of August, the embryo is flowering dogwood, a drupe, and 50% for persimmon
2 to 3 mm long. Over the next 6 weeks there are sharp (Diospyros virginiana L.), a berry (Bonner 1996).
increases in dry weight and significant decreases in moisture Moisture contents of recalcitrant fruits are also high at
as embryo length increases 5-fold (Bonner 1973). In drupes the time of shedding. Some representative values for temper-
of the temperate zone, weight trends are similar, but mois- ate species are 40% for acorns of black oaks, 50% for those
ture changes are somewhat different. In black cherry of white oaks (Bonner and Vozzo 1987; Finch-Savage and
(Prunus serotina Ehrh.), for example, moisture contents others 1992), 50% for horsechestnut (Aesculus hippocas-
decrease during spring to early summer, then increase again tanum L.) (Tompsett and Pritchard 1993), and 58% for plane-
as maturity approaches (figure 7). In temperate recalcitrant tree maple (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) (Hong and Ellis 1990).
seeds, such as acorns, the patterns are more like those of dry Similar values have also been reported for tropical recalci-
fruits (figure 8). Similar trends occur in the maturation of trant species (Tamari and Jacalne 1984).
most tropical tree fruits also, but the changes are not always In orthodox species with dry fruits, the maturation dry-
correlated with the seasons as they are in temperate species. ing that occurs on the plants prior to shedding is the final
Moisture content. Any discussion of seed moisture stage of development as the seeds enter their quiescent peri-
must be based upon the 2 physiological classes of seeds in od. This stage is apparently necessary for the synthesis of
Figure 7—Chapter 1, Seed Biology: seasonal changes in tion of orthodox seeds of woody plants. Conditions are dif-
fresh weight, dry weight, and moisture content during matu- ferent in orthodox seeds from fleshy fruits, however, as they
ration of a fleshy drupe, black cherry (Prunus serotina Ehrh.)
are shed before complete desiccation. Desiccation occurs
(adapted from Bonner and others 1994).
later after the fleshy covering has dried or been removed
(eaten in many cases). Many of these species have complex
dormancy periods, and it can be hypothesized that there are
interactions between the dormancy and the delay in matura-
tion drying of the seeds.
In recalcitrant seeds, there is no pronounced maturation
drying stage, because development never stops completely.
There are slight decreases in moisture content that are
apparently associated with shedding of fruits (figure 8), but
there is no true quiescent period with recalcitrant seeds.
Most species, especially tropical recalcitrant species, germi-
nate soon after shedding, and some, including several
Quercus species, will germinate while still on the tree, an
event defined as vivipary.
Stored food reserves. As postfertilization growth pro-
ceeds, carbon fixed by photosynthesis is transferred to the
seeds in the form of sucrose. In the seeds the sucrose is
converted into many components, but most of it goes into
many enzyme systems, including those required for desicca- stored food reserves of carbohydrate, lipid, or protein
tion tolerance and germination when rehydration occurs (Bewley and Black 1994). Many seeds have more than one
(Bewley and Black 1994). There are some data for tree type of food reserve, but one is usually predominant (table
seeds (Finch-Savage and others 1994), but most of the work 4). The type of food reserve has implications for seed stor-
in this area has been done on castor bean (Ricinis communis age (see chapter 4), and it has been suggested that there are
L.) (Kermode and Bewley 1985) and cereal grains (Bewley other important relationships. Korstian (1927), for example,
and Black 1994). There is no reason to doubt, however, that suggested that dormancy in the black oak group was related
the same physiological processes take place during matura- to the high lipid content of these seeds, and that stratifica-
Sources: Barnett (1976a), Bennett (1966), Bonner (1971, 1974a), Ching (1963), Pulliainen and Lajunen (1984),Waino and Forbes (1941).
* Most values obtained by multiplying total N by 6.25.
† Total sugars only.
‡ Insoluble N only multiplied by 6.25.
tion was needed to convert the lipid to soluble carbohydrates from 30% in Norway spruce, Picea abies (L.) Karst, in
for germination. This conversion does take place during Europe (Buyak 1975) to less than 5% in flowering dogwood
stratification of black oaks (Vozzo and Young 1975), but no in Mississippi (Bonner 1996). Rohmeder (1967) estimated
direct connection to dormancy has been made. Also, some that between the start of seed-bearing and the typical harvest
species with large lipid components, such as southern catal- age of forest trees, 10 to 30% of the potential volume yield
pa (Catalpa bignonioides Walt.) and winged elm (Ulmus may be used in seed production.
alata Michx.), exhibit no dormancy, whereas some with Some data on elemental concentrations in mature seeds
high carbohydrate levels, such as sugarberry (Celtis laeviga- are available (table 5). Such information is of great value to
ta Willd.) and eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana L.) are wildlife biologists in studies of the nutritive value of browse
usually dormant. to wildlife.
Accumulation of food reserves follows similar patterns Hormones. At the same time that the growing seeds
in most seeds. First there are slow increments of accumula- are accumulating food reserves, there are certain hormonal
tion, then much more rapid accumulation as maturity and changes that are taking place within the seeds. The major
shedding are approached (figure 9). Soluble carbohydrates hormones in seeds are auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, and
are converted to insoluble fractions in starchy seeds (figure abscisic acid (ABA) (Bewley and Black 1994). These hor-
10), and the protein- nitrogen fraction increases at the mones appear to play important roles in the growth and
expense of soluble forms (figure 11). During this period of development of both fruits and seeds, but it is not always
development, seeds are strong sinks for current photosyn- clear what these roles are. The major auxin in seeds,
thate, and vegetative growth is somewhat reduced (Bazzaz indoleacetic acid (IAA), is found in both free and bound
and Ackerly 1992; Owens and Blake 1985). The extent of forms. It has been extracted and identified from a number of
growth lost in this trade-off in heavy seed years has not been tree seeds, for example, pecan (Lipe and others 1969), water
accurately measured in woody plants, but estimates range oak (Quercus nigra L.) (Hopper and Vozzo 1982), English
Sources: Bonner (1971, 1974a), Hastings (1966), Lott and Buttrose (19780, Pulliainen and Lajunen (1984).
the other hormones, ABA concentration is low in developing particularly noticeable for large single-seeded fruits such as
seeds and highest at maturity. In conjunction with matura- oak acorns (Bonner 1996). Other damaging effects of weath-
tion drying, ABA may prevent embryos from germinating er can be more direct. Strong winds and hail can destroy
while still on the tree (Bewley and Black 1994). These cor- flowers and fruits, sometimes to the point that most of the
relations do not prove a causal relationship between seed crop is lost. Hurricanes along the coastal areas of the
maturity and dormancy, however, and much research Southeast are infrequent but very serious, and they can cre-
remains to be done. ate problems locally for longleaf pine, a species with large,
heavy cones that are fairly easy to knock to the ground.
Factors That Influence Seed Production Biotic factors. Flowers, fruits, and seeds are suscepti-
There are many factors that can reduce the size of a seed ble to damage by many insects, pathogens, and animals.
crop on woody plants no matter how abundant flower pro- Flower damage, particularly by insects, often goes unnoticed
duction may be. Flower abortion and premature fruit drop in branch terminals and in the tops of trees. Much more is
have been discussed earlier. This section will briefly review known about damage to fruits and seeds, because they are
factors that reduce seedcrops well after fertilization and handled and observed closely when collected.
early development of fruits or cones has occurred. Insects. Little is known about insects that destroy
Physiological factors. Most of the fruit and cone loss- flowers, as the damage is often not seen. Both larvae and
es that can be attributed to physiological factors occur early young adults of treehoppers (Membracidae) destroy pistil-
in the fruiting season. On some occasions, however, fruits or late flowers of oaks (Cecich 1993). Thrips, both
cones will abscise late in the growing season. The exact Phlaeothripidae and Thripidae, destroy young strobili on
mechanisms are not understood, but they may be related to several pines, true firs, and Douglas-fir (Hedlin and others
competition for a shrinking supply of nutrients late in the 1980). The most serious economic damage is done by
season between reproductive structures and vegetative Gnophothrips fuscus (Morgan) on slash pine (Pinus elliottii
shoots. Early abscision of acorns as maturation is completed Engelm.). Other insects that damage pine strobili in the
may appear to be physiological in nature, but the primary Southeast include Nantucket pine tip moth, Rhyacionia frus-
cause is often insect damage that triggers a physiological trana (Comstock); pine conelet looper, Nepytia semiclusaria
reaction. (Walker); the Virginia pine sawfly, Neodiprion pratti pratti
Weather. Weather can influence seedcrops in a variety (Dyar) and other sawflies, Xyela spp.; leaffooted pine seed-
of ways. Interference with flowering and pollination through bug, Leptoglossus corculus (Say); cone midges, Cecido-
late freezes, rain during pollination, etc., have been dis- myiidae; and several coneworms, Dioryctria spp. (Ebel and
cussed previously. Severe drought can have a noticeable others 1975). Strobili damage in other conifers has been
effect on the size of many angiosperm seeds. This effect is reported for Xyela spp. on lodgepole, Coulter (Pinus coulteri
inland spruce cone rust Chrysomyxa pirolata Wint. Picea engelmannii, P. glauca, P. mariana, P. rubens, P. pungens,
P. sitchensis, P. abies
coastal spruce cone rust Chrysomyxa monesis Ziller Picea sitchensis
southern pine cone rust Cronartium strobilinum Pinus elliottii, P. elliottii var. densa, P. palustris
(Arth.) Hedgc. & Hahn
southwestern pine cone rust Cronartium conigenum Many Pinus species from S Arizona, S into Central America
Hedgc. & Hunt
western gall rust Endocronartium harknessii Pinus banksiana, P. contorta, P. ponderosa, and to a lesser.
(J.P. Moore) Y. Hirat. degree, many others in W US, Canada, & NE US
Table 7—Chapter 1, Seed Biology: fungi that cause minor or locally severe decreases to fruit crops of angiosperms
Table 9—Chapter 1, Seed Biology: chemical levels that indicate seed maturity
Sources: Bonner (1972, 1973, 1974b, 1976, Rediske (1961), Rediske and Nickolson (1965).
CHO=carbohydrates.
Sources: Barnett (1969), Bonner (1968), Bonner & Farmer (1966), Choinski and Tuohy (1991), Djavanshir and Reid (1975), Farmer and Bonner (1967), Kaufman and
Eckard (1977), Moore and Kidd (1982), Sabo and others (1979), Singh and Singh 1983
* Some data were converted from atmospheres and bars to MPa as follows: 1 bar = 0.1 MPa; 1 atm = 0.1013 MPa.
Temperature. Seeds of temperate woody plants can prescriptions are based on the known optimum temperatures
germinate over a wide range of temperatures, from a mini- for each genus or species (ISTA 1993). Experiments with 2-
mum of 2 or 3 °C, to a maximum of about 45 °C (Bonner way thermogradient plates suggest that germination of many
and others 1994). Radicle emergence will occur in most temperate species will occur at a wide range of temperature
species at 45 °C, but few will produce normal seedlings at regimes, and that an amplitude of change between day and
this temperature. Low temperatures, on the other hand, are night of 10 to 12 °C may be more important than the cardi-
favored by some species. Northern red oak from Wisconsin, nal points (Bonner 1983; Mayer and Poljakoff-Mayber
for example, germinated best at 1 °C in a trial reported by 1963; Sabo and others 1979).
Godman and Mattson (1980). Some true firs and mountain In the tropics, pioneer species that invade forest gaps
hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana (Bong.) Carr.) will germinate also respond to alternating temperatures with increased ger-
in snowbanks in Oregon and Washington (Franklin and mination (Vázquez-Yanes and Orozco-Segovia 1982).
Krueger 1968). Many dormant temperate species will some- Temperatures are more constant underneath canopies, and
times germinate in stratification bags at 3 to 5 °C if left for light becomes more of an important factor in germination in
long periods. The major effect of temperature on germina- these conditions (Clark 1990; Vázquez-Yanes and others
tion, however, is on rate rather than total germination. 1990.).
Natural seedbeds do not remain at constant tempera- Light. Light plays a complex role in the germination
tures, but experience diurnal fluctuations from lows at night of woody plants, in that it stimulates the germination of
to highs in the daytime. Most temperate woody plants have most species but is absolutely necessary for only a few. It is
adapted to these conditions and germinate most rapidly at often difficult to separate the effects of light and the effects
alternating temperatures of approximately 20 °C at night and of temperature. Dry, dormant seeds normally do not germi-
30 °C in the daytime. Other species germinate faster at nate in the dark, but stratification at low temperatures or
lower temperatures regimes, for example, 15 to 25 °C or 10 treatment with high temperatures can overcome the dark
to 20 °C, or at constant temperatures of 5 to 22 °C (Sabo inhibition in some species.
and others 1979; Wang and Pitel 1991). Official seed testing
The key to seed response to light is thought to be the As seeds begin to germinate, the pattern of oxygen
1
phytochrome system. Phytochrome is a pigment that exists uptake is practically identical to that of water uptake
in 2 forms within the embryonic axes of seeds (Bewley and (Kozlowski and Gentile 1959): (1) a short period of rapid
Black 1994). One form (Pr) has a maximum absorption at uptake; (2) a period of very slow uptake; and (3) a second
660 nm, whereas the other form (Pfr) has a maximum period of rapid uptake. Measurements of seedcoat perme-
absorption at 730 nm. Red light converts Pr to Pfr in ability to oxygen in some herbaceous species suggest that
imbibed seeds, which is associated with overcoming dor- the coats are much more permeable to water than to oxygen.
mancy. Far-red light drives the process in the other direction, Part of this may be due to the consumption of oxygen by the
accompanied by a partial return of dormancy. The red/far- seedcoat itself in oxidative reactions (Bewley and Black
red reaction has been demonstrated in seeds of numerous 1994). There are lots of phenolic compounds in seedcoats,
temperate species: Virginia (Pinus virginiana Mill.) (Toole for example, and their oxidation could consume a
and others 1961), longleaf (McLemore and Hansbrough considerable amount of oxygen.
1970), and Scots pines (Nyman 1963); red alder (Alnus
rubra Bong.) (Bormann 1983); paper (Betula papyrifera Biochemical Changes
Marsh.) (Bevington and Hoyle 1981), hairy (B. pubescens When non-dormant seeds are placed in environments
Ehrh.), and European white birches (B. verrucosa Ehrh.) that are conducive to germination, internal processes that
(Junttila 1976); and northern catalpa (Catalpa speciosa drive the growth of the embryo start to take place. These
Warder ex Engelm.) (Fosket and Briggs 1970). There is also processes are dominated by the conversion of storage foods
evidence that the red/far-red system is operative in seeds of into soluble forms and their translocation into the embryonic
many tropical rainforest species (Vázquez-Yanes and axis. In stratified seeds, these processes have already been
Orozco-Segovia 1990). For a detailed discussion of phyto- initiated during the treatment period. In the past 25 years,
chrome and its reactions, readers should see Bewley and there has been an enormous amount of research that has
Black (1994). greatly advanced our knowledge of the biochemical mecha-
Phytochrome reactions require only a short exposure to nisms of seed germination. Although most of this research
the proper wavelength to take effect (Bewley and Black has been centered on seeds of agricultural crops, the basic
1994). Other light responses that are related to daylength processes are similar in most seeds and the conclusions
have been noted in seeds of woody plants. In terms of ger- drawn from this research can be readily extrapolated to
mination, eastern hemlock appears to have long-day light include the seeds of woody plants. A detailed discussion of
requirements of 16 hours at 27 °C, but shorter requirements biochemical changes in seed germination is beyond the
of 8 to 12 hours at 17 °C (Stearns and Olson 1958). In scope of this book. For additional information, readers
many temperate species—for example, Fraser fir (Abies should see Bewley and Black (1994), Murray (1984), and
fraseri (Pursh.) Poir). (Adkins and others 1984); sweetgum Pehap (1983).
(Bonner 1967), and ponderosa pine (Harrington 1977)— Most recent work on seeds of woody plants has been on
stratification decreases the light requirement for prompt ger- oily seeds. In these seeds, lipid reserves are converted to
mination. These responses may or may not be related in starch, which is then hydrolyzed into soluble carbohydrates
some way to phytochrome, but they demonstrate the (mainly glucose) for embryo growth. Much of this change
complex nature of the relationship of light to seeds. takes place within the storage tissues (endosperm, cotyle-
Aeration. Respiration supplies energy to germinating don, female gametophyte, or haustoria) before axis elonga-
seeds, and oxygen is a primary electron acceptor in the tion signals the start of germination, so it is difficult to say if
process (Kramer and Kozlowski 1979). Insufficient oxygen this change is part of dormancy removal or part of the ger-
is not usually a major barrier to germination, except when mination process (Arce and others 1983; Li and Ross
seeds are buried too deeply in the soil or are submerged in 1990a&b; Murphy and Hammer 1993;). Recent studies on
water. A few small seeds can germinate as they float on the gene expression and enzyme formation in several pine
surface of water—for example, willows, cottonwood species should help in this regard (Gifford and others 1991;
(Populus deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh.), and sycamore—but Murphy and Hammer 1993; Pitel and Cheliak 1988; Pitel
oxygen is usually too limiting for germination when seeds and others 1984; Salmia 1981).
are submerged. Poor oxygen supply is often a problem in Other changes within germinating embryos include the
seed testing when blotters are kept too moist. Moisture will hydrolysis of storage proteins to form amino acids and other
actually form a film around seeds and inhibit the entry of soluble nitrogenous compounds for enzyme synthesis
oxygen (Gordon and Edwards 1991).
1 Adams L. 1955. Pine squirrels reduce future crops of ponderosa pine Blakeslee GM, Dwinell LD, Anderson RL. 1980. Pitch canker of southern
cones. Journal of Forestry 53: 35. pines: identification and management considerations. For. Rep. SA-11.
Adkins CR, Hinesley LE, Blazich FA. 1984. Role of stratification, tempera- Atlanta: USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Area, State and Private
ture, and light in Fraser fir germination. Canadian Journal of Forest Forestry. 15 p.
Research 14: 88–93. Bonner FT. 1967. Germination of sweetgum seed in response to light.
Allen PH,Trousdell KB. 1961. Loblolly pine seed production in the Journal of Forestry 65: 339.
Virginia–North Carolina coastal plain. Journal of Forestry 59: 187–190. Bonner FT. 1968. Water uptake and germination of red oak acorns.
Allen RM. 1953. Release and fertilization stimulate longleaf pine cone crop. Botanical Gazzette 129: 83–85.
Journal of Forestry 51: 827. Bonner FT. 1971. Chemical contents of southern hardwood fruits and
Amling HJ, Amling KA. 1983. Physiological differentiation of pistillate flowers seeds. Res. Note SO-136. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern
of pecan and cold requirements for their initiation. Journal of the Forest Experiment Station. 3 p.
American Society of Horticultural Science 108: 195–198. Bonner FT. 1972. Maturation of sweetgum and American sycamore seeds.
Anderson NF, Guard AT. 1964. A comparative study of the vegetative, tran- Forest Science 18: 223–231.
sitional and floral apex of Acer pseudoplatanus L. Phytomorphology 14: Bonner FT. 1973. Timing collections of samaras of Fraxinus pennsylvanica
500–508. Marsh in the southern United States. In: Proceedings, International
Arce C, Buenadicha P, Sanz M. 1983. Cambios metabolicos de protein as Symposium on Seed Processing; 1973 September 4–7; Bergen, Norway.
durante el proceso de germinacion de semilla de Pinus pinea L. sometida Volume 1. Stockholm: Swedish Royal College of Forestry. [not paged].
a un periodo de estratificacion [English summary]. Anales de Edafologia Bonner FT. 1974a. Chemical components of some southern fruits and
y Agrobiologia 152: 1153–1167. seeds. Res. Note SO-183. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern
Asakawa S, Fujita K. 1966. [in Japanese with English summary: Studies on Forest Experiment Station. 3 p.
the management of seed stands: 1.The establishment of experimental Bonner FT. 1974b. Maturation of acorns of cherrybark, water, and willow
seed stands of Pinus densiflora and Larix leptolepis and the results oaks. Forest Science 20: 238–242.
obtained for three years (1962 to 1964).] Bull. 184.Tokyo: Forest Bonner FT. 1975. Maturation of black cherry fruits in central Mississippi.
Experiment Station, Meguro: 81–134 [ Forestry Abstracts (1967) 28: Res. Note SO-205. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern
486]. Forest Experiment Station. 4 p.
Barnett JP. 1969. Moisture stress affects germination of longleaf and slash Bonner FT. 1976. Maturation of Shumard and white oak acorns. Forest
pine seeds. Forest Science 15: 275–276. Science 22: 149–154.
Barnett JP. 1976a. Cone and seed maturation of southern pines. Res. Pap. Bonner FT. 1983. Germination response of loblolly pine to temperature
SO-122. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest differentials on a two-way thermogradient plate. Journal of Seed
Experiment Station. 11 p. Technology 8: 6–14.
Barnett JP. 1976b. Delayed germination of southern pine seeds related to Bonner FT. 1984. Glossary of seed germination terms for tree seed
seed coat constraint. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 6: 504–510. workers. Gen.Tech. Rep. SO-49. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service,
Barnett JP. 1979. An easy way to measure cone specific gravity. In: Karrfalt Southern Forest Experiment Station. 4 p.
RP, comp. Proceedings, Seed Collection Workshop; 1979 May 16–18; Bonner FT. 1986. Cone storage and seed quality in eastern white pine
Macon, GA. SA-TP-8. Atlanta: USDA Forest Service, State and Private (Pinus strobus).Tree Planters’ Notes 37(4): 3–6.
Forestry: 21–23. Bonner FT. 1991. Seed management. In: Duryea ML, Dougherty PM, eds.
Barrows-Broaddus J, Dwinell LD. 1985. Branch dieback and cone and seed Forest regeneration manual. Dordrecht,The Netherlands: Kluwer
infection caused by Fusarium moniliforme var. subglutinans in a loblolly Academic Publishers: 51–73.
pine seed orchard in South Carolina. Phytopathology 75: 1104–1108. Bonner FT. 1996. Unpublished data. Starkville, MS: USDA Forest Service,
Barton LV. 1934. Dormancy in Tilia seeds. Contributions of the Boyce Southern Research Station.
Thompson Institute 6: 69–89. Bonner FT, Farmer RE Jr. 1966. Germination of sweetgum in response to
Bawa KS, Hadley M., eds. 1990. Reproductive ecology of tropical forest temperature, moisture stress, and length of stratification. Forest Science
plants. MAB Series,Volume 7, Reproductive ecology of tropical forest 12: 40–43.
plants. Paris: UNESCO. 421 p. Bonner FT, Harrington CA. 1993. Overcoming dormancy in loblolly pine
Bazzaz FA, Ackerly DD. 1992. Reproductive allocation and reproductive (Pinus taeda L.). In: Edwards DGW, comp. Dormancy and barriers to
effort in plants. In: Fenner M, ed. Seeds: the ecology of regeneration in germination. Proceedings, Symposium of IUFRO Project Group P2.04-
plant communities. Wallingford, UK: CAB International: 1–26. 00, Seed Problems. 1991 April 23–26;Victoria, BC.Victoria, BC, Canada:
Bedard WD. 1968. The sugar pine cone beetle. For. Pest Leaf. 112. Forestry Canada, Pacific Forestry Centre: 17–22.
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 6 p. Bonner FT,Vozzo JA. 1987. Seed biology and technology of Quercus. Gen.
Bennett E. 1966. Partial chemical composition of four species of coniferous Tech. Rep. SO-66. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest
seeds. Forest Science 12: 316–318. Experiment Station. 21 p.
Bent AC. 1932. Life histories of North American gallinaceous birds. Bull. Bonner FT,Vozzo JA, Elam WW, Land SB Jr. 1994. Tree seed technology
162. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, United States National training course. Instructor’s manual. Gen.Tech. Rep. SO-106. New
Museum. 490 p. Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station.
Bent AC. 1939. Life histories of North American woodpeckers. Bull. 174. 160 p.
Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, United States National Bormann BT. 1983. Ecological implications of phytochrome-mediated seed
Museum [Dover Publications edition]. 334 p. germination in red alder. Forest Science 29: 734–738.
Bent AC. 1946. Life histories of North American jays, crows, and titmice. Bouvier-Durand M, Dawidowicz-Grzegorzewska A,Thevenot C, Come D.
Bull. 191. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, United States 1984. Dormancy of apple embryos: are starch and reserve protein
National Museum. 495 p. changes related to dormancy breaking? Canadian Journal of Botany 62:
Bent AC. 1949. Life histories of North American thrushes, kinglets, and 2308–2315.
their allies. Bull. 196. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, United Bramlett DL. 1972. Cone crop development records for six years in short-
States National Museum. 439 p. leaf pine. Forest Science 18: 31–33.
Bevington JM, Hoyle MC. 1981. Phytochrome action during prechilling Brinkman KA. 1974. Tilia L., basswood, linden. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech.
induced germination of Betula papyrifera Marsh. Plant Physiology 67: coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450.
705–710. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 810–814.
Bewley JD, Black M. 1994. Seeds: physiology of development and germina- Brown CL, Kirkman LK. 1990. Trees of Georgia and adjacent states.
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Bey CF. 1990. Ulmus americana L., American elm. In: Burns RM, Honkala BH, Burrows GE, Stockey RA. 1994. The developmental anatomy of cryptogeal
tech. coord. Silvics of North America.Volume 2, Hardwoods. Agric. germination in bunya pine (Araucaria bidwillii). International Journal of
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Bilan MV. 1960. Stimulation of cone and seed production in pole-size Buyak AV. 1975. [The wood increment of Picea abies in relation to fruiting
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Seed biology • 37
1
Dr. Lantz retired from the USDA Forest Service, Southern Region’s Cooperative Forestry Staff,
Atlanta, Georgia, and is currently reforestation consultant in Granbury,Texas
Contents
Introduction 40 Selecting Plus Trees 48
Terminology 40 Selecting Orchard Sites 48
Allocation of Resources 40 Establishment 48
Monoculture 40 Management 48
Gene Conservation 40 Pollen Contamination 48
Tree Improvement Versus Crop Improvement 41 Supplemental Mass Pollination 49
The Biology of the Species 41 Harvesting 49
Concepts of Genetic Improvement 42 Genetic Gains 49
Phenotype and Genotype 42 Advanced-Generation Breeding 49
The Genetic Code 43 Seedling Seed Orchards 50
Chromosome Numbers 43 Accelerated Breeding 50
Selection 43 Deployment of Genetically Improved Material 50
Hybridization 43 Seed Zones 50
Testing for Breeding Value 44 Genotype × Environment Interactions 51
Screening for Fusiform Rust Resistance 44 Single-Family Block Plantations 51
Screening for White Pine Blister Rust Resistance 44 Molecular Biology 51
Advanced Generation Breeding 45 Isozymes 51
Starting a Tree Improvement Program 45 Gene Mapping 52
Establishing Objectives 45 Fingerprinting 52
Identifying the Raw Material To Be Used 45 Genetic Engineering 52
Native versus exotic species 45 Tree Improvement Cooperatives 52
Successful introductions of exotics 45 The South 52
Land races 45 The Pacific Northwest 53
Geographic variation 46 The Inland Empire 53
Utilizing the Raw Material 47 California 53
Seed production areas 47 The Great Lakes Region 53
Clonal seed orchards 48 The Future 53
References 55
Chapter 2: Introduction • 41
wind-pollinated species. The majority of commercial timber Figure 1—Chapter 2, Genetic Improvement of Forest
2 Trees: hybrid poplar plantation in Oregon planted from
species are both wind-pollinated and monoecious, producing
both male and female “flowers” (cones or stroboli) on the unrooted cuttings.
same tree. The location of these stroboli usually favors
cross-pollination. For example, most conifers bear female
cones in the upper areas of the crown with the male cones
below, usually favoring cross-pollination rather than self-
pollination.
Cross-pollination, in most plants, is an adaptation
designed to increase heterozygosity, which is usually linked
to vigorous growth, high fertility, and strong resistance to
attack by pathogens. Conversely, self-pollination often leads
to poor growth, weakness, and reduced fertility. Most breed-
ing programs are designed to favor cross-pollination for
these reasons.
Some tree species are dioecious, with the sexes separat-
ed on different trees. Members of the following genera are
dioecious: ash (Fraxinus L.); holly (Ilex L.); juniper
Concepts of Genetic Improvement
(Juniperus L.); poplar, cottonwood, and aspen (Populus L.); Phenotype and Genotype
willow (Salix L.); and yew (Taxus L.). Fortunately, many of When we look at an individual Sitka spruce (Picea
these genera can be propagated vegetatively. Also, in the sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.), a cherrybark oak (Quercus
case of the poplars, cross-pollination can be accomplished pagodafolia Raf.), a Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus
very quickly on a greenhouse bench by simply brushing scopulorum Sarg.), or even an Angus bull, for example, we
pollen onto the receptive female flowers (Miller 1970). see a phenotype, a living organism with its own unique
Precocious (early flowering) species are adaptable to genetic constitution, as modified by its environment. In con-
seedling seed orchards because they produce flowers at a trast, the genotype of the organism is encoded in its DNA.
young age and their seed production is abundant. Examples Each tree, therefore, has its own individual set of genetic
include Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana P. Mill.), sand pine blueprints. These are the instructions that will determine the
(P. clausa (Chapman ex Engelm.) Vasey ex Sarg.), lodge- genetic potential of its progeny.
pole pine (P. contorta Dougl. ex Loud.), and European black The formula that “phenotype is the product of the geno-
alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.). Species that can be veg- type as affected by its environment” is often written as P =
etatively propagated present unique opportunities because G + E. The phenotype is the organism that we see, measure,
sexual reproduction is not necessary, and, therefore, the and with which we work. Life would be much simpler if the
recombination of parental characteristics can be avoided. genotype was as obvious! Geneticists spend a great deal of
Species such as eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides their time and energy working to ascertain the actual geno-
Bartr. ex Marsh.) can be produced vegetatively with unroot- type of their target organism. A major reason for progeny
ed stem cuttings planted directly in the field (figure 1). testing is to gain a better understanding of the genotypes of
Other species require rooting under special conditions the selections that we are breeding. Recent advances in gene
before they can survive field planting. These include mapping with loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) (Sewell and
Monterey pine (Pinus radiata D. Don), Norway spruce Neale 1995) indicate that real progress is being made with
(Picea abies (L.) Karst.), tsugi (Cryptomeria japonica (L.f.) the description of the loblolly genome. Some day we will
D. Don), Alaska-cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis (D. understand the genomes of important commercial conifers
Don) Spach), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.), and as well as we understand common research bacteria and the
sycamore (Platanus occidentalis L). common fruit fly.
Advanced Generation Breeding • They have evolved in harmony with their environment
Advanced generation breeding is usually designed with and usually have developed a mutual tolerance with
a combination of selections from first generation progeny competitors and pathogens. Exotics, on the other hand,
test plantations in conjunction with new selections from may not perform well in a new environment—they
operational plantations or other sources. A major advantage have not been exposed to the stresses of this new envi-
of selection in plantations is that the environment is usually ronment and often have not had sufficient time to adapt
more uniform than in natural stands. Tree age, spacing, and to local conditions.
soils are often relatively uniform, with the result that the • Native species have well-defined management regimes
phenotype more closely approaches the genotype. In this that have been tested over time. Reforestation person-
case, selection is more efficient and gain can be increased. nel have learned how to grow, ship, store and plant the
In most advanced generation breeding plans the best individ- seedlings or cuttings.
uals are selected from the best families. It is important, how-
ever, to separate the production population from the breed- An exotic species introduced into a new environment
ing population to minimize the effects of inbreeding (Lowe does not necessarily produce wood with the same character-
and van Buijtenen 1986). istics as in its place of origin. Excessive amounts of juvenile
wood are common, as are wide bands of earlywood and nar-
Starting a Tree Improvement Program row bands of latewood. These growth patterns lead to low-
density wood and drying defects (Zobel 1981). There are
Establishing Objectives
notable exceptions, such as Monterey pines grown in New
Before a tree improvement program is begun, the situa-
Zealand, but in general the wood quality of native species is
tion needs comprehensive analysis. Tree improvement is
more desirable than that of exotics.
long-term work, and a great deal of time and energy can be
Public opinion is running strongly in favor of native
saved with some careful planning. The following factors
species both in the United States and overseas. Plantation
should be considered.
forestry with exotic species has encountered strong public
1. Desired products
resistance in a number of locations.
Wood properties necessary to produce the desired
Successful introductions of exotics. There have been
products
many successful introductions of exotic species world-wide
Required volume of wood
(table 3). Native U.S. species have been introduced into
2. Possible species
other countries, especially Monterey pine, a minor species in
Native or exotic (long-term consequences of using
coastal California that has become the backbone of the for-
exotic species?)
est products industry in New Zealand, a country with few
Rotation length (shorter rotations give major
conifers of economic importance. Monterey pine has also
improvements in gain per unit time)
done well in Australia, Chile, and South Africa. Douglas-fir
3. Chosen reforestation system
and Sitka spruce, both native to the Pacific Northwest, have
Seed propagation or vegetative?
been widely planted in Great Britain and northern Europe.
Bareroot or container seedlings? Several of the southern pines have been widely planted in
Storage and distribution methods Australia, South America, and South Africa.
Planting techniques and cultural procedures Land races. When the decision has been made to use
4. Plantation evaluation/survival system a given exotic species, the question arises as to the source of
Required personnel material to be used. Often it is more efficient to select within a
Numbers and skill levels land race of the species rather than the original population in
Required facilities and equipment its native environment. A land race has become adapted to
Required long-term budgets
Table 3—Chapter 2, Genetic Improvement of Forest Trees: examples of exotic species used in plantation forestry
Location of planting
North Central South Australia &
Origin America America America Europe Africa New Zealand
North America
Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr. X
Pinus elliotti var. elliotti Engelm. X X X X
Pinus radiata D. Don X X
Pinus taeda L. X X X X
Populus L. spp. X
Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco X X
Central America
Pinus caribea Morelet X X
Pinus oocarpa Schiede ex. Schltdl. X X
Europe
Picea abies L. X
Populus L. spp. X
Asia
Gmelina arborea Roxb. X X
Tectona grandis L. f. X X X
Australia/New Zealand
Eucalyptus L.Her. spp. X X X X
Figure 4—Chapter 2, Genetic Improvement of Forest Figure 5—Chapter 2, Genetic Improvement of Forest
Trees: the range of Douglas-fir, with the 2 varieties Trees: longleaf pine seed production area in Georgia.
separated by a black line.
Table 4—Chapter 2, Genetic Improvement of Forest Trees: loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) plantation* performance illustrates the
importance of geographic sources of seed
Management
Figure 6—Chapter 2, Genetic Improvement of Forest Most seed orchards are fertilized to promote flowering
Trees: loblolly pine clonal seed orchard in Arkansas. and some are irrigated to reduce the impact of moisture
stress. Insect control is essential for maximum seed produc-
tion. In the absence of cone and seed insect control, Belcher
and DeBarr (1975) have estimated that 11% of the loblolly
cones were attacked by cone worms (Dioryctria spp.). In
their report on 26 seed orchards surveyed over 3 years, an
average of 9.9% of the collected seeds were damaged by
insects. There was a large amount of clonal variation, as the
range of cone worm attack was from 0 to 67%, depending
on clonal susceptibility.
More recently, Jett and Hatcher (1987) reported that
cone worms can cause losses exceeding 90% of loblolly
cones when pesticides are not used.
Pollen Contamination
Most seed orchards are located with some consideration
for pollen contamination. Unfortunately economics often
Abbott JE. 1974. Introgressive hybridization between shortleaf and loblolly Cole DE. 1963. Management of pine seed production areas. In:
pine in southeast Oklahoma [MS thesis]. Stillwater: Oklahoma State Proceedings, 7th Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference; 1963
University, Department of Forestry. 32 p. June 26–27; Gulfport, MS: 44–49.
Adams WT, Birkes DS. 1989. Mating patterns in seed orchards. In: Conkle MT. 1981. Isozyme variation and linkage in six conifer species. In:
Proceedings, 20th Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference; 1989 Proceedings, Symposium on Isozymes of North American Forest Trees
June 26–30; Charleston, SC. Clemson, SC: Clemson University and and Insects. Gen.Tech. Rep. PSW-48. Corvallis, OR: USDA Forest Service,
Westvaco: 75–86. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: 11–17.
Barnes BV, Dancik BB, Sharik TL. 1974. Natural hybridization of yellow birch Copes DL. 1967. A simple method for detecting incompatibility in 2-yr-old
and paper birch. Forest Science 20 (3): 215–221. grafts of Douglas-fir. Res. Note 70. Corvallis OR: USDA Forest Service,
Belcher E. DeBarr.G. 1975. Seed orchard survey: final report and summary Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station.
of highlights. In: Proceedings, 13th Southern Forest Tree Improvement Daniels J. 1994. Production and deployment of woods-run and orchard
Conference. Raleigh: North Carolina State University, School of Forestry: seed in the Pacific Northwest: an overview of programs and issues
145–149. [unpublished report]. Centralia, WA: Daniels & Associates, Forest
Bengston GW. 1969. Growth and flowering of clones of slash pine under Genetics Consultants: 2–7.
intensive culture: early results. Res. Pap. SE-46. Asheville, NC: USDA Dorman KW. 1976. The genetics and breeding of southern pines. Agric.
Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 9 p. Handbk 471. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 407 p.
Bower RC, Ross SD, Eastham AM. 1986. Management of a western hem- Easley LT. 1963. Growth of loblolly pine from seed produced in a seed
lock containerized seed orchard. In: Proceedings, IUFRO Conference on production area vs. nursery run stock. Journal of Forestry 61: 388–389.
Breeding Theory, Progeny Testing and Seed Orchards; Williamsburg,VA. El-Kassaby YA,Yeh FC, Sziklai O. 1986. Clonal and seedling seed orchards: a
Raleigh NC: North Carolina State University–Industry Cooperative Tree comparison of outcrossing rates and heterozygosity in coastal Douglas-
Improvement Program: 604–612. fir using allozyme markers. In: Proceedings, IUFRO Conference on
Bower RC, McKinley CR. 1987. Effects of related and unrelated graft part- Breeding Theory, Progeny Testing, and Seed Orchards; 1986 October
ners in slash pine. In: Proceedings, 19th Southern Forest Tree 13–17; Williamsburg,VA. Raleigh: North Carolina State Industry
Improvement Conference. College Station TX:Texas Forest Service and Cooperative Tree Improvement Program: 10–421.
Texas Agricultural Experiment Station: 269B274. Fowler DP, Morris RW. 1977. Genetic diversity in red pine; evidence for
Bramlett DL, Burris LC. 1995. Topworking young scions into reproductively low genetic heterozygosity. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 7(2):
mature loblolly pine. In: Proceedings, 23rd Southern Forest Tree 343–347.
Improvement Conference; June 20–22; Asheville, NC. Raleigh: North Franklin EC. 1981. Pollen management handbook. Agric. Handbk. 587.
Carolina State University–Industry Cooperative Tree Improvement Washington DC: USDA Forest Service. 98 p.
Program: 234–241. Gladstone WT, Bean PM, Hughes JH,Talbert CB. 1987. A challenge for tree
Bramlett DL, Godbee JF Jr. 1982. Inventory-monitoring system for southern improvement. In: Proceedings, 19th Southern Forestry Tree Improvement
pine seed orchards. For. Res. Pap. 28. Macon: Georgia Forestry Conference; 1987 June 16–18. College Station:Texas Forest Service,
Commission. 19 p. Texas Agricultural Experiment Station: 1–7.
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southern pine flowers. Gen.Tech. Rep. SE-18. Asheville NC: USDA Forest effect of age, gibberellin plus water stress and out-of-phase dormancy on
Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 14 p. long shoot growth behavior. American Journal Botany 68: 1184–1190.
Bramlett DL, Askew GR, Blush TD, Bridgwater FE, Jett JB. 1993. Advances in Harry DE, Neale DB. 1993. Developing codominant PCR markers in pines.
pollen management. Agric. Handbk. 698. Washington DC: USDA Forest In: Proceedings, 22nd Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference;
Service. 101 p. 1993 June 14–17; Atlanta. Atlanta: USDA Forest Service, Southern
Bramlett DL, Belcher EW Jr, DeBarr GL, Hertel GD, Karrfalt RP, Lantz CW, Region; Institute of Paper Science and Technology; Georgia Forestry
Miller T, Ware KD,Yates HO III. 1977. Cone analysis of southern pines: Commission; and University of Georgia Cooperative Extension Service:
a guidebook. Gen.Tech. Rep. SE-13. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Service, 249–256.
Southeasstern Forest Experiment Station. 28 p. Hodge G, White GT, Powell G, Rockwood D. 1995. Cooperative Forest
Brewbaker JL. 1967. Comparison of tree improvement programs with crop Genetics Research Program: 37th annual progress report. Gainesville:
breeding programs In: Proceedings, 9th Southern Forest Tree University of Florida, School of Forest Resources and Conservation: 55.
Improvement Conference. Knoxville: University of Tennessee and Hyun SK. 1976. Interspecific hybridization in pines with special reference to
Tennessee Valley Authority. P. rigida x taeda. Silvae Genetica 25 (5/6): 188–191.
Bridgwater FE, Blush TD, NC Wheeler. 1993. Supplemental mass pollination. Jett JB. 1986. Reaching full production: a review of seed orchard manage-
In: Bramlett DL, Askew GR, Blush TD, Bridgwater FE, Jett JB, eds. ment in the SE US. In: Proceedings, IUFRO Conference on Breeding
Advances in pollen management. Agric. Handbk. 698. Washington DC: Theory, Progeny Testing and Seed Orchards; 1986 October 13–17;
USDA Forest Service: 69–77. Williamsburg,VA. Raleigh: North Carolina State UniversityBIndustry
Campinos E Jr. 1980. More wood of better quality through intensive silvi- Cooperative Tree Improvement Program: 34–58
culture with rapid growth improved Brazilian eucalyptus.TAPPI 63(11): Jett JB, Hatcher AV. 1987. Seed orchard management. In:Tree Improvement
145–147. Shortcourse Raleigh: North Carolina State UniversityBIndustry
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gene transfer in American chestnut. In: Proceedings, 22nd Southern Kellison RC. 1997. Production forestry into the 21st century: a world view.
Forest Tree Improvement Conference; Atlanta, GA. Atlanta: USDA Forest In: Proceedings, 24th Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference;
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Ching KK. 1978. Seeds. In: Cleary BD, Greaves RD, Hermann RK, eds. screening center procedures manual. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest
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Coggeshall MV, Beineke WF. 1986. The use of multiple breeding populations Mountain trees. Silvae Genetica 21: 77–85
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Mr. Karrfalt is director of the USDA Forest Service’s National Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, Georgia.
Contents
Introduction 58 Seed Extraction 68
Harvesting 58 Fleshy fruits 68
Planning and Preparation 58 Dry fruits 69
Quantities to collect 58 Conifer seeds 71
Positive species identification 58 Cleaning and Upgrading 73
Seed structures 60 Removing trash with air 73
Seed maturity 60 Removing trash with screens 73
Seed Acquisition 63 Removing sticks and needles 75
Collection 63 Removing trash with static electricity 76
Purchase 65 Removing trash by rolling and sliding 76
Lot identity 66 Spiral separators also use rollability 77
Transportation 66 Improving quality with specific gravity tables 77
Seed Cleaning and Conditioning 66 Upgrading quality with liquids 78
Post-Harvest Storage 66 Conveying seeds 80
Quality Control 81
References 83
Table 1—Chapter 3, Seed Harvesting and Conditioning: the questions to answer in computing the amount of seeds
to collect
Calculated quantity
Question Value of seeds needed Example
tional challenge is presented when the scientific names are of a seedlot can easily be lost. Collecting and preserving
debated by taxonomists. Genera such as locust (Robinia L.) leaf, bud, and twig samples along with a seedlot can serve as
and blueberry (Vaccinium L.) have gone through extensive an excellent check on species identity. Collecting these veg-
reclassifications. Therefore, careful attention to nomencla- etative parts is important for seed collectors who lack
ture and good record keeping are very important in main- knowledge of botany. Later, knowledgeable persons can
taining control over regeneration work. This is especially verify the identity of a seedlot from the vegetative parts.
true when many diverse species are involved. The finished Careful seed-source identification is also vital. Not prop-
seeds of many related species are impossible to identify and erly documenting the source of a seedlot can be as disas-
separate. Without good collection records, the true identity trous as misidentifying the species, perhaps even more so,
Table 3—Chapter 3, Seed Harvesting and Conditioning: sound seed yield per cone for 4 pine species as estimated
from the number of sound seeds exposed when cones are bisected longitudinally
Sound seeds Pinus palustris Pinus taeda Pinus elliottii Pinus elliottii Pinus echinata
exposed (Louisiana) (Louisiana) (Louisiana) (Georgia-Florida) (Virginia)
2 23 31 20 31 12
4 35 44 35 50 22
6 47 57 50 69 31
8 59 70 65 87 41
10 71 83 80 106 51
12 83 96 95 124 60
14 95 109 110 143 70
heating or fermentation during these steps to soften the fruit, Figure 16—Chapter 3, Seed Harvesting and Conditioning:
for any buildup of high temperatures or alcohols from fer- a grinder can also be used to crush fleshy fruits for seed
mentation can be lethal to the seeds. However, regular extraction.
exchange of soak water will easily prevent this problem.
Dry fruits. Non-fleshy, or dry, orthodox fruits or seed-
bearing structures—for example, those of pine, larch, and
sycamore—usually require drying as a first step for both
dehiscent and indehiscent types. The most common way to
achieve this is to heat ambient air to temperatures that result
in the relative humidity dropping to about 30%. Some loca-
tions have air that is naturally dry and require little or no
heat to achieve the necessary drying conditions. Other loca-
tions may have high ambient relative humidities, which must
be measured to be certain an adequate drying temperature is
used. In many locations the ambient conditions can fluctu-
ate, and the drying temperature should be adjusted to meet
the current conditions for best economy and efficiency of
drying. Always using the same drying temperature could
result in using a temperature higher than necessary, wasting
fuel, or a temperature that might not dry the air enough.
Table 4 shows what the maximum ambient relative humidity
can be for a given drier temperature and ambient air temper-
ature combination, while maintaining relative humidities of RH is shown as 58. In this case, it would be necessary to use
30% or less in the drier. The numbers in the body of the a drier temperature of 35 °C , for which the maximum per-
table are the maximum ambient relative humidities. For missible ambient RH is 71%, as shown in the table. The
example, at 20 °C and 65% RH, a drier temperature of maximum drier temperature that should be used is 43 °C. If
30 °C is too low, because the maximum permissible ambient this temperature must be exceeded to obtain dry air, first dry
Table 4—Chapter 3, Seed Harvesting and Conditioning: maximum recommended ambient relative humidity values for
drying seeds, cones, and fruits with heated air at various drier temperatures from 24 to 43 °C
Figure 27—Chapter 3, Seed Harvesting and Conditioning: After the correct type of hole has been determined, the
a laboratory blower removes trash with positive pressure. proper size of hole is selected. Several screens are stacked
on top of each other with the largest size screen on top and
each successive screen the next size smaller. As an example,
screens could be stacked from top to bottom in this order:
12, 11, 10, 9. The next step is to pour a sample of seeds on
the stack of screens and shake the stack back and forth.
Disassembling the stack reveals which sizes made the best
separation. Typically, one size will hold both seeds and
trash. A decision must be made whether to keep some trash
in the seeds, discard some seeds with the trash, or take the
mixed fraction and separate it in some other manner. When
trash is left in the seeds, we are saying that we can live with
that level of contamination. When some seeds are discarded
with the trash, we are saying that we can afford to loose
some seeds because the higher level of purity is worth the
cost of the lost seeds. When the mixed fraction is cleaned,
we are saying we need all the seeds but cannot afford the
lower purity and are willing to pay for extra cleaning.
Once the screens have been selected, the air-screen or
oblong-hole screens for difference in thickness. An example screen machine should be set up. In a 2-screen machine, the
of a thickness separation is the sieving of flattened immature top screen would be the one that held the most trash and the
seeds out of redbud (Cercis canadensis L.). Slotted screens bottom screen the one that passed the desired amount of
easily remove the wire staples that get into pine seeds when small trash. Remember that there might be a few seeds in
net collection systems are used. The separation of cone the large trash or the small trash so that purity is higher, or
scales from pine seeds is another example of separation by some trash may be left in the seeds to keep every seed possi-
width. ble. For machines with 3 or more screens, additional frac-
tions can be created. The effectiveness of the screen in the
rolled against the sides of the beaker. After the trash has
clung to the sides of the beaker, the clean seeds can be
poured out. Plastic cups can substitute for the glass beaker.
Removing trash by rolling and sliding. Another
characteristic that can be used to separate seeds and trash is
surface texture, or the ability to slide or roll down a slope.
Conifer seeds, especially larch or white pines, can contain a
the lighter material, not toss it into the air. This more gentle in diameter sort to the same location on the gravity table.
air flow results in a finer stratification of particles by weight A final point on gravity table operation is the need for
than is possible in the air columns of blowers and aspirators. seedlots need to be clean of light trash. Otherwise a great
To pull the light and heavy particles apart, the deck shakes deal of dust will be blown into the operator‘s face and create
back and forth and is tilted sideways to oppose the direction an unhealthy, unpleasant, and difficult working situation.
of the shake. The shake of the deck pushes the heavy parti- Upgrading quality with liquids. Fluid separations
cles up the hill while the light particles drift down the slope, based on difference in specific gravity are another way to
floating on top of the heavier seeds and pulled down the upgrade seeds. The separation sorts lighter seeds from heav-
slope by gravity. This stratification of particles by weight ier, but because differences in specific gravity are used, the
and separation by the use of the shake and slope continues problems of dimensional sorting are avoided. Fluid separa-
as the seed mass works its way across the deck, giving a tions can be very precise separations based on weight. Water
continuous gradation of particle weights until the heaviest flotation, the simplest version of this, for example, can be
are at the top, intermediate weights are in the middle, and used to remove insect-damaged acorns. The good seeds,
the lightest are at the bottom. When seedlots are upgraded being high in moisture content, will have specific gravities
on gravity table, the lightest particles can be empty seeds, greater than 1.0 and will sink. Seeds that have been dam-
cone particles, straw, partially filled seeds, or even good- aged significantly by insects will contain air and therefore
quality seeds that are lower in weight. The heavier particles will float (figure 38). Water can also float empty stony-coat-
are usually the heaviest good-quality seeds but might also be ed seeds such as loblolly pine or cherries; the full seeds of
pitch, stones, dirt balls, or tramp metal that has fallen into these species will sink. Mixtures of hexane and chloroform
the seeds. have been used to separate lighter seeds from empty or par-
Dimensional grading of seedlots before using the gravity tially filled seeds (Taylor and others 1982). However, phyto-
table improves the effectiveness of the table and may even toxicity needs to be tested before broadly adopting fluid sep-
be essential. Grading should be done both by width, thick- aration using organic solvents (Barnett 1970).
ness, and, if possible, length. The more dimensional grading In Sweden, the fluid separation of Scots pine (Pinus
is done, the better the table will work. The table sorts by sylvestris L.) and lodgepole pine has reached a highly
density or dimension but never effectively for both at the sophisticated level in the processes called PREVAC (“pre-
same time. For example, partially filled large-diameter seeds vacuum”) and IDS (incubate, dry, separate) (Simak 1984;
and same-weight seeds that are completely filled but smaller Bergsten 1993). The PREVAC system removes seeds with
Table 5—Chapter 3, Seed Harvesting and Conditioning: the application and interpretation of various seed
tests to seed conditioning
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Young JA, Budy JD, Evans R. 1983. Germination of seeds of wildland plants.
In: Proceedings, Intermountain Nurseryman‘s Association Conference;
1983 August 8–11; Las Vegas, NV. 93 p.
Zensen F. 1980. Improved processing techniques for western larch.Tree
Planters, Notes 31(4): 23–25.
Storage of Seeds
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Contents
Introduction 86 Storage Facilities 92
Factors Affecting Longevity of Seeds 86 Cold storage 92
Seed Characteristics 86 Containers 92
Basic seed physiology 86 Moisture Control 93
Seed morphology 88 Storage Recommendation 93
Chemical composition 88 Orthodox Seeds 93
Seed maturity 89 Temperate-Recalcitrant Seeds 94
Seed Handling Prior to Storage 89 Tropical-Recalcitrant Seeds 94
Storage Environment 89 Cryogenic Storage 94
Moisture 89 Other Management Considerations 94
Temperature 90 References 95
Atmosphere 91
Sources: Bonner (1990), Clausen (1967), Jones (1987), Springfield (1968, 1973, 1974),Tylkowski (1987),Wang and others (1993).
Table 2—Chapter 4, Storage of Seeds: storage test results for some sub-orthodox species
Sources: Bonner (1990), Fechner and others (1981),Wang and others (1982).
intermediate seed behavior was done with coffee (Coffea (Acer) is such a genus. Silver maple (Acer saccharinum L.)
arabica L.) (Ellis and others 1990), and although no forest is clearly temperate-recalcitrant in nature (Tylkowski 1984),
tree species have been identified as intermediate as yet, but red maple (A. rubrum L.) can be dried to 10% seed
there is a very good chance that some will fit this classifica- moisture content and is either true orthodox or sub-ortho-
tion. dox. Among tropical species, the genus Araucaria Juss. has
There are several genera that contain both orthodox and a similar distinction. Araucaria cunninghamii Aiton ex D.
recalcitrant species. In the Northern Temperate Zone, maple Don is orthodox in nature, and A. hunsteinii K. Schum. &
Acer saccharinum L. –3 50 18 8
Quercus macrocarpa Michx. 1 44 6 None
Q. pagoda Raf. 3 35 30 6
Q. robur L. –1 40–45 29 31–61
Q. rubra L. –1 to –3 38–45 17 18–46
Q. virginiana P. Mill. 2 — 12 35
Table 4—Chapter 4, Storage of Seeds: storage test results for tropical recalcitrant species
Hollrung is tropical-recalcitrant (Tompsett 1982). There are and Nyssa L., help protect the embryos from mechanical
undoubtedly other genera, still unidentified, with these damage during collection and conditioning. The thinner or
characteristics. softer a seedcoat may be, the more likely that the seed has a
Placing seeds into these precisely defined groups of shorter storage life because of rapid moisture uptake or
storage behavior is often tenuous, however, because recalci- bruising of internal seed tissues. Thin seedcoats may be a
trance is not an all-or-nothing characteristic (Berjak and significant factor in storage difficulties of Acer rubrum L.,
Pammenter 1996). There is a great deal of natural variation, Pinus palustris P. Mill., and Populus L. spp., but there is no
and species should be viewed as lying somewhere along a direct evidence of this.
spectrum that stretches from extreme orthodoxy to extreme Chemical composition. General observations of seed
recalcitrance. Furthermore, as technology improves, a behavior in storage has suggested that chemical composition
species may not be what it was once thought to be. Fagus L. is an important factor in longevity; for example, oily seeds
was once thought to be recalcitrant, but with carefully con- do not store as well as starchy seeds. One can find support
trolled drying, seeds of this genus can attain low moisture for this concept with the relatively poor performance in stor-
contents and an extended storage life at subfreezing temper- age of Carya Nutt. spp., Juglans L. spp., and Sassafras
atures (Bonnet-Masimbert and Muller 1975; Suszka 1975) albidum (Nutt.) Nees, all oily seeds, and the relatively good
and should now be considered as sub-orthodox in storage performance of Celtis laevigata Willd., Fraxinus L. spp.,
behavior. and Platanus occidentalis L., all starchy seeds (Bonner
Seed morphology. Seed morphology is important to 1971). Exceptions to this rule abound, however. Oily seeds
the storage life of seeds in the context of protection for the of Liquidambar styraciflua L. as well as Pinus taeda L.,
embryo. The hard seedcoats of species of the Leguminosae and many other conifers keep very well in proper storage.
help maintain the low level of metabolism in these dry Within Quercus L., acorns of the black oaks, which are
orthodox seeds by excluding moisture and oxygen. Hard, somewhat oily with very little carbohydrate, store longer
thick seedcoats, such as those of Carya Nutt., Cornus L., than acorns of the white oaks, which are full of carbohy-
Table 6—Chapter 4, Storage of Seeds: equilibrium moisture content at 4 to 5 ºC and 3 relative humidities
for some seeds
Figure 2 —Chapter 4, Storage of Seeds: equilibrium function of both temperature and length of exposure. On at
moisture contents at 25 ºC for 4 recalcitrant oak (Quercus least one occasion, sub-freezing temperatures for a week
L.) species.White oak (Q. alba L.) has the lowest lipid con- killed all Quercus acorns that were on the ground or still on
tent; water oak (Q. nigra L.) the highest (adapted from the trees in central Louisiana. On the other hand, exposure
Bonner and others 1994). to sub-freezing temperatures for 3 days on the ground, with
a minimum of around –10 °C at night, did not kill acorns of
Quercus pagoda Raf. in Mississippi (Bonner 1992). This
question will require research to provide a satisfactory
answer.
Tropical-recalcitrant seeds have a much higher lethal
minimum temperature than temperate species. Chilling
damage and death will occur below 12 to 20 °C, depending
on the species. Among the species included in this book,
only certain Araucaria Juss. can be considered as tropical-
recalcitrant species. Because there are no ice crystals
formed at these temperatures, the chilling damage in these
seeds must have a different physiological basis than dam-
age in temperate-recalcitrant seeds.
A number of conifer species can be partially redried
after stratification and returned to storage when planting is
delayed. Seed moisture contents may be over 20% in such
cases, so subfreezing temperatures cannot be used. Good
results have been obtained by storing stratified seeds of
If seeds have impermeable seedcoats that will inhibit the ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir with seed moisture contents
uptake of moisture and oxygen from the surrounding atmos- of around 26% at 2 °C for 9 months (Danielson and Tanaka
phere, they can be stored for a number of years at room 1978).
temperature. The primary examples of such storage come Atmosphere. Reduction of oxygen levels will slow
from seeds of the Leguminosae (Bonner 1990). metabolism and increase longevity of seeds, but it is not
Recalcitrant seeds require different conditions. practical to regulate this factor precisely in operational stor-
Temperate recalcitrant seeds can be stored at or just below age situations. In past years, seeds of Populus L. species
freezing (–3 °C) (table 3), but lower temperatures for just a were often stored in vacuum desiccators to extend storage
few months will kill them (Bonner 1973), apparently due to life; the beneficial effect in this case was reduction of oxy-
intracellular ice formation. The lethal exposures for temper- gen for metabolism. (Proper drying and refrigeration have
ate-recalcitrant seeds are poorly defined and appear to be a replaced vacuum storage for Populus now.) Recalcitrant
Moisture Control
Refrigerated storage units can be made with controlled
humidity so that orthodox seeds can be stored in unsealed
containers without danger of moisture absorption. At the low
temperatures usually employed for tree seeds, however, this
feature would be very expensive. It is much cheaper to dry
the seeds and store them in sealed containers. If recalcitrant
seeds are stored in the same facility as orthodox seeds,
Small seedlots can be stored in polyethylene bags or dehumidification could not be used because of desiccation
bottles (figure 6). All plastic is not the same, however; low- damage to the recalcitrant seeds. Dehumidification is also a
density polyethylene with water vapor transmission rates of factor when seeds are stored in household refrigerators.
4 g/m2/day or lower at 25 °C is good for seeds (Lauridsen Most currently manufactured refrigerators are frost-free,
and others 1992). This requirement is met by polyethylene which means that the moisture has been removed from the
bags with a wall thickness of 0.075 to 0.1 mm (3 to 4 mils). inside atmosphere. In such units recalcitrant seeds will
As temperature is lowered, permeability of these materials quickly become desiccated if care is not taken.
decreases (Stubsgaard 1992). The common household freez-
er bags in the United States meet this thickness requirement, Storage Recommendations
but most sandwich bags do not. Bags thinner than 0.075 mm Orthodox Seeds
should not be used, because they are too permeable to mois- All orthodox seeds should be stored in moisture-proof,
ture vapor. For recalcitrant seeds, maximum bag wall thick- sealed containers with seed moisture contents of 5 to 10%.
4
Barnett JP,Vozzo JA. 1985. Viability and vigor of slash and shortleaf pine Kardell L. 1973. [in Swedish; with English summary: Studies on pine seeds
seeds after 50 years of storage. Forest Science 31: 316–320. from northern Sweden: 2. Investigations on storage of pine cones and
Berjak P, Pammenter NW. 1996. Recalcitrant (desiccation-sensitive) seeds. pine seeds (Pinus silvestris L.) in northern Sweden]. Lund, Sweden:
In: Olesen K, ed. Innovations in tropical tree seed technology. Allmänna Förlaget. 70 p.
Proceedings, IUFRO Symposium of the Project Group P.2.04.00, Seed Lauridsen EB, Stubsgaard F. 1987. Longevity of hardcoated seed after scari-
Problems; 1995 September 7–10; Arusha,Tanzania. Copenhagen, fication.Tech. Note 32. Humlebaek, Denmark: Danida Forest Seed
Denmark: National Tree Seed Programme: 14–29. Centre. 4 p.
Bonner FT. 1971. Chemical contents of southern hardwood fruits and Lauridsen EB, Olesen K, Scholer E. 1992. Packaging materials for tropical
seeds. Res. Note SO-136. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern tree fruits and seeds.Tech. Note 41. Humlebaek, Denmark: Danida
Forest Experiment Station. 3 p. Forest Seed Centre. 25 p.
Bonner FT. 1973. Storing red oak acorns.Tree Planters’ Notes 24(3): 12–13. Lin TP, Huang NH. 1994. The relationship between carbohydrate composi-
Bonner FT. 1981. Measurement and management of tree seed moisture. tion of some tree seeds and their longevity. Journal of Experimental
Gen.Tech. Rep. SO-49. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Botany 45: 1289–1294.
Forest Experiment Station. 11 p. Martin SC. 1948. Mesquite seeds remain viable after 44 years. Ecology 29:
Bonner FT. 1990. Storage of seeds: potential and limitations for germplasm 393.
conservation. Forest Ecology and Management 35: 35–43. Purohit AN, Sharma MM,Thapliyal RC. 1982. Effect of storage tempera-
Bonner FT. 1991. Effect of cone storage on pine seed storage potential. tures on the viability of sal (Shorea robusta) and talura (Shorea talura)
Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 15: 216–221. seed. Forest Science 28: 526–530.
Bonner FT. 1992. Unpublished data. USDA, Forest Service, Mississippi State, Roberts EH. 1973. Predicting the storage life of seeds. Seed Science and
Mississippi. Technology 1: 499-514.
Bonner FT. 1994. Predicting seed longevity for four forest tree species with Schroeder WR, Walker DS. 1987. Effects of moisture content and storage
orthodox seeds. Seed Science and Technology 22: 361–370. temperatures on germination of Quercus macrocarpa acorns. Journal of
Bonner FT,Vozzo JA, Elam WW, Land SB Jr. 1994. Tree seed technology Environmental Horticulture 5(1): 22–24.
training course: instructor’s manual. Gen.Tech. Rep. SO-106. New Shrestha KB, Shepherd KR,Turnbull JW. 1985. Controlled atmosphere stor-
Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. age for Pinus radiata seed. Commonwealth Forestry Revue 64(2):
160 p. 141–150.
Bonnet-Masimbert M, Muller C. 1975. La conservation des faines est pos- Simak M. 1966. [in Swedish, English summary: Chromosome changes in
sible. Revue Forestiere Francaise 27: 129–138. ageing seed]. Skogen 53: 28–30 [Forestry Abstracts 27: 3766; 1966].
Bras P, Maury-Lechon G. 1986. Graines forestieres tropicales de type forte- Springfield HW. 1968. Cold storage not required for fourwing saltbush
ment hydrate: la conservation et ses effets, exemple du Symphonis globu- seeds. Journal of Range Management 21: 335–336.
lifera L.f. de Guyane Francaise. Bois et Forets des Tropiques 212: 35–46. Springfield HW. 1973. Cliffrose and mountainmahogany seeds retain viabili-
Chin HF, Roberts EH. 1980. Recalcitrant crop seeds. Kuala Lumpur, ty 6 years in cold storage. Res. Note RM-236. Fort Collins, CO: USDA
Malaysia:Tropical Press Sdn. Bhd. 152 p. Forest Service Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.
Clausen KE. 1975. Long-term storage of yellow and paper birch seed. Res. 2 p.
Note NC-183. St. Paul: USDA Forest Service, North Central Forest Springfield HW. 1974. Winterfat seeds viable after 8 years refrigerated stor-
Experiment Station. 3 p. age. Journal of Range Management 27(1): 78.
Danielson HR,Tanaka Y. 1978. Drying and storing stratified ponderosa pine Stein WI, Slabaugh PE, Plummer AP. 1974. Harvesting, processing, and stor-
and Douglas-fir seeds. Forest Science 24: 11–16. age of fruits and seeds. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody
Eliason EJ, Heit CE. 1973. Red pine seed shows high germination after 42 plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA
years in storage. Journal of Forestry 71: 776. Forest Service: 98–125.
Ellis RH, Hong TD, Roberts EH. 1990. An intermediate category of seed Stubsgaard F. 1992. Seed storage. Lecture Note C-9. Humlebaek, Denmark:
storage behavior? 1. Coffee. Journal of Experimental Botany 41: Danida Forest Seed Centre. 36 p.
1167–1174. Suszka B. 1975. Cold storage of already after-ripened beech (Fagus silvatica
Fechner GH, Burr KE, Myers JF. 1981. Effects of storage, temperature, and L.) seeds. Arboretum Kornickie 20: 299–315.
moisture stress on seed germination and early seedling development of Tompsett PB. 1982. The effect of desiccation on the longevity of seeds of
trembling aspen. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research 11: 718–722. Araucaria hunsteinii and A. cunninghamii. Annals of Botany 50: 693–704.
Hampton JG,TeKrony DM, eds. 1995. Handbook of vigour test methods. Tompsett PB. 1987. Desiccation and storage studies on Dipterocarpus
3rd ed. Zurich: ISTA. 117 p. seeds. Annals of Applied Biology 110: 371–379.
Harrington JF. 1973. Problems of seed storage. In: Heydecker W, ed. Seed Tylkowski T. 1984. The effect of storing silver maple (Acer saccharinum L.)
ecology. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press: 251–263. samaras on the germinative capacity of seeds and seedling growth.
ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. International rules for Arboretum Kornickie 24: 131–141.
seed testing: rules 1993. Seed Science & Technology 21, Supplement: Tylkowski T. 1987. Storing of Russian elm (Ulmus laevis Pall.) seed over
1–259. many years. Arboretum Kornickie 32: 297–305.
Jones L. 1967. Effect of storage at various moisture contents and tempera- Villiers TA. 1974. Seed aging: chromosome stability and extended viability of
tures on seed germination of silk oak, Australian pine, and Eucalyptus spp. seeds stored fully imbibed. Plant Physiology 53: 875–878.
Res. Note SE-83. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Service Southeastern Wang BSP, Charest PJ, Downie B, comp. 1993. Ex situ storage of seeds,
Forest Experiment Station 4 p. pollen and in vitro cultures of perennial woody plant species. For. Paper
Justice OL, Bass LN. 1978. Principles and practices of seed storage. Agric. 113. Rome: FAO. 83 p.
Handbk. 506. Washington, DC: USDA Science and Education Willan RL., comp. 1985. A guide to forest seed handling, with special refer-
Administration. 289 p. ence to the tropics. For. Paper 20/2. Rome: FAO. 379 p.
Kamra SK. 1967. Studies on storage of mechanically damaged seed of Scots Zasada JC, Densmore RA. 1977. Changes in seed viability during storage
pine (Pinus silvestris L.). Studia Forestalia Suecica 42:1–19. for selected Alaskan Salicaceae. Seed Science and Technology 5:
509–518.
Seed Testing
Robert P. Karrfalt
Mr. Karrfalt is the director of the USDA Forest Service’s National Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, Georgia.
Contents
Introduction 98 Excised Embryo Testing 110
Sampling 98 X-Radiography 111
Sample Identification 100 Other Quick Tests 112
Moisture Tests 100 Sowing Rates 112
Purity, Noxious Weed Content, and Seed Weight Tests 102 Buying and Selling Seeds 113
Purity Analysis 102 Test Limitations and Variation 114
Noxious Weed Examination 103 Scheduling Seed Tests 114
Seed Weight Determination 103 Commercial Trade of Tree, Shrub, and Native
Germination Testing 104 Plant Seeds 114
Vigor Testing 107 References 115
Chemical Staining for Viability 109
Figure 2—Chapter 5, Seed Testing: seeds caught in the Figure 4—Chapter 5, Seed Testing: an open hand is
gates of the seed probe must not be cut when the gates are inserted into a seedlot to take a sample for testing.
closed.
quarters. The quarter is then weighed to see if it is enough must not be turned on until the seeds have been poured
for the sample. If not, then another quarter, an eighth, or a completely into the hopper. Once the seeds are cleared out
smaller fraction is taken until the minimum weight is of the machine, the motor must be turned off before the
obtained (figure 6). seeds are poured back into the hopper for the next pass. The
Hand-mixing can be replaced by mixing with either a seedlot is then divided in half, then quarters, eighths, and so
soil divider or a gamet divider (figure 7). These devices can forth, to obtain the correct weight for the submitted sample,
save a substantial amount of time and also, by reducing the just as in the hand mixing and dividing.
tedious nature of the work, increase the likelihood of doing The size of the submitted sample for some species is
a quality job. The seedlot needs to be poured through the stated in the Rules for Testing Seeds (AOSA 1996) and is
divider 3 times. When the gamet divider is used, the motor twice as large as the minimum amount for the purity test.
Sample Identification
Assignment of a test number is the first step in handling
every seedlot that is received in the laboratory. This number
allows for the orderly tracking of the test sample among the
other samples in the laboratory. A typical test number indi-
cates the test year and an accession number. For example,
the 300th test conducted in 2005 would have a number such
as 05-300.
Figure 6—Chapter 5, Seed Testing: the composite
sample is divided systematically into quarters, eighths, Moisture Tests
sixteenths, and smaller fractions to obtain the submitted Moisture tests must be the first tests conducted on sam-
sample at the seed storage plant or the working sample in ples when they arrive at the seed laboratory. Once a sample
the laboratory. container is opened and work begun, the seeds will likely
Figure 11—Chapter 5, Seed Testing: the Karl Fisher contains the minimum weight for conducting a purity analy-
apparatus is used as the analytical standard for determining sis. Each species has its own specified minimum weight,
seed moisture content. which has been determined to contain 2,500 seeds. The
mixing and dividing should be done in the same way as
described in the sampling section for drawing the submitted
sample from the composite sample. However, at this point it
is necessary to be very close to the minimum weight for
2 reasons. First, the analyst does not want to examine more
seeds than necessary, and second, the accuracy of the test is
evaluated using tolerance tables that were developed using
these minimum weights. Using substantially more seeds than
the minimum will invalidate the use of these tables.
Purity is determined differently by each of the 2 major
testing organizations. The ISTA rules specify a 3-part purity
and the AOSA rules specify a 4-part purity. The ISTA purity
values report percentages of pure seeds, other seeds, and
inert materials. The AOSA purity values report percentages
of pure seeds, weed seeds, other crop seeds, and inert mate-
Purity, Noxious Weed Content, and Seed rials. The pure-seed fraction consists of all those seeds that
Weight Tests are of the kind specified on the seedlot’s label. Specific
descriptions in the rules define “pure seeds,” but basically
Purity, noxious weed content, and seed weight tests are
the pure-seed fraction comprises whole seeds and seeds that
sometimes called physical tests because they do not relate to
are not more than half broken away. “Other seeds” in the
viability. These tests are described individually as follows.
ISTA rule are all kinds of seeds other than those listed on the
Purity Analysis label. The AOSA rule makes a distinction between “crop
After samples for the moisture-content test are with- seeds” and “weed seeds” and uses a detailed list (AOSA
drawn, the remainder of the submitted sample should be 1995) to specify when a species is a weed and when it is a
mixed and divided to obtain the working sample, which crop. Weed seeds are mainly a problem in lots collected
from nets or directly from the ground. Contaminated clean-
ing equipment can also result in weed seeds entering a seed-
Figure 16—Chapter 5, Seed Testing: seeds can be count- Figure 17—Chapter 5, Seed Testing: a vacuum counter is
ed sometimes more quickly using a counting tray, a shutter often used to count out seeds for weight determinations
box, or a vacuum counter. and for planting germination tests
Figure 18—Chapter 5, Seed Testing: an electronic seed Figure 19—Chapter 5, Seed Testing: 2 germination tests,
counter is sometimes used to estimate the number of each composed of 4 dishes containing 100 seeds each, the
seeds per weight (in either kilograms or pounds). dishes are stacked for transport and prechilling.
Vigor Testing
Sometimes standardized laboratory germination proce-
dures are criticized as not predicting field performance very
well (Moreno 1985; Stein 1967). These critics suggest using
a variety of test conditions to find an optimum for each
seedlot. The problem in predicting field germination is that
Figure 29—Chapter 5, Seed Testing: embryos of peach Figure 30—Chapter 5, Seed Testing: x-radiography can
(Prunus persica L.) have been removed from their seedcoats be used to quickly determine how many seeds are empty,
for an excised embryo test of viability. damaged, or poorly developed.
Anderson HW, Wilson BC. 1966. Improved stratification procedures for Hart JR, Golumbic C. 1962. A comparison of basic methods for moisture
western white pine seed. Pub 8. Olympia: Washington State Department determination in seeds. Proceedings of the International Seed Testing
of Natural Resources. Association 27: 907–919.
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1979. X-ray handbook. Hart JR, Golumbic C. 1966. The use of electronic moisture meters for
Lincoln, NE: AOSA. determining the moisture content of seeds. Proceedings of the
AOSA. 1983. Seed vigor testing handbook. In: Contrib. 32. Handbook on International Seed Testing Association 31: 201–212.
seed testing. Lincoln, NE: AOSA. 88 p. Heit CE. 1955. The excised embryo method for testing germination quality
AOSA. 1996. Rules for testing seeds. Journal of Seed Technology 16(3): of dormant seed. Proceedings of the International Seed Testing
1–113. Association 27: 907–919.
AOSA. 1995. Uniform classification of weed and crop seeds. In: Larson AL, Hoff RJ, Steinhoff RJ. 1986. Cutting stratified seed of western white pine
Wiersema JH, Handwerker T, eds. Contrib. 25. Handbook on seed test- (Pinus monticola Dougl. ex D. Don) to determine viability or to increase
ing. Lincoln, NE: AOSA. germination.Tree Planters’ Notes 37(1): 25–26.
AOSA. 2000.Tetrazolium testing handbook. Contrib. 29. Handbook on seed ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1996. International Rules for
testing. Lincoln, NE: AOSA. 302 p. Seed Testing, 1996. Seed Science and Technology 21(Suppl.): 1–288.
Belcher EW. 1975. Influence of substrate moisture level on the germination ISTA. 1995. Handbook of vigour test methods. 117 p.
of seed of selected Pinus species. Seed Science and Technology 3(3/4): Jones L. 1960. Rapid moisture determination of tree seed with an
597–604. electronic meter.Tree Planters‘ Notes 43: 7.
Belcher EW. 1978. Aspects of seed quality. In: Proceedings, Western Forest Justice OL, Bass LN. 1978. Principles and practices of seed storage. Agric.
Nursery Council and Intermountain Nurseryman’s Association Handbk. 506. Washington, DC: USDA Agricultural Research Service: 26.
Combined Nurseryman’s Conference and Seed Processing Workshop. Kamra SK. 1963. Studies on a suitable contrast agent for the x-ray radiog-
1978 October; Eureka, CA. D.54–D.59. raphy of Norway spruce seed. Proceedings of the International Seed
Belcher EW. 1995.The effect of seed condition and length of stratification on Testing Association 28: 197–201.
the germination of loblolly pine seed.Tree Planters’ Notes 46(4): Karrfalt RP. 1987. Measuring tree seed moisture content now and in the
138–142. future. In: Landis TD, eds. Gen.Tech. Rep. RM-151. Meeting the Challenge
Belcher EW, Karrfalt RP. 1979. Improved methods for testing viability of of the Nineties. Proceedings, Intermountain Forest Nursery Association;
Russian olive seed. Journal of Seed Technology 4(1): 57–64. 1987 August 10–14; Oklahoma City, OK. Fort Collins, CO: USDA Forest
Bonner FT. 1972. Measurement of moisture content in seeds of some Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.
North American hardwoods. Proceedings of the International Seed Landis TD, Karrfalt RP. 1987. Improving seed-use efficiency and seedling
Testing Association 37(3): 975–983. quality through the use of history plots.Tree Planters‘ Notes 38(3):
Bonner FT. 1974. Determining seed moisture in Quercus. Seed Science and 9–15.
Technology 2(3): 399–405. Lanquist KB. 1965. Calibration charts for Radson No. 200 moisture meter.
Bonner FT. 1981. Measurement and management of tree seed moisture. Tree Planters‘ Notes 73: 11–12.
Pap. SO-177. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Moore RP. 1976. Tetrazolium seed testing developments in North America.
Experiment Sation. 10 p. Journal of Seed Technology 1(1): 17–30.
Bonner FT. 1984. Tolerance limits in measurement of tree seed moisture. Moreno R. 1985. Maximum germinants/units of seed as a tool for calculat-
Seed Science and Technology 12(3): 789–794. ing bareroot and container sowing calculations. In: Proceedings, Western
Bonner FT. 1992. Moisture content chapter In: Gosling PG. Report of the Forest Nursery Council/Intermountain Nurseryman’s Association; 1984
Forest Tree and Shrub Seed Committee 1989–1992. Seed Science and August 14–16; Coeur d’Alene, ID: 105–108.
Technology 20(Suppl. 1): 83–84. Piotto B. 1994. Effects of temperature on germination of stratified seeds of
Bonner FT. 1998. Testing tree seeds for vigor: a review. Seed Technology three ash species. Seed Science and Technology 22(3): 519–529.
20(1): 5–17. Simak M. 1957. The x-ray contrast method for seed testing: Scots pine—
Bonner FT, Agmata-Paliwal A. 1992. Rapid tests of seed quality in Picea Pinus sylvestris. Meddelanden fran Statens Skogsforskningsinstitut 47(4):
species by the leachate conductivity method. In: DeHayes DH, Hawley 1–22.
GJ, eds. Genetics in forest biology; Proceedings, 1st Northern Forest Simak M, Bergsten U, Henriksson G. 1989. Evaluation of ungerminated
Genetics Association Conference; 1991 July 23–25; Burlington,VT. Berea, seeds at the end of germination test by radiography. Seed Science and
KY: Northern Forest Genetics Association: 69–75. Technology 17(2): 361–369.
Buszewicz G. 1962. A comparison of methods of moisture determination Stein WI. 1967. Laboratory seed tests—are they doing the job? In:
for tree seeds. Proceedings of the International Seed Testing Association Proceedings, 1967 Annual Meeting of Western Reforestation
27: 952–961. Coordinating Committee. Portland, OR.
Ching TM, Parker MC. 1958. Hydrogen peroxide for rapid viability tests of Vivrette N. 1995. Personal communication. Carpinteria, CA: Ramson Seed
some coniferous tree seed. Forest Science 4: 128–134. Laboratory.
Czabator FJ. 1962. Germination value: an index combining speed and com- Vozzo J. 1979. Radiopaque agents for seed research with Juglans nigra. In:
pleteness of pine seed germination. Forest Science 8: 386–396. Frank Bonner, ed. Proceedings, Symposium on Flowering and Seed
Flemion F. 1948. Reliability of the excised embryo method as a rapid test Development in Trees; 1978 May; Mississippi State University, MS.
for determining the germinative capacity of dormant seeds. Starkville, MS: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment
Contributions of the Boyce Thompson Institute 15: 229–241. Station and others: 172–280.
Dr. Mangold is director of Forest Health Management for the USDA Forest Service’ State and Private Forestry
National Office,Washington, DC; Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern
Research Station, Mississippi State, Mississippi
Contents
Certification in Forestry
Certification of forest reproductive material has devel-
oped in a slightly different manner from that of agriculture
in this country. Most forest landowners do not have ready
(Rudolf 1974). The use of seed zones (figures 1–4) has been
Figure 3—Chapter 6, Certification of Tree Seeds and very effective, and they are still widely used today. The
Other Woody Plant Materials: geographic districts for major impetus for forest seed certification, however, came
source-identified certification of forest reproductive from the expanded reforestation programs and rapidly devel-
material in Mississippi (courtesy of MSIA 1979).
oping tree improvement programs in the 1950s and 1960s.
Establishment of seed orchards of major species with select-
ed phenotypes and the subsequent progeny tests with their
offspring has led to wide-scale use of improved families and
clones in forest regeneration. When foresters wanted certifi-
cation of this material, they turned to the state crop improve-
ment associations, because these agencies were the only
ones legally permitted in most states to perform certification
services. As these services were extended to forestry materi-
al, the mechanisms for implementation developed differently
in different parts of the country.
South Dakota established the first forest tree certifica-
tion program in 1952 for stock selected for shelterbelt use
(Rudolf 1974). Georgia established the next program in
1959 with comprehensive certification standards for tree
seeds (GCIA 1959). The AOSCA (then known as the
International Crop Improvement Association) adopted
almost identical standards also in 1959 (Rudolf 1974), with
later revisions in 1962, 1966, and 1970 (Hackleman and
Scott 1990). Other states were not far behind. In 1994,
AOSCA widened the scope of its tree seed certification stan-
dards to allow certification of material from all native
plants—trees, shrubs, vines, forbs, and grasses (AOSCA
1994). These standards were designated for pre-variety
germplasm certification and will be explained in a later
section.
Pacific Northwest material from untested seed orchards and from seed produc-
6 An organized effort to improve tree seed supplies in the tion areas, and open-pollinated seeds from individual select-
Pacific Northwest came about in the mid-1950s with the for- ed trees. In this class, only the female parent is known. This
mation of the Northwest Forest Tree Seed Committee at class of material has promising traits that may be superior in
Corvallis, Oregon (Edwards 1981). This group later became the offspring, but such superiority has not been determined
the Western Forest Tree Seed Council in affiliation with the by testing. Details of the parents must be recorded. Labels
Western Forestry and Conservation Association. The bumper are green.
cone crop of 1966 underlined the need for certification pro- Tested class. Reproductive material comes from
grams (Hopkins 1968), and the council and the Western selected trees that have been tested for performance of spe-
Reforestation Coordinating Committee of the Western cific characteristics, as determined by progeny or other
Forestry and Conservation Association took action. Through applicable tests under specified conditions. The material
their efforts, the Northwest Forest Tree Seed Certifiers from this class that performs best in the tests is presumed to
Association (NWFTSCA) was formed in 1966 to promote be the ultimate in promised genetic superiority and is similar
seed certification. This organization developed seed zone to the agricultural class “certified seed,” indicating the high-
maps for Washington and Oregon and the framework for a est degree of improvement. Labels are blue.
seed certification system (Edwards 1981). To be able to sell certified material, the producer or col-
Certification was jointly administered by the lector must submit an application to the appropriate seed
Washington State Crop Improvement Association and the certifying agency, along with a fee, stating what material is
Oregon Seed Certification Service, a division of the to be certified. The application must spell out how the mate-
Department of Crop and Soil Science at Oregon State rial will be produced or collected. The certifying agency will
University. The NWFTSCA provided review and advice to then notify the applicants if their plans are acceptable or in
the agencies. Their system recognizes the following cate- need of modification. The agency performs field and seed
gories of reproductive material, which are indicated by stan- plant inspections, seed storage inventory audits, and whatev-
dardized color-coded labels affixed to seed containers. er additional steps are necessary to ensure that the materials
Audit class. Certifying authorities have reviewed meet the agency’s standards and can be tagged with the offi-
records indicating seed lot origin and collection documenta- cial agency labels. Cone collectors and buyers have slightly
tion on where and when the seeds were collected. Origins different registration and inspection procedures than seed
are usually less specifically identified than those in the orchard producers, but the agency controls are comprehen-
source-identified class. Labels placed on the seed contain- sive. Procedures may be amended from time to time, so
ers are brown and white. interested parties should check with their respective state
Source-identified class. Reproductive material comes certifying agencies to get the current regulations.
from a seed zone defined by a legal description and from The species of greatest interest for certified collections
within a 154-m (500-ft) elevation band. The seed zones have traditionally been Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii
were defined on the Tree Seed Zone Map issued by the (Mirb.) Franco), western white pine (Pinus monticola
Western Forest Tree Seed Council in 1973. They are based Dougl. ex D. Don), ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa P. & C.
on physiographic and geological provinces of Washington Lawson), sugar pine (P. lambertiana Dougl.), and lodgepole
and Oregon as defined by Franklin and Dyrness (1973). Two pine (P. contorta Dougl. ex Loud.). Another dozen or more
subclasses are recognized: (a) personally supervised produc- species, both hardwoods and conifers, are occasionally
tion—both the producer and the certifying agency have per- certified.
sonal knowledge of the seed zone from which the seeds Most of the tree seeds sold in the Pacific Northwest are
were collected and (b) procedurally supervised exported to countries in northern Europe that are members
production—only the buyer and not the certifying agency of OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and
determines if the collections are properly identified. Labels Development), a United Nations–based international eco-
for both subgroups are yellow. nomic development organization that has set up the Scheme
Selected class. Reproductive material comes from for Control of Forest Reproductive Material Moving in
trees that were selected for a specific character(s). Two International Trade. European countries that import tree
classes are recognized: (a) reproductive material obtained seeds from the Pacific Northwest are required to have
from selected trees recognized to be superior for any number OECD certificates on their seeds; consequently, procedures
of traits, such as volume, form, or disease resistance and (b) were established in the Northwest to implement this scheme
References
ACIA [Alabama Crop Improvement Association]. nd. Certification stan- Pfeifer K. 1997. Personal communication.Yakima: Washington State Crop
dards for forest reproductive material in Alabama. Auburn, AL: Alabama Improvement Association.
Crop Improvement Association. 24 p. Piesch RF. 1977. Forest tree seed certification under the OECD Scheme:
AOSCA [Association of Official Seed Certification Agencies]. 1994. 1970–75 Summary Report, British Columbia/Yukon Territory. BC-X-156.
Certification handbook. Pub. 23. Mississippi State, MS: Association of Victoria, BC: Canadian Forestry Service, Pacific Forest Research Centre.
Official Seed Certification Agencies. 288 p. 11 p.
Copeland LO, McDonald MB. 1995. Principles of seed science and Randall WK, comp. 1996. Forest tree seed zones for western Oregon.
technology. 3rd ed. New York: Chapman and Hall. 369 p. Salem: Oregon Department of Forestry. 82 p.
Edwards DGW. 1981. The Western Forest Tree Seed Council. In: Rudolf PO. 1974. Tree-seed marketing controls. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech.
Proceedings, Intermountain Nurseryman’s Association and Western coord. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
Forest Nursery Association Combined Meeting; 1980 Aug. 12–14; Boise, 153–166.
ID. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-109. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, USDA FS [USDA Forest Service]. 1995. Commercial suppliers of tree and
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 29–31. shrub seed in the United States. Misc. Rep. R8-33. Atlanta: USDA Forest
Franklin JF, Dyrness CT. 1973. Natural vegetation of Oregon and Service, Southern Region, State and Private Forestry. 102 p.
Washington. Gen.Tech. Rep. PNW-8. Portland: USDA Forest Service, Wells OO. 1983. Southwide pine seed source study: loblolly pine at 25
Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 417 p. years. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 7(2): 63–71.
GCIA [Georgia Crop Improvement Association]. 1959. Certification Wells OO, Wakeley PC. 1966. Geographic variation in survival, growth and
standards for forest tree seed.Tree Planters’ Notes 36: 3–9. fusiform-rust infection of planted loblolly pine. Forest Science
Hackleman JC, Scott WO. 1990. A history of seed certification in the Monograph 11: 1–40.
United States and Canada. Raleigh, NC: Association of Official Seed Young SA. 1994. The (certified) seeds of revegetation. In: Monsen SB,
Certification Agencies. 97 p. Kitchen SG, comps. Proceedings, Ecology and Management of Annual
Hoekstra PE. 1976. Certification of source-identified tree seed under the Rangelands; 1992 May 18–21; Boise, ID. Gen Tech. Rep. INT-313. Ogden,
OECD scheme in Oregon and Washington, U.S.A. Washington, DC: UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 271–272.
USDA Forest Service. 8 p. Young SA. 1995. Verification of germplasm origin and genetic status by seed
Hopkins HG. 1968. Forest tree seed certification in the Pacific Northwest. certification agencies. In: Roundy BA, McArthur ED, Haley JS, Mann DK.,
Journal of Forestry 66(5): 400–401. comps. Proceedings, Wildland Shrub and Arid Land Restoration
Karrfalt R. 1998. Personal communication. Dry Branch, GA: USDA Forest Symposium; 1993 October 19–21; Las Vegas. Gen Tech. Rep. INT-315.
Service, National Tree Seed Laboratory. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station:
Lantz CW, Kraus JF. 1987. A guide to southern pine seed sources. Gen. 293–295.
Tech. Rep. SE-43. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Zobel B,Talbert J. 1984. Applied forest tree improvement. New York: John
Forest Experiment Station. 34 p. Wiley & Sons. 505 p.
MSIA [Mississippi Seed Improvement Association]. 1979. Certification stan-
dards for forest reproductive material in Mississippi. Mississippi State, MS:
Mississippi Seed Improvement Association. 24 p.
Nursery Practices
Thomas D. Landis
Dr. Landis retired from the USDA Forest Service, State and Private Forestry’s Reforestation,
Nurseries, and Genetics Research National Team
Contents
Introduction 126 Bareroot Nursery Cultural Practices 134
Terminology 126 Soil Management and Seedbed Preparation 135
The Target Seedling 127 Sowing 135
Morphological Specification 127 Irrigation and Fertilization 136
Physiological Qualities 128 Root Culturing and Top-Pruning 137
Genetic Considerations 129 Harvesting 137
Types of Nurseries 129 Grading, Packing, Storing, and Shipping 138
Propagation Options 130 Container Nursery Cultural Practices 138
Seed propagation 130 Propagation Environments 138
Direct seeding 130 Types of Containers 140
Planting germinants 131 Growing Media 140
Transplanting emergents 132 Sowing and Thinning 140
Transplanting seedlings 132 Irrigation and Fertilization 141
Vegetative Propagation 133 Hardening 141
Harvesting, Grading, Storing, and Shipping 142
Pest Management 142
Beneficial Microorganisms 144
Summary 144
References 145
Terminology
A seedling is a plant grown from a seed, but the term is
commonly used generically for many types of nursery
A
stock, including transplants, rooted cuttings, and emblings
(plants that are produced through micropropagation). Forest
and conservation seedlings are traditionally divided into 2
basic stocktypes, depending on how they were propagated:
bareroot seedlings and container seedlings. Bareroot stock
is grown in soil in open fields (figure 1A), and the seedlings
are removed from the soil during harvesting (figure 1B).
Container seedlings are grown in an artificial growing medi-
um in a controlled environment, such as a greenhouse (fig-
ure 2A), where most or all of the growth-limiting factors
can be manipulated. Because the volume of growing medi-
um in containers is relatively small, roots bind the medium
into a cohesive “plug” by the time the seedlings are harvest-
ed (figure 2B). Therefore, container-grown stock are some-
times called “plug seedlings.”
Another stock type is the transplant, a seedling that has
been physically removed from its seedbed or container and
then replanted in another location for additional growth.
Traditionally, most transplants are bareroot seedlings that
were grown for 1 or 2 years and then replanted into a trans-
plant bed and allowed to grow for another year or two.
Recently, container transplants are becoming much more B
popular. This new stock type, also called a plug transplant,
is produced by transplanting a small container seedling into
the bareroot nursery for an additional year or two of growth. or 2+2). The sum of the numbers gives the total number of
Bareroot seedlings have been traditionally described years needed to produce that stock type. For example, a
with a numerical code. The first number corresponds to the 1+2 transplant takes 3 years to produce.
number of years in the seedbed, and the second number There is no standard nomenclature for describing con-
refers to the number of years in the transplant bed. Bareroot tainer seedlings, and each nursery and region uses its own
seedlings are generally produced in 1 to 3 years (1+0 to system. Because most container seedlings are grown in a
3+0), and transplants require 2 to 4 years (for example, 1+1 season or less, they are generally defined by the type and
Morphological Specifications
Forest and conservation seedlings are described by tradi-
tional morphological dimensions, which are used by both
B nursery personnel and seedling users. The most common
dimensions are shoot height and stem diameter. Shoot height
is the vertical distance from the ground line to the tip of the
volume of the growth container. For example, a “Styro ” terminal meristem or bud. Stem diameter, often called
refers to a seedling that has been produced in a Styrofoam® “caliper” or “root collar diameter,” is the diameter of the
block container with cells that are approximately 65 cm3 main stem at the base of the shoot (figure 3C). Other
(4 in3) in volume. Plug transplants are described by the seedling morphological specifications include root volume
number of years in the transplant bed, so that a container or length, ovendry (OD) weight, and shoot-to-root ratio
seedling that is transplanted for an additional year of growth (S:R). Though they require destructive sampling, seedling
is called a “plug+1.” dry weights are useful indices of crop development. The S:R
is a relative comparison of the size or weight of the shoot to
Types of Nurseries
Once the target seedling has been defined, the next step
is to decide how best to grow it. Forest and conservation A
stock is propagated in either bareroot or container nurseries,
and the choice is determined by several factors:
Seed Propagation
Figure 6—Chapter 7, Nursery Practices: nursery man- Seed propagation is the most common means of produc-
agers must consider many biological, operational, and eco-
ing forest and conservation seedlings in North America
nomic factors before deciding on the best propagation sys-
tem for a given plant species.The first and most important because of its many advantages (table 1):
decision is whether to use seed or vegetative propagation.
1. Cost. Plants grown from seed are inexpensive.
2. Ease of propagation. Seed propagation is simpler
and easier than vegetative propagation.
3. Seedling vigor. Plants grown from seeds often grow
faster than those produced from cuttings.
4. Phytosanitary restrictions. It is easier to import and
export seeds than vegetative material or whole plants.
MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES
Fast growth Most species, using Good for certain Relatively new but
genetically selected fast growing species offers enormous potential
seeds from orchards
Biodiversity Best Low, but can be increased
with extensive collections
Availability of propagules Varies seasonally & Collection is seasonal Collection from stock
yearly; some can be with most species plants at nursery
stored for long
periods, others not
EASE OF PROPAGATION
which they are adapted. In the Pacific Northwest, some nurs- moist and cool. A more popular form of stratification is
eries sow literally hundreds of different seedlots each year, called “naked stratification” because bare seeds are soaked
reflecting the many diverse environments in that mountain- and then placed in a plastic bag without any accompanying
ous terrain. In the South, some nurseries propagate by fami- material. Bags are kept in a refrigerator for a specified peri-
lies and the seedlots from each family are sown and cultured od of time according to the requirements of the individual
separately. species. The plastic bag maintains the moisture around the
Many forest and conservation seeds have some type of seed but also allows oxygen to enter. Some nurseries place a
seed dormancy that keeps them from germinating when tube in the mouth of the bag to stimulate better air exchange
placed under unfavorable environmental conditions. Growers (see chapter 1 on seed treatments).
need to understand the dormancy characteristics of the seeds Planting germinants. The second method for sowing
that they are trying to germinate, because the type of pre- seeds is to pregerminate the seeds and sow the germinants
sowing treatment differs for each. For example, some plants directly into containers. This technique is particularly help-
exhibit seedcoat dormancy, which means that the seeds are ful with seeds that require long or variable cold, moist strat-
impermeable to the water and/or oxygen that the embryos ification treatments; seeds from large-seeded species; and
need to initiate germination. Culturally, there are a couple of seeds from lots of variable quality (table 2). For seeds that
ways to overcome this problem. Scarification—any treat- need cold, moist stratification, seeds can be mixed with a
ment that breaks down the seedcoats to allow penetration of moisture-retaining material such as peat moss and placed in
water and oxygen—can be either mechanical or chemical. a plastic bag in a refrigerator. Another option is to place
Mechanical scarification consists of physically scratching seeds on moisture-retentive material in a covered tray and
the seedcoat to reduce its thickness, and chemical scarifica- keep them refrigerated. Stratifying seeds are checked every
tion involves dissolving the seedcoat with caustic chemicals few days to see if the seeds have split and germination
such as acids. Hot water or steam can also be used to soften begun. It is very important to keep seeds moist but not too
hard seedcoats. wet, because mold can develop. Spraying the germination
Another common presowing seed treatment is chilling or tray with a hand sprayer works well. Germinating seeds are
stratification, which consists of keeping seeds under a cool, individually picked out of the tray, sown into a container,
moist environment for a specified period of time. The term and then promptly covered with a seed mulch such as white
stratification comes from the practice of placing layers of grit to keep them from drying out. Seeds that require warm,
seeds between layers of insulating material that keep them moist stratification can be germinated in a greenhouse by
seedlots
then to cut off the root tip after the seedling is placed into
the growing medium.
Transplanting seedlings. This propagation tech-
nique is used in both bareroot and container nurseries
Type of nursery
Container
container
container
Transplanting seedlings
Planting germinants or
(seeds are sown with
trays or bags)
Vegetative Propagation
The second major plant propagation technique is vegeta-
tive propagation, which also is called asexual propagation
because 2 parents are not required. A clone is defined as a
group of genetically uniform individuals that were originally
derived from a single parent by asexual propagation. The
major benefit of vegetative propagation is that the offspring the year in species having multiple flushes. Cuttings can be
will very closely resemble the parent because their genetic collected from plants in the wild or from mother plants
code is identical (figure 7). Other benefits of vegetative established in the nursery for that purpose; rows of these
propagation include the following: mother plants are called stool beds. In bareroot nurseries,
cuttings are planted in rows in formed seedbeds and cultured
1. The ability to obtain a high degree of crop uniformity. just like seedlings (figure 8B). In container nurseries, cut-
2. The elimination of problems with seed availability, tings can be rooted in special trays and then transplanted
dormancy, and viability. into the growth containers or stuck directly into the contain-
3. The ability to perpetuate genetically superior plants, ers (figure 8C). Rooting hormones are used to promote new
such as fast-growing or disease-resistant clones. root formation in recalcitrant species. Some nurseries sell
4. The ability to “bulk-up” valuable, genetically improved unrooted cuttings of such easy-to-root genera as poplar
seedlots. (Populus) or willow (Salix).
Root cuttings are another type of vegetative propagation
In forest and conservation nurseries, rooted cuttings are source that has been used for some species, such as quaking
the most common type of vegetative propagation, and there aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.). Sections of lateral
are 3 different types that are named for the type of tissue aspen roots, which are actually modified stems, are collected
used. Hardwood cuttings (figure 8A) are collected during from trees in the wild and placed in growing medium in the
the dormant period from the last season’s growth, stratified greenhouse. After several weeks, shoots form on the roots
in cold storage, and planted (“stuck”) in containers or bare- and can be cut and stuck into growth containers.
root beds. Semi-hardwood cuttings are collected after the Other vegetative propagation methods include air layer-
active growth period from hardened woody tissue of the cur- ing, grafting and budding, and micropropagation. Layering
rent season’s growth. Softwood cuttings are collected from is uncommon but can be used for species such as those in
soft succulent new shoots of woody plants that have just the Rubus genus that grow as vines. Grafting and budding
begun to harden, normally in spring, but also at any time of are normally used for fruit trees; they are too labor intensive
A B
C D
Growing Media
Almost all container nurseries use some type of artificial
growing medium instead of native soil. An ideal medium
should be sterile, lightweight, porous, and consistent in
quality. Several different brands of media are commercially
available, and most are composed of sphagnum peat moss,
vermiculite, and sometimes perlite, composted bark, or saw-
dust. Some nurseries mix their own growing media. Larger
nurseries have specially designed mixers for blending the
A components, and some have customized equipment using
cement mixers and so forth. Some components of growing
media, such as vermiculite and perlite, are inherently sterile;
sphagnum moss, however, may contain pathogenic fungi.
Chemical fumigants or steam heat are typically used to ster-
ilize media. Fertilizers or other chemical amendments are
sometimes added to growing media during the mixing
process. Dolomitic limestone is used to supply calcium and
magnesium and raise the low pH. Slow-release fertilizers,
such as Osmocote®, are composed of resin-coated pellets
that release mineral nutrients in response to temperature and
moisture.
Containers are filled with growing medium in several
B different ways. Smaller nurseries fill containers by hand.
Automated filling machines that do everything from filling
and tamping the medium to sowing and covering the seeds
can also be used. A complete discussion of container types
Types of Containers
and growing media can be found in Landis and others
There are many different types of containers, with
(1990).
capacities ranging from as small as 16 cm3 (1 in3) to more
than 492 cm3 (30 in3). The most commonly used container Sowing and Thinning
types include Styrofoam® blocks, book planters, and several The number of seeds to sow per container cavity is cal-
types made of molded hard plastic. Other growing contain- culated using the seed germination percentage, with the
ers, such as peat plugs and plastic bags, are sometimes used, objective of having no empty cavities. Containers can be
but these lack vertical ribs on their insides for controlling sown by hand, which is necessary for very large or irregular-
root spiraling. The best type of container depends on avail- ly shaped seeds, or with various sowing machines. The shut-
able nursery equipment, the species of plant, and conditions terbox (figure 16A) consists of a template with a set of
at the outplanting site. Hardwood species must be grown in predrilled holes that correspond to the pattern of the individ-
relatively larger containers than conifers because their large ual container cavities. The size of the holes in the shutter
leaves intercept irrigation and create more shade competition control the sowing rate, usually from 2 to 6 seeds per hole
with their neighbors. Foresters prefer seedlings grown in depending on seed quality (figure 16B). Vacuum seeders
smaller containers for moist outplanting sites, but demand have plates or drums that hold a certain number of seeds
larger container stock for harsh dry conditions or sites with until they are released into the containers. Precision sowing
heavy brush competition. New container types are continual- machines can accurately control the sowing density down to
Hardening
When container seedlings have reached their desired
height, the nursery manager changes the growing environ-
B
ment to initiate hardening. The most critical environmental
Pest Management
The objective in both bareroot and container nurseries is
to optimize the potentially limiting factors that control
seedling growth to create the perfect propagation environ-
ment. Like all things in life, however, there is a trade-off. In
this case, there is an increased risk of pests and abiotic
stresses—increased succulence means greater risk of abiotic
injury (frost injury is a prime example). The perfect propa-
B gation environment is also, unfortunately, a perfect breeding
ground for many fungi, insects, and other pests.
A disease occurs anytime a seedling is not completely
factors for inducing hardiness and dormancy are cooler tem- healthy. Both biotic pests and abiotic stresses can cause dis-
peratures, mild moisture and nutrient stress, and shortened ease. Typical nursery pests include fungi, insects, and even
photoperiod. Seedlings in fully enclosed greenhouses are weeds or moss, which compete with the seedling for light,
often moved to a shadehouse at this time, where the change nutrients, and water. Abiotic stresses include temperatures
in temperature and humidity aid the hardening process. that are too high or too low and moisture and nutrient stress-
Growers with shelterhouses permanently raise the sides to es. Although most people would think that biotic pests cause
expose the crop to ambient conditions. At the same time, the the most injury in nurseries, that is not the case (figure 19).
photoperiod lights are shut off and the fertilizer mix Abiotic diseases are actually more common, especially in
changed to a special low-nitrogen hardening formula. bareroot nurseries and open growing compounds, where
seedlings are subject to the vagaries of the weather.
Harvesting, Grading, Storing, and Shipping
All pest problems can be prevented much more easily
The harvesting method is related to the type of seedling
than they can be cured, so nurseries should set up a regular
storage. Some nurseries store their container seedlings out-
monitoring program. Nursery workers should constantly be
side to overwinter in sheltered storage, being particularly
on the lookout for anything unusual and notify the manager
careful to insulate the root systems against cold. Seedling
immediately if they notice a potential problem. Careful
roots are much less cold-tolerant than shoots and can be
monitoring can distinguish between biotic and abiotic dis-
damaged or even killed at temperatures that are only a few
eases (table 3) and make control much more effective. There
degrees below freezing. Other nurseries grade their
Table 3—Chapter 7, Nursery Practices: careful observation of disease development can aid in diagnosis
HOSTS Often affects several species, or ages of seedlings Usually restricted to one species or age class
SYMPTOMS
Patterns Regular: spatially related to some Random locations at first
environmental factor
Rate of development Rapid & uniform Relatively slow & uneven
Signs No evidence of a pest Pests or indirect evidence present
Spread Related to one incident, with no secondary spread May spread over time under favorable conditions
Table 4—Chapter 7, Nursery Practices: nurseries and seedling customers must consider their reasons for inoculating
with mycorrhizal fungi because their objectives determine the species of fungus and the type and timing of inoculation
* Regardless of the biological objectives, mycorrhizal inoculation may have marketing advantages.
References
Cordell CE, Anderson RL, Hoffard WH, Landis TD, Smith RS Jr,Toko HV, tech. Lantz CW, ed. 1985. Southern pine nursery handbook. Atlanta: USDA
coords. 1989. Forest Nursery Pests. Agric. Handbk. 680. Washington, Forest Service, Southern Region. Unpaginated.
DC: USDA Forest Service. 184 p. Lowman BJ, Landis TD, Zensen F, Holland B. 1992. Bareroot nursery equip-
Duryea ML, Landis TD, eds. 1984. Forest nursery manual: production of ment catalog. Prog. Rep. 9224-2839-MTDC. Missoula, MT: USDA Forest
bareroot seedlings. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 385 p. Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center. 204 p.
Landis TD, Simonich EJ. 1984. Producing native plants as container South DB, Mexal JG. 1984. Growing the “best” seedling for reforestation
seedlings. In: Murphy PM, comp.The challenge of producing native plants success. Auburn: Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn
for the Intermountain Area. Proceedings, Intermountain Nurserymen’s University, Forestry Department. 11 p.
Association Conference; 1983 August 8–11; Las Vegas, NV. Gen.Tech. Sutherland JR,Van Eerden E. 1980. Diseases and insect pests in British
Rep. INT-168. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest Columbia forest nurseries. Joint Rep. 12.Victoria: British Columbia
and Range Experiment Station. 96 p. Ministry of Forests and Canadian Forestry Service, Pacific Forest
Landis TD,Tinus RW, McDonald SE, Barnett JP. 1989. The container tree Research Centre. 55 p.
nursery manual.Volume 5,The biological component: nursery pests and Sutherland JR, Lock W, Benson LE. 1982. Diseases and insects and their
mycorrhizae. Agric. Handbk. 674. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. management in container nurseries. In: Scarratt JB, Glerum C, Plexman
171 p. CA, eds. Proceedings, Canadian Containerized Tree Seedling Symposium,
Landis TD,Tinus RW, McDonald SE, Barnett JP. 1990. The container tree 1981 September 14–16,Toronto. Sault Ste. Marie, ON: Canadian
nursery manual.Volume 2, Containers and growing media. Agric. Handbk. Forestry Service, Great Lakes Forest Research Centre: 215–223.
674. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 87 p. Thompson BE. 1984. Establishing a vigorous nursery crop: bed preparation,
Landis TD,Tinus RW, McDonald SE, Barnett JP. 1994. The container tree seed sowing, and early seedling growth. In: Duryea ML, Landis TD, eds.
nursery manual.Volume 1, Nursery planning, development, and manage- Forest nursery manual: production of bareroot seedlings. Boston: Kluwer
ment. Agric. Handbk. 674. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 188 p. Academic Publishers: 41– 49.
Landis TD,Tinus RW, McDonald SE, Barnett JP. 1999. The container tree Williams RD, Hanks SH. 1994. Hardwood nursery guide. Agric. Handbook
nursery manual.Volume 6, Seedling propagation. Agric. Handbk. 674. 473. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 78p
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 167 p.
Lantz CW, tech. coord. 1989. A guide to the care and planting of southern
pine seedlings. Mgmt. Bull. R8-M–39. Atlanta: USDA Forest Service,
Southern Region. 44 p.
Abies P. Mill.
fir
D. George W. Edwards
Dr. Edwards retired from the Canadian Forest Service’s Pacific Forestry Centre
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The name Abies • North America (Alaska to the Mexican border)—
is derived from “abed,” the Old World Latin name for the 9 species
silver fir (Dallimore and Jackson 1967; Weber 1987). • Central America (Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, and
Theophrastus (371–286 BC) wrote of “silver firs” from Mt. El Salvador)—8 species (Martinez 1948) or 6 species
Ida (today’s Kaz Dag, Turkey) being used in shipbuilding, (Liu 1971)
which may have been the lumber of A. equi-trojani (Thanos • Mediterranean Basin, as well as lands bordering it,
2003b), but also may have been in reference to A. cepha- including southern and central Europe to the north,
lonica Loud. and/or A. pectinata DC. (now A. alba P. Mill.) western Asia (Asia Minor, Caucasia, Syria, and
(Amigues 1993, cited in Thanos (2003b). The name Abies Lebanon) to the east, and northwestern Africa
first appeared in Pliny the elder’s Historiae Naturalis from (Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia) to the south—
about AD 77 (Liu 1971). 8 species
Firs are long-lived, on average achieving reproductive • Siberia and eastern Asia (Amur, China, Korea, Japan,
maturity at 20 years, with an average life-span of 60 years Taiwan, and the Himalayas)—17 species
(Jacobs and others 1984). Fir trees in excess of 400 years
old have been recorded in several species (Earle 1999), and The latitudinal range stretches some 53 degrees, from
noble firs 600 to 700 years old are known (Arno and north of the Arctic Circle (north of 67°N, almost to
Hammerly 1977; Franklin 1979; Franklin and Dyrness Arkhangel’sk, Russia, on the White Sea) with Siberian fir
1973), but such life spans are modest compared to those of (Liu 1971), to south of the Tropic of Cancer (south of
other tree genera. Siberian fir (table 1) rarely, if ever, sur- 15°N, in El Salvador) with Guatemalan fir (FAO, in Anon.
vives more than 200 years because the main stem decays out 1986). Fir has a long history in Mexico, with pollen from
(Vidakovic 1991). In numbers of species, fir is second only the middle Pleistocene Epoch (5 million years ago) (Graham
to pine but lags behind spruce (Picea spp.) and Douglas-fir 1999). The most widely distributed species is Siberian fir,
(Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) in terms of overall then balsam fir, followed by subalpine fir (Liu 1971).
importance (Franklin 1982a). Globally, some species—including Algerian fir (FAO, in
All fir species are indigenous to the Northern Anon. 1986), bristlecone fir (Legg 1953; Little 1975; Talley
Hemisphere (table 1), being widely distributed over the 1974), Bulgarian fir (see table 1 footnotes for scientific
Eastern and Western Hemispheres (Liu 1971) chiefly in the name), Grecian fir, Spanish fir, (FAO, in Anon. 1969),
temperate and frigid regions, from sea level to altitudes of Sicilian fir (Arena 1959a&b, 1960; FAO, in Anon. 1986);
4,700 m. More than 70 species have been variously Gramuglio 1962; Köstler 1957) and Guatemalan fir (Anon.
described (Liu 1971), although the number of those current- 1986; Donahue and others 1985; FAO, in Anon. 1986;
ly recognized is between 39 (Liu 1971) or 40 (Vidakovic Salazar 1991; Veblen 1978)—have restricted ranges or are
1991), 46 (Farjon 1990), ~50 (Welch 1991), and 55 rare and, in some ecosystems, endangered and threatened
(Rushforth 1987), depending on placements into varietal with extinction. No longer found on the island of Corsica,
categories. Firs are found in 4 extensive regions (Franklin “silver fir” was described by Theophrastus (Thanos 2003b)
1974b; Liu 1971; Miller and Knowles 1989; Welch 1991; as growing taller and better there than anywhere else in cen-
Young and Young 1992): tral and southern Italy. In 1986, 21 wild trees of Sicilian fir,
a species that was considered extinct in 1900, were reported
growing at Monte Scalone, Sicily; other plants grown from
Abies • 149
A
Table 1—Abies, fir: nomenclature and occurrence
150
•
Scientific name & synonym(s) Common name(s) Occurrence
A. alba P. Mill. European silver fir, common silver fir, Mtns of central & S Europe, S to Corsica (~52°–38°N &
A. argentea DC.; A. candicans Fisch. silver fir, Swiss pine ~3°W– 27°E)
A. nobilis A. Dietr.; A. Pardei Gauss
A. pectinata DC.; A. picea Lindl.
A. taxifolia Desfont.; A. vulgaris Poir.
A. amabilis (Dougl. ex Loud.) Dougl. ex Pacific silver fir, lovely fir, amabilis fir, SE Alaska, coastal British Columbia, Coastal & Cascade Ranges of
Forbes Cascades fir, white fir, silver fir, Oregon & Washington & rarely in Klamath Mtns of California
A. grandis A. Murr. sapin gracieux (41°–56°50’N)
A. holophylla Maxim. Manchurian fir, needle fir, Khingan Mnts, & N part of Hebei* (N China Highlands), China; S. Sikhote
Sino-Korean fir Alin Mnts, Russia; Korean peninsula including Cheju Island (33°30’–49°N)
A. homolepis Sieb. & Zucc. Nikko fir, urajiro-momi, Mtns of central Honshu & Shikoku, Japan (37°–33°30’N)
A. brachyphylla Maxim. Dake-momi, Nikko-momi
A. koreana E.H.Wilson Korean fir Confined to the volcanic island of Cheju & the Chiri-san Mtns,
A. nephrolepis Nakai South Korea
A. lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt. subalpine fir, alpine fir, balsam fir, W Northwest Territories,Yukon, & SE Alaska, S through British
A. bifolia A. Murr.; A. sub-alpina Engelm. white fir, piño real blanco de la sierras, Columbia, SE Alberta to Oregon & in Rocky Mtns to Arizona
A. sub-alpina var. fallax Engelm. sapin concolore & New Mexico; local in N California & NE Nevada (64°30’–32°25’N
& 105°–145°W)
A. lasiocarpa var. arizonica (Merriam) corkbark fir, Rocky Mountain SE Arizona E to S central New Mexico, & N to SW
Lemmon subalpine fir, Rocky Mountain alpine fir, Colorado; reported locally in central Colorado
A. bifolia (A. Murr.); A. subalpina Engelm. alamo de la sierra, Arizona fir
A. magnifica A. Murr. California red fir, red fir, golden fir, Sierra Nevada, S Cascade Range, & N Coast Range in
A. campylocarpa A. Murr. white fir, red bark fir, magnificent fir California & adjacent Nevada (43°35’–35°40’N
A. nobilis var. magnifica Kell.
A. mariesii Mast. Maries fir, Toddomatsu fir, Mtns of N & central Honshu, Japan (41°–35°N)
A. mayriana Miyabe & Kudo Aomori-todo-matsu, O-shirabiso
A. nebrodensis (Lojac.) Mattei Sicilian fir, Abete delle Nebrodi Monte Cervo, Polizzo; Monti Nebrodi & Monte Scalane, Sicily
A. pectinata Gilibert var. nebrodensis Lojac.
A. alba Mill. var. nebrodensis (Lojac.) Svob.
A. nephrolepis (Trautv. ex Maxim.) Maxim. Manchurian fir, Khingan fir, Siberian E Siberia, through Lesser Khingan Mtns, Manchuria,W to Kansu
A. sibirica var. nephrolepis Trautv. white fir, Amur fir, Hinggan fir of China & S to Chiri-san, South Korea (54°54’–35°30’N &
A. gracilis Kom. 113°–140°30’E)
A. nordmanniana (Steven) Spach Nordmann fir, Caucasian fir, W Caucasus & mtns connecting Caucasus with
A. leioclada (Stev.) Gord. Crimean fir Armenian Highlands (44°–40°N & 46°–38°E)
A. pectinata var. leioclada (Stev. ex Endl.) Carr.
A. nordmanniana ssp. equi-trojani Turkey fir Mt. Olympus, Bithynia (NW Turkey) to Paphlagonia
(Asch. & Sint. ex Boiss.) Coode & Cullen (N Turkey), Asia Minor (~39°–42°N & 26°–38°W)
A. bornmuelleriana Mattf.
A. numidica de Lannoy ex Carrière Algerian fir, Algerian silver fir, Kabylie Range, near summits of Mt Babor & Mt.Thabador, Kabylie. NE Algeria
A. pinsapo var, baborensis Coss.
A. baborensis Letourn.
A. pindrow (D. Don) Royle west Himalayan fir, W Himalayas, India & Pakistan, N Afghanistan to Nepal & Tibet
A. webbiana Brandis west Himalayan silver fir, Pindrow fir
A. pinsapo Boiss. Spanish fir, Spanish silver fir Mtns of Malaga & Granada provinces, S Spain; Morocco (var. marocana)
A. hispanica De Chamb.
A. procera Rehd. noble fir, red fir, white fir, noble red fir, Washington Cascade Range S through Cascade Range & high peaks of
A. nobilis (Dougl. ex D. Don) Lindl. feather cone fir, Oregon larch coast ranges to SW Oregon & NWCalifornia (48°30’–41°N)
A. recurvata Mast. Min fir, Min-kiang fir Mtns of Ming River Basin between Min-kiang & Sungpan Districts,
A. ernestii Rehd.; A. beissberiana Rehd. & Wilson Sichuan† Province; SW & C Kansu, NE Yunnan, China
Abies •
(~ 28°–39°N & 100°–106°E)
151
A
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152
•
Table 1—Abies, fir: nomenclature and occurrence (continued)
A. religiosa (Kunth) Schltdl. & Cham. sacred fir, sacred Mexican silver fir, Mtns of central & S Mexico, C. Michoacan to Veracruz
A. glaucascens Roezl; A. hirtella Lindl. Mexican silver fir, oyamel, pinabete & N & W Guatemala (~24°–15°N)
A. lindleyana Roezl
A. sachalinensis (Fr. Schm.) var. sachalinensis Sakhalin [or Sachalin] fir, Japanese fir, Sakhalin & Kurile Islands, Kamchatka, Russia;
Mast. todo-matsu, akatodo Hokkaido, Japan (53°34’–41°30’N)
Sources: Anon. (1998), Dallimore and Jackson (1967), Donahue and others (1985), Earle (1999), Farjon and Rushforth (1989), Franklin (1974b), Liu (1971), Puri and Gupta (1968).
* Spelling of Chinese place names has changed over time.This name is given as Hopeh in Liu (1971) but is currently Hebei.
† Formerly spelled Szechuan or Szuchuan (Liu 1971).
Note: The following recognized fir species are not included in the table for lack of sufficient data (common names are given when known):
CENTRAL AMERICA: A. colimensis sp. nov. Rushf. & Nar.; A. durangensis Mart. (Durango fir); A. flinckii sp. nov. Rushf.; A. hickelii Flous et Gauss. (Hickel fir); A. hidalgensis sp. nov. Debr.,
Rácz & Guíz.; A. neodurangensis sp. nov. Debr., Rácz & Salaz.; A. zapotekensis sp. nov. Debr., Rácz & Ramír.; A. vejarii Mart. (Vejar fir).
EAST ASIA: A. beshanzuensis Wu (Baishan fir); A. chengii Rushf. (Cheng fir); A. chensiensis Van Tiegh. (Shensi fir); A. delavayi (Van Tiegh.) Franch. (Yunnan fir, or Delavay fir); A. densa
Griff. (Sikkim fir); A. fabri (Mast.) Craib (Faber fir, sometimes also Yunnan fir); A. fanjingshanensis Huang,Tu et Fang (Fanjingshan fir); A. fargesii Franch. (Farges fir); A. forrestii Coltm.-
Rog. (Forrest fir); A. kawakamii (Hay.) Ito (Taiwan fir); A. spectabilis (D. Don) Spach (east Himalayan fir or Webb fir); A. yuanbaoshensis Lu et Fu (Yuanbaoshan fir); A. ziyuanensis Fu et
Mo (Ziyuan fir).
MEDITERRANEAN BASIN: A. x borisii-regis Mattf. (Bulgarian fir, sometimes Macedonian fir, or King Boris fir); A. marocana Trab. (Moroccan fir); A. tazaotana Cheval. (Tazaotan fir).
seeds or grafts have been established in various parts of Several North American firs, including white, grand, and
A
Europe (FAO, in Anon. 1986). Bristlecone fir is found in noble firs have been planted in Europe but are only locally
sufficient numbers, and is distributed widely enough, that important (Handley 1982); subalpine fir is grown in
the potential for extinction remains low (Smith and Berg Scandinavia (Dietrichson 1971), especially at high eleva-
1988), and research on genetics and population viability is tions in Norway (Hansen and Leivsson 1990). Introduction
underway (USDA FS 1992). The sacred fir, or oyamel, of of the genus to New Zealand began in the mid-19th century;
Mexico is logged heavily. However, since 1975 has it of some 30 fir species now grown there, white, grand,
become generally known that the bulk (the populations east California red, Nordmann, Spanish, noble, and sacred firs
of the Rocky Mountain crest) of North American monarch have been suggested as “contingency” species, that is, alter-
butterflies (Danaus plexippus L.) overwinter on the cool natives to Monterey pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) (Miller and
slopes of the transvolcanic ranges west of Mexico city Knowles 1989).
forested with oyamel (Pyle 1992, 1999). Thus, the oyamels It is in western North American that firs attain their
may be preserved to protect the monarchs. The arboreal alti- greatest ecological and economic importance (Franklin
tude record, 4,700 m, is held by flaky fir, with its distinctive 1982a). They are major vegetation components, especially in
reddish-brown bark that exfoliates in thin papery scales, the boreal, Pacific Coast coniferous, and western
found in the very dry regions of China near Tibet (Rushforth montane/alpine coniferous forests. They are critical as cover
1987). for watersheds where heavy winter snowpack accumulates—
Firs are easily distinguished from all other conifers by this cover modifies snowmelt so that runoff continues
their disk-like leaf scars and erect, oblong-cylindrical, or throughout the spring and into summer (Franklin and others
cylindrical seed cones. These are borne in the uppermost 1978; Laacke and Fiske 1983)—and the maintenance and
regions of the crown and are essential to species identifica- regulation of high-quality streams (Hunt 1993). Firs provide
tion (Farrar 1995). At maturity, the terminally winged seeds, cover, and their seeds and leaves are important as food for
ovuliferous scales, and bracts are shed (Dallimore and various birds, including northern spotted owl (Strix occiden-
Jackson 1967; Farrar 1995), leaving the cone axis—the talis) (Ripple and others 1991), osprey (Pandion haliaetus),
rachis—as a persistent, erect spike, a unique and distinctive and bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) (Hopkins 1979)
feature of all firs (Hosie 1969). Abies is considered to be and mammals including mule (Odocoileus hemionus) and
most closely related to the genus Keteleéria; species of this white-tailed (O. virginianus) deer , elk (Cervus elaphus),
genus have upright, cylindrical cones that resemble those of and black (Ursus americanus) and grizzly bears (U. arctos),
firs, but Keteleéria cones do not disintegrate at maturity moose (Alces alces), and mountain goat (Oreamnos ameri-
(Rehder 1958). canus) (Agee 1982; Cooper and others 1987; Leach and
Nine fir species are native to North America; 7 intro- Hiele 1956; Peek 1974; Steele and others 1981). Some of
duced Asiatic and European species have become common these animal species are sensitive, rare, or endangered
in their use as ornamentals or Christmas trees (table 1) and (Laacke and Fiske 1983). Excellent sources of information
others are being tested (Girardin 1997a). Table 1 is not a on wildlife-cover values of fir forests are available (FEIS
complete list of all fir species but covers only those firs for 1996).
which widely accepted cone and seed information was avail- Firs are found at all elevations, from sea level (grand fir
able at the time of this revision. Brief descriptions, including on the Pacific Coast and balsam fir on the Atlantic Coast) to
cone and seed morphology, for nearly 2 dozen other firs timberline (noble and subalpine firs); they attain their maxi-
found outside North America are available in a website mal development on relatively cool, moist sites (Franklin
maintained by Earle (1999). Older, still-valid descriptions of 1974b). Noble fir is one of the most windfirm trees (Earle
fir species with dates of introduction into North America 1999). The form, texture, and color of fir trees add to the
(Rehder 1958) are used frequently by growers of exotic high scenic values of their growing locations, many of
conifers, but readers should be aware that species nomencla- which have become important recreation areas. Their attrac-
ture has changed in numerous cases. Information on 22 fir tive, highly symmetrical appearance make many species,
species recognized in China can be found in the Flora of particularly Fraser and Pacific silver firs, valuable in urban
China (Cheng and Fu 1987). horticultural plantings, where their slow growth can be an
Firs play an important role in European forestry, advantage. Whereas the original Woody-Plant Seed Manual
although only European silver fir is distributed widely (USDA FS 1948) mentioned only 5 fir species used “to a
enough to be of more than local value (Handley 1982). very small extent” in reforestation in the United States,
Abies • 153
9 species—Pacific silver, balsam, white, Fraser, grand, sub- Donahue and others 1985; Salazar 1991), and Christmas
A
alpine, red, Shasta red and noble firs—are now in regular trees and boughs (FAO, in Anon. 1986). In Guatemala,
use throughout their native ranges. sheep and other livestock destroy nearly all regeneration
With 2 exceptions—Fraser fir, the remaining stands of (Veblen 1978).
which are extremely valuable for watershed protection as Fir pulp is used extensively for making printing papers
well as for their scenic beauty (Beck 1990), and the rare and high-grade wrapping paper, with Pacific silver fir the
bristlecone fir—all North American firs have become com- mainstay in the Pacific Northwest and balsam fir in the
mercially valuable as timber and/or pulp species. In general, northeastern United States. Red fir is preferred for sulfite
fir wood is soft, odorless, and light in color and weight; it and thermomechanical pulping (Laacke 1990b; Smith 1982).
lacks resin ducts and usually kiln-dries without checking or Wood residues not utilized elsewhere are considered to be
collapse (but tends to warp). It is easily worked and finished an energy source (Smith 1982).
to a good surface, and it takes paint and polish well Fraser fir (in the East) and Pacific silver, white, red, and
(Dallimore and Jackson 1967). Although generally of low noble firs (in the West) are prized also for Christmas trees
durability (Franklin 1982a) unless treated with preservative, (Hopkins 1982; Laacke 1990a&b) and typically command
fir wood can be used in projects that do not require high high prices (Franklin 1974b; Young and Young 1992). The
structural strength; balsam fir is used extensively for cabin farm-gate value of Fraser fir Christmas trees cut in North
logs. Noble fir wood (sometimes marketed as “Oregon Carolina in 1993 was 80 to 100 million dollars (Blazich and
larch”) is the strongest (along with red fir) of fir woods and Hinesley 1994, 1995). Noble fir boughs account for some
is more durable than that of most firs. The frames of Royal 75% of fir bough harvest in the Pacific Northwest (Douglass
Air Force Mosquito fighter planes of World War II were 1975; Murray and Crawford 1982), as well as in Denmark
build with noble fir (Pojar and MacKinnon 1994). Grand fir (Bang 1979 & Holstener-Jorgensen and Johansen 1975, both
knots, steamed and carved, were made into fish hooks cited by Murray and Crawford 1982; Franklin 1982a).
(Turner 1998). The many other products made in North Guatemalan fir also provides yuletide greenery and
America of fir wood include quality veneers, paneling, con- Christmas trees in its native range (FAO, in Anon. 1986;
struction plywood, crates, container veneers, poles (after Salazar 1991). The sacred fir, or oyamel, is so named
preservative treatment), moldings, window sash and door because of its heavy use as greenery for celebrating reli-
stock, Venetian blinds, ladder rails, and aircraft framing gious events in Mexico. Throughout Europe, but particularly
(because of its high strength-to-weight ratio) (Bakuzis and in Denmark, Nordmann fir is prized as an ornamental, for its
Hansen 1965; Frank 1990; Franklin 1974b, 1982a, 1990; decorative foliage, and for Christmas tree production
Smith 1982). In the late 19th century, clear lumber of red fir (Gosling and others 1999; Poulsen 1996); seeds from
was known as “butter wood” because, when made into sources from the northern Caucasus (Republic of Georgia)
boxes for cheese and butter, it did not influence their flavor are preferred (Godwin 1997).
(Young and Young 1992). From bark resin blisters, oleoresin (known commercially
Japan, which imports large quantities of noble and as Canada balsam and Strasbourg turpentine) is obtained for
Pacific silver firs for construction (Franklin 1982a), uses its varnishes, the mounting of light microscopy specimens and
indigenous Japanese fir for making boards, roof shingles, medicinal purposes (Dallimore and Jackson 1967; Frank
door plates, matches, wooden clogs, musical instruments, 1990; Lanner 1983). After distillation to yield fine turpen-
household utensils (furniture, packing boxes, and coffins), as tine oil, the crude residue is sold as rosin (Liu 1971). The
well as using it in ship-building and cooperage (Liu 1971). pitch and bark of subalpine fir were a very important source
The Yunnan and Faber firs (A. delavayi and A. fabri, see of medicines for native peoples of the interior of British
table 1 footnotes) are used for temple construction in the Columbia (Pojar and MacKinnon 1994); the pitch also made
high mountains of Sichuan Province, China (Earle 1999). an effective insect repellent (Turner 1998). The fragrant
European silver fir is widely used throughout Europe also needles of balsam fir are stuffed into souvenir pillows sold
for construction, joinery, musical instruments, and (after pre- in New England (Frank 1990). North American native peo-
servative treatment) for poles. Guatemalan fir faces extinc- ples pulverized fir needles for use as a body scent (some-
tion in parts of its range (Donahue and others 1985; Salazar times to mask their human scent to reduce the risk of being
1991) through overuse for building materials, roof shingles, attacked by large predators) or as a perfume for clothing;
interior paneling, weaving looms and “low-density” furni- used powdered fir needles (particularly those of subalpine
ture, shipping crates, charcoal, firewood (Anon. 1998; fir) mixed with deer grease as a hair tonic and tint; sprinkled
Abies • 155
A
156
Table 2—Abies, fir: schematic of new infragenetic classification system
•
Section Subsection Species
Abies • 157
their validity is questionable (Franklin 1990). Unsuccessful characteristically intermediate between parents, but mostly
A
attempts to hybridize white and grand firs with European resembling—but still distinguishable from—the paternal
silver, Algerian, Nordmann, and Grecian firs indicate strong parent (Hawley and Dehayes 1985b). Interspecific crosses
reproductive isolation between the North American repre- between balsam fir (as the maternal parent) and 10 other fir
sentatives of the genus and their European counterparts species (as paternal parents) have been claimed (Chiasson
(Kormutak 1997). 1967), even though subsequent germination was very poor.
Pacific silver fir has an extensive range, occupying many A cultivar of balsam x Fraser fir (Fraser fir var. prostrata) is
soil types, and it can exist in areas of deep snow and mini- a dwarf shrub with horizontally spreading branches that is
mal summer droughts (Packee and others 1982). Yet it is not used ornamentally (Beck 1990).
a highly variable species, and no artificial hybrids with any Subalpine fir, the second most widely distributed fir in
other species have been described, although there is a culti- North America (covering 32 degrees of latitude), exhibits
vated dwarf form, Pacific silver fir var. compacta (Crawford considerable variation, so much so that an (unsuccessful)
and Oliver 1990). Despite this apparent lack of variation, proposal was made to reclassify it as a subspecies of balsam
strong family differences in germination responses among fir (Boivin 1959). In the West, subalpine fir was previously
populations of Pacific silver fir on Vancouver Island, with recognized as a separate, single species possessing 2 vari-
important implications for maintaining genetic diversity in eties, var. arizonica, the corkbark fir found only at the
nursery seedling crops, have been reported (Davidson 1993; southern end of the range, and var. lasiocarpa, the typical
Davidson and others 1996). subalpine fir, the remaining non-corky-barked trees (Fowells
For balsam fir, the most widely distributed fir in North 1965; Little 1953). Differences in morphology, foliar
America, apparently-continuous variation along altitudinal volatile oils, and other factors have been cited as reasons for
and geographic gradients has been reported (Lester1968; returning to the original designations of alpine fir as 2
Myers and Bormann 1963) in which the putative variety species—that is, the subalpine fir (A. lasiocarpa Hooker)
phanerolepis (bracted balsam fir) is most important (Myers growing in the Cascade Range and the Rocky Mountain fir
and Bormann 1963), but var. fraseri and var. balsamea have (A. lasiocarpa var. arizonica), growing in higher elevations
also been recognized (Frank 1990). The variety phanerolepis in the interor—which are believed to have hybridized exten-
is most common in maritime Canada, the St. Lawrence sively (Hunt and von Rudloff 1979, 1983). It has been sug-
Valley, and at higher elevations in mountains of the north- gested (Hunt and von Rudloff 1979) that at the southern-
eastern United States (Fernald 1909; Myers and Bormann most end of its range, coastal subalpine fir possibly
1963), although its taxonomic validity has been questioned hybridizes with noble fir, but no evidence for this has been
(Myers and Bormann 1963). Natural hybrids have been dis- reported.
cerned between balsam and Fraser firs (Myers and Bormann Currently, corkbark fir is included under Rocky
1963; Robinson and Thor 1969), 2 closely related relics of Mountain fir; corkbark fir seeds are about 70% larger than
an ancestral taxon (Robinson and Thor 1969; Jacobs and subalpine fir seeds (Fowells 1965). In central Alberta, on its
Werth 1984) that may have exhibited north–south clinal eastern boundary where the range of Rocky Mountain fir
variation, although balsam fir var. phanerolepis is unlikely meets and overlaps with that of balsam fir (Fowells, 1965,
to be of hybrid origin (Robinson and Thor 1969; Jacobs and Hosie 1969), some studies obtained evidence of hybridiza-
Werth 1984). Balsam fir var. phanerolepis and Fraser fir tion (Moss 1955; Roller 1967), whereas others suggested
have been shown to be closely related and recently segregat- Rocky Mountain fir is a variety of balsam fir (Bakuzis and
ed taxa, with balsam fir var. phanerolepis being more close- Hansen 1965). The controversy over the subalpine fir–
ly related to balsam than to Fraser fir (Clarkson and Rocky Mountain fir–balsam fir complex (Hunt and von
Fairbrothers 1970). Using viable seed production as the cri- Rudloff 1979, 1983; Parker and Maze 1984; Parker and oth-
terion, balsam x Fraser fir and reciprocals, Fraser x bracted ers 1981) continues.
balsam fir and reciprocals, and bracted balsam x subalpine The only unique populations of coastal subalpine fir are
fir were found to be fully crossable (Hawley and Dehayes found in Alaska, at lower elevations, and appear to be isolat-
1985a). This suggests that geographical rather than genetic ed with no reported introgression between them and coastal
isolation is likely more responsible for the taxonomic varia- mainland populations (Harris 1965; Heusser 1954). The
tion in these 2 firs (Hawley and Dehayes 1985a). After Prince of Wales Island population has distinctive terpene
growing for 7 months indoors, hybrids from all these combi- patterns, but it is not known how, or if, these differ from
nations were verifiable, with the hybrid seedlings not being those of neighboring populations (Hunt 1993). Three horti-
Abies • 159
Guatemala have been reported (Aguirre-Planter and others minimum age for production of female strobili is 20 years,
A
2000). that of male strobili, 35 years (Eis 1970). Usually, female
Because taxonomy remains confused in several strobili occur singly or in small groups on the upper side of
instances, and because hybridization is probable, until the the previous year’s twigs on the highest branches, whereas
patterns of variation are better understood, the use of fir male strobili cluster densely along the undersides of the pre-
seed sources local to the reforestation site is the best prac- vious year’s twigs lower down in the crown. This arrange-
tice. However, the specific or varietal name applied to the ment promotes cross-fertilization but may reduce pollination
local population should not be relied on (Franklin 1974b). (Singh and Owens 1982). However, both male and female
Geographic source has long been known to affect cone and strobili may be found on the same branchlet. Seed produc-
seed characters in many fir species. Numerous studies have tion in most fir species typically begins on trees 20 to 30
reported—sometimes contradictorily—that cone dimensions years old (table 3), although individual trees may produce
and (to a lesser extent) seed weight, germination, and some cones at a younger age, for example, 12 years in noble
seedling yields (as well as mineral contents in some species) fir (Franklin 1974b) and 15 years in balsam fir (Roe 1948a).
may be under strong genetic control and related to prove- However, heavy cone production in noble fir begins when
nance (Gambi and Stradajoli 1971; Giannini and Marinelli trees are 30 to 35 years old (Franklin 1982b). Seed produc-
1977; Gvozdikov 1980; Kociova 1974a&b; Laffers 1979; tion by Spanish fir in Czechoslovakia does not begin until
Singh and Singh 1981; Singh and others 1991; Ujiie and trees are 50 years old (Holubcik 1969).
others 1991). For seeds of noble and Shasta red firs, the All firs require 2 years to complete their reproductive
strong latitudinal gradients (or clines) in cotyledon number cycles; detailed descriptions of the cycles have been pub-
and in seed weight were considered promising indices of lished for balsam, Pacific silver, grand, and subalpine firs
seed source/provenance (Franklin and Greathouse 1968b). (Owens and Molder 1977a&b, 1985; Powell 1970; Singh
Provenance selection is a key issue in Christmas tree pro- and Owens 1981, 1982), as well as descriptions of factors
duction of noble, grand and Shasta red firs (Hupp 1984). affecting seed production (Owens and Morris 1998). In
Isozyme analysis has effectively identified provenances Pacific silver fir, microscopic primordia are initiated in the
of European silver fir (Konnert 1991) and has been used to axils of leaves inside vegetative buds during May of the first
study geographic variation of firs in Europe and to make year; bud differentiation occurs about 2 months later, with
comparisons with North American fir species (Konnert bract initiation in mid-July and ovuliferous scales in mid-
1991; Kormutak 1988; Moller 1986; Schroeder 1989a,b&c). August; seed-cone buds become dormant in November.
Thus, it was concluded that although European silver fir sur- Microsporophyls are initiated between mid-July and early
vived the last glaciation in 5 refugia, the species migrated to September, whereas microsporangia begin differentiation in
its present range from only 3 of them (Konnert and September and are dormant by mid-October. Development
Bergmann 1995). By use of enzyme systems, Pascual and of pollen-cone and seed-cone buds resumes early in April of
others (1993) showed that there is genetic divergence the second year. While the single, large megaspore mother
between Spanish and Moroccan populations of Spanish fir cell in each ovule is undergoing meiosis in early May,
and that several true varieties of this species may exist. mature 5-celled pollen is forming (Owens and Molder
Enzyme linkages in balsam fir similar to those in other 1977a&b).
conifers might be used for taxonomic purposes (Neale and Strobilus production, male and female, in balsam fir has
Adams 1981). A mating system study in balsam fir was been related to shoot vigor, the lowest number of female
described by Neale and Adams (1982). An isozyme study of strobili occurring on whorl branches, and the most male
Fraser fir on Mt. Rogers in Virginia revealed little or no pop- strobili on internodal branches (Powell 1972). Even where
ulation differentiation (Diebel and Feret 1991). Isozyme the zones of male and female bearing overlap, the 2 sexes
markers have revealed low levels of genetic variation within usually occur on different types of branch; when on the
and high levels of genetic differentiation among Central same branch, male strobili are confined to the weaker
American populations of Guatemalan fir, sacred fir, A. shoots. As the trees age, they appear to maintain a potential-
flinkii, and A. hickelii (see table 1 footnotes) (Aguirre- ly female zone of constant size (number of whorls and
Planter and others 2000). internodes), while the uppermost boundary of the potentially
Flowering and fruiting. Fir strobili are unisexual and male zone rises with increasing tree height. If the leader is
are typically borne on the uppermost branches. Both male lost, the male zone continues to rise while the female zone
(microsporangiate) and female (megasporangiate) strobili in gets smaller, and the apical part of the crown can eventually
grand fir develop from axillary buds (Owens 1984). The become male (Powell 1972).
Sources: Ahlgren (1957), Anon. (1950b, 1998), Bakuzis and Hansen (1965), Baron (1969), Beck (1990), Dallimore and Jackson (1967), Ebell and Schmidt (1964), Eis (1970), Eis and others (1965), Enescu (1960), Fowells (1965), Fowells
and Schubert (1956), Franklin (1968, 1974b), Franklin and Ritchie (1970), Gordon (1978), Haig and others (1941), Hetherington (1965), Hughes (1967), Laacke (1990a&b), Laacke and Fiske (1983), Legg (1953), Leloup (1956), Little and
DeLisle (1962), Løfting (1961), MacDonald and others (1957), MacLean (1960), Morris (1951), Munz and Keck (1959), Owens and Molder (1977b), Pearson (1931), Puri and Gupta (1968), Rudolf (1952), Sato (1940), Schmidt and Lotan
(1980), Singh and Singh (1984a&b),Talley (1974),Tulstrup (1952), USDA Forest Service (1948),Wappes (1932), Zon (1914).
* Minimum age for commercial seed bearing.
† At higher elevations in central Europe, 4 to 6 years.
Abies •
‡ Occasionally (Talley 1974).
§ Includes A. delavayi, A. densa. and A. spectabilis (Puri and Gupta 1968).
161
A
Thinning promoted fruiting in 150- to 170-year-old Figure 2—Abies procera, noble showing the typical “raspber-
A ry” form (courtesy of Y. Tanaka.) fir: male strobili prior
stands of Siberian fir in Siberia (Zelenin 1991), and best
Sakhalin fir seeds occurred after heavy thinning (Sato 1940). to pollen shedding (courtesy of D. Pigott).
In contrast, after a commercial thinning in a younger
Siberian fir stand, the remaining trees produced such small
amounts of pollen that seed quality was greatly reduced
(Okishev and Pugachev 1983). Strobilus production in a
Nikko fir seed orchard in Japan increased slightly following
application of gibberellins GA4/7 and GA3, but girdling at
the branch base was ineffective (Katsuta and others 1981).
Following bud burst in early spring, female strobili
quickly elongate, and initially the bracts are highly conspic-
uous (figure 1). Enlarging male strobili have a miniature
raspberry-like form (figure 2) until pollen is shed, when they
become elongated and tassel-like. Wind-pollination in
Pacific silver fir occurs by late May (Owens and Molder
1977a&b). Pollination durations may vary widely, from 18 and cotyledons develop in early August and embryos mature
days in a Nikko fir seed orchard in Japan (Itoo 1975) to a late the same month or September. Seed dispersal usually
month in a Spanish fir forest in Spain (Arista and Talavera begins mid-late September and most seeds have been shed
1994a). Fir pollen is relatively heavy, so that pollination dis- by November (Owens and Molder 1977a&b). Similar phe-
tances greater than 60 m may be the limiting factor for nologies have been described for grand fir on southern
viable seed production in fir (and other coniferous species); Vancouver Island (Owens 1984) and for Spanish fir in Spain
although isolated trees may show an apparently good cone (Arista and Talvera 1994b).
crop, the seedcrop may be poor (Anon. 1950a; Arista and Mature fir cones are 7.5 to 25 cm long and typically
Talavera 1994b). Parthenocarpy is known in balsam fir ovoid to oblong-cylindrical. In many fir species, the fan-
(Anon. 1950a) and Siberian fir (Nekrasova 1978a); without shaped ovuliferous scales outgrow the bracts early in the
pollen, cones can be of normal size but what seeds form are season, but the bracts remain highly conspicuous in noble
without embryos. Controlled pollination techniques have fir, nearly covering the entire surface of the cone at maturity
been described for Fraser fir (Miller 1983), and fir pollen (figure 3). Typically, Shasta red fir bracts are also visible on
can be stored for at least 2 years under carefully controlled the surface of mature cones, which makes them distinguish-
conditions (Kravchenko and others 1974; Lowe 1974). able from cones of California red fir, which have bracts that
For Pacific silver fir on Vancouver Island, development are shorter than the scales (Laacke 1990b). However, north
of the female gametophyte is complete at the end of June of Mt. Lassen, where red and noble firs hybridize, red fir
and fertilization occurs in mid-July. Embryonic meristems has exserted bracts (similar to those of noble fir). Adding to
the confusion, exserted bracts are found also on a large
Figure 1—Abies amabilis, Pacific silver fir: female strobili southern Sierra Nevada population of red fir (Laacke
at the receptive stage (courtesy of D. Pigott). 1990b). The bracts remain so prominent in bristlecone fir as
to give this species its name.
Each scale bears 2 seeds on its adaxial (upper) surface,
the ovules forming at the base of the scale near the attach-
ment to the cone axis. The membranous wings form over the
outer part of the scale. Scales near the tip and base of the
cone usually lack fertile seeds. At maturity, seeds separate
from the scale on which they form—a useful diagnostic in
judging advancing ripeness—and seed dissemination
involves abscission of the cone scales from the axis, leaving
the rachis, the spike-like axis on the tree (figure 4) that may
persist for several years. In Pacific silver fir, the scales
become greatly distorted during drying in late summer, and
Abies • 163
Figure 5—Abies, fir: mature seeds of A. amabilis, Pacific age in other species was greater when damage occurred
A silver fir (top left); A. balsamea. balsam fir (top center); before the seeds had been stratified (Arista and others 1992;
A. fraseri, Fraser fir (top right); A. grandis; grand fir Kitzmiller and others 1973, 1975), lending support to the
(bottom left); A. lasiocarpa, subalpine fir (bottom center);
suggestion that the resin may be chemically transformed
A. magnifica, California, red fir (bottom right).
during chilling rather than simply being evaporated (Gunia
and Simak 1970). Leaking resin quickly oxidizes and may
then be toxic to the embryo (Bouvarel and Lemoine 1958),
and/or provide a good medium for mold development
(Gunia and Simak 1967, 1970; Kitzmiller and others 1973).
Whatever the precise role of the resin, fir requires careful
handling of cones and seeds from the time they are picked
(Dalskov 1960; Gunia and Simak 1970). Although fragile,
the seedcoat can account for up to 60% of the total dry
weight in noble fir seeds (Kandya and Ogino 1986).
Most of the bulk in a mature fir seed is occupied by the
fleshy, nutritive megagametophyte tissue. Whereas the seed-
coat proportion does not vary greatly, the weight of the
Figure 6—Abies procera, noble fir: abaxial view of seed megagametophyte and embryo varies widely among individ-
showing (left) a seed with wing, but with integument still ual seeds and is more closely correlated with how quickly
attached (indicated by the prominent flaps wrapping around
the long margins) and which would be regarded as a “pure the seeds germinate (Kandya and Ogino 1986). The embryo
seed” commercially; a naked seed (center) without wing or extends almost the length of the megagametophyte (figure
integument; and the intact integument (right) removed 10), and this extension—relative to the megagametophyte
from the seed at center.This wing attachment to the seed is length—is a good index of seed ripening (Dobbs and others
typical for fir (Edwards 2002); scale bar is in millimeters.
1976; Oliver 1974) (see also table 6). Embryonic cotyle-
dons, which may vary in number from 3 to 14, are well-
differentiated, but the radicle apex is difficult to discern as it
is encased by the protective root cap.
Seedcrops large enough to justify commercial collec-
tions generally occur every 2 to 4 years (table 3), but inter-
Abies • 165
ber on the south side of the tree (Kulhavy and Schenk Similarly, cones occur at the very top of dominant Siberian
A
1976). fir trees over 28 cm dbh (Kolomiec 1950). In Siberian fir,
Cone length and seed yield are significantly correlated the frequency of fruiting is correlated also with height,
in grand fir (Ching 1960), and cone length and seed weight diameter, and trunk volume (Nekrasova and Ryabinikov
are correlated with mean temperature during maturation in 1978): all trees with a dbh of 24 cm or larger bear cones
Sakhalin fir (Okada 1983). The fertile length, or “effective (Atimetov 1968). For European silver fir, seed numbers per
size,” of balsam fir cones ranges from 60% in small cones to tree generally increase with dbh, whereas the 1,000-seed
83% in large cones and, because larger cones are borne weight peaks at dbh 40 to 50 cm, then decreases. Nursery
higher in the crown, the upper branches bear a greater pro- seedlings surviving into their second growing season
portion of the potential seed yield than they bear of the cone increased with parent-tree dbh up to 50 to 60 cm, so cones
crop (Powell 1979). The fertile length of a European silver should be collected from trees 35 to 50 cm dbh (Souleres
fir cone represents 74% of the total cone length, and the 1965). Germination in Himalayan fir seeds is optimal from
average yield of potentially fertile seeds varies from 122 trees in the 1.3- to 2-m dbh class (Puri and Gupta 1968).
(small cones) to 272 (large cones) (Nanu 1979a). Cone diameter, 1,000-seed weight, and germination varied
Total seed set (including damaged seeds) can be estimat- significantly with dbh of west Himalayan fir trees (Arya and
ed for subalpine fir (Kulhavy and others 1976) and other firs others 1994).
(Douglass 1969) from the number of exposed seeds—sound Proper form and timing of nitrogen fertilizer has
and insect-damaged—when cones are cut in half lengthwise. increased the frequency and size of balsam fir seedcrops—
The number of filled seeds exposed when cones are cut in producing bigger and heavier cones and better quality
half longitudinally is used in British Columbia to judge seeds—in both natural stands and seed orchards (Arnold and
whether the crop is worth collecting; for Pacific silver fir at others 1992; Edwards IK 1986; Sheedy 1974, 1978). Similar
least 8 to 12, for grand fir at least 12 to 14, and for sub- effects have been reported for European silver fir (Huchler
alpine fir at least 4 to 6 filled seeds must be exposed on one 1956). Foliar levels of phosphorus and magnesium were
cut face of the cone (Edwards 1986a; Eremko and others identified as the nutritional elements most limiting cone
1989). These numbers apply just prior to collection, because yields in a Fraser fir seed orchard; the relative nitrogen
insects or disease may decrease counts if there is a signifi- status of high-yielding trees was superior to that of low-
cant time lag between cone examination and cone collection. yielding trees. However, increasing the level of the most
Tree age and size affect seed quality, sometimes in con- limiting nutrient may not increase cone production because
tradictory ways. Best seeds were obtained from younger other internal and external factors play a more decisive role
(40- to 50-year-old) trees of the rare Sicilian fir in Italy (Arnold and others 1992).
(Arena 1960) and balsam fir in Michigan (Benzie 1960), Causes of reduced seed production. Despite produc-
than from trees more than 150 years old. European silver fir ing abundant amounts of pollen, firs typically are poor seed
trees between 40 and 100 years old were judged best producers, the reasons (in decreasing order of importance)
(Magini 1953), but Bosnian sources of this species showed being infrequent cone initiation, insect infestation, frost
no decrease in fertility with age (Panov 1949). West damage to cones and ovules, inadequate pollination, and
Himalayan fir at 200 years in Pakistan still produced enough several other minor causes (Owens and Morris 1998). The
seeds for adequate natural regeneration (Haq 1992), main factor affecting the number of cones produced is the
although viable seeds did not exceed 15% of the crop. proportion of initiated female strobili that develop into fully
Almost 90% of white fir cones are borne on dominant mature cones (Eis 1970; Nekrasova 1974; Owens and
trees, 12% on codominants, and almost none on intermedi- Molder 1974, 1977a&b; Owens and Morris 1998; Powell
ate and suppressed trees (Fowells and Schubert 1956). In 1973; Shea 1989a&b). In a good crop year, an average
white fir, cone production peaks in trees with 75 cm dbh, grand fir tree produces over 40 cones (Foiles and others
then gradually decreases as diameter increases (Fowells 1990). Cool wet weather may interfere with pollen dispersal
1965). Seed-bearing white fir trees over 60 cm dbh are tar- (Franklin 1974a). Lack of pollination, incomplete develop-
gets for the fir engraver beetle (Scolytus ventralis LeConte), ment, and abortion, in balsam fir may cause more empty
which weakens and damages tops and thus may seriously seeds than insect damage (Fye and Wylie 1968). Self-
impair cone production in old-growth stands (Hopkins pollination in noble fir may reduce seed yield by 31%;
1982). Most cones occur on branches of the second and although seed weight, germination, and seedling survival are
third nodes from the apex of balsam fir trees (Powell 1979). not affected, seedlings of selfed parents show a 24%
Abies • 167
A Table 4—Abies, fir: insects affecting cone and seed production
Sources: Androic (1960, 1976), Annila (1982), Arista and Talavera (1995), Bess (1946), Blais (1952), Bradley and others (1981), Bryant and Hudak (1968), Canakcioglu
(1969), Donahue and others (1985), Durzan (1979), Eremko and others (1989), Fang and others (1988, 1989), Fedde (1973a&b), Gagov (1976), Gonzalez and others (1983)
[in Donahue and others 1985]), Gordon (1970), Greenbank (1963), Hall (1981), Hedlin (1966), Hedlin and Ruth (1974), Hedlin and others (1980), Hussey (1954, 1957,
1960), Hussey and Klinger (1954), Jesperson and Lomholdt (1983), Kailidis and Georgevits (1970, 1972), Kayacik (1964), Keen (1968), Koerber (1963), Kolomiec (1950),
Kulhavy and Schenk (1976), Kulhavy and others (1976), Lanz (1942, 1943), Legg (1953), Mackay (1949), Matic (1972), Miller (1986), Miller and Ruth (1989), Moody (1988),
Nanu (1979b), Nanu and others (1986), Nekrasova (1978b), O’Connor and O’Connor (1984), Overhulser and Tanaka (1983), Pfister and Woolwine (1963), Powell (1973),
Pribylova (1975), Puri and Gupta (1968), Rahman and Chaudhry (1986), Schooley (1975, 1976, 1978), Scurlock and others (1982), Shea (1989a&b), (Skrzypczynska 1982,
1984, 1985, 1989a&b), Skrzypczynska and others (1988, 1990, 1995), Speers (1968, 1969),Talley (1974),Tanaka (1982),Toth (1973),Woodwell (1961).
* Insect names, in alphabetical order, are listed as cited by sources. No attempt has been made to rationalize synonyms, because sources rely on different nomenclature
authorities.
† For simplicity and conciseness, where several species in a single genus have been identified, insects are grouped by genus, for example, Asynapta spp.
higher in poor crop years (Speers 1967), because adult Although cone and scale midges cause no significant
female insects have fewer cones on which to concentrate loss, seed or gall midges may reduce seed yields (up to
(Lanz 1943). Even in good cone crop years, the number of 72%) (Skrzypczynska 1985) by fusing seeds to the scales,
emerging adult insects may be positively correlated with the although germinability of galled noble fir seeds was not
flowering intensity of the food plants, with the most impor- reduced (Franklin 1974b). Likewise, larvae of Spermato-
tant factor influencing the size of the insect population being lonchaea viridana L. (table 4) cause deformations on the
the amount of seeds produced (Annila 1982). Little in-depth cone scales and seed wings of Cilician fir in Turkey but do
research on the biology, ecology, and effective control of fir not affect the seeds (Kayacik 1964).
seed and cone insects has been done (Gara 1982). Most insects damage seeds directly, but the spruce bud-
worm—Choristoneura fumiferana (Clemens), a defoliating
insect—also attacks balsam fir by feeding on pollen in
Table 5—Abies, fir: fungi and other organisms isolated from fir cones and seeds
Sources: Anderson (1985), Bloomberg (1969), Buchwald and others (1961), Edwards and Sutherland (1979), Eremko and others (1989), Flachmann and others (1990),
Hayashi and Endo (1975), Heit and Natti (1969), Kolotelo (1994), Littke and Browning (1991), Ono (1974), Prisyazhnyuk (1960). Fungal nomenclature mainly according to
Farr and others (1989).
* Individual tree species not determined.
Abies • 169
vigor (Laacke 1990a&b) and produce fewer seeds with with green cones having (on average) 25% fewer viable
A
lower viability (Hawksworth 1978). seeds, and the seeds weighing 15% less, than seeds from
Collection of cones. Fir seeds ripen in 2 recognizable purple cones, although there were significant interactions
phases, the first being the accumulation of organic materials, with elevation of the seed source (Farris and Mitton 1985).
and the second involving metabolic changes within the Similarly, in the former Yugoslavia, mature seeds of white
seeds, so that germinative capacity continuously increases fir from violet cones germinate better than those from yel-
up to (or almost up to) seed dispersal (Edwards 1969; low cones (Stilinovic and Tucovic 1971). Quality of Siberian
Franklin 1974b; Pfister 1967; Speers 1962; Weyerhaeuser fir seeds is better from trees with light-green cones than that
1958; Yanagisawa 1965). In noble fir, germination increases of trees with dark-green cones (Kirgizov and Mosin 1980).
to a peak, accompanied by an increase in seed dormancy Progressively southern sources of European silver fir in
(Edwards 1969, 1982a), then levels off before seed dispersal Bulgaria have darker colored and more germinable seeds
(Edwards 1969; Franklin 1965; Rediske and Nicholson (Gagov 1973).
1965); a similar trend occurs in Turkey fir (Beskok 1970). In Nevertheless, workable indices of fir maturation have
contrast, in grand (Pfister 1966; Snyder 1976) and Fraser firs been devised for some species based on changes in cone
(Speers 1962) germination continues to increase right up to color, seedcoat color, or the development of color in the
seed dispersal. For this reason, seeds should not be removed seed wing (table 6), although this remains subjective and
from fir cones—particularly cones collected early—immedi- depends on the experience of the collector (Rudolf 1940).
ately after collection, because low seed viability may result When cones of noble fir in Denmark begin to change from
(Edwards 1969; Rediske and Nicholson 1965; Speers 1962) green to yellowish brown and bend down the branches
due to curtailment of the second phase of ripening. because of their weight, natural seedfall is 2 to 3 weeks
The period for cone collection, from the time organic ahead; thus at the first signs of cone scale separation, the
accumulation ends until seed dispersal begins, typically cones are collectable (Dalskov 1960).
ranges from 4 to 6 weeks, depending on location. Calendar Two interrelated parameters—cone moisture content and
dates are unreliable and vary with locality—especially ele- cone specific gravity—are more objective and reliable
vation—and weather patterns, but if cone storage facilities indices (Rediske 1961). There is some general agreement
are available, collections in the West may begin by mid- to (table 6) that maturity is reached when specific gravity of
late-August. Knowledge of local ripening conditions cones has fallen below 0.9, indicating a moisture content
(degree-day summations are useful) and the use of the few below 50%. Either of these 2 parameters must be measured
known ripeness indices (table 6) can aid the decision to only on freshly picked cones, and because cone moisture
begin collecting (Edwards 1982a). content is not easily determined in the field, specific gravity
Judging when to start cone collection can be a major is usually the measurement of choice. Thus, if cones of
difficulty. In many tree genera, not all fruits mature simulta- white and red firs (and of other conifers) float in kerosene, a
neously, maturation date varying among cones on the same 50:50 mixture of kerosene and linseed oil, or any mineral/
tree (cones on the southern aspect of the crown generally lubricating oil of specific gravity 0.85 to 0.80, the crop is
ripening earlier), among trees within the same stand, from ready to be picked (Lanquist 1946). However, cone specific
stand to stand in the same year, and from one year to the gravity is of little use in judging maturity in Japanese fir
next (Edwards 1980a; Franklin 1965). The extent to which (Yanagisawa 1965).
collections can be made in advance of seed dispersal is Although no documented use of the following attribute
largely governed by the fact that fir seed development ceases has been found outside British Columbia, one criterion for
if the cones are detached from the parent tree too soon, judging when to begin fir cone collections is to allow a sam-
especially if the primary organic-accumulation phase is ple of longitudinally cut seeds to dry out overnight at room
incomplete. Early-collected cones are more sensitive to han- temperature. Then, if the megagametophyte tissue shows
dling method, but this sensitivity declines in later collections very little or no shrinkage away from the testa in most (if
(Edwards 1980a). Cone maturity indices are very important not all) of the seeds, they are sufficiently well developed for
for firs, therefore. cone collections to begin (Dobbs and others 1976; Edwards
In firs, cone and seed color (common maturity indices in 1980a, 1982a; Eremko and others 1989). Shrinkage of the
many conifers) may be more closely related to seed source megagametophyte indicates that the seeds are still high in
and to individual parent tree than to ripeness. For example, moisture content and that collection should be delayed.
mature cones of white fir may be either green or purple,
A. amabilis Green with yellow tinge, turning gray or purple Seedcoat cream or tan; wing light brown/pale purple,
with brown margin; megagametophyte opaque
& firm; embryo yellow/yellow-green, 90% extended;
rudimentary cotyledons well developed*
A. balsamea Turning purple; moisture content < 60% —
A. concolor Specific gravity 0.85–0.96 Wing uniform brown, deep magenta edge; seed
detached/loosely attached to cone scale;
embryo pale yellow-green, 9 of 10 fully elongated
A. firma Turning yellow-brown, losing luster —
A. fraseri Blue-green turning brown Distinct seedcoat color visible
A. grandis Light brown; specific gravity <0.90 Wing purple-brown (green-colored cones only); seed
detached from cone scales
In BC: turning gray or purple. In BC: seedcoat cream or tan; wing light brown/pale
purple, with brown margin; megagametophyte
opaque & firm; embryo yellow/yellow-green,
90% extended; rudimentary cotyledons well developed
A. guatemalensis Turning dark green or purple; resin droplets Wings yellow
visible on exterior
A. homolepis Turning yellow-brown & losing luster —
A. lasiocarpa Green with yellow tinge, turning gray or purple Seedcoat cream or tan; wing light brown/
pale purple, brown margin; megagameto-
phyte opaque & firm; embryo yellow/
yellow-green, 90% extended; rudimentary
cotyledons well developed
A. magnifica Specific gravity < 0.75. Wing uniform brown, deep magenta edge;
detached/loosely attached to cone scale;
embryo pale yellow-green, 8 of 10 fully elongated
A. mariesii Turning brown & losing luster. —
A. procera Light brown; specific gravity < 0.90 Wing uniform brown; detached from cone scale;
embryo 90% extended & firm; crude
fat content 25 mg/g dry weight †
A. sachalinensis Turning brown & losing luster —
A. veitchii Turning brown & losing luster —
Sources: Anon. (1998), Bakuzis and Hansen (1965), Donahue and others (1985), Eremko and others (1989), Franklin (1965, 1974b), Oliver (1974), Pfister (1967), Snyder
(1976), Speers (1962), Stoeckeler and Jones (1957).
* Using 10 × lens.
† Rediske and Nicholson (1965).
The ratio of embryo length to the length of the cavity in Because megagametophyte tissues do not mature as
the megagametophyte (figure 10) is also widely employed in quickly as the embryos, collections should be delayed until
British Columbia for judging when to collect (Eremko and these tissues have achieved a firm consistency (similar to the
others 1989). Embryos do not have to be fully elongated to meat of a coconut), that is, they have lost their earlier
be germinable, but seeds with embryos less than 50% watery, translucent appearance. Megagametophyte tissues
extended germinate less vigorously and predictably. This will then exhibit little or no shrinkage or curling and retain a
extension can be determined readily by field personnel relatively firm, fresh appearance when longitudinally sliced
equipped with a sharp knife, a 10 × lens and a little training seeds are left uncovered overnight at room temperature. The
(Dobbs and others 1976; Eremko and others 1989), and it current prescription is to delay collections until embryos are
can be recorded easily on x-ray film. Thus, when a majority at least 90% extended (figure 10), by which time the
of the embryos—94% in white fir seeds (usually some 3.5 megagametophyte tissue has matured sufficiently also
weeks before seedfall) and 84% in red fir (2 weeks before (Edwards 1982a; Eremko and others 1989) (table 6). As pre-
seed dispersal)—are fully elongated, provided other criteria viously mentioned, another useful criterion of seed matura-
are satisfactory (table 6) the cones are ripe enough to collect tion is the degree to which the seeds have abscised/detached
(Oliver 1974). from the ovuliferous scales on which they developed. Seed
Abies • 171
detachment indicates that they have ceased, or have greatly begin to cut in quantity until cones are approaching maturity,
A
reduced, the accumulation of organic materials and that the so that full seed development can be achieved because the
seedcoats are undergoing the final stages of their develop- cones are typically cached in cool, moist microsites
ment and becoming impermeable, usually signaled by the (Franklin 1974b; Halvorson 1986; Pedro White and White
attainment of a distinct seedcoat (and seedwing) color. 1986). However, red squirrels in the Rocky Mountains and
Chemical indices of maturity have been explored. The Douglas squirrels in the southern Cascades have been seen
crude fats and lipids that—together with protein bodies—are to cut and begin caching white fir cones before they were
the main storage structures in fir seeds (Kovac and Wrischer fully mature (Fowells and Schubert 1956; Lanner 1983); red
1989) reach high levels in mature seeds of several fir species squirrels also cut immature subalpine fir cones (Lanner
(Bennett 1966). At a seed crude-fat content of 250 mg/g (dry 1983). The high crude-fat content of conifer seeds, especial-
weight), noble fir cones were judged to be ripe enough to ly that of fir seeds, probably resists spoilage in the caches
collect, but that some artificial ripening (the “after-ripening” (Halvorson 1986). Although there is no direct evidence that
phase) prior to seed extraction was required to achieve max- seeds collected in this way are inferior, some squirrel-cut fir
imum seed quality (Rediske and Nicholson 1965). A later cones may have been bruised, and the seeds damaged, on
study on maturing noble fir seeds was unable to substantiate impact with the ground. Also, the parent trees from which
the pattern of crude fat accumulation (Edwards 1969). they were cut will not be known. Because squirrels collect
Metabolism of fir seed lipids during germination has been far more cones than they can eat, they later fail to find all
linked to the glyoxalate cycle (Firenzuoli and others 1968). the cones they have cached. Thus only a portion of the
As a general recommendation, no single criterion should caches are found by human collectors and there is no danger
be relied on when judging maturity of fir seeds. Rather, sev- of depriving the animals of their winter food supply (Pedro
eral characteristics such as seedcoat and wing color, seed White and White 1986).
detachment from cone scale, and embryo color and exten- Shooting-out cone-laden tops of fir trees with a rifle has
sion should be assessed before large-scale cone collections been used with some degree of success, with smaller crews
are undertaken (Oliver 1974; Snyder 1976). collecting many (if not more) cones than by climbing.
Because fir cones disintegrate and seeds disperse at However, there are inherent dangers in this technique, espe-
maturity, then making cone collection impossible, it is nec- cially in the vicinity of other work crews, and/or near urban
essary to collect in advance of full seed ripeness. Collections areas (Dobbs and others 1976). Cone harvesting by mechan-
may be by hand from standing (Seal and others 1965) or ically shaking the trees was unsuccessful on both noble and
recently felled trees, or from squirrel-cut cones on the grand firs (Anon. 1970).
ground or from squirrel caches. Extensive collections in the One technique developed in the past 2 decades is the
western United States used to be made by climbing open- aerial cone-rake, a device designed to be lifted by helicopter
grown trees in 40- to 70-year-old stands, and some cones are and lowered over the crowns of cone-bearing trees (figure
still collected this way, but caution is required because fir 13). In the process of retrieving the device, cones and cone-
stems are relatively brittle and tops may break out (Franklin laden branches are raked from the tree by a circle of tines
1974b). Cones collected by climbing should not be thrown and collected in a basket (figure 14. When the basket is full,
to the ground, even in sacks, because of the danger of resin the device is lowered to a cone-dump site and the cones and
vesicle damage discussed earlier. Collections made close to slash sorted by hand (Wallinger 1986) (figure 15). By this
the time of natural seed dispersal—when the cones are means, larger volumes of cones per day—up to 10 hl (28 bu)
lighter (drier), the seeds are riper, and the seedcoats of Pacific silver fir, 10 hl or more of grand fir, but only 2 to
tougher—still require care to avoid resin vesicle injury 5 hl (5 to 15 bu) of subalpine fir—can be collected in a
(Dalskov 1960). much shorter time than by traditional methods (Eremko and
Synchronizing cone collections with felling operations, others 1989; Portlock 1996), making the technique economi-
so that cones can be collected from newly felled trees cally viable. There are additional advantages in that cone
reduces this danger, but the cones may disintegrate upon collection can begin closer to seed dispersal, that is, full
impact with the ground (making gathering time consuming) maturity, and cones can be collected from areas that have no
and may be difficult to separate from the branch debris road access. The technique works best on tree species (such
(Pigott 1994). Squirrel-cut or -cached cones are easier to as fir) that bear cones in the upper third of the crown. Cone
collect and the seeds are more likely to be ripe for 2 rea- rakes have been used to collect over 90% of all fir cones
sons: squirrels in the Pacific Northwest (at least) do not collected in British Columbia (Wallinger 1986). All aspects
Abies • 173
need turning at least once each day, especially if they settle Figure 16—Abies lasiocarpa, subalpine fir: viviparous ger-
A mination, with seeds germinating in the cone before they
onto the trays in a compact mass (Carman 1953). No deteri-
oration in seed quality was found when Pacific silver fir could be extracted (courtesy of D. Pigott).
cones were stored for 6 months (October to March), either
in a covered shed exposed to ambient external temperatures
or in a refrigerated compartment at 2 °C prior to seed
extraction, provided the cones had been properly handled in
the field (Leadem 1982). Therefore, fir cones may be among
the last to be scheduled for seed extraction, December or
even later, by which time full seed maturity has been
achieved and the cones have completely disintegrated, mak-
ing seed extraction simpler. It cannot be over emphasized
that fir seeds should not be extracted from the cones imme-
diately after collection, especially from early-collected
cones, otherwise viability is likely to be low.
Cones should be placed in proper storage facilities as
soon as possible after harvesting and on no account should
they be left untended at the collection site or in a vehicle for
more than a few hours. Especially for premature collections, Figure 17—Abies lasiocarpa, subalpine fir: viviparous ger-
interim collection facilities in the field are essential to allow mination, with seeds germinating while still attached to the
ovuliferous scales (courtesy of D. Pigott).
for continuing maturation (Dobbs and others 1976; Eremko
and others 1989; Stein and others 1974; see also chapter 3).
Incompletely ripened fir seeds store poorly, with serious
losses in germinative capacity (Muller 1971; Yanagisawa
1965). Even when collected close to full maturity, fir cones
that are not placed in suitable interim storage which will
permit continued loss of moisture, the heat of respiration is
liable to cause an increase of the surrounding temperature
and non-dormant seeds may sprout before the cones can be
processed. Such viviparous germination has been observed
in subalpine fir (figure 16 and 17) and in other conifer
species (Edwards 1980a). Although interim storage is a
minor component of seed collection costs, it is important
and yet is often poorly addressed (Pigott 1994). Cones
should be moved to a more permanent storage location as
soon as other operations permit, but for reasons similar to 15%, damage through seedcoat abrasion is reduced and
the above, long-distance transportation should be avoided. makes the seed wings become more brittle and easier to
Turpin (1963) recommended field extraction using an inex- break off (Rooke 1997).
pensive, easily erected structure so that only the extracted When additional drying is required, cones should be air-
seeds of European silver, white, grand, and Sierra white firs dried for 3 weeks or more at 20 to 30 °C (Franklin 1974b)
are shipped. where ambient conditions permit. If kiln drying is absolutely
Processing fir cones (table 7) is similar to processing necessary, temperatures between 30 and 38 °C for up to 14
cones of other conifers, except that if the fir cones have been hours are used (table 7), but care must be taken to avoid
stored for 2 to 3 months, they will have disintegrated natu- damage through too rapid or prolonged drying. When possi-
rally, the seeds will have separated from the scales, and the ble, kiln-drying should be avoided so that any possibility of
kiln-drying and tumbling steps can be dispensed with. In heat damage to the seeds is eliminated.
British Columbia, storage of the cones of Pacific silver, Partially or wholly disintegrated cones are tumbled or
grand, and subalpine firs not only conditions the cones, but passed over vibrating screens (Carman 1953; Rooke 1994)
also, if the cones are dried to a target-moisture content of to separate the seeds from the cone axes, scales, and bracts.
Kiln-drying period
Air-drying*
Species period (days) Time (hr) Temp (ºC)
Sources: Anon. (1998), Edwards (1982a), Franklin (1974b), Heit (1968a), Heit and Eliason (1940), Jones (1962), Leloup (1956), Speers (1967).
* At ambient air temperature; cooled (<10˚C) conditioning facilities are superior.
† If air-drying not possible, but cones should not be processed immediately after harvest.
‡ In a rotary kiln; seeds removed from heat as soon as they fall through the tumbler mesh.
§ In the shade.
Screening is more gentle and less damaging to seedcoat mixture that includes a considerable amount of hard, sharp
resin vesicles. Nordmann fir seeds can be extracted by pass- debris such as cone scales, can cause considerable injury.
ing the cones between series of rotating and fixed teeth, the When subalpine fir seeds were run through a brush de-
spacing of which gradually decreases (Saralidze and winger 3 times, 50% of their original viability was lost
Homeriki 1964). The separated seeds are then de-winged, a (Allen 1958). A simple, efficient 2-step process using a
step during which fir seeds can be easily damaged (Allen scalper treatment followed by pneumatic separation was rec-
1958; Franklin 1974b; Roe 1948b; Weyerhaeuser 1957), ommended for white and red fir seeds by Kitzmiller and
thereby exacerbating losses of viability during storage others (1975). The scalper did less damage than hand de-
(Rediske 1967). Small lots are best de-winged by hand (Roe winging, and although the pneumatic separator inflicted
1948b), but even this can rupture some vesicles in noble fir some injury, it eliminated most of the impurities remaining
(Edwards 1982a). Grand fir seeds de-winged by hand germi- after the scalper treatment.
nated significantly better than those commercially processed As described earlier, the fir seedwing forms on the adax-
(Wang 1960). When mechanical processes must be used on ial (upper) surface of the developing seed and is attached to
large lots, one common technique for true firs is to break the the seed by an integument. Two narrow flaps wrap around
wing at or near the point that it extends beyond the seedcoat, the long margins of the seedcoat toward the abaxial surface,
relying on friction in a mass of seeds agitated by gentle thereby gripping the seed (figure 6). Most integuments
rolling of the seed mass (Rooke 1994). Using a spiral screw remain attached to dry seeds after normal de-winging but
or auger, or drawing the seeds through tubing connected to a often loosen and separate from the seedcoats when they
vacuum cleaner, may achieve the same goal. Some machines become wet during a germination test. This suggests that the
employ rotary screens that permit the wing, but not the seed, seeds might be de-winged when wet, but no documented use
to protrude and to be broken by a brush. Some wings may of the method is known for fir seeds.
be removed during the initial vibratory-screening to separate Gravity table cleaning can be very efficient and gentle
seeds from other cone parts (Carman 1953). Special process- (Rooke 1994). An aspirator sorter works well for cleaning
ing and sowing machinery designed for European silver fir and for separating filled and empty seeds of Pacific silver,
in Poland are based on morphological measurements of the grand, and subalpine firs (and other conifer seeds), although
seeds (Czernik 1993). small-filled seeds generally accumulate in the empty seed
All these methods, which are performed on dry seeds fraction, whereas large-empty seeds separate out with the
and can be quite effective in breaking the seedwing, provide filled seeds (Edwards 1979). Prior seed sizing improves the
for impact damage to the resin vesicles and to the seedcoat efficiency of this technique.
itself. Prolonged de-winging, or de-winging fir seeds in a
Abies • 175
The IDS (incubating-drying-separating) method (see Most experts agree, however, that the seeds lose viability
A
chapter 3) works well on seeds of other Pinaceae (Bergsten quickly unless special precautions are taken, possibly
1993; Karrfalt 1997; Simak 1984) and has been used to because of the high oil and resin contents that (when oxi-
remove seeds infested with Megastigmus spermotrophus dized) may be toxic to the embryo (Bouvarel and Lemoine
Wachtl. (Sweeney and others 1991). A variant of the IDS 1958). Guatemalan fir seeds have been found to lose their
method known as density separation processing (DSP) is viability in a few weeks; one report states that they cannot
used to upgrade seed quality of Pacific silver and subalpine be dried below 12% moisture content and are considered
firs in British Columbia. In 12 seedlots of Pacific silver fir, recalcitrant (Anon. 1998). However, other workers recom-
an average gain in germination of 24% and an increase in mend drying them to 6 to 8% moisture, which permits stor-
potential seedlings of 48% was obtained, but gains in seed- age for nearly a year (Donahue and others 1985) (table 9).
lots of subalpine fir were smaller (Kolotelo 1993). The The embryonic radicle usually dies first in stored European
method does not work on all seedlots, especially those with silver fir seeds (Gogala and Vardjan 1989).
a high proportion of immature seeds, and seedlots from One decision that must be made is whether the seeds are
sources above 1,000 m elevation (Kolotelo 1994); the rea- to be stored for a few months or for a year or more, because
sons for this are not known. Another approach to flotation lower temperatures will be required for longer periods
sorting has been described (Edwards 1978). Separation in (Tocci 1966). For example, it may be pointless to store large
other liquids, such as petroleum ether (Lebrun 1967) or volumes of seeds for periods longer than the interval
absolute alcohol (Simak 1973) cannot be recommended between good cone crops (Edwards 1982a). Although the
because the ether is highly flammable and alcohol is phyto- superiority of sub-freezing conditions as low as –17 °C has
toxic to true fir seeds (Edwards 1980b). been amply demonstrated (they are commonly used for
Another advantage of processing fir cones late in the long-term storage of fir and other orthodox seeds), higher
year during cold weather is that low temperatures solidify temperatures (never above 4 °C) can suffice for short-term
any resin that has leaked from the vesicles in the seedcoat or storage. Fir seeds store well for 3 to 10+ years in sealed
may be present as an impurity from other sources. This containers (Allen 1957; Gradi 1966), but such containers are
makes the resin less likely to gum-up processing machinery not a panacea if the seeds have not been properly prepared
as well as making it easier to separate from the seeds. (Gradi 1966; Tumbarello 1960). Experiences with fir-seed
Resin/pitch is relatively dense, so it sinks and seeds float in storage durations and conditions have been amply reported
a water separator. Seeds may be chilled as a first step in (Allen 1957; Carrillo and others 1980; Isaac 1930a, 1934;
cleaning to reduce resin problems, but additional chilling Issleib 1956; Larsen 1922; Roe 1948b; Rohmeder 1953;
may be required as the seeds warm up (Rooke 1994). When Rudolf 1952; Schubert 1954; Vilmorin 1944; Vlase 1960),
de-winging and cleaning to the desired level of purity are and cryopreservation of fir seeds also has had some success
complete, seed moisture contents should be checked, adjust- (Jorgensen 1990; Neuhoferova 1994; Stanwood and Bass
ed as required, prior to cold storage. In the past, recom- 1978).
mended processing standards of 20 to 35% viability used to In principle, storage temperature is of greater signifi-
be common for commercial lots of North American fir cance when seed moisture content is high and, conversely,
species (WFTSC 1966), and fir seed quality traditionally has less effect when moisture content is low (Barton 1953;
was low, rarely exceeding 50% germination (Franklin Magini and Cappelli 1964a&b). At low moisture contents,
1974b). This was often the result not only of poor (by pres- seed storage becomes almost independent of temperature, an
ent standards) seed processing methods that failed to remove inverse relationship demonstrated by Danielson and Grabe
many unfilled or partially filled seeds, but also of inadequate (1973) in a 2-year trial with noble fir seeds that (a) deterio-
methods for overcoming dormancy. rated rapidly when moisture content was above 12%, irre-
Typical cone and seed yields and numbers of fir seeds spective of storage temperature; (b) maintained viability at
per unit weight are listed in table 8. 12% moisture when stored at –18 °C, but not at +5 or
Seed storage. Fir seed storage has been intensively +20 °C; (c) maintained viability at 6 to 9% moisture when
researched (Barton 1961; Holmes and Buszewicz 1958, stored at –18 and +5 °C; and (d) maintained viability at 4%
1962; Magini 1962; Wang 1974) and is summarized in table moisture when stored at –18, +5, and +20 °C. For firs in
9. Fir seeds are orthodox in storage behavior, meaning that general, the critical safe moisture level appears to lie
they store well at low temperatures and moisture contents. between 5 and 8% of seed fresh weight (Wang 1974).
Sources: Anon. (1998), Ching (1960), den Ouden and Boom (1965), Eis and others (1965), Fowells and Schubert (1956), Franklin (1974b), Ghent (1958), Heit (1968a), Lalu (1993), Lanquist (1946), Leloup (1956), MacDonald and others
(1957), Rafn (1915), Rafn and Son (nd), Roe (1948b), Seal and others (1965), Soljanik (1950), Speers (1962),Tulstrup (1952),Wappes (1932).
* Seeds were 100% sound, separated by x-radiography.
Abies
•
177
A
A Table 9—Abies, fir: experiences with seed storage conditions (recommended conditions are in bold face)
Sources: Allen (1957), Edwards (1982a), Franklin (1974b), Gradi (1966), Heit (1941, 1968b), Hofman and Vackova (1966), Holmes and Buszewicz (1962), Issleib (1956),
Jones (1962), Loffler (1985), Machanicek (1965), Mormann (1956), Radulescu (1968), Speers (1974b),Tillisch (1952),Tokarz (1974).
Pregermination treatments. Dormancy in fir may be 1982a; Grittanuguya 1962; MacGillivray 1955; Zentsch
both physical and physiological, but it apparently does not 1960) and are best at lower seed moisture levels, as demon-
reside in the embryo, because embryos excised from unstrat- strated for various hybrid firs (Wright 1950) (see also strati-
ified noble fir seeds grow just as well as those from strati- fication–redry method below).
fied seeds (Edwards 1969). Reasons for fir seed dormancy As with many tree seeds, dormancy among the firs is
may be poor oxygen exchange or an inhibitor, because chip- quite variable. Although stratification is routinely prescribed
ping the seedcoat to expose and remove a sliver of megaga- for European silver and Fraser firs, there are reports (Speers
metophyte was as effective as (or more so than) stratification 1967; Zentsch and Jahnel 1960) that some seedlots of both
in stimulating germination of seeds of noble, Pacific silver, species show little or no dormancy. The only way to
and grand firs (Edwards 1969) and European silver fir determine whether or not a lot is dormant is to perform
(Gogala and Vardjan 1989). Stratification also probably 2 germination tests—one with stratified seeds and one with
overcomes dormancy by reducing the mechanical restraint unstratified seeds (Edwards 1962). The response to stratifi-
of the tissues surrounding the embryo (Edwards 1962, 1969; cation may be regarded as an indicator of the degree of dor-
Jones and others 1991; Speers 1962; Wang 1960). Length of mancy in the lot; after stratification, more-dormant seedlots
treatment is usually 21 to 28 days for laboratory tests germinate more rapidly than less dormant lots. In some
(AOSA 1998; ISTA 1993), but other reported periods range instances, stratification has increased total germination as
from 14 to 120 days, and longer periods are the rule for well as germination rate (Jones and others 1991; Pfister
nursery sowing (table 10). Longer treatments should be 1966; Speers 1968), although this may have been due par-
approached with care because they may result in more fun- tially to the seeds’ germinating before development of the
gal/bacterial damage and premature germination (Edwards
Abies .
A. koreana 60–80 Mid-Mar–mid-Apr — — — — — — Styro 2,5 1+0
A. lasiocarpa 0 Fall — — 0.3 1/ Leaf mold — — —
•
8
var. arizonica 30d–80h Mid-Mar–mid-Apr — — — — — — Styro 2,5 1+0, 2+0
179
A
A
180
•
Table 10—Abies, fir: nursery practices (Continued)
Bareroot production Container production
Stratification Seedling density Sowing depth Stock Container Stock
Species time (days) Sowing season /m2 /ft2 cm in Mulcha type typeb type
A. lasiocarpa 30d–120 Early Jan (1+0) for fall/winter lift — — — — — — 313B, 410A 1+0
var. lasiocarpa 30d–120 Jan–to early Feb (1+0) — — — — — — 313B, 410A, 415B,D, 615A 1+0
Jan–Mar — — — — — — 313A,B, 410A, PCT410, 1+0, 2+0, 2+1, P+1
30d–120 Early Mar–late May (2+0) — — — — — — 410A, 412A, 415B,D,415B, 615A 1+0, 2+0, 2+1, P+1
30d–120 (incl outdoors)
Sources: Adkins (1984),Adkins and others (1984),AOSA (1998),Asakawa (1968), Barton (1930), Bongio (1997), Bouvarel and Lemoine (1958), Curtis (1997), Fenimore (1997), Franklin (1974b), Garren (1997), Gates (1997), Hanson
(1997), Heit (1964, 1967, 1968b), Heit and Eliason (1940), Helson (1997), Henry and Blazich (1990), Holmsgaard and Kjaer (1951), ISTA (1993), Kusisto (1997), Lehar (1997), Leloup (1956), MacDonald (1998), Moore (1997),
Nagao and Asakawa (1963), NBV (1946), Pelton (1997), Rafn (1915), Rafn and Son (nd), Riskin (1997), Rutar (1991), Snyder (1997), Speers 1962, Stubley 1998,Thompson 1997,Toumey and Stevens (1928),Triebwasser
(1997),Trimble (1997),Tulstrup (1952), USDA Forest Service (1948),Vacowicz (1997),Wedman (1997),Wong (1997),Wright (1950), Zemanek (1997).
a Depth of mulch: peat moss, 0.5–1.5 cm (_–_ in); pine needles, 3–4.5 cm (1_–1_ in); sawdust, 0.5 cm (_ in); straw, 5 cm (2 in).
b Containers are all PSB type; Styro = Styroblocks, PCT = copper treated.The various containers listed have the following volumes: 313A, 52 ml (3.6 in3); 313B, 65 ml (3.9 in3); 410A & PCT 410, 80 ml (4.9 in3); 415B, 93 ml
(6.3 in3); 412A, 126 ml (7.7 in3); 415D, 172 ml (10.5 in3); 615A, 336 ml (20.0 in3); Styro 2, 39 ml (2.3 in3); Styro 5, 77 ml (4.7in3); Stryo 7, 121 ml (7.4in3); Leach 1, 50 ml (3 in3), Leach 2, 164 ml (10 in3).
c Seeds covered with 1 cm nursery soil plus 1 cm sand.
d For 28–30 days only if intending to strat-redry.
e Some container transplants grown as P+2, P+3, P+4.
f Stratified in wet vermiculite, wet sand, or 1.5- to 2-day running-water soak and naked stratification.
g Used overwinter on first-year seedlings.
h Some free moisture left in plastic bag for long stratification.
i Light may be beneficial to germination.
j When not stratified, soaked 2 days before sowing.
k Alternatively, bury the seeds in snow for 50 days.
extensive fungal and bacterial molding common to more- room temperature—must repair such damage since germina-
A
slowly-germinating unstratified seeds (Edwards 1969). In tion is greatly increased. However, no evidence for this
noble fir, an increasing response to stratification as the seeds repair, or the initial imbibitional-damage phenomenon, has
matured suggested that dormancy increased also, and that been documented.
dormancy and maturity are interrelated (Edwards 1969). In any event, crop year, seed source, seed vigor (as dis-
Whereas much of the variability in dormancy among seed- tinct from seed quality), as well as chilling method and ger-
lots may be attributable to seed origin, crop year, and time mination temperature played roles in the response of differ-
of collection, it may also be due to methods of cone pro- ent seedlots of Pacific silver fir to stratification (Leadem
cessing, seed cleaning, and seed storage (Franklin 1974b; 1986). Stratification response of Nordmann fir was also
Wang 1960). believed to be strongly seedlot dependent (Poulsen 1996).
Laboratory and nursery stratification is often performed For balsam fir seeds, prolonged soaking in cold water con-
by refrigerating previously hydrated seeds in plastic bags or taining a fungicide was deleterious (Kozlowski 1960), but
other containers—the “naked stratification” method (Allen changing the water weekly produced germination similar to
and Bientjes 1954) favored in many nurseries for its ease of that after stratification (Rudolf 1950). Best results with
seed handling. More traditionally, dry seeds (at storage Manchurian fir occurred when soaked seeds were stored in
moisture contents) are placed on a moist medium (filter snow for 1 to 2 months (Pavlenko 1972).
paper, vermiculite, or wet sand) and refrigerated. The moist Stratification temperature range is often specified as 1 to
filter paper method produced higher germination in noble fir 5 °C (Franklin 1974b), although testing laboratories typical-
because it was believed that the preliminary water soak that ly use a narrower window of 3 to 5 °C. Stratifying grand
is the first step in the naked stratification procedure dam- and subalpine fir seeds at 2 °C was optimal (compared to
aged the seeds by too-rapid tissue hydration, a phenomenon –2, 5, and 7 °C), especially during extended chilling
well-documented in legumes (Jones and others 1991). (Edwards 1982a). Fir seeds will germinate during stratifica-
Soaking temperature in this noble fir study was 4 °C. tion if left for a sufficient length of time (Allen 1960;
However, no direct evidence for the damage, particularly its Edwards 1969; Blazich and Hinseley 1984; Roe 1948b;
location, was provided. It is unlikely that any damage Vabre-Durrieu 1956). Such observations reinforce the idea
occurred in the tissues of the embryo. When noble fir seeds that stratification is incipient germination. In this regard, it
were soaked in water at 25 °C, after 48 hours most of the should be remembered that late-dispersed seeds of numerous
water was still in the seedcoat: the outer region of the high-elevation firs (plus some other conifers) germinate in
megagametophyte had become moist, but the embryo was snow banks (Anon. 1951; Franklin and Krueger 1968;
still dry (Edwards 1969). It was found that noble fir Gordon 1970; Hetherington 1965; Irmak 1961; Roe 1946;
embryos require hydration of between 48 and 72 hours, Stein 1951). Snow absorbs 99% of the infra-red (IR) radia-
even at room temperature, before they absorb enough mois- tion from sunlight, and dark-colored seeds embedded in
ture to be safely excised (Edwards 1969). Furthermore, snow may reach several degrees above freezing by absorb-
when dry noble fir seeds are placed on a moist medium and ing these IR rays. However, these germinants seldom estab-
refrigerated, they absorb water slowly during the entire lish as seedlings when the snow melts (Gordon 1970; Stein
chilling period and achieve a higher moisture content than 1951).
seeds soaked in water at room temperature for the same Despite the fact that lower than normal levels of seed
length of time (Edwards 1971). Thus, in the above compari- moisture were known to benefit extended treatments of
son, the moisture content of soaked seeds averaged 36%, hybrid fir seeds (Wright 1950), fir seed research continued
whereas that of seeds chilled on moist filter papr averaged to focus on stratification temperature and duration and not
43% (Jones and others 1991). This difference, small as it on moisture level during treatment. Since the 1980s it has
may appear, may have been significant due to the moisture been demonstrated conclusively that seeds of Pacific silver,
content in soaked seeds possibly being less than adequate grand, subalpine, and noble firs stratified at 2 to 5 °C in
for optimal stratification to occur. In the development of the plastic bags for 4 weeks (moisture content 45% or higher),
stratification/redry method (see below), it was found that if then air-dried to moisture contents between 25 and 35%, can
fir seeds were initially hydrated only to 35% moisture con- be returned to the same refrigerator for (a) another 12
tent (the same moisture content achieved after redrying), months (at 25%) without significant decreases in subsequent
subsequent stratification was far less effective (Edwards germination or (b) a further 3 to 6 months (at 35%) with
1986). If noble fir seeds are sensitive to imbibitional dam- greatly enhanced germination rate and germination capacity
age as claimed (Jones and others 1991), then the stratifica- (Edwards 1980b, 1981, 1982a,b, &c, 1986b, 1997; Leadem
tion/redry method—which involves a preliminary soak at 1986, 1988b, 1989; Tanaka and Edwards 1986). When air-
Abies • 181
dried to 35% and refrigerated for a further 3 months, all molding of seeds was greatly reduced and that emerging
A
viable grand fir seeds germinated within 2 weeks (Edwards radicles were more positively geotropic than in germinants
1980b). This is the result of achieving a synchronicity in from routinely stratified seeds. This latter is important in
germination achieved by the reduced moisture content that that germination in firs is epigeal (figure 19) and a vigorous
places the embryos under a moisture stress. This stress pre- healthy radicle is essential for successful seedling establish-
vents less-dormant seeds in the mixture from germinating, ment.
while allowing more-dormant seeds to achieve a ready-to- There is little reported evidence of the use of gib-
germinate state when the extended chilling ends. berellins increasing fir seed germination, but a combination
Subsequently, sowing the seeds on a non-moisture-limiting of stratification for 40 to 60 days and treatment with 200
medium permits all the viable seeds to germinate at the ppm GA3 worked well for Guatemalan fir seeds (Salazar
same time (Edwards 1981, 1982b, 1986b). In addition, the 1991). Use of gibberellin GA4+7 improved dark-germination
reduced moisture content “protects” the energy supplies of of Fraser fir at 30/20 °C over a 42-day test but was ineffec-
the megagametophyte from being respired as rapidly as in tive (light or dark) at 20/15 °C unless the seeds were first
seeds undergoing traditional stratification at high moisture hydrated for 20 hours (Henry and Blazich 1988). The bene-
content (Leadem 1993). ficial effect of an auxin has been reported in Sakhalin fir
This process, which has become known as the stratifica- (Yoshida 1960).
tion-redry method, differs from traditional stratification as Germination tests. Stratification treatments for 10 fir
shown diagrammatically in figure 18. During routine stratifi- species regarded as consistently dormant are prescribed in
cation (upper), seeds are soaked for 24 to 48 hours at room seed testing rules (AOSA 1998; Edwards 1987; ISTA 1993),
temperature, drained, chilled at 2 °C for 4 to 8 weeks in whereas double (paired) tests (with and without stratifica-
their “fully imbibed” state (moisture content around 45% or tion) are recommended for 8 other species in which dorman-
higher) until they are sown in the nursery. In the new cy varies among seedlots. West Himalayan fir might be
process (lower), seeds are soaked for 24 to 48 hours at room added to the list of species requiring double tests (Khattak
temperature, drained, and chilled for 4 weeks while fully- and Ahmad 1980), but Korean fir is consistently dormant
imbibed (as in the old method). Then, the stratified seeds are (Jakimova 1965). The officially prescribed stratification
removed from the refrigerator and air-dried to 30 to 35% period for all fir species is either 21 or 28 days, the longer
moisture content. Next, they were returned to the refrigera- period being favored by the AOSA rules for 6 species.
tor for an additional 1 to 3 months of chilling for the most Alternating temperatures of 30 °C with light for 8 hours
rapid and complete germination. Alternatively, when dried to and 20 °C for 16 hours without light are standard for most
25% moisture content and returned to the refrigerator, they fir species, with 3 notable exceptions. For Pacific silver fir,
can be kept for up to an additional 12 months until they are the current AOSA prescription is for 25 °C (light) for
sown. The procedure has been described in detail (Edwards 8 hours and 15 °C (dark) for 16 hours. However, seeds of
1982b, c, 1986, 1997) and is now used operationally in this species germinate more slowly but more completely at
British Columbia (Leadem and others 1990). An almost 15 °C (light) for 8 hours and 10 °C (dark) for 16 hours
identical procedure has been described for Nordmann fir (Leadem 1986). Similarly, subalpine fir seeds stratified for
seeds (Jensen 1997; Poulsen 1996), and control of moisture 8 weeks germinate well under a 25/15 °C regime (Hansen
level during stratification has been recommended for and Leivsson 1990; Leadem 1989), whereas Fraser fir seeds
Guatemalan fir (Donahue and others 1985). stratified for 12 weeks germinate well at 20 °C for 8 hours
As described above, seeds air-dried to 25% moisture with light for 1 hour (only) during the latter part of this
content can be “stored” in the refrigerator for up to a year warm period, followed by 10 °C (dark). If stratified for
without losing the beneficial effect of the initial stratifica- 8 weeks only, Fraser fir seeds should be tested at the stan-
tion, that is, they remain in a ready-to-germinate state. dard 8/16 hours 30/20 °C, with a 1-hour light treatment dur-
Stratified seeds of noble and Pacific silver firs have been ing the higher temperature (Adkins 1984; Adkins and others
dried to 5 to 9% moisture content and stored for 1 year, after 1984; Henry and Blazich 1990). The involvement of phy-
which they germinated significantly better than the original tochrome has been demonstrated in the germination respons-
controls (Hall and Olson 1986). For the seedling grower, es of Fraser fir (Henry and Blazich 1990) and is suspected in
these methods allow stratification to begin well in advance several other firs (Li and others 1994; Nagao and Asakawa
of nursery sowing date and/or make the sowing date more 1963; Messeri and Salvi 1964), making it essential to use
flexible (Edwards 1980b, 1981, 1982a, 1986b). Two addi- fluorescent-only lighting for laboratory tests (Asakawa
tional beneficial effects of redrying (to either 35 or 25%) 1959; Blazich and Hinseley 1984; Nagao and Asakawa
observed in the laboratory were that fungal and bacterial 1963).
Abies • 183
1988). Tetrazolium test results often correlate with seedling that the stratification/redry method (described earlier) broad-
A
emergence experienced in nursery sowings (Franklin ens the range even further (Davidson and others 1984). This
1974b). Tetrazolium agreement with standard germination temperature-range broadening is a sure sign of increased
tests can vary among lots of many species (Ducci and Paci vigor (Grabe 1976). One distinction between seed vigor and
1986; Flemion and Poole 1948; Leadem 1984; Rohmeder seed germination can be seen in the effects of long-term
1960b), and a “best estimate” of 2 methods (for example, seed storage, which causes a reduction in plant percentage in
hydrogen peroxide and TZ) has been proposed for rapid the nursery before it affects germination percentage
tests (Edwards 1982a). An excised embryo method that (Giannini and Murazio 1972; Muller 1977, 1980). Seed
requires about 1 week for assessment of European silver fir vigor was related to germination rate, seed protein levels,
has been described (Nyholm 1956), but no official prescrip- and seed respiration, all of which were thought to have
tions for fir have been developed. Although “quick tests” potential for development as quantifiable indices of this
may be completed in a matter of hours, or days, compared variable in subalpine fir (Leadem 1988a&b, 1989).
to weeks required for standard germination tests, not only do Nursery practice. Fir seedlings are grown as both
they over-estimate (Franklin 1974b; Rohmeder 1960b; Stein bareroot and container stock. A 1997 survey found 20 nurs-
1967) or underestimate (Edwards 1982a; Leadem 1984) via- eries growing almost 21 million seedlings of 16 (including 6
bility of fir seeds, they are more time (and labor) consum- non-native) fir species for reforestation purposes. Several
ing, and a single skilled analyst can complete fewer quick other exotic firs are grown, especially in the northeastern
tests per month than standard germination tests. They also United States, for Christmas trees (Girardin 1997a&b). For
require a high degree of skill and experience to perform bareroot sowing in the past, most Pacific Northwest and
them consistently and well. Their technology was described California nurseries stratified for 1 to 2 months (table 10) at
as unreliable for firs (Edwards 1982a), and it remains so. 0 to 3 °C, and sowed between mid-April to mid-May
Although a number of vigor tests have been devised for (exceptionally as late as June), favoring a seedling density of
agricultural and vegetable seeds (AOSA 1983; ISTA 1995), 270 to 330 seedlings/m2 (25 to 30/ft2) (Lavender 1979)
no tests have been adapted, or are widely used, for firs. (table 10). Bareroot sowing rates for Pacific silver, grand,
However, it is known that stratification broadens the temper- subalpine, and noble firs in British Columbian nurseries usu-
ature range for optimal germination of Pacific silver ally were lower—220 to 240/m2 or 260 to 300/linear m of
(Davidson and others 1984) and grand firs (Wang 1960), and seed bed (20 to 23/ft2 or 79 to 91/linear ft of seed bed)—to
produce more open-grown plants (Arnott and Matthews
Figure 20—Abies lasiocarpa, subalpine fir: stages in seed 1982).
germination, from an ungerminated seed (lower left) to a Although seeds of European silver, balsam, and Fraser
3-day-old germinant (upper right) (courtesy of D. Pigott).
firs normally may be fall-sown in bareroot beds without
stratification (table 10) as are seeds of noble and white firs
raised in European nurseries (Franklin 1974b)—spring-sow-
ing of stratified seeds has been recommended for balsam
(Roe 1948b), and European silver firs (Neubacher 1959;
Paiero and Piussi 1964; Vlase and Iesan 1959). Fall-sowing
of freshly collected fir seeds may not be possible because
seed processing is incomplete, so sowing the following
spring provides the earliest opportunity. Spring-sowing of
stratified seeds is the traditional standard for most western
North American species (table 10), which minimizes losses
from birds, rodents, and adverse weather (Lanquist 1946).
Merely soaking grand fir seeds can be beneficial (Hofman
1966). Sowing unstratified seeds of grand and noble firs in
January to March or stratified seeds in April gave satisfacto-
ry results in the United Kingdom (Faulkner and Aldhous
1959). Most bareroot nurseries use a seedling caliper
between 2.5 and 5 mm (metric measure only) for culling
purposes.
Abies • 185
1989). Pesticide use changes over time, so nursery operators Fir seedlings are shippable as 1+0 plugs (85% of total
A
should seek the advice of local extension agents for current container production), 2+0 plugs, and P+1 (transplanted
recommendations. from containers to outside beds); in addition, some container
In bareroot beds, irrigation control may be combined transplants may be shipped as P+2, P+3, or even older stock
with wrenching, side pruning, and undercutting to assist in (table 10) depending on the species and customer require-
achieving seedling dormancy. Undercutting is often repeat- ments. Plug stock may be transplanted both spring and fall
ed, for example at 2-week intervals beginning in late (August), fall transplantation giving larger seedlings but at
July/early August for 1+0 bareroot stock. For 2+0 seedlings, the risk of damage during the first winter. Bareroot 2+1
a combination of sidepruning, wrenching, and undercutting seedlings are reported to perform better when transplanted
before new growth gets underway (late February/early in the fall.
March), and at other times during the second growth season, Shippable heights for container seedlings vary between
is practiced. In contrast, irrigation control is seldom used to 13 cm (5 in) for 1+0, and 15 cm (6 in) to 26+ cm (10+ in) in
regulate the growth cycle in container nurseries because 2+0. Transplants from containers may be between 20 cm (8
seedlings of many fir species are drought-intolerant. Some in) to 46 cm (18 in), averaging 30 to 36 cm (12 to 14 in).
nurseries recommend a moist growing regime, as if growing Root caliper generally varies from 2.5 to 3.5 mm for 1+0
spruce stock, whereas others may reduce irrigation late in stock of all fir species and up to 6 mm for 2+0. Sizes of
the growing season when target heights are assured. shippable bareroot stock are not well defined, depending
Induction of seedling dormancy and better height control are largely on contract requirements.
achieved by the use of black-out control (short photoperi- To overwinter stock in bareroot beds, some nurseries
ods) in several nurseries. Black-out followed by a 4-week find mulches such as peat moss, pine needles, sawdust, and
rest period and then 1 to several weeks of 23-hour photope- straw beneficial, especially during the first winter (table 10).
riods may give a slight increase in height growth. Several Protection of 1+0 seedlings can be accomplished also by
cycles of black-out and extended photoperiod can induce sowing seeds between rows of transplants (Anon. 1977).
multiple flushes in 1+0 seedlings of Pacific silver and sub- Germination and seedling survival of west Himalayan fir
alpine firs to ensure that they reach target height as 2+0 was improved by sowing the seeds 15 to 20 mm (1/2 to 3/4 in)
crops. However, the second year reflush (in late March as deep (Singh and Singh 1984), then covering the beds with
the greenhouse temperature is raised) is sensitive to molding 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in) of humus (Singh and Singh 1990);
because the emerging new foliage tends to collect a large other aspects of nursery culture of this species have been
drop of water. reviewed (Sharma and others 1987).
Extended photoperiods (16- to 23-hour days) during the Vegetative propagation of Fraser fir, which is easy to
accelerated growth phase, beginning 4 weeks after sowing graft and air-layer and readily produces roots on stem cut-
for early-sown stock and continuing almost the entire sea- tings, is transforming the production of this species for the
son, are used in many container facilities. Except where all-important (4 to 5 million trees annually) eastern North
high sunlight is encountered, shading usually is not America Christmas tree market (Blazich and Hinesley 1994,
employed. Greenhouse roofs may be removed during the 1995). A genetically improved balsam fir Christmas tree,
summer to increase light levels and improve cooling. with increased foliage density and higher frost resistance,
Shading bareroot seedbeds for 2 months after germination has been field tested (Girardin 1997b).
and hoeing or hand pulling to control weeds is advised for Micropropagation techniques have been applied to
European silver fir (Vlase and Iesan 1959), but open beds selected firs, and regeneration of somatic embryos using
receiving full light are best for noble fir (Schwenke 1956, seed explants of European silver fir (Gebhart 1990;
1961). Hartmann and others 1992), and Pacific silver fir
Lifting dates for 1+0 container stock vary from August (Kulchetscki and others 1995) have been obtained. However,
for “hot” (that is, immediate) planting or transplanting, to the problems encountered with Fraser and balsam firs make
mid-November/December for planting the following spring. cloning of these 2 species by micropropagation a future
Depending on weather conditions (such as snowmelt), lifting development (Blazich and Hinesley 1994).
from bareroot beds may extend from December through
March.
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Acacia L.
acacia
John K. Francis and Craig D.Whitesell
Dr. Francis retired from the USDA Forest Service’s International Institute of Tropical Forestry;
Dr.Whitesell retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Southwest
Forest and Range Experiment Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The acacias which grow naturally or are widely planted in the United
include about 1,200 species of deciduous or evergreen trees States or associated territories.
and shrubs widely distributed in the tropics and warmer tem- Flowering and fruiting. Acacia flowers are perfect or
perate areas (Guinet and Vassal 1978). Nearly 300 species polygamous; most of them are yellow, some are white.
are found in Australia and about 70 in the United States. They usually appear in the spring or summer. The fruit is a
Some 75 species are of known economic value, and about 2-valved or indehiscent legume (pod) that opens in the late
50 of these are cultivated. Certain species of acacias— summer. The 1 or more kidney-shaped seeds (figure 1) that
Cootamundra wattle (A. baileyana F. Muell.), Karoo thorn develop per fruit are usually released by the splitting of the
(A. karroo Hayne), golden wattle (A. pycnantha Benth.), and legume. The seeds contain no endosperm (figure 2). Acacias
others—rank among the most beautiful of all flowering begin bearing seeds between 2 to 4 years of age (Atchison
trees, and many have been planted in the warmer regions of 1948; Turnbull 1986). There are good seedcrops nearly
the United States (LHBH 1976; Menninger 1962, 1964; every year and seed production can be quite high. Individual
Neal 1965). Acacias produce many benefits: collectively trees in a mangium plantation were reported to produce 1 kg
they yield lumber, face veneer, furniture wood, fuelwood, (2.2 lbs) of seeds (about 100,000 seeds) annually (ACTI
and tannin; and such products as gum arabic, resins, medi- 1983). Seeding habits of 8 acacias are listed in table 2.
cine, fibers, perfumes, and dyes; some are useful for recla- Collection, cleaning, and storage. Ripe acacia
mation of sand dunes and mine spoils, and for shelterbelts, legumes are usually brown. They can be picked from the
agroforestry hedgerows, and forage; and some serve as a trees, or fallen legumes and seeds can be collected from
host for the valuable lac insect (ACTI 1980; Prasad and underneath the trees. Collections from the ground may
Dhuria 1989; Turnbull 1986). They are valuable not only to include legumes more than a year old. Seeds can be
the forest but also to pastures and agricultural crops for the extracted by hammermilling, trampling, or placing the
nitrogen that is fixed in their root nodules (Hansen and
others 1988). Figure 1—Acacia, acacia: seeds (3 to 12 cm):
Green wattle, introduced to Hawaii about 1890, has A. melanoxylon, blackwood (top); A. decurrens, green wattle
been declared noxious for state land leases (Haselwood and (left); A. koa, koa (right).
Motter 1966). A fast-growing tree of no local value, it
spreads rapidly by seeds and root suckers, crowding out
other plants. More than 90 years ago, Maiden (1908) com-
mented on the pestiferous nature of several varieties of this
species in Australia. Only acacia species that do not spread
by suckering should be selected for planting. Also to be
avoided under most circumstances are the thorny acacias—
such as sweet acacia and gum arabic tree—which are widely
dispersed rangeland pests. These 2 species are know to exert
allelopathic effects on plants growing near them (Hampton
and Singh 1979; Singh and Lakshminarayana 1992).
Reliable seed data are available on 8 species (table 1), all of
Acacia • 199
A Table 1—Acacia, acacia: nomenclature, occurrence, and height
Occurrence Height at
maturity
Scientific name & synonym(s) Common names Native US (m)
Source: Anderson (1968), Barrett (1958), Fagg (1992), Munoz (1959), Parrotta (1992),Turnbull (1987),Whitesell (1974).
Figure 2—Acacia melanoxylon, blackwood: longitudinal of blackwood collected and cleaned in Uruguay had a purity
section through a seed. of 93% (Whitesell 1974).
Acacia seeds are among the most durable of forest
seeds and need not be kept in sealed containers, although it
is still advisable to do so. If kept in a cool, dry place, the
seeds of most acacia species will germinate after many
years of storage. For example, 63% of green wattle seeds
germinated after 17 years in storage (Atchinson 1948).
Seeds of blackwood, which were air-dried to a constant
weight and then stored in sealed containers, retained viabili-
ty unimpaired for at least 3 months; seeds stored in the open
still retained 12% viability after 51 years (Whitesell 1974).
Koa seeds lying on the ground are known to have retained
their ability to germinate for as long as 25 years (Judd
1920).
Pre-germination treatments. The seeds of most
species have hard coats that cause poor germination unless
they are first scarified by briefly treating them with sulfuric
legumes in a cloth bag and flailing it against the floor. acid or soaking in hot water (Gunn 1990; Kumar and
Seeds are sometimes separated by feeding the legumes to Purkayastha 1972; Natarajan and Rai 1988; Rana and
cattle and collecting the seeds from the manure (NFTA Nautiyal 1989). Hot water treatment is the most practical.
1992). Blowers and shakers will remove legume fragments The seeds are placed in hot or boiling water, the source of
and debris satisfactorily for most species. The weights of heat removed, and the seeds allowed to soak for 3 minutes
cleaned seeds for 8 species are listed in table 3 (Goor and to 24 hours (Clemens and others 1977). Blackwood seeds
Barney 1968; Letourneux 1957; Mangini and Tulstrup 1955; subjected to 90 to 100 °C water for 3 minutes and than
Salazar 1989; Turnbull 1986; Whitesell 1964, 1974). Seeds stratified at 4 °C for 4 to 6 weeks germinated at a rate of
Sources: ACTI (1983), Fagg (1992), Goor (1968), Letourneux (1957), Magini and Tulstrup (1955), NFTA (1987a,b), Salazar (1989),Turnbull (1986),Whitesell (1974).
over 98% and grew 25% faster than control seedlings in the tures of soil, sand, and manure (Bahuguna and Pyare 1990).
first 3 months (De Zwaan 1978). Some species also appear The use of sawdust in germination mixtures was found to
to require 2 to 4 months of “after-ripening” in dry storage inhibit the germination of mangium (Newman 1989b).
before good germination may be obtained (Whitesell 1974). Sowing is done in spring in the warm temperate zone of the
Germination is epigeal. United States mainland and year-round in tropical areas,
Germination testing. Prescriptions for official testing except during dry periods. Earleaf acacia can be grown from
for acacias call for clipping, nicking, or filing through the cuttings treated with indole acetic acid (IAA) with a high
seedcoats and soaking in water for 3 hours, or soaking seeds degree of success (Huang 1989). Seedlings of mangium and
in concentrated sulfuric acid for 1 hour, then rinsing thor- earleaf acacia inoculated with Bradyrhizobium and
oughly (ISTA 1993). Germination should then be tested on Rhizobium bacterial strains nodulated, but only the
moist blotter paper at alternating 20/30 °C or constant 20 °C Bradyrhizobium strains fixed nitrogen (Galiana and others
for 21 days. Germination tests of acacias can also be made 1990). Blackwood is preferably outplanted as small 1.25-cm
in flats with sand or soil. Results of tests for 8 species of (6/10-in) stumps lifted from a seedbed 1 year after planting
acacias are given in table 4. (Parry 1956) or as transplanted seedling 20 to 25 cm (7.8 to
Nursery and field practice. After proper pretreat- 9.8 in) high (Streets 1962). The best survival for koa planted
ment, the small-seeded acacias should be covered with 6 to in Hawaii is obtained with potted seedlings. Mangium is
12 mm (1/4 to 1/2 in) of soil. Optimum sowing depth for usually planted as potted (plastic nursery bags, or polybags)
sweet acacia seeds was found to be 2 cm (3/4 in) (Scifres seedlings but may be planted bareroot (Webb and others
1974). A 2:1 mixture of soil and sand proved to be a better 1984). Container seedlings 20 cm (7.8 in) high were recom-
germination medium for gum arabic tree than other mix- mended for earleaf acacia (Wiersum and Ramlan 1982).
Acacia • 201
A Table 4—Acacia, accacia: pregermination treatments, germination test conditions, and results
Sources: ACTI (1983), Francis and Rodriguez (1993), Newman (1989a), Parrotta (1992),Webb and others (1984), (1986),Whitesell (1974).
Plantable seedlings of gum arabic tree were produced in twice (Kumar and Gupta 1990). The use of straw mulch
India by planting pretreated seeds in May in polybags con- increased the emergence of direct-seeded sweet acacia in
taining a nursery mixture in full sun and fertilizing them old fields (Vora and others 1988).
References
ACTI [Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation]. 1980. Hampton CO, Singh SP. 1979. The presence of growth and germina-
Firewood crops, shrub and tree species for energy production. tion inhibitors in the seeds of certain desert plants.Transactions of
Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 236 p. the Kansas Academy of Science 82(2): 87.
ACTI [Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation]. 1983. Hansen AP, Stoneman G, Bell DT. 1988. Potential inputs of nitrogen by
Mangium and other fast-growing acacias for the humid tropics. seeder legumes to the Jarrah forest ecosystem. Australian Forestry
Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 62 p. 51(4): 226–231.
Anderson RH. 1968. The trees of New South Wales, 4th ed. Sydney, Haselwood EL, Motter GG, eds. 1966. Handbook of Hawaiian woods.
Australia: Department of Agriculture. 510 p. Honolulu: Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association. 479 p.
Atchison E. 1948. Studies on the Leguminosae: 2. Cytogeography of Huang LS. 1989. Study on the introduction and cultural techniques of
Acacia (Tourn.). American Journal of Botany 35(10): 651–655. Acacia auriculiformis. Forest Science and Technology (China) 5:
Bahuguna VK, Pyare L. 1990. To study the effects of environment and 10–11.
different soil mixture on germination of Acacia nilotica seed at ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. Rules for testing
nursery stage. Journal of Tropical Forestry 5(1): 51–56. seeds: rules 1993. Seed Science and Technology 21 (Suppl.): 1–259.
Barrett MF. 1956. Common exotic trees of south Florida Judd CS. 1920. The koa tree. Hawaiian Forestry and Agriculture 17(2):
(Dictyledons). Gainesville: University of Florida Press. 414 p. 30–35.
Clemens J, Jones PG, Gilbert NH. 1977. Effect of seed treatments on Kumar A, Gupta BB. 1990. Production of field plantable seedlings of
germination of Acacia. Australian Journal of Botany 25(3): 269–276. Acacia nilotica in fifty days. Indian Forester 116(4): 306–322.
De Zwaan JG. 1978. The effects of hot-water-treatment and scarifica- Kumar P, Purkayastha BK. 1972. Note on germination of the seeds of
tion on germination of blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) seed. South lac hosts. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 42(5): 430–431.
African Forestry Journal 105: 40–42. Letourneux C. 1957. Tree planting practices in tropical Asia. For. Dev.
Fagg CW. 1992. Acacia nilotica: pioneer for dry lands. NFTA 92-04. Pap. 11. Rome: FAO: 109–111.
Paia, HI: Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association. 2 p. LHBH [Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium]. 1976. Hortus third: a concise
Francis JK, Rodríguez, A. 1993. Seeds of Puerto Rican trees and shrubs: dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada.
second installment, Res. Note SO-374. New Orleans: USDA Forest New York: Macmillan: 4–7.
Service, Southern Forest Research Station. 5 p. Mangini E,Tulstrup NP. 1955. Tree seed notes. For. Dev. Pap. 5. Rome:
Galiana A, Chaumont J, Diem HG, Dommergues 1990. Nitrogen- FAO. 354 p.
fixing potential of Acacia mangium and Acacia auriculiformis Maiden JH. 1908. The forest flora of New South Wales.Volume 3.
seedlings inoculated with Bradyrhizobium and Rhizobium spp. Biology Sydney, Australia: W.A. Gullick, Government Printer. 180 p.
and Fertility of Soils 68(4): 263–272. Menninger EA. 1962. Flowering trees of the world. New York:
Goor AY, Barney CW. 1968. Forest tree planting in arid zones. New Hearthside Press. 336 p.
York: Ronald Press. 498 p. Menninger EA. 1964. Seaside plants of the world. New York:
Guinet P,Vassal J. 1978. Hypothesis on the differentiation of the major Hearthside Press. 303 p.
groups in the genus Acacia (Leguminosae). Kew Bulletin 32(3): Munz PA. 1959. A California flora. Berkeley: University of California
509–527. Press. 1861 p.
Gunn BV. 1990. Germination pretreatments for selected acacia species Natarajan N, Rai RSV. 1988. Studies to maximization of germination in
from the Pilbara region of Western Australia. ACIAR Proceedings Acacia auriculiformis. Indian Journal of Forestry 11(4): 304–306.
Series (Australia) 28: 46–50.
Acacia • 203
A Aceraceae—Maple family
Acer L.
maple
John C. Zasada and Terry F. Strong
Dr. Zasada retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Research Station; Mr. Strong is a research
silviculturalist at the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Research Station, Rhinelander,Wisconsin
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Maples— nize 16 sections, some of which are further divided into 2 to
members of the genus Acer—are deciduous (rarely ever- 3 series. The publications by De Jong (1976), Van Gelderen
green) trees; there are 148 species (de Jong 1976; Van and others (1994), and Vertrees (1987) are filled with inter-
Gelderen and others 1994). The majority of species originate esting information and are wonderful reference books for
in central and eastern Asia, China, and Japan (de Jong 1976; the genus Acer.
Van Gelderen and others 1994; Vertrees 1987). There are Based on the classification of Van Gelderen and others
several taxonomic treatments available for the genus. (1994), there are 9 species in the United States and Canada
Vertrees (1987) and Van Gelderen and others (1994) should (tables 1 and 2). In addition, there are 8 taxa closely related
be consulted for a discussion and comparison of the differ- to sugar maple—these include black maple, Florida maple,
ent classifications. Van Gelderen and others (1994) recog- bigtooth maple, and whitebark maple—as well as a number
of subspecies for others. Van Gelderen and others (1994)
A. circinatum Pursh vine maple, mountain maple SW British Columbia to N California E side
of Cascades W to Pacific Coast
A. ginnala Maxim. Amur maple, Siberian maple NE Asia; introduced to N & central Great Plains
A. glabrum var. glabrum Torr. Rocky Mountain maple, SE Alaska, S to S California, E to S New Mexico,
dwarf maple, mountain maple N to Black Hills, South Dakota
A. grandidentatum Nutt. bigtooth maple, sugar maple SE Idaho, S to SE Arizona, E to S New Mexico &
northern Mexico, N to W Wyoming
A. griseum (Franch.) Pax paperbark maple Central China & Japan
A. macrophyllum Pursh bigleaf maple, broadleaf Pacific Coast from W British Columbia
maple, Oregon maple S to S California
A. negundo L. boxelder, ashleaf maple, Throughout most of US & prairie
Negundo aceroides (L.) Moench. California boxelder provinces of Canada*
A. palmatum Thunb. Japanese maple Japan, China, & Korea
A. pensylvanicum L. striped maple, moosewood Nova Scotia,W to Michigan S to Ohio,
A. striatum DuRoi. E to S New England, mtns of N Georgia
A. platanoides L. Norway maple Europe & the Caucasus; introduced to central & E US
A. pseudoplatanus L. planetree maple, sycamore maple Europe & W Asia; introduced to central & E US
A. rubrum L. red maple, soft maple, Throughout E US & southern Canada from
A. carolinianum Walt. swamp maple SE Manitoba & E Texas to Atlantic Coast
A. saccharinum L. silver maple, river New Brunswick, S to NE Florida NW to
A. dasycarpum Ehrh. maple, soft maple E Oklahoma, N to central Minnesota
A. saccharum Marsh. sugar maple, rock New Brunswick, S to central Georgia,
A. saccharophorum K. Koch maple, hard maple W to E Texas, N to SE Manitoba
A. spicatum Lam. mountain maple Newfoundland, S to New Jersey,W to Iowa, N to
Saskatchewan, S in Appalachian Mtns to N Georgia
Sources: De Jong (1976), Dirr (1990), Fischer (1990), Olson and Gabriel (1974), Rehder (1940),Van Gelderen and others (1994),Vertrees (1987),Viereck and Little
(1972).
* Introduced into subarctic interior Alaska, where it forms a small tree and produces viable seeds (Viereck 1996).
Minimum Years
Height (m) Year first seed-bearing between large
Species at maturity cultivated age (yrs) seedcrops
Sources: Burns and Honkala (1990), Dirr (1990), De Jong (1976), Olson and Gabriel (1974),Vertrees (1987).
Note: A. rubrum, A. negundo, A. pensylvanicum, and A. saccharinum are dioecious to varying degrees.The other species are monoecious, but male and female flowers may
occur in different parts of the tree.
actually classify the 4 species mentioned above as sub- Maples are very important for wildlife, providing browse
species of sugar maple. Eight of the 16 sections of the genus and cover for a variety of mammals, important sites for
are represented in North America (Van Gelderen 1994). cavity-nesting birds, and food for seed-eating mammals and
Additionally, a number of species (table 1) have been intro- birds (Burns and Honkala 1990). Maples are also important
duced for use as ornamentals (Burns and Honkala 1990; substrates for various lichens and mosses. Their occurrence
Dirr 1990; Dirr and Heuser 1987; Fischer 1990; Van on mountain slopes makes them useful in the protection of
Gelderen and others 1994; Vertrees 1987). The native watersheds. Boxelder is an important species for shelterbelt
species range in size from trees that dominate forest planting.
canopies to medium to tall understory shrubs or small trees Many of the maples have ornamental value because of
(table 2). Boxelder has been introduced into Alaska, where it their attractive foliage or interesting crown shape, flowers,
survives and reproduces; however, it does dieback periodi- or fruit; native and introduced maple varieties with desirable
cally under extreme winter temperatures (Viereck 1997). features such as a particular foliage color or attractive bark
The native maples all regenerate vegetatively by basal have been propagated specifically for ornamental use (Dirr
sprouting, but the ability to do so varies among species and 1990). For an interesting discussion of variation in form and
with plant age (Burns and Honkala 1990; Fischer 1990). leaf morphology in Japanese maples, see the wonderfully
Vine, Rocky Mountain, striped, and mountain maples fre- written and illustrated book by Vertrees (1987).
quently layer, giving them the potential to develop relatively Flowering and fruiting. There is substantial variation
complex clones of varying size and morphology (Hibbs and within the genus in terms of gender of trees. Some
Fischer 1979; O’Dea and others 1995; Post 1969; Zasada species—for example sugar, black, and bigleaf maples—are
and others 1992). monoecious with flowers that appear perfect but are func-
Some species of maple are important sources of fire- tionally either male or female. In the monoecious species,
wood, pulpwood, high-quality lumber, and veneer (Alden the functionally male and female flowers often occur in dif-
1995; Burns and Honkala 1990). Four species have been ferent parts of the crown (Burns and Honkala 1990; De
used to produce maple sugar and syrup—sugar, black, red Jong 1976).
(Jones 1832; USDA FS 1982), and bigleaf maple. Sugar Other species—for example boxelder and red, striped,
maple is the most important of these species because it has silver, and bigtooth maples—are primarily dioecious, but
the highest sugar content. In the western United States, some individual trees are monoecious to varying degrees. In
bigleaf maple produces adequate quantities of sap, but its natural populations of red maple, the sex ratio tends to be
sugar content is low compared to the sap of sugar and red male-biased. The ratio may vary somewhat between geo-
maples, and the flow is erratic (Burns and Honkala 1990). graphic areas within the species range. Sex ratio was also
Acer • 205
found to be highly skewed to males in red maples just explain size differences in paired samaras (De Jong 1976).
A Samara pairs may occur singly or in clusters of 10 or more.
beginning to flower. Change of sexual expression does occur
in these dioecious species but only in a small percentage of The fruits of the maples vary widely in shape, length of
the population. Variation in sex expression was related to wings, and angle of divergence of the fused samaras
site conditions in boxelder (Freeman and others 1976), but (figure 1) (Carl and Snow 1971; De Jong 1976; Greene and
the relationship of gender to site has not been well-estab-
lished for all species. There do not appear to be consistent
Figure 1—Acer, maple: samaras of A. platanoides, Norway
differences in growth rate between males and females. Sakai
maple (top left); A. circinatum, vine maple (top right); A.
and Oden (1983) reported that monoecious silver maples
saccharum, sugar maple (second row left); A. grandidenta-
were larger than dioecious trees and exhibited a different
tum, bigtooth maple (second row center); A. spicatum,
size distribution pattern. Male boxelder trees showed no
mountain maple (second row right); A. saccharinum, silver
growth advantage over females despite the increased amount
maple (third row left); A. macrophyllum, bigleaf maple
of carbon needed for fruit production (Willson 1986).
(third row center); A. negundo, boxelder, (third row
However, it was observed that female trees that were previ-
right); A. glabrum var. glabrum, Rocky Mountain maple (bot-
ously male had a higher mortality rate than trees that were
tom left); A. rubrum, red maple (bottom center); A. pen-
consistently male or trees that were previously female
(Barker and others 1982; De Jong 1976; Hibbs and Fischer sylvanicum (bottom right).
1979; Primack and McCall 1986; Sakai 1990b; Sakai and
Oden 1983; Townsend and others 1982).
Flowering and pollination occur in spring and early
summer (table 3). Dichogamy (male and female parts in the
same flower or different flowers on the same tree mature at
different times) is common in maples and has been
described for sugar maple and other species (De Jong 1976;
Gabriel 1968). Insect and wind pollination both occur, but
the relative importance of each differs among species (De
Jong 1976; Gabriel 1968; Gabriel and Garrett 1984).
The fruit is composed of 2 fused samaras (a term used
interchangeably with seeds here), which eventually separate
on shedding, leaving a small, persistent pedicel on the tree.
The fused samaras may be roughly identical in appearance
or differ in physical size; both samaras may or may not con-
tain viable embryos (Abbott 1974; Greene and Johnson
1992). Parthenocarpic development occurs but differs in the
strength of expression among species; this phenomena may
Sources: Dirr (1990), Burns and Honkala (1990), Olson and Gabriel (1974).
Acer • 207
stands due to tree distribution and stand microclimate. For Although separated geographically and conducted in stands
A
example, seed rain around an individual red maple within a differing in composition, seed production studies over 11 to
hemlock–hardwood forest dropped from 340 seeds/m2 12 years in Wisconsin and New Hampshire reported similar
(range, 200 to 450/m2) at the base of the tree to about 50/m2 results. In Wisconsin, the quantity of sugar maple seedfall in
(range, 0 to 100/m2) at 10 m from the base (Ferrari 1993). a pure stand of sugar maple varied from 0.1 to 13 million
The large variation in seed rain at each distance indicates seeds/ha and percentage of filled seeds from 3 to 50% dur-
that microclimate, location of seeds within the tree crown, ing a 12-year period. Seed production exceeded 2.5 million
and other factors create a relatively heterogeneous pattern of seeds/ha in 5 of 12 years (Curtis 1959). In a mixed hard-
seed deposition. wood stand in New Hampshire in which sugar maple made
The weight of maple seeds varies substantially among up 69% of the basal area, production varied from 0.2 to 11.9
species (table 4) (Green 1980; Guries and Nordheim 1984). million seeds/ha; viability was generally related to size of
Some examples of within-species variation in seed weight the seed crop and ranged from 0 to 48%. Seed production
are given below. The average dry weight of sugar maple exceeded 2.5 million seeds/ha in 6 of 11 years (Graber and
seeds varied from 0.09 to 0.03 g in a collection from across Leak 1992). In northern Wisconsin, good or better seed
the eastern United States; the heaviest seeds were from New years occurred every other year in red maples over a 21-year
England area and the lightest from the southern part of the period and every third year for sugar maples over a 26-year
range (Gabriel 1978). In the central Oregon coastal range, period (Godman and Mattson 1976). In a gradient study of
the dry weight of bigleaf maple samaras varied from 0.25 to sugar maple stands from southern Michigan to the Upper
0.65 g; embryo dry weight accounted for 30 to 40% of total Peninsula, production of reproductive litter (seeds and
samara weight (Zasada 1996). Sipe and Linnerooth (1995) flower parts) varied by a factor of 2 and 4 for 2 seed years.
found that average weight of silver maple seeds varied from The southern stands were more productive one year, where-
0.10 to 0.16 g. Peroni (1994) found that the dry weight of as the northern stands were more productive the other year
red maple samaras from 10 North Carolina seed sources var- (Pregitzer and Burton 1991). Flower and seedcrops in red
ied from 0.013 to 0.016 g. Townsend (1972) reported a 2- to and sugar maples were related and the former could be used
3-fold variation in red maple fruit weight for seeds collected to predict seedcrops (Bjorkbom 1979; Grisez 1975).
throughout the species’ range. Fertilization has been shown to alter seed production in
Seed production can vary significantly among years for maples (Bjorkbom 1979; Chandler 1938). Long and others
a single stand or between stands in a given year in quantity, (1997) reported that liming affected seedcrop size but not
quality, biomass, and seed weight as a percentage of total periodicity in sugar maple in Allegheny hardwood forests.
litterfall (Bjorkbom 1979; Bjorkbom and others 1979; Burns They also reported that good sugar maple seedcrops
and Honkala 1990; Chandler 1938; Curtis 1959; Garrett and occurred the year after a June–July period with a relatively
Graber 1995; Godman and Mattson 1976; Graber and Leak severe drought index (that is, when plants were subjected to
1992; Grisez 1975; Pregitzer and Burton 1991; Sakai 1990). a high level of moisture stress).
Cleaned seeds/weight
Range Average
Species /kg /lb /kg /lb
A. circinatum 7,710–12,220 3,490–5,530 10,210 4,620
A. ginnala 22,980–44,640 10,400–20,200 37,570 17,000
A. glabrum var. glabrum 17,280–44,860 7,820–20,300 29,680 13,430
A. macrophyllum 5,970–8,840 2,700–4,000 7,180 3,250
A. negundo 18,120–45,080 8,200–20,400 29,610 13,400
A. pensylvanicum 21,430–34,400 9,700–15,600 24,530 11,100
A. platanoides 2,810–10,300 1,270–4,660 6,320 2,860
A. pseudoplatanus 6,480–15,910 2,930–7,200 11,290 5,110
A. rubrum 28,070–84,420 12,700–38,200 50,520 22,860
A. saccharinum 1,990–7,070 900–3,200 3,930 1,780
A. saccharum 7,070–20,110 3,200–9,100 15,540 7,030
A. spicatum 33,810–60,330 15,300–27,800 48,910 22,130
Source: Olson and Gabriel (1974).
Acer • 209
the forest floor for at least 3 to 5 months before germinating and Carl 1974). Sugar maple seed moisture content can be
A
(Fried and others 1988; Houle and Payette 1991; Marquis reduced slowly from 100% (dry weight basis) at the time of
1975; Sakai 1990b; Tappeiner and Zasada 1993; Wilson and collection to 20% with little effect on viability (Carl and
others 1979). Sugar and bigleaf maples usually germinate Yawney 1966). Under stress conditions (seeds maintained at
fully in the spring and summer after dispersal. Seeds of 52 °C), longevity of Norway maple seeds increased linearly
vine, striped, red, and mountain maples and the Japanese as seed moisture content declined from 23 to 7% (fresh
maples may lie dormant for 1 to 2 or more growing seasons weight); seeds died when dried to moisture contents of 4
before germinating (Marquis 1975; Peroni 1995; Sakai and 2.5% (Dickie and others 1991). Viability of bigleaf
1990b; Tappeiner and Zasada 1993; Vertrees 1987; Wilson maple seeds declined from 73 to 62% when they were
and others 1979). In the southern United States, however, stored for 1 year in sealed containers at 1 °C and at a mois-
one test has indicated that seeds of red maple will maintain ture content of 16% (dry weight); viability was reduced
viability only for a few months when buried in the litter from 73 to 12% when seeds were stored at –10 °C
(Bonner 1996). Thus, with the exception of silver maple and (Zasada and others 1990).
possibly red maple seeds in some areas, seeds of all maples It was previously believed that bigleaf maple seeds
are “stored” naturally in the forest floor for varying lengths could not be stored for even short periods (Olson and
of time. Gabriel 1974). Based on recent work by Zasada and co-
The critical factors in seed storage are temperature and workers (Zasada 1992, 1996; Zasada and others 1990) in the
seed moisture content. The moisture content of samaras central Oregon coastal range, an important consideration in
depends on the stage of seed development and species. storing these seeds seems to be collecting them before
Beginning in late August, the moisture content of sugar autumn rains begin, when the seeds are at their lowest water
maple seeds declined from about 160% (dry weight basis) to content. When collected at this time, some seedlots have
between 30 to 40% at dispersal (Carl and Snow 1971). The moisture contents of 7 to 15% (dry weight basis), whereas
moisture content of sycamore maple seeds decreased from seeds collected at other times have moisture contents of 25
750% (100 days after flowering) to 125% (200 days after to 35%. Once autumn rains begin, seeds attached to the tree
flowering). Moisture content at dispersal for other species increase in moisture content and, if they stay on the tree, can
has been reported to be 7 to 50% for bigleaf maples (Zasada germinate under the right conditions. Although more work is
and others 1990); 80 to 100% for silver maples (Becwar and required to determine the optimum storage conditions, the
others 1983; Pukacka 1989), 30 to 35% for Norway maples limited data suggest that seeds collected at the lowest mois-
(Hong and Ellis 1990), and 125 to 130% for sycamore ture content behave more like orthodox seeds whereas those
maple (Hong and Ellis 1990). collected after autumn rains have increased moisture con-
Moisture content for seed storage defines into 2 tents and some characteristics similar to recalcitrant seeds.
groups—seeds that can be stored at relatively low moisture The pubescent pericarp may play an important role in the
contents (orthodox seeds) and those that must be stored at moisture content of samaras.
relatively high moisture contents (recalcitrant seeds). Silver For the other native maples, the fact that they remain
and sycamore maple are clearly recalcitrant (Becwar and viable for 1 year or more in the forest floor or nursery bed
others 1982, 1983; Bonner 1996; Dickie and others 1991; suggests that they could be stored for extended periods.
Hong and Ellis 1990; Pukacka 1989). Seeds of these species Temperatures of 1 to 3 °C and seed moisture contents when
can be stored for about a year (Bonner 1996), and seed dispersed should retain viability for several years.
moisture content should be maintained at about 80% (dry Pregermination treatment and germination.
weight) (Dickie and others 1991; Pukacka 1989). Germination is epigeal for most species (figure 3), but silver
Orthodox seeds can be stored for longer times and at maple and A. tataricum L. exhibit hypogeal germination
lower moisture contents than recalcitrant seeds. Viability of (Burns and Honkala 1990; De Jong 1976; Harris 1976).
sugar maple seeds did not decrease over a 54-month storage Under field conditions, maple germination falls into
period when seeds were stored in sealed containers at a 3 general types, with red maple exhibiting a combination of
moisture content of 10% (dry weight) and a temperature 2 types. The first general pattern includes the 2 late spring/
range of –10 to 7 °C. Similarly, viability did not decrease early summer seed dispersers (table 3)—red and silver
significantly at 17% moisture content and –10 °C. Seeds maples—which is the best example. All seeds of this species
stored in open containers at the same temperature lost via- must germinate before they dry below a moisture content of
bility more rapidly than those in sealed containers (Yawney about 30% (fresh weight) or they die (Pukacka 1989). In red
Acer • 211
A Table 5—Acer, maple: warm and cold stratification treatments for internal dormancy
Sources: Browse (1990), Dirr and Heuser (1987), Harris (1976), Olson and Gabriel (1974),Vertrees (1987).
Note: Even after standard pretreatment, seedlots of A. griseum may require 2 to 3 years for complete germination.
* Mechanical rupture of the pericarp may improve germination.This is necessary in A. negundo when seeds are very dry; a warm soak as for A. palmatum may suffice.
† The benefit of warm incubation prior to stratification is not well-documented. Seeds may go through at least 1 warm/cold cycle before germinating under field condi-
tions.
‡ Water temperature at start of incubation is 40 to 50 °C and allowed to cool gradually. Some recommend a 21 °C incubation period following warm water treatment
and a 90-day stratification period.
§ Requirement for stratification is highly variable. In all seedlots, some seeds will germinate without stratification.
Optimum temperatures for germination are not clearly immature seeds as suggested by Vertrees (1975, 1987) for
defined. Although most species have their best germination vine and Japanese maples and more generally by Dirr and
at higher temperatures within the optimum range (table 6), Heuser (1987) for species with the third germination pattern
this is not always the case. Studies with red and striped mentioned above. The type of dormancy imposed by the
maples have shown that, for seeds from some sources, ger- pericarp and seedcoat (such as that in vine and striped
mination is faster at lower than at higher temperatures maples) may be released by removing the pericarp and all
(Farmer and Cunningham 1981; Farmer and Goelz 1984; or part of the testae (figure 2) or by physically breaking the
Wilson and others 1979). pericarp without actually removing the embryo (table 5)
Germination occurs on a wide variety of substrates and (Wilson and others 1979). Some of the delayed field germi-
a full range of light conditions (Burns and Honkala 1990; nation described above is caused by the impenetrability of
Fischer 1990; Olson and Gabriel 1974). Under field condi- the seedcoat after embryo dormancy has been released (Dirr
tions, germination often occurs in association with leaf litter and Heuser 1987; Wilson and others 1979).
and other organic substrates on relatively undisturbed Nursery practice. Maple seedlings can be produced
seedbeds. Germination paper, sand, perlite, and sphagnum as container stock or as bareroot seedlings. Bareroot
moss support good germination in controlled environments. seedlings seem to be the most common when all species of
Red maple was shown to be more sensitive to the acidity of maples are considered. Pre-sowing treatment and sowing
a substrate than sugar maple (Raynal and others 1982). time are based on the characteristics of the seeds being
The morphological and physiological basis for seed dor- sown, convenience, and experience. Cutting tests or x-radi-
mancy in maples varies among species and includes peri- ography to determine the presence of embryos are advised
carp-and-seed-coat-imposed dormancy and embryo dorman- for some of the introduced species because poor seed quali-
cy (Farmer 1996; Young and Young 1992). The type of dor- ty is common (Dirr and Heuser 1987; Hutchinson 1971;
mancy may change as seeds mature. There may be little Vertrees 1987). The information reviewed above on dorman-
relationship between dormancy of the mature seed and that cy and germination pattern suggest a number of options for
of a seed with a fully developed embryo that is not yet sowing. The least amount of seed handling is required when
mature in a biochemical sense (Thomas and others 1973). seeds are sown immediately after collection and allowed to
Thus for some species it may be best to collect and sow stratify “naturally” before germination. Silver and red maple
A. circinatum 30 20 38 12 10 19
A. ginnala 30 20 38 50 10 52
A. glabrum 10–16 10–16 — 40 30 —
A. macrophyllum*
Source 1 2–3 2–3 120 15–66 60–90 100
Source 2 2–3 2–3 120 0–13 60–90 100
Source 3 2–3 2–3 120 8–92 60–90 100
A. negundo — — 24–60 14–67 14–48 24–96
A. pensylvanicum† 5 5 90 — — 82
23 23 60 — — 76
A. platanoides 4–10 4–10 — — — 30–81
A. pseudoplatanus — — — 24–37 20–97 50–71
A. rubrum‡
Low elevation (U) 15 5 — — — 55
Low elevation (S) 15 5 — — — 89
High elevation (U) 15 5 — — — 13
High elevation (S) 15 5 — — — 54
A. saccharinum 30 30 5–18 72–91 3–13 94–97
A. saccharum 2–3 2–3 90 80 75 95
A. spicatum — — — 32 31 34
Sources: Olson and Gabriel (1974), Farmer and Goelz (1984), Farmer and Cunningham (1981),Vertrees (1987).
Notes: Germination rate indicates the number of seeds germinating in the time specified and total germination all of the seeds germinating in the test.The length of
germination tests are not same for all species.
Seeds of A. griseum and A. palmatum are very difficult to germinate and seed quality is usually poor. Cutting tests are recommended to determine potential viability.
Tetrazolium tests could be used to determine if seeds are alive; knowing this one can sow and wait several years for seeds to germinate. Because the delay in germination
appears related to a very hard pericarp, removing the pericarp can improve germination.
* Seed sources from central Oregon coastal range. Germination rate greatly increased when seeds moved to 20 to 25 °C when germination in stratification begins
(Zasada 1996).
† Germination of seeds with testa removed over radicles. Seeds with testae did not germinate at 23 °C even after 5 months of stratification, whereas seeds kept at 5 °C
germinated completely after 6 months (Wilson and others 1979).
‡ Seed sources from Tennessee, total germination at higher temperatures was lower than shown here (Farmer and Cunningham 1981). Similar trends were observed with
red maple from Ontario (Farmer and Goelz 1984). U = stratified seeds, S = unstratified seeds.
seeds are sown after collection in late spring, whereas seeds (1987) describes several sowing methods for Japanese
of other maples are sown in the fall when they are mature maples. The choice of a method depends on degree of matu-
and the nursery beds mulched (Harris 1976; Olson and rity, length of time seeds have been stored, and the time
Gabriel 1974; Yawney 1968). If stratification requirements desired for sowing. It is also recommended that nurserybeds
are not satisfied with this method or if secondary dormancy in which these seeds are sown be maintained for several
is imposed, there may be a substantial number of seeds that years so that late-germinating seeds are not destroyed; this is
do not germinate in the first growing season. Treatment of particularly true when seed supplies are limited.
seeds may result in more uniform germination. For example, Maple seeds are usually sown 0.6 to 2.5 cm (1/4 to 1 in)
Webb (1974) proposed soaking sugar maple seeds for 24 deep, either broadcast or using drills. Seedbed densities
hours before stratification to promote more uniform germi- from 158 to 1,520/m2 (15 to 144/ft2) have been recommend-
nation. ed (Carl 1982b; Olson and Gabriel 1974; Vertrees 1987;
For difficult species such as vine and striped maples, Yawney 1968). Densities in the range of 158 to 320/m2 (15
which germinate over a several-year period, it has been rec- to 30/ft2) appear most satisfactory for the production of vig-
ommended that seedcoats be either physically broken to pro- orous seedlings. In some instances, seedbeds require treat-
mote more uniform germination or soaked in warm water, or ment with repellents against birds and mice and treatment
given both treatments to reduce the number of seeds not ger- with fungicides to prevent damping off (Olson and Gabriel
minating during the first growing season (Browse 1990; 1974; Vertrees 1987). Shade is recommended during the
Olson and Gabriel 1974; Vertrees 1975, 1987). Vertrees period of seedling establishment (Olson and Gabriel 1974).
Acer • 213
Sometimes maple seedlings are large enough to plant as 1+0 nursery beds or larger containers for production of larger
A
stock, but frequently 2+0 or even 2+2 stock is needed to stock for ornamental purposes.
ensure satisfactory results. In general, the larger the planting Artificial sowing in field situations is an alternative to
stock, the better the survival. planting seedlings. Successful germination and early growth
Container seedling production is less common than have been demonstrated for bigleaf maple and vine maple
bareroot production, but is used by some producers (Tinus under a variety of forest conditions (Fried and others 1988;
1978). Container seedlings grown in a greenhouse will usu- Tappeiner and Zasada 1993) and red maple (Brown and oth-
ally be larger than those grown outdoors in containers or in ers 1983). One drawback to sowing under forested condi-
a nursery bed (Wood and Hancock 1981). Container produc- tions is heavy seed predation by various small mammals.
tion would probably be best achieved with stratified seeds Desirable maple genotypes can also be propagated vege-
that are just beginning to germinate; this can be easily tatively by rooting stem cuttings and various types of layer-
achieved for species like bigleaf and sugar maples that ger- ing (Dirr 1990; Dirr and Heuser 1987; O’Dea and others
minate during stratification. Various sizes and types of con- 1995; Post 1969; Vertrees 1987; Yawney 1984; Yawney and
tainers can be used. One grower uses a container that is Donnelly 1981, 1982). Methods for rooting and overwinter-
4 cm (1.6 in) in diameter and 15 cm (6 in) deep to produce ing cuttings before outplanting are available for sugar maple
30- to 40-cm-high (12- to 16-in-high) stock in 1 growing (Yawney and Donnelly 1982) and Japanese maples (Dirr and
cycle. These seedlings can be outplanted or transplanted to Heuser 1987; Vertrees 1987).
References
Abbott HG. 1974. Some characteristics of fruitfulness and seed Carl CM Jr. 1982a. The propagation and planting of sugar maples: seed col-
germination in red maple.Tree Planters’ Notes 25(2): 25–27. lection and handling. In: Sugar maple research: sap production, processing,
Alden HA. 1995. Hardwoods of North America. Gen.Tech. Rep. FPL-83. and marketing of maple syrup. Gen.Tech Rep. NE-72. Upper Darby, PA:
Madison, WI: USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 136 p. USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station: 42–46.
Al’benskii AV, Nikitin PD. 1956. Agrolesomeliortsiya, 3rd ed. Moscow: Carl CM Jr. 1982b. The propagation and planting of sugar maples: nursery
Gosundarstvennoye Izdatel’stvo Sel’skohozyaystvennoy Litrtsyury practices. In: Sugar maple research: sap production, processing, and mar-
[Handbook of afforestation and soil amelioration.Transl.TT 66-51098, keting of maple syrup. Gen.Tech. Rep. NE-72. Upper Darby, PA: USDA
1967. Springfield,VA: USDC National Technical Information Service. Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station: 47–52.
516 p.]. Carl CM Jr, Yawney HW. 1966. Four stratification media equally effective in
Anonymous. 1960. Collection and storage of ash, sycamore, and maple conditioning sugar maple seed for germination.Tree Planters’ Notes 77:
seed. For. Comm. Leafl. 33. [London]: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. 24–28.
11 p. Carl CM Jr, Snow AG. 1971. Maturation of sugar maple seed. Res. Pap. NE-
Barker PA, Freeman DC, Harper KT. 1982. Variation in the breeding 217. Upper Darby, PA: USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Forest
system of Acer grandidentatum. Forest Science 28(3): 563–572. Experiment Station. 9 p.
Bazzaz FA, Carlson RW, Harper JL. 1979. Contribution to reproductive Carl CM Jr,Yawney HW. 1969. The use of pentane to separate filled and
effort by photosynthesis of flowers and fruits. Nature 279 (5713): empty sugar maple samaras.Tree Planters’ Notes 20(3): 24–27.
554–555. Carl CM Jr,Yawney HW. 1972. Multiple seedlings in Acer saccharum. Bulletin
Becwar MR, Stanwood PC, Roos EE. 1982. Dehydration effects on imbibi- of the Torrey Botanical Club 99: 142–144.
tional leakage from desiccation-sensitive seeds. Plant Physiology 69: Chandler RF Jr. 1938. The influence of nitrogenous fertilizer applications
1132–1135. upon seed production of certain deciduous forest trees. Journal of
Becwar MR, Stanwood PC, Leonhardt KW. 1983. Dehydration effects on Forestry 36: 761–766.
freezing characteristics and survival in liquid nitrogen of desiccation-tol- Curtis JT. 1959. The vegetation of Wisconsin: the ordination of plant com-
erant and desiccation-sensitive seeds. Journal of the American Society munities. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. 657 p.
of Horticultural Science 108(4): 613–618. De Jong PC. 1976. Flowering and sex expression in Acer L.: a biosystematic
Bjorkbom JC. 1979. Seed production and advance regeneration in study. Wageningen, the Netherlands: H.Veenman and Zonen. 191 p.
Allegheny hardwood forests. Res. Pap. NE-435. Broomall, PA: USDA Dickie JB, May K, Morris SVA,Titley SE. 1991. The effects of desiccation on
Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 10 p. seed survival in Acer platanoides L. and Acer pseudoplatanus L. Seed
Bjorkbom JC, Auchmoody LR, Dorn DE. 1979. Influence of fertilizer on Science Research 1: 149–162.
seed production in Allegheny hardwood stands. Res. Pap. NE-439. Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification,
Broomall, PA: USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation and uses. Champaign, IL:
Station. 5 p. Stipes Publishing. 1007 p.
Bonner F. 1996. Personal communication. Starkville, MS: USDA Forest Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop-
Service, Southern Research Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory. agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p.
Brown JE, Maddox JB, Splittstoesser WE. 1983. Performance of trees, Farmer RE. 1996. Seed ecophysiology of temperate and boreal zone forest
shrubs, and forbs seeded directly in the fall on minespoil and silt loam trees. Del Ray, FL: St. Lucie Press. 340 p.
soil. Journal of Environmental Quality 12(4): 523–525. Farmer RE, Cunningham M. 1981. Seed dormancy of red maple in east
Browse PM. 1990. Seed stratification: an individual exercise. Plantsman Tennessee. Forest Science 27(3): 446–448.
11(4): 241–243. Farmer RE, Goelz J. 1984. Germination characteristics of red maple in
Burns RM, Honkala BH, tech. coords. 1990. Silvics of North America. northwestern Ontario. Forest Science 30: 670–672.
Volume 2, Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Ferrari JB. 1993. Spatial patterns of litterfall, nitrogen cycling, and understory
Forest Service. 877 p. vegetation in a hemlock–hardwood forest [PhD thesis]. St. Paul:
Carl CM Jr. 1976. Effect of separation in N-pentane on storability of sugar University of Minnesota. 180 p.
maple seeds. Res. Note NE-218. Upper Darby, PA: USDA Forest
Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 3 p.
Acer • 215
Van Gelderen DM, De Jong PC, Oterdoom HJ,Van Hoey Smith JRP. 1994. Yawney HW, Carl CM Jr. 1974. Storage requirements for sugar maple
A Maples of the world. Portland OR:Timber Press. 512 p. seeds. Res. Pap. NE-298. Upper Darby, PA: USDA Forest Service,
Vertrees JD. 1975. Observations on Acer circinatum Pursh. propagation. Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 6 p.
Plant Propagator 21(4): 11–12. Yawney HW, Donnelly JW. 1981. Clonal propagation of sugar maple by
Vertrees JD. 1987. Japanese maples. Portland, OR:Timber Press. 332 p. rooting cuttings. In: Proceedings, 27th Northeastern Forest Tree
Viereck LA. 1997. Personal communication. Fairbanks, AK: USDA Forest Improvement Conference; 1980 July 29–31; Burlington,VT. Burlington:
Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Institute of Northern University of Vermont, School of Natural Resources: 72–81.
Forestry. Yawney HW, Donnelly JR. 1982. Rooting and overwintering sugar maple
Viereck LA, Little EL Jr. 1972. Alaska trees and shrubs. Agric. Handbk. 410. cuttings. In: Sugar maple research: sap production, processing, and mar-
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 265 p. keting of maple syrup. Gen.Tech Rep. NE-72. Broomall, PA: USDA Forest
Von Althen F. 1974. Successful establishment of sugar maple in a Scots pine Service. Northeastern Forest Experiment Station: 61–70.
plantation. Info. Rep. 0-X-208. Ottawa: Department of Environment, Young JA,Young CG. 1992. Seeds of woody plants in North America:
Canadian Forest Service. 6 p. revised and enlarged edition. Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press.
Wang BSP, Haddon BD. 1978. Germination of red maple seed. Seed Zasada J. 1992. Climbing trees to look for maple seedlings. COPE Report
Science and Technology 6: 785–790. 5(1/2): 12–13.
Webb DP. 1974. Germination control of stratified sugar maple seeds. Zasada J. 1996. Unpublished data. Rhinelander, WI: USDA Forest Service,
Forestry Chronicle 50: 112–113. North Central Forest Experiment Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory.
Willson MF. 1986. On the costs of reproduction in plants: Acer negundo. Zasada J,Tappeiner J, Max T. 1990. Viability of maple seeds after storage.
American Midland Naturalist 115: 204–207. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 5(2): 52–55.
Wilson BF, Hibbs DE, Fischer BC. 1979. Seed dormancy in stripped maple. Zasada J,Tappeiner J, O’Dea M. 1992. Clone structure of salmonberry and
Canadian Journal of Forest Research 9: 263–266. vine maple in the Oregon Coast Range. In: Clary WP, McArthur ED,
Wood BW, Hancock JW. 1981. Early genetic differentiation of sugar maple Bedunah D, Wambolt CL, comps. Proceedings, Symposium on Ecology
by accelerating seedling growth. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 11: and Management of Riparian Shrub Communities; 1991 May 29–31; Sun
287–290. Valley, ID. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-289. Odgen, UT: USDA Forest Service.
Yawney HW. 1968. Artificial regeneration. In: Proceedings, Sugar Maple
Conference; 1968 August 20-22; Houghton, MI: 65–74.
Yawney HW. 1984. How to root and overwinter sugar maple cuttings.
American Nurseryman 160 (8): 95–102.
Adenanthera pavonina L.
peronías
J. A. Vozzo
Dr.Vozzo retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station
Other common names. jumbie-bead Flowering and fruiting. Flowers are borne on
Occurrence and growth habit. Originally from tropi- racemes (either lateral or terminal) on short stalks 3 mm
cal Asia, this genus has spread to parts of tropical Africa and long and may be pale yellow to white. The small, inconspic-
America that have 1,300 to 2,100 mm of rainfall, soil pH 5.0 uous flowers have a sweet smell and form axillary clusters
to 7.5, and nutrient-rich soils with moist but well-drained during the hot, humid season. The fruits mature in the dry
profiles. It maintains a common abundance relative to other season and remain on the tree several months as dark brown
competitors (Francis and Liogier 1991). Peronías— legumes (pods) that measure 10 to 20 mm wide and 15 to 20
Adenanthera pavonina L.—has large bipinnate leaves, 30 to cm long and are twisted. They readily split and show seeds
60 cm in length, and narrow, erect flower clusters with shiny (figures 1 and 2) attached to the smooth, yellow interior.
scarlet seeds. The medium-sized deciduous tree can be 13 m There are about 3,500 seeds/kg (~1,580/lb) (Bailey 1941;
tall and 45 cm in trunk diameter, with brown, smooth bark Little and Wadsworth 1964; Neal 1965; Troup 1921). Seeds
(Little and Wadsworth 1964). Two other species—A. micro- store well with no special techniques required (Francis
sperma Teysm. & Binn. and A. bicolor Moon —are similar 1994).
but smaller (Neal 1965). Only a small number of species Germination. Although presoaking is helpful, seeds
are included in the genus. Gunn (1984) recognizes only the will germinate with no pre-germination treatment. Several
following 5 species—A. abrosperma F. v. Mueller, A. bicol- reports do, however, suggest that germination is enhanced
or, A. intermedia Merrill, A. pavonina L. var. microsperma, by hot-wire scarification (Sandiford 1988) and sulfuric acid
and A. pavonina L. var. pavonina. Only A. pavonina var. exposure (Ahmed and others 1983; Xu and Gu 1985).
pavonina is commonly found in the American tropics, where Francis and Rodriguez (1993) report 86% germination of
it has naturalized in Puerto Rico (Francis and Liogier 1991). mechanically scarified seeds held for 6 days on blotter paper
Use. The mature trees are good shade trees but not at ambient temperature (24 to 30 °C). Germination is
particularly ornamental (Neal 1965), although they are val- epigeal (figure 3).
ued for their attractive feathery foliage and bright red seeds
in Nyasaland (Streets 1962). Peronías is also planted as a
hedge in Asia, where it is called peacock flower fence Figure 1—Adenanthera pavonia, peronías: seed.
(Bailey 1941). Its sapwood is light brown and hard, and its
heartwood is hard and red. The heavy, hard wood (specific
gravity 0.6 to 0.8) makes durable, strong furniture. It is used
locally for poles and firewood as well as a source of red dye
(Little and Wadsworth 1964). It gets its Asian common
name—red sandalwood—from its use as a substitute for
sandalwood. The red seeds are known as “Circassian seeds”
and used for bead work. An interesting (but questionable)
use is as commercial weights for goldsmiths and silver-
smiths, who claim each seed weighs a uniform 4 grains
(Neal 1965).
Adenanthera • 217
Nursery practice. Although there are no printed Figure 3—Adenanthera pavonia, peronías: seedling,
A 15 days.
reports of nursery practices, seeds readily germinate along
moist roadsides. Peronías will readily propagate from cut-
tings planted during rainy periods (Troup 1921).
References
Ahmed FU, Sharmila-Das, Hossain MA. 1983. Effect of seed treatment on Little EL Jr, Wadsworth FH. 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the
the germination of Rakta Kambal seeds. Bano-Biggyan-Patrika 12(1/2): Virgin Islands. Agric. Handbk. 249. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service.
62–65. 548 p.
Bailey LH. 1941. Standard cyclopedia of horticulture. New York: Macmillan. Neal MC. 1965. In gardens of Hawaii. Spec. Pub. 50. Honolulu: Bishop
1200 p. Museum Press. 924 p.
Francis JK. 1994. Personal communication. Río Piedras, PR: USDA Forest Sandiford M. 1988. Burnt offerings: an evaluation of the hot-wire seed scari-
Service, International Institute of Tropical Forestry. fier. Commonwealth Forestry Review 67(3): 285–292.
Francis JK, Liogier HA. 1991. Naturalized exotic tree species in Puerto Streets RJ. 1962. Exotic forest trees in the British Commonwealth. Oxford,
Rico. Gen.Tech. Rep. SO-82. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, UK: Clarendon Press. 750 p.
Southern Forest Experiment Station. 12 p. Troup RS. 1921. Silviculture of Indian trees. Volume 2, Leguminosae
Francis JK, Rodríguez A. 1993. Seeds of Puerto Rican trees and shrubs: sec- (Caesalpinieae) to Verbenaceae. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. 783 p.
ond installment. Res. Note SO-374. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Xu BM, Gu ZH. 1985. Effect of sulfuric acid treatment in breaking
Southern Forest Experiment Station. 5 p. dormancy in hard seeds. [Beijing]: Plant Physiology Communications
Gunn CR. 1984. Fruits and seeds of genera in the subfamily 2: 22–25.
Mimosoidaceae (Fabaceae).Tech. Bull. 1681. Washington, DC: USDA
Agricultural Research Service. 194 p.
Aesculus L.
buckeye
Paul O. Rudolf and Jill R. Barbour
Dr. Rudolph (deceased) retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Forest Experiment Station;
Ms. Barbour is a germination specialist at the USDA Forest Service’s National Seed Laboratory
Dry Branch, Georgia
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The buckeyes— others 1990). This is also true of horsechestnut, which has
which occur in North America, southeastern Europe, and been widely planted as a shade tree in Europe and also in
eastern and southeastern Asia—include about 25 species of the eastern United States, where it sometimes escapes from
deciduous trees and shrubs (Rehder 1940). They are cultivat- cultivation (Bailey 1939). Ohio and yellow buckeyes are
ed for their dense shade or ornamental flowers, and the sometimes planted in Europe and the eastern United States,
wood of some species is occasionally used for lumber and the former having been successfully introduced into
paper pulp. They also provide wildlife habitat. The shoots Minnesota, western Kansas, and eastern Massachusetts.
and seeds of some buckeyes are poisonous to livestock California buckeye is also occasionally planted in Europe
(Bailey 1939). Seven of the 9 species described (table 1) are and to a somewhat greater extent in the Pacific Coast states.
native to the United States. The horsechestnut was intro- A natural hybrid—A. × bushii Schneid. (A. glabra × pavia),
duced into this country from southern Europe, and the called Arkansas buckeye—occurs in Mississippi and
Himalayan horsechestnut occurs naturally in the Himalayas. Arkansas (Little 1953). At least 5 other hybrids are known
Seven of these 8 species are not used much in reforesta- in cultivation (Little 1953).
tion, but all are used for environmental forestry planting. Flowering and fruiting. Buckeye flowers are irregu-
Himalayan horsechestnut is used extensively for reforesta- lar in shape and white, red, or pale yellow in color; they are
tion and the nuts are fed to sheep and goats (Maithani and borne in terminal panicles that appear after the leaves. The
A. californica (Spach) Nutt. California buckeye Dry gravelly soils; lower slopes of coastal
A. octandra Marsh range & Sierra Nevada in California
A. flava Ait. yellow buckeye, sweet Moist, rich soils; SW Pennsylvania,W to
buckeye, big buckeye S Illinois, S to N Georgia, & N to West Virginia
A. glabra Willd. Ohio buckeye, fetid buckeye, Moist, rich soils;W Pennsylvania to SE
American horsechestnut Nebraska, S to Oklahoma, then E to Tennessee
A. glabra var. arguta (Buckl.) B.L. Robins. Texas buckeye Limestone & granite soils; S Oklahoma,
A. arguta Buckl. E & central Texas to Edwards Plateau
A. glabra var. buckleyi Sarg.
A. buckleyi (Sarg.) Bush
A. hippocastanum L. horsechestnut, Native to Balkan Peninsula of Europe;
chestnut, bongay planted extensively in US
A. indica (Wall. ex. Cambess) Hook. Himalayan horsechestnut Himalayas between 1,524 to 3,050 m
A. parviflora Walt. bottlebrush buckeye SW Georgia & Alabama
A. pavia L. red buckeye, scarlet buckeye, Moist, rich soils; Virginia to Missouri,
woolly buckeye, firecracker plant S to Texas & Florida
A. sylvatica Bartr. painted buckeye, Coastal plain & outer piedmont, from SE
A. neglecta Lindl. dwarf buckeye, Virginia to Georgia, Alabama, & NW Florida
A. georgiana Sarg. Georgia buckeye
A. neglecta var. georgiana (Sarg.) Sarg.
Source: Rudolph (1974).
Aesculus • 219
flower spikes are 15 to 20 cm tall by 5 to 7.5 cm wide Figure 2—Aesculus glabra, Ohio buckeye: longitudinal
A (Browse and Leiser 1982). The flowers are polygamo- section through a seed.
monoecious, bearing both bisexual and male flowers. Only
those flowers near the base of the branches of the cluster are
perfect and fertile; the others are staminate (Bailey 1939;
Rehder 1940).
The fruit is a somewhat spiny or smooth, leathery, round
or pear-shaped capsule with 3 cells (figure 1), each of which
may bear a single seed. Sometimes only 1 cell develops and
the remnants of the abortive cells and seeds are plainly visi-
ble at maturity. When only 1 cell develops, the large seed is
round to flat in shape. The ripe seeds (figure 1) are dark
chocolate to chestnut brown in color, with a smooth and
shining surface and have a large, light-colored hilum resem-
bling the pupil of an eye. They contain no endosperm, the
cotyledons being very thick and fleshy (figure 2). When ripe
in the fall, the capsules split and release the seeds. The times
of flowering and fruiting for 7 species of buckeyes are given
in table 2. Other fruiting characteristics are listed in table 3.
Normally, horsechestnut and Ohio buckeye will set
viable seeds almost every year. Bottlebrush buckeye rarely
soon after they have fallen. The fruits may be dried for a
sets seed except in very hot, dry, late summers (Browse
short time at room temperature to free the seeds from any
1982).
parts of the capsules that may still adhere to them, but great
Collection of fruits; extraction and storage of seeds.
care must be taken not to dry them too long. When this
The fruits may be collected by picking or shaking them
occurs, the seedcoats become dull and wrinkled and the
from the trees as soon as the capsules turn yellowish and
seeds lose their viability. There is ample evidence that buck-
begin to split open or by gathering them from the ground
eyes are recalcitrant in nature (Bonner 1969; Pence 1992;
Tompsett and Pritchard 1993). Moisture contents at the time
Figure 1—Aesculus, buckeye: capsules and seeds of A.
of shedding have been reported as 49% for horsechestnut
glabra, Ohio buckeye (topleft); A. pavia, red buckeye (top
(Suszka 1966) and 56% for red buckeye (Bonner 1969). The
right); A.hippocastanum, painted buckeye (middle left);
seeds of this genus should be sown at once in the fall or
A. sylvatica, horsechesnut (middle right); A. california, yellow
stratified promptly for spring-sowing.
buckeye (bottom).
Buckeye seeds must be stored with moisture contents
close to what they are shed with, but even then their viabili-
ty cannot be maintained very long. Initial viability of fresh
seeds of horsechestnut was maintained for 6 months when
they were stored in polyethylene bags at 1 °C. This storage
condition is the same as cold moist stratification because of
the high moisture content of fresh seeds (Suszka 1966).
When seeds were stored at –1 °C in sealed packages without
added moisture for 13 months, germination dropped from
85% to 60%; after 15 months, however, germination was
only 25% (Widmoyer and Moore 1968). Data on number of
cleaned seeds per weight are listed for 7 species in table 4.
Purity and soundness usually are close to 100% (Rudolf
1974). Nonviable seeds will float in water and can be dis-
carded (Browse 1982).
Pregermination treatments. Seeds of Ohio, yellow,
and painted buckeyes and horsechestnut require stratification
or prechilling to induce prompt germination (Rudolf 1974).
Stratification has been done in moist sand or sand-peat mix-
Sources: Brown and Kirkman (1990), Harrar and Harrar (1962), Little (1953), Loiseau (1945), NBV (1946), Radford and others (1964), Rehder (1940), Rudolf (1974),
Sargent (1965), Sus (1925),Turner (1969), van Dersal (1938),Vines (1960),Wyman (1947).
Table 3—Aesculus, buckeye: height, year first cultivated, flower color, seed-bearing age, seed crop frequency, and fruit
ripeness criteria
Sources: Brown and Kirkland (1990), Rehder (1940), Rudolf (1974), Sargent (1965)
Cleaned seeds/weight*
Range Average
Species Place collected /kg /lb /kg /lb
Aesculus • 221
tures at 5 °C for about 120 days, and by storage in sealed ommendation for germinating seeds of horsechestnut with-
A
containers at 1 °C for 100 days or longer (May 1963; Rudolf out stratification is to soak them in water for 48 hours and
1974; Suszka 1966). In contrast, fresh seeds of California cut off one-third of the seed at the scar end without remov-
and red buckeyes can germinate satisfactorily without pre- ing the seedcoat. The portion with the scar should then be
treatment (Rudolf 1974). Red buckeye seeds requires no germinated in sand flats for for 21 days at the same
stratification even though germination is delayed until 30/20 °C regime (ISTA 1993).
spring. Cool winter temperatures suppress the germination, Nursery practice. Under natural conditions, seeds of
thus preventing autumn emergence (Browse 1982). most buckeye species germinate in the early spring.
Bottlebrush buckeye seeds exhibit a type of epicotyl California buckeye, however, germinates just after winter
dormancy in so far as the root system continues to develop, rains have begun, usually in November. In the nursery,
but the shoot becomes dormant after it has emerged (Browse buckeye seeds usually are sown in the fall as soon after col-
1982). Further development of the shoot system does not lection as possible to prevent drying and loss of viability. If
occur until the spring (Browse 1982). desired, however, the seeds of species having embryo dor-
Presowing treatments of horsechestnut seeds increased mancy can be stratified or placed in cold, moist storage
germination 3 to 15% over the control. The treatments yield- promptly and then sown in the spring (Rudolf 1974; Suszka
ed the following germination rates: exposure to 50 °C, 92% 1966). Himalayan horsechestnut seeds without any treat-
germination; soaking with slight drying, 92%; exposure to ment showed 80% germination after 133 days (Maithini and
35 °C, 87%; exposure to high pressure, 87%; soaking in others 1990). Seeds sown after 30 days of cold stratification
cobalt nitrate, 85%; soaking in chlorocholine chloride, 80%; showed 68% germination in 78 days (Maithini and others
and control, 77% (Tarabrin and Teteneva 1980). 1990). The seeds should be sown about 5 cm (2 in) apart in
Stratification benefits Himalayan horsechestnut. There rows 15 cm (6 in) apart (NBV 1946) and covered with 2.5
was a 5-fold increase in germination at 30 °C from 12% for to 5 cm (1 to 2 in) of soil. The seeds should be sown with
the control to 60% following stratification for 15 days the scar underneath so that the radicle emerges in the correct
(Maithani and others 1990). Prolonging the stratification position to produce a normal seedling (Browse and Leiser
period to 30 days resulted in 79% germination (Maithani 1982). If the seeds are variable in size, it is better to grade
and others 1990). them so that small sizes are discarded or sown separately, as
Germination tests. Stratified buckeye seeds have these rarely make large 1-year seedlings (Browse 1982).
been germinated in sand or on wet paper at diurnally alter- Germination is hypogeal (figure 3) and usually is com-
nating temperatures of 30 and 20 °C. Results are summa- plete 3 to 4 weeks after spring sowing (NBV 1946). A tree
rized in table 5. Official testing rules for red buckeye percentage of 70 has been obtained (Rudolf 1974). The beds
(AOSA 1998) call for germinating unstratified seeds for 28 should not be over-watered because the seeds rot rather eas-
days on the top of wet paper at the 30/20 °C regime. A rec- ily (Rudolf 1974). Ordinarily, 1+0 stock is large enough for
field planting.
Table 5—Aesculus, buckeye: cold stratification periods, germination test conditions, and results
A. californica 0 — Sand 30 20 20 — — 56
A. flava 120 — Sand 30 20 40 62 27 76
A. glabra 120 — Sand 30 20 40 — — 59
var. arguta 120 8 Sand 24 17 30 — — 76
A. hippocastanum 120 — Sand 30 20 30 — — 89
A. pavia 0 8 Kimpak 30 20 30 62 20 70
A. sylvatica 90 — Sand — — 30 — — 78
Sources: May (1963), NBV (1946), Rudolf (1974), Suszka (1966), Widmoyer and Moore (1968).
* Cold stratification temperatures ranged from – 0.5 to 5 °C.
References
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1998. Rules for testing seeds. Radford AE, Ahles HE, Bell CR. 1964. Guide to the vascular flora of the
In: Proceedings of the Association of Official Seed Analysts: 1–123. Carolinas. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Book Exchange.
Bailey LH. 1939. The standard encyclopedia of horticulture. New York: 383 p.
Macmillan. 3639 p. Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North
Bonner FT. 1969. Personnel communication. Starkville, MS: USDA Forest America. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan. 996 p.
Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. Rudolf PO. 1974. Aesculus L., buckeye. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord.
Brown CL, Kirkman KL. 1990. Trees of Georgia and adjacent states. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450.
Portland, OR:Timber Press. 292 p. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 195–200.
Browse PM. 1982. The propagation of the hardy horse chestnuts and buck- Sargent CS. 1965. Manual of the trees of North America (exclusive of
eyes. Plantsman 4(3): 150–164. Mexico). 2nd ed., corrected and reprinted. New York: Dover. 910 p.
Browse PM, Leiser AT. 1982. The California buckeye. Plantsman 4(1): 54–57. Sus NI. 1925. Pitomnik [The forest nursery]. Moscow. 227 p.
Harrar ES, Harrar JG. 1962. Guide to southern trees. 2nd ed. New York: Suszka B. 1966. Conditions for breaking of dormancy of germination of the
Dover Publishing. 709 p. seeds of Aesculus hippocastanum L. Arbor. Kórnicke. 11: 203–220.
ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds: Tarabrin VP,Teteneva TR. 1980. Presowing treatment of seeds and its effect
rules 1993. Seed Science and Technology 21 (Suppl.): 1–259. on the resisitance of seedlings of woody plants against drought. Soviet
Little EL Jr. 1953. Checklist of native and naturalized trees of the United Journal of Ecology 10 (3): 204–211.
States (including Alaska). Agric. Handbk. 41. Washington, DC: USDA Tompsett PB, Pritchard HW. 1993. Water status changes during develop-
Forest Service. 472 p. ment in relation to the germination and desiccation tolerance of
Loiseau J. 1945. Les arbres et la forêt. Paris. 204 p. Aesculus hippocastanum L. seeds. Annals of Botany 71: 107–116.
Maithani GP, Thapliyal RC, Bahuguna VK, Sood OP. 1990. Enhancement of Turner BL. 1969. Personal communication. Austin: University of Texas.
seed germination and seedling growth of Aesculus indica by stratification. Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their ero-
Indian Forester 116(7): 577–580. sion control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC: USDA.
May C. 1963. Note on storage of buckeye and horsechestnut seed. 362 p.
American Horticulture Magazine 42(4): 231–232. Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
NBV [Nederlandsche Boschbouw Vereeniging]. 1946. Boomzaden: handlei- University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
ding inzake het oogsten, behandelen, bewaren en uitzaaien van Widmoyer FB, Moore A. 1968. The effect of storage period temperature
boomzaden [Tree seed: handbook on the collection, extraction, storage, and moisture on the germination of Aesculus hippocastanum seeds. Plant
and sowing of tree seed]. Wageningen,The Netherlands: Ponsen and Propagator 14(1) : 14–15.
Looijen. 171 p. Wyman D. 1947. Seed collecting dates of woody plants. Arnoldia 7(9):
Pence VC. 1992. Desiccation and the survival of Aesculus, Castanea, and 53–56.
Quercus embryo axes through cryopreservation. Cryobiology 29:
391–399 [Seed Abstracts 1994; 17(1): 21].
Aesculus • 223
A Simaroubaceae—Quassia family
Dr. Zasada retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Research Station; Dr. Silas Little (deceased)
retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Northeastern Forest Experiment Station
Synonyms. Toxicodendron altissimum Mill., Ailanthus Flowering and Fruiting. The tree is mainly dioe-
glandulosa Desf. cious, with some monoecious individuals (Dirr 1990; Miller
Other common names. Tree-of-heaven ailanthus, 1990). Flowers are usually unisexual, but perfect flowers do
tree-of-heaven, copaltree. occur in some individuals (Feret 1973). Flowering has been
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Native to China, observed in seedlings 6 weeks after germination (Feret
this 12.5- to 25-m-tall deciduous tree is described as “the 1973).
most adaptable and pollution tolerant tree available” (Dirr Commercial “seed” consists of the 1-celled, 1-seeded,
1990). Although it was originally considered a desirable oblong, thin, spirally twisted samaras. These samaras, with
ornamental tree, its desirability and usefulness are now seeds near the middle, are 8 to 12 mm wide and 33 to 48
questioned (Dirr 1990; Feret 1985) and many consider it an mm long (Feret and others 1974) and light reddish brown in
“invasive alien pest.” It is sometimes planted for shelterbelts, color (figure 1). Flowering occurs from mid-April to July
for game food and cover, and, rarely, for timber as in New (Little 1974). Seeds ripen in large panicles in September to
Zealand. Ailanthus was introduced into cultivation in October of the same season and are dispersed from October
England in 1751 (Feret 1985; Illick and Brouse 1926) and to the following spring (Illick and Brouse 1926). Ailanthus
brought to America in 1784 (Little 1974). It has become nat- is a prolific seeder: 15- to 20-year-old trees bear consider-
uralized in many parts of the United States—from able quantities. Seeds have no endosperm (figure 2).
Massachusetts to southern Ontario, Iowa, and Kansas, and Collection of fruits; extraction and storage of seeds.
south to Texas and Florida, as well as from the southern Ailanthus seeds have been found in soil seedbanks in stands
Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Coast (Feret and with no individuals present in the overstory. This suggests
Bryant1974; Feret and others 1974; Little 1979). In some that seeds may be stored in the soil for some period of time
localities, ailanthus is so well-established that it appears to after parent trees have disappeared from a site (Dobberpuhl
be a part of the native flora. Wood properties are summa- 1980).
rized by Alden (1995) and silvics by Miller (1990). There
are a number of other Ailanthus species grown in other parts Figure 1—Ailanthus altissima, ailanthus: samara.
of the world for various purposes (Alam and Anis 1987;
Beniwal and Singh 1990; Feret 1985; Rai 1985;
Ramikrishnan and others 1990).
Ailanthus is an aggressive, intolerant pioneer species
with rapid juvenile growth of 1 to 1.5 m/year. It invades
severely disturbed sites, harsh environments, and poor soils.
It suckers from roots and can form dense stands, making it
difficult for native species to colonize. Stands may be main-
tained by root suckering but it does not regenerate from seed
under its own canopy (Bordeau and Laverick 1958; Miller
1990). One or more potent inhibitors of seed germination
and seedling growth are produced in the bark, leaves, and
seeds (Heisey 1990; Lawrence and others 1991). Heisey
(1990) concluded that allelochemicals in ailanthus may have
potential as naturally produced herbicides.
Ailanthus • 225
Feret PP. 1985. Ailanthus: variation, cultivation, and frustration. Journal of Little S. 1974. Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle, ailanthus. In: Schopmeyer CS,
A Arboriculture 11(12): 361–368. tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk.
Feret PP, Bryant RL. 1974. Genetic differences between American and 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 201–202.
Chinese Ailanthus seedlings. Silvae Genetica 23(5): 144–148. Miller JH. 1990. Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle, ailanthus. In: Burns RM,
Feret PP, Bryant RL, Ramsey JA. 1974. Genetic variation among American Honkala BA, tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 2,
seed sources of Ailanthus altissima. Scientia Horticulturae 2(4): 405–411. Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
Graves WR. 1990. Stratification not required for tree-of-heaven germina- 101–104.
tion.Tree Planters’ Notes 41 (2): 10–12. Rai SN. 1985. Notes on nursery and regeneration technique of some
Heisey RM. 1990. Allelopathic and herbicidal effects of extracts from the species occurring in southern tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen
tree of heaven Ailanthus altissima. American Journal of Botany 77: forests of Karnataka (India): 2. Indian Forester 111(8): 644–657.
662–670. Ramakrishnan HB, Jacqueline AS,Vinaya Rai RS. 1990. Studies on the
Heit CE. 1967. Propagation from seed: 11. Storage of deciduous tree and ripeness index and presowing seed treatment in Ailanthus excelsa Roxb.
shrub seeds. American Nurseryman 126(10): 12–13, 86–94. Seed Science & Techology 18(3): 491–498.
Heninger RL, White DP. 1974. Tree seedling growth at different soil Shumilina ZK. 1949. Podgotovka posevu semyan drevesnykh I kus-
temperatures. Forest Science 20: 363–367. tarnikovykh porod.Vsesoyuznyy Nauchno-Issledovatel’skiy Institut
Illick JS, Brouse, EF. 1926. The ailanthus tree in Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania Agrolesomelioratsii Goslesbumizdat Moscow [Preparation of tree and
Department of Forests and Waters Bulletin 38: 1–29. shrub seed for sowing.Transl.TT 67-51300. 1967. Springfield,VA: USDC
ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. International rules for CFSTI. 36 p.].
seed testing: rules 1993. Seed Science & Technology 21 (Suppl.): 1–259. Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their ero-
Lawerence JG, Colwell A, Sexton OJ. 1991. The ecological impact of sion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC: USDA.
allelopathy in Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae). American Journal of 362 p.
Botany 78(7): 948–958.
Little EL Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized).
Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA, Forest Service. 375 p.
Albizia Durazz.
albizia
John A. Parrotta, Herbert L.Wick, and Gerald A.Walters
Dr. Parrotta is a research program leader at the USDA Forest Service’s Research and Development
National Office, Arlington,Virginia; Drs.Wick and Walters retired from the
USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The albizias is moderately hard, straight-grained, strong, and durable and
include about 50 species of medium- to large-sized decidu- is used in the species’ native range as an all-purpose timber
ous trees and climbers distributed throughout tropical and (Parrotta 1987b). Raintree (formerly known as
subtropical Asia, Africa, and Australia (Rock 1920). Many Pithecellobium saman) is valued for timber and wildlife
species have been introduced into the United States, and the habitat and as an ornamental. The wood is used for paneling,
4 listed in table 1 are important. Silktree was introduced furniture, and specialty items. The tree was introduced into
into the southern United States in 1745 and planted widely Florida and Hawaii (Little and Wadsworth 1964; Magini and
for ornamental purposes. Currently it is considered invasive. Tulstrup 1955) and is now considered invasive.
The species is also valuable for wildlife cover and browse Flowering and fruiting. The flowering and seeding
(Wick and Walters 1974). Siris is planted in Hawaii for dates of Albizia species are listed in table 2. Flowers of siris
shade and ornament (Neal 1965) and was introduced into are greenish-yellow to whitish, those of silktree are light
Puerto Rico during the Spanish colonial era. Its yellowish pink, and those of white siris are whitish (Little and
brown heartwood is moderately hard, coarse-grained, Wadsworth 1964; Wick and Walters 1974). All species bear
strong, and fairly durable and is used for a variety of pur- their flowers in clusters near the tips of branches. The fruits
poses, including furniture-making, in its native Asian range of all species are flat, linear, 6- to 12-seeded legumes (pods)
(Parrotta 1987a). White siris is planted in Hawaii (Neal (figure 1) and ripen within a year after the trees flower
1965) and was introduced into Puerto Rico in 1927 as an (Little and Wadsworth 1964; Rock 1920; Wick and Walters
ornamental and fuelwood species. In Puerto Rico, white 1974). Silktree legumes are about 15 cm long; siris and
siris has become naturalized and is now common on severe- white siris legumes are up to 20 cm long. When mature, the
ly disturbed sites and old fields. The light brown heartwood legumes of tall albizia are reddish brown, whereas those of
Common Occurrence
Scientific name & synonym(s) name(s) Native US Growth habit
Albizia • 227
A Table 2—Albizia, albizia: phenology of flowering, fruit ripening, and seed dispersal
Sources: Little and Wadsworth (1964), Rock (1920),Wick and Walters (1974).
Figure 1—Albizia julibrissin, silktree: legumes and seeds. although a small sample of seeds kept in loosely corked bot-
tles in a laboratory for almost 5 years had a germination rate
of almost 90% (Wick and Walters 1974).
Germination. Germination of albizia seeds is slow
because of their impermeable seedcoats (figure 2).
Dormancy can be broken either by mechanical scarification,
sulfuric acid scarification, or soaking in water (Francis and
Rodríguez 1993; Parrotta 1987a). The easiest, safest, and
usually most effective means for breaking dormancy in siris
and white siris is immersion of the seeds in boiling water for
1 to 3 minutes, soaking them in water at room temperature
for 24 hours, then sowing the seeds immediately (Parrotta
1987a). Germination rates for scarified seeds range from 50
to 99% and germination begins within 2 to 4 days after sow-
the other 2 species are straw-colored. The light brown seeds ing (Francis and Rodríguez 1993; Parrotta 1987a&b).
of all species are released from the dehiscent legumes from Raintree seeds will often germinate without pretreatment,
legumes that are still attached to the tree or from fallen but a 10-minute soak in sulfuric acid will increase the per-
legumes, which may travel considerable distances in high centage and rate of germination (Walters and others 1974).
winds (Parrotta 1987a; Rock 1920; Wick and Walters 1974). Germination as high as 92% has been reported for this
Collection, extraction, and storage. Collection of species (Neal 1965; Rock 1920). Germination in albizias is
albizia seeds should begin as soon as the legumes mature. epigeal (figure 3).
Siris seeds are particularly prone to predation by insect lar- Nursery practice. Germination and seedling growth
vae, especially those of bruchid beetles (Parrotta 1987a). of albizia is favored by shallow sowing, up to 2.5 cm (1 in)
The legumes may be picked or shaken from the trees and
collected on canvas. Seeds are readily extracted from the
Figure 2—Albizia julibrissin, silktree: longitudinal section
legumes by flailing or threshing. A seed cleaner or a fanning
through a seed.
mill can be used to separate seeds from the remaining
debris. Silktrees average about 24,000 clean seeds/kg
(11,000/lb) (Wick and Walters 1974); siris, 7,000 to 11,000
seeds/kg (3,000 to 5,000/lb) (Parrotta 1987a); white siris,
17,000 to 25,000 seeds/kg (8,000 to 11,000/lb) (Francis and
Rodríguez 1993; Parrotta 1987b); and raintrees, 4,400 to
7,720 seeds/kg (2,000 to 3,500/lb) (Walters and others
1974). Albizia seeds are orthodox in nature. Air-dried seeds
of siris and white siris generally retain high germination
rates for at least 1 to 2 years in storage at room temperature
or under refrigeration (Parrotta 1987a). No definitive infor-
mation is available on how long silktree seeds can be stored,
References
Seeds of Puerto Rican trees and shrubs: second installment. Res. Note SO-
374. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment
Station. 5 p.
Little EL Jr, Wadsworth FH. 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the
Virgin Islands. Agric. Handbk. 249. Washington, DC: USDA Forest
Service. 548 p.
Magini E,Tulstrup NP. 1955. Tree seed notes. For. Dev. Pap. 5. Rome: FAO.
354 p.
Neal MC. 1965. In gardens in Hawaii. Spec. Pub. 50. Honolulu: Bishop
Museum Press. 924 p.
Parrotta JA. 1987a. Albizia lebbek (L.) Benth, siris. Res. Note SO-ITF-SM-7.
New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment
Station. 5 p.
Parrotta JA. 1987b. Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth., white siris, tall albizia.
Res. Note SO-ITF-SM-6. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern
Forest Experiment Station. 4 p.
Rock JF. 1920. The leguminous plants of Hawaii. Honolulu: Hawaii Sugar
Planters’ Association. 234 p.
Walters GA, Bonner FT, Petteys EQP. 1974. Pithecellobium Mart., blackbead.
In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United
States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
639–640.
Wick HL, Walters GA. 1974. Albizia, albizzia. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech.
coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450.
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 203–205.
Albizia • 229
A Euphorbiaceae—Spurge family
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Synonyms. Aleurites javanica Gand., A. triloba Figure 1—Aleurites moluccana, Indian-walnut: fruit (draw-
Forster & Forster f. ing from Little and others 1974).
Other common names. Kukui, candlenut-tree, tutui,
nuez, nuez de India, lumbang, sakan, lama.
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. Indian-walnut
is well-known as kukui, the state tree of Hawaii. On the
Islands, it is a large, evergreen, spreading tree of moist low-
land mountains up to an elevation of 671 m. It may grow to
a height of 24 m and a bole diameter of 0.9 m (Little and
Skolmen 1989). This species is a probable native of
Malaysia, as its name suggests that it came from the
Moluccan Islands. It can be found on islands throughout the
Pacific region, and it has been introduced to other tropical
areas, including Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands (Little
and Skolmen 1989).
The tree was introduced by early Hawaiians for its oily,
nutlike seeds. Oil pressed from these seeds was once widely per fruit. The seeds are 2.5 to 3.5 cm long, and the shells are
used for fuel in stone lamps, for paints and varnishes, and hard, rough, and black (Dayan and Reaviles 1995; Little and
for medicines. In past years, as much as 37,850 liters Skolmen 1989). Flowering and fruiting occurs intermittently
(10,000 gal) of the oil was exported annually, but the indus- in Puerto Rico (Little and others 1974).
try has become unprofitable in Hawaii (Little and Skolmen Collection, extraction, and storage. Fruits may be
1989). The trees are still grown for production of the oil in collected from the ground after shedding or picked from the
the Philippines and other parts of the Pacific region (Eakle trees. In the Philippines, it is common practice to let the
and Garcia 1977). In addition, the leftover oil cake can be fruits decay for 3 to 5 days after collection and then remove
used as fertilizer or cattle food. Local uses also included the husks by hand under running water. The seeds are then
folk medicine and dyes, and a waterproofing substance can dried in the sun for 3 or 4 days to a low moisture content;
be made from the tree’s sap and green fruits (Little and there are about 116/kg (53/lb) (Dayan and Reaviles 1995).
Skolmen 1989). Indian-walnuts have been utilized in shade, Empty or deteriorated seeds can be removed by water flota-
ornamental, and protection plantings in Hawaii (Little and tion (Tamesis 1958; Eakle and Garcia 1977). There are no
Skolmen 1989). long-term storage data on Indian-walnut, but the seeds are
Flowering and fruiting. Indian-walnut’s flowers are apparently orthodox in storage characteristics. Dayan and
borne in terminal cymes 9 to 15 cm long. The white individ- Reaviles (1995) reported that seeds dried to 10 to 12%
ual flowers are about 10 mm long. Flowering is monoecious, moisture can be successfully stored at room temperature for
with many more male flowers than female on the cymes 7 months.
(Little and Skolmen 1989). Fruits are round to ellipsoidal in Germination. Indian-walnut germinates slowly,
shape, 5 to 6 cm long, and 5 to 7 cm wide, with fleshy to apparently due to dormancy imposed by the hard seedcoat
leathery husks (figure 1). There are 1 or 2 elliptical seeds (Eakle and Garcia 1977). Several pretreatments have been
References
Dayan MP, Reaviles RS. 1995. Seed technology manual of some reforesta- Little EL Jr, Woodbury RO, Wadsworth FH. 1974. Trees of Puerto Rico and
tion species. Manila: National Forestation Development Office and the Virgin Islands.Volume 2. Agric. Handbk. 449. Washington, DC: USDA
Ecosystem Research and Development Bureau. 60 p. Forest Service: 168–170.
Eakle TW, Garcia AS. 1977. Hastening the germination of lumbang Tabat E. 1925. An efficient method of germinating lumbang. Makiling Echo
[Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd.] seeds. Sylvatrop 4: 291–295. Philippines Bureau of Forestry, Division of Forest Investigation] 4(4):
Little EL Jr, Skolmen RG. 1989. Common forest trees of Hawaii (native and 19–22.
introduced). Agric. Handbk. 679. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. Tamesis F. 1958. Lumbang culture in Tungao, Butuan City. Forest Leaves [July
321 p. 1958]: 7–9, 40.
Aleurites • 231
A Betulaceae—Birch family
Alnus P. Mill.
alder
Constance A. Harrington, Leslie Chandler Brodie, Dean S. DeBell, and C. S. Schopmeyer
Dr. Harrington and Ms. Brodie are foresters on the silviculture research team at the USDA Forest Service’s
Pacific Northwest Research Station, Olympia,Washington; Dr. DeBell retired from the USDA Forest Service’s
Pacific Northwest Research Station; Dr. Schopmeyer (deceased) was the technical coordinator of the
previous manual
Growth habit and occurrence. Alder—the genus (Tarrant and Trappe 1971). Alders also have been planted for
Alnus—includes about 30 species of deciduous trees and wildlife food and cover (Liscinsky 1965) and for ornamental
shrubs occurring in North America, Europe, and Asia and in use. European and red alders have been considered for use
the Andes Mountains of Peru and Bolivia. Most alders are in biomass plantings for energy (Gillespie and Pope 1994)
tolerant of moist sites and thus are commonly found along and are considered excellent firewood. In recent years, har-
streams, rivers, and lakes and on poorly drained soils; in vest and utilization of red alder has expanded greatly on the
addition, some species occur on steep slopes and at high ele- Pacific Coast of North America, where the species is used
vations. The principal species found in North America are for paper products, pallets, plywood, paneling, furniture,
listed in table 1. Many changes in the taxonomy of alder veneer, and cabinetry (Harrington 1984; Plank and Willits
have been made over the years; in this summary, species are 1994). Red alder is also used as a fuel for smoking or curing
referred to by their currently accepted names although in salmon and other seafood and its bark is used to make a red
many cases the information was published originally under or orange dye (Pojar and MacKinnon 1994). The soft, even-
the synonyms (and alternative common names) listed in grained wood lacks odor or taste and has been traditionally
table 1. been used by native peoples, and more recently other wood-
Although some cultivated European alder is used com- workers, to make bowls, eating utensils, and other items
mercially in the eastern United States, red alder is the largest (Pojar and MacKinnon 1994). In addition, alder exports
native species. It is also the most extensively utilized of the have grown from almost nothing in 1990 to more than
native species. Management interest and research activity on 153,000 m3 (or 65 million board feet) of lumber annually
red alders have increased dramatically during the past 2 (Tarrant and others 1994). Several options exist for manag-
decades, and the resulting information accounts for the ing alder in both mixed (Miller and Murray 1978) and pure
majority of new information added to the previous summary stands (Tarrant and others 1983), and a summary of manage-
on alder seeds prepared by Schopmeyer (1974). ment principles and alternative strategies are available for
Alders are pioneer species favored by high light levels red alder (Hibbs and DeBell 1994).
and exposed mineral soils; in addition, their ability to fix Geographic races and hybrids. Considerable geo-
atmospheric nitrogen facilitates establishment on geological- graphic variation exists among populations of red (Ager and
ly young or disturbed sites with low levels of soil nitrogen others 1993; Ager and Stettler 1994; Dang and others 1994;
(Harrington and others 1994). Dense stands of naturally Hamann and others 1988; Lester and DeBell 1989), speck-
regenerated red alders established quickly on mudflows led (Bosquet and others 1988), American green (Bosquet
associated with the eruption of Mount St. Helens. The trees and others 1987), and European alders (Funk 1990; Hall and
grew rapidly and soon overtopped other pioneer species Maynard 1979). Disjunct populations of red alder have been
such as poplars in the nitrogen-deficient soils (Heilman located in Idaho (Johnson 1968), and growth of such popu-
1990). Sitka alder plays a similar role in primary succession lations and those at the extremes of species’ range differs
following deglaciation in Alaska. markedly from that of most populations (Lester and DeBell
Use. Seedlings have been planted successfully for 1989). Natural hybridization is common in alder, and zones
reforestation of coal mining spoil banks (Lowry and others of introgression between some species can occur where
1962). Soil fertility is improved through fixation of atmos- ranges overlap (Ager and Stettler 1994). Artificial hybridiza-
pheric nitrogen by microorganisms in the root nodules tion has been conducted with numerous species, including
A. glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. European alder, Native of Europe, northern Africa, & Asia;
A. alnus (L.) Britt. black alder, naturalized locally in parts of E Canada &
A. rotundifolia Mill.; A. vulgaris Hill European black alder NE US, cultivated in E, central, & S US
Betula alnus var. glutinosa L.
A. incana (L.) Moench mountain alder, European Native of Europe & the Caucasus area;
Betula alnus var. incana L. speckled alder, hoary alder, occurs in North America only under
gray alder cultivation
A. incana ssp. rugosa (Du Roi) Clausen speckled alder, tag alder, E & central Canada, N central US & in
A. incana var. americana Reg. A. glauca Michx. swamp alder, aulne blanchâtre Appalachian Mtns to West Virginia &
A. rugosa (Du Roi) Spreng. var. Maryland
americana (Reg.) Fern
A. rugosa var. tomophylla (Fern.) Fern.
Betula alnus var. rugosa Du Roi
A. incana ssp. tenuifolia (Nutt.) thinleaf alder, Yukon & Alaska S to W Montana &
Breitung mountain alder Oregon, in Sierra Nevada to central
A. incana var. occidentalis (Dippel) Hitch. California, & E to Arizona & New Mexico
A. incana var. virescens S.Wats.
A. occidentalis Dippel
A. rugosa var. occidentalis (Dippel) Hitch.
A. tenuifolia Nutt.
A. maritima (Marsh.) Muhl. ex Nutt. seaside alder, brook alder Widely disjunct populations in Delaware,
A. maritima ssp. metoporina (.Furlow) E. Murr Maryland, & Oklahoma
A. metoporina Furlow
Betula-alnus maritima Marsh.
A. nepalensis D. Don Nepal alder, utis, maibao Native of India & Burma; planted in Hawaii
A. boshia Buch.-Hamilt. ex D. Don
Clethropsis nepalensis (D. Don) Spach.
A. oblongifolia Torr. Arizona alder, New Mexican Scattered populations in high mtns of
alder, aliso (Mexico) Arizona, New Mexico, & Mexico
A. rhombifolia Nutt. white alder, Sierra alder, Interior of S British Columbia,Washington,
A. rhombifolia var. bernardina Munz & Johnson California alder Oregon, & Idaho; Sierra Nevada & coastal
ranges in California & N Baja California
A. rubra Bong. red alder, Oregon alder, Pacific Coast region from SE Alaska to S
A. oregona Nutt. western alder, Pacific Coast California
A. oregona var. pinnatisecta Starker alder
A. serrulata (Ait.) Willd. hazel alder, smooth alder, SW Nova Scotia & central Maine W to
A. incana var. serrulata (Ait.) Boivin black alder Missouri & S to E Texas & Florida
A. novebroacensis Britt.
A. rubra (Marsh.) Tuckerman
A. rugosa (Du Roi) Spreng. var.
serrulata (Ait.) Winkler
A. serrulata var. subelliptica Fern.
Betula serrulata (Ait.)
hybrids of red alder with European or mountain alders but those of Nepal, red, and Sitka alders are larger, having
(Chiba 1966; Hall and Maynard 1979; Ljunger 1959). lengths of 12 to 24 mm (Carlson and Bryan 1959; Funk
Flowering and fruiting. Species in the genus are typ- 1990; Harrington 1990; Krstinic 1994; Townsend and
ically monoecious, with clusters of separate male and female Douglass 1994). They are produced in abundance before
flowers in close proximity. Flower initiation probably occurs trees reach 10 years of age in at least 2 species. European
during late June or July for both red and European alders alders can produce flowers by their second growing season,
(Ager and others 1994; Brown 1986; McVean 1955). The and individual red alder trees are sexually mature at 3 or 4
male and female flowers develop into catkins that elongate years. Most dominant trees in a red alder stand will produce
in late winter or early spring and mature on the previous seeds by age 6 to 8 years (Harrington and DeBell 1995;
year’s twigs (table 2). For red alders, peak pollen shedding Stettler 1978). Although the majority of seeds produced are
precedes peak female receptivity by only 2 to 4 days probably the result of outcrossing, both selfing and apomixis
(Stettler 1978). For a specific description of staminate and occur in red alder (Stettler 1978). Seed production resulting
pistillate catkins, see Brayshaw (1976). The strobiles of from selfing has been reported for European and mountain
most species are 10 to 15 mm long when mature (figure 1), alders; however, in many cases self-fertilization results in
Alnus • 233
A Table 1—Alnus, alder: nomenclature and occurrence (Continued)
A. viridis (Vill.) Lam. & DC. Sitka alder S Arctic subarctic, and N mountainous
A. ovata (Schr.) Lodd. regions of North America & Asia
Alnobetula (Ehrh.) K. Koch
Betula viridis Vill.
A. viridis ssp. crispa (Ait.) Turrill American green alder, Labrador to Alberta, S to Minnesota &
A. crispa (Ait.) Pursh green alder, mountain alder New England
A. crispa var. elongata Raup.
A. crispa var. harricanensiis Lepage
A. crispa var. mollis (Fern.) Fern.
A. crispa var. stragula Fern.
A. mollis Fern.
A. viridis var. crispa (Michx.) House
A. alnobetula var. crispa (Michx.) Winkler
Betula crispa (Ait.)
A. viridis ssp. fruticosa (Rupr.) Nyman* Siberian alder Alaska S to British Columbia & Alberta,
A. fruticosa Rupr. disjunct populations in Washington,
A. viridis var. fruticosa (Rupr.) Reg. Oregon, & N California
A. viridis ssp. sinuata (Regel) Sitka alder, mountain alder, Yukon & Alaska S to N California & W
A. Löve & D. Löve wavyleaf alder Montana; also in E Asia
A. crispa ssp. sinuata (Reg.) Hultén
A. sinuata (Reg.) Rydb.
A. sitchensis (Reg.) Sarg.
A. viridis var. sinuata Reg.
Figure 1—Alnus, alder: mature female catkins (strobiles) Seed production varies from year to year, site to site,
of A. rhombifolia, white alder (left); A. serrulata, hazel alder and tree to tree (Ager and others 1994; Brown 1985, 1986;
(right). Lewis 1985; Koski and Tallquist 1978; Krstinic 1994;
McGee 1993), but good crops are borne at least once every
4 years (table 3). LaBastide and van Vredenburch (1970)
reported that seed crops for European alder follow an annu-
ally alternating pattern. McVean (1955) concluded that seed
crops of European alder could vary substantially from year
to year, but that “boom-and-bust” patterns of seed produc-
tion were not typical. Complete failure of a seedcrop is rare,
but after a severe freeze in November 1955, almost no red
alder seeds were produced in 1956 (Worthington 1965).
Seeds are small nuts (“nutlets”) borne in pairs on the
bracts of the strobiles. The nuts of red, Siberian, and Sitka
alders have broad wings about as wide as or wider than the
body of the nut. In the other species included here, the
aborted ovules (Krstinic 1994). Information on the effects of wings are reduced to a narrow border (figure 2) (Fernald
management practices on reproductive processes is limited. 1950; Sargent 1965). Seeds are without endosperm and con-
In young red alder plantings in western Washington, flower- tain only small cotyledons (figure 3). For additional infor-
ing varied by half-sib family but overall was reduced in mation on reproductive biology of red alders, see Ager and
close spacings and by summer irrigation (Harrington and others (1994).
DeBell 1995). However, dry weather in spring reduced ger- The factors regulating the timing of seed dispersal in
mination rates of European alder seeds, making irrigation alders have not been investigated, but they are probably
early in the year desirable when precipitation is below nor- similar to those regulating the release of seeds from the
mal (Hall and Nyong 1987). cones of conifers; that is, once strobiles are mature, disper-
Sources: Densmore (1979), Fernald (1950), Funk (1990), Harrington (1990), Hitchcock and others (1964), Lewis (1985), McDermott (1953), McGee (1988), McVean
(1955), Schopmeyer (1974),White (1981).
* Flowering occurs during the period when leaves unfold.
Table 3—Alnus, alder: growth habit, height, seed-bearing age, and seedcrop frequency
Minimum Years
Height at Year first seed-bearing between large
Species Growth habit maturity (m) cultivated age (yrs) seedcrops
Sources: Carlson and Bryan (1959), Fernald (1950), Funk (1990), Harrington (1990), Sargent (1965), Schopmeyer (1974).
sal is determined by the occurrence of weather that dries remained viable after floating for 12 months in still water
them, thus opening scales and allowing the seeds to be (McVean 1955). In Alaska, seeds of thinleaf alder have
released (Harrington and others 1994). In general, wet corky, thick wings and float for long periods of time, where-
weather following dry weather closes the strobiles, thus ter- as seeds of American green alder have thinner wings and
minating a dispersal event. Nonetheless, heavy seedfall can sink rapidly (Densmore 1979). Birds or other animals also
occur during wet weather under certain conditions (Lewis act as dispersal agents when moving through alder crowns
1985), but dispersal will not occur if ice freezes the seeds in and when extracting seeds from the strobiles (Harrington
the strobile. Although most seed dispersal occurs from and others 1994).
September or October through February to April (table 2), Information on damaging agents is limited. Fungal dis-
some red alder seedfall has been observed in all months eases of alder catkins—caused by Taphrina occidentalis
(Lewis 1985). American green alder strobiles do not release Ray and T. alni (Berk. & Broome) Gjaerum—cause enlarge-
many seeds if the weather is wet during the autumn; sub- ments of the bracts of female catkins (Mix 1949) and thus
stantial seed dispersal onto snow can occur throughout the prevent or hinder normal fertilization and seed development.
winter (Densmore 1979). Alder seeds are very light, and Jumping plant lice—Psylla alni (L.)—lay eggs in alder
when released they are dispersed long distances by wind, catkins in western North America (Furniss and Carolin
and in some species by water. Seeds of European alder have 1977). Alder seeds are an important source of food for some
Alnus • 235
Figure 2—Alnus, alder: nuts (seeds); A. viridis ssp. crispa, seeds on one of the cut faces. Although the number of filled
A
American green alder (top left); A. glutinosa, European seeds on a cut face can vary from 0 to 20 or more in red
alder (top right); A. nepalensis, Nepal alder (middle left); alders, less than 3 or 4 seeds per cut face indicate a marginal
A. rhombifolia, white alder (middle center); A. rubra, red crop (Ager and others 1994). Strobiles may be collected
alder (middle right); A. serrulata, hazel alder (bottom from standing or recently felled trees when the bracts
left); (scales) start to separate on the most mature strobiles. In red
alders, ripeness can be judged by twisting the cone along the
long axis; if it twists easily and the scales part slightly, the
seeds are sufficiently mature for collection (Hibbs and Ager
1989). Color is also a good indicator of maturity; immature
cones are green whereas mature cones are mottled shades of
green, yellow, gray, or brown (Hibbs and Ager 1989).
Strobiles should be collected as soon as they are ripe, for the
largest seeds with the best germinability are usually released
first. Thus, both seed quality and seed yield are higher if
collections are made in the fall rather than in the winter or
spring (Lewis 1985; Krstinic 1994). Alder cones will open
after being dried on screens or in fine mesh bags in a well-
ventilated room for several weeks at ambient air tempera-
ture. They can be opened in a shorter time (2 to 7 days) by
drying them in a kiln at 16 to 27 °C. Higher temperatures
should not be used, as the strobiles will dry too quickly,
harden and not open completely. Most of the seeds fall out
of the strobiles during the drying process. The remainder, if
needed, may be extracted by shaking or tumbling. Overall
seed yields can be improved by either wetting cones again,
Figure 3—Alnus rubra, red alder: longitudinal section placing them in a cooler for 24 hours, or spraying them with
through a nut. a fine water mist and then redrying (Ager and others 1994).
Seeds may be cleaned by screening to remove large trash
and further processing with an air column to remove small
extraneous material.
Purity as high as 90% has been attained with European
alder by fanning and screening seedlots. Quality, however,
may be low because the light weight of alder seeds makes it
difficult to separate and remove empty seeds (Ager and oth-
ers 1994). Soundness in most cleaned seedlots has been
between 30 and 70% (table 4). Number of seeds per weight
ranges from 660,000 to 2,816,000/kg (or 300,000 to
1,277,000/lb) in lots of average quality (table 4). Except for
bird species (White and West 1977), and presumably seed seeds of American green alder, higher numbers may indicate
predation by birds could have significant impacts when a low percentage of filled seeds. Numbers ranging from
seedcrops are small. 1,800,000 to 4,400,000 seeds/kg (800,000 to 2,000,000/lb)
Collection of fruits, extraction and cleaning, and have been found in samples of Nepal, red, and thinleaf
storage of seeds. Seedcrops can be assessed in mid-sum- alders, but less than 5% of the seeds in these samples were
mer by obtaining a count of mature strobiles and filled full (Schopmeyer 1974). One red alder seedlot, however,
seeds (Ager and others 1994). Filled seed count should be was 70% sound and had 2,700,000 seeds/kg (1,224,000/lb).
determined from the upper third of the crown where viabili- In a trial with red alder, the percentage of filled seeds deter-
ty is highest (Brown 1985). Seed quality can be assessed by mined by x-radiography was highly correlated (r2 = 0.91)
cutting the strobile longitudinally and counting the filled
51
30–60
—
—
—
71
70
42–93
70
(%)
123
—
1
—
2
5
2
1
in speckled alder (Heit 1967). For long-term storage,
however, further drying of seeds to moisture content
of less than 10% has been recommended for red alder
/lb
321
352
668
299
—
673
—
650
776
1,277
998
1,470
660
—
1,485
—
1,430
1,712
2,816
2,200
/kg
437–900
—
—
—
613–687
350–1,400
694–1,860
—
961–1,980
—
—
—
1,349–1,511
1,843–2,700
1,530–4,101
—
lb/bu
vol of strobiles
1.2
—
3.7
1.0
0.8
1.0
1.3
0. 1–1.1
—
—
1.5
—
4.8
1.3
1.0
1.3
1.3
0.1–1.4
—
—
8–10
7
13
5
13
1.4–15
—
—
Cleaned seeds/
wt of strobiles
—
—
—
8–10
7
13
5
13
1.4–15
—
—
16–23
11
6
18
7
7
—
—
21–30
14
8
23
9
9
—
—
kg/hl
ssp. sinuata
(air dry)*
ssp. rugosa
A. rhombifolia
(fresh)*
Europe
Europe
A. incana
A. incana
A. viridis
A. rubra
Alnus • 237
A
Table 5—Alnus, alder: stratification and germination testing data
238 •
Cold Germination test conditions Germination rate
stratification Temp (°C) Amount Germination Soundness
Species period* (days) Day Night Days (%) Days Avg (%) Samples (%)
A. glutinosa (Pennsylvania) 0 30 21 28 — — 52 7 —
A. glutinosa (Finland)
fresh seed 0 25 25 21 21 5 28 1 43
dried seed 0 25 25 21 9 5 13 1 43
dried seed 180 25 25 21 27 5 35 1 43
Sources: ISTA (1993), McDermott (1953), Radwan and DeBell (1981), Schalin (1967), Schopmeyer (1974),Tanaka and others (1991), data on file at Olympia Forestry Sciences Laboratory.
Note: Day/night, 8 hrs/16 hours.
* Stratification, when used, was in a moist medium at 1 to 5 °C.
† 180 days at 5 °C, plus 3 days at 20 °C,
‡ No difference for 0, 30, or 60 days of stratification.
§ Light period was 10 housr/day at this temperature.
|| Seeds were stratified for an unspecified period.
Under cool temperatures similar to those likely to prevail bareroot, 1+0 plug, and +0.5 (plug+transplant). Most nurs-
A
during outdoor sowings in early spring, however, 2 to 4 eries sow in the spring when growing alder species (Ahrens
weeks of stratification substantially enhanced rate of germi- and others 1992; Schopmeyer 1974), but fall-sowing is men-
nation and total germination (Tanaka and others 1991) and tioned by Heit (1968). Spring-sowing is sometimes delayed
such a period is therefore recommended (Ager and others until late spring to reduce seedling size. Sowing depths of 2
1994). Thinleaf and American green alder seedlots collected to 5 mm (.1 to .2 in) have been used for seeds of European
near Fairbanks, Alaska, also germinated well without strati- alder and red alder (Schopmeyer 1974). In California, seeds
fication at 25 °C but only germinated well at lower tempera- of red alder have been mixed with 10 parts of vermiculite
tures (10 to 15 °C) when combined with 72 days of stratifi- and drilled 1 cm (.4 in) deep (Schopmeyer 1974). In
cation (Densmore 1979). Studies have also indicated the Oregon, seeds of red alder have also been sown on the soil
potential of 3 quick pregermination treatments for red alder surface and covered with peat. Seeds of Nepal alder have
seeds: gibberellin (Berry and Torrey 1985), 1% captan been mixed with sand and spread over the nursery beds. The
(Berry and Torrey 1985), and 30% hydrogen peroxide (Neal number of plantable seedlings obtained from 1 kg (2.2 lb) of
and others 1967). The results from these pregermination seed was 22,000 (10,000/lb) for European alder and 88,000
treatments, however, were obtained under warm germination (40,000/lb) for hazel alder (Van Dersal 1938). Germination
conditions and need to be tested under the cooler conditions is epigeal (figure 4).
encountered in spring sowings. The captan and peroxide Alder seedlings, particularly those of red alder, grow
treatments may have a beneficial effect by reducing the rapidly and seedling densities should be lower than those
amount of disease organisms present on seedcoats. used for conifers. Seedlings grown at open-bed densities of
Pretreatment with gibberellic acid improved greenhouse ger- 60 to 180 seedlings/m2 (5 to 15/ft2) or in large containers
mination (21 °C day/13 °C night) of thinleaf alder seeds result in much better outplanting performance than those
from 2 sources but did not affect germination of Arizona grown at greater densities or in small Styroblocks® (Ahrens
alder seeds from a single source (Dreesen and Harrington 1994). Inoculation of beds or container media with the
1997). nodulating actinomycete Frankia can improve establishment
For germination testing, both constant temperatures and
diurnally alternating temperatures have been used (table 5).
Official tests of the International Seed Testing Association
Figure 4—Alnus glutinosa, European alder: seedling devel-
(ISTA 1993) call for a 21-day test at alternating tempera- opment at 1 and 7 days after germination (left); Alnus
tures of 20/30 °C, with light during the 8 hours at 30 °C. incana ssp. tenuifolia, thinleaf alder: 2 older seedlings
Although seeds of European alder germinated as well in (right).
continuous darkness as under normal day length (McVean
1955), recent work indicates that seed germination of many
alder species is markedly affected by light regime (Berry
and Torrey 1985; Boojh and Ramakrishnan 1981; Bormann
1983; Densmore 1979; Khan and Tripathi 1989). Such
effects in red alder are mediated by phytochrome: red light
stimulates seed germination, far-red light inhibits it, and the
effect of each light treatment can be reversed by the alterna-
tive treatment (Bormann 1983). Seeds of red alder are also
sensitive to amount and quality of light under field condi-
tions, and these factors—along with soil moisture—control
germination success on disturbed sites (Haeussler and
Tappeiner 1993; Haeussler and others 1995).
Nursery practice. Alder seedlings have been pro-
duced by bareroot nursery (open field or bedhouse) and con-
tainer methods, as well as combinations thereof (Ahrens
1994; Ahrens and others 1992; Funk 1990; Radwan and oth-
ers 1992). Successful stock types for red alder are grown in
1 year and include 1+0 open-bed bareroot, 1+0 bedhouse
Alnus • 239
and early growth in the nursery (Berry and Torrey 1985; liter/10 m2 (or 0.5 pint/100 ft2) on bare soil and 0.38 liter
A
Hilger and others 1991) and may enhance outplanting per- (0.7 pint) for the same area of sod (Liscinsky 1965). In
formance (McNeill and others 1990). Diluted suspensions of England, better stocking was obtained on a shallow blanket
pure Frankia cultures and homogenates of crushed, fresh bog with spot sowing of European alder than with broadcast
root nodules have been used for inoculation (Ahrens and sowing. About 15 viable seeds were sown in each spot and
others 1992; Perinet and others 1985). Detailed methods of fertilized with about 60 g of rock phosphate (McVean 1959).
preparation and application are available (Martin and others Seedling care. Information to guide lifting dates is
1991; Molina and others 1994; Zasada and others 1991). very limited, even for red alder (Ahrens 1994; Ahrens and
Development of nitrogen-fixing nodules is promoted by others 1992); current recommendations based on experience
fertilization with low to moderate applications of nitrogen; in southwest Washington are to lift seedlings in January.
phosphorus and lime are likely to be necessary for produc- They are then stored at either +2 °C or –2 °C; the lower
tion of high-quality stock (Hughes and others 1968; Radwan temperature is recommended because it prevents budbreak
1987; Radwan and DeBell 1994). Although alder seedlings during storage (and possible Botrytis infection associated
are produced operationally, optimum combinations of fertil- with budbreak during storage) and reduces the tendency for
izer source, amount, and timing of application have not been planted alders to break bud too soon after planting. Storage
completely worked out; some combinations have had detri- in sealed bags will prevent desiccation. Because alder stems
mental effects on alder seedlings or their root associates. are brittle and sensitive, seedlings must be handled carefully
Frequent irrigation may be necessary to prevent desiccation during storage, transport, and outplanting to avoid damage
and heat damage of surface-sown seeds or germinants dur- to stems, branches, and buds. At low elevations (< 300 m) in
ing germination and early establishment (Ahrens 1994). western Washington, it has been recommended that
Direct seeding in the field has been done successfully seedlings be planted between mid-March and mid-April.
with 2 species. Speckled alder has been established in The spring planting period should begin when the probabili-
Pennsylvania by broadcast sowing on disked areas and on ty of severe frost is low and end before there is appreciable
sod. Seeds collected in the fall were broadcast during the soil drying (Dobkowski and others 1994).
following February and March. Seeding rates were 0.28
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OR: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range 85–125.
Experiment Station: 209–222.
Ms. Rodgers is at the Point Reyes National Seashore, Point Reyes Station, California; and Ms. Miller is former
propagationist at USDI National Park Service’s Joshua Tree National Park, Center for Arid Lands Restoration
and Native Plants Nursery,Twentynine Palms, California
Synonyms. Franseria dumosa Gray burs are rapidly blown away (Bainbridge and Virginia 1989).
Other common names. white bursage, white Seed cleaning is difficult and rarely done due to the spiny
burrobush, burrobush, burroweed, sandbur burs. In long-term storage trials by Kay and others (1988),
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Bursage is a seeds were stored at room temperature, 4 °C, – 15 °C, and
low, intricately branched, rounded shrub abundant on well- in warehouse conditions, with germination rates tested annu-
drained soils through much of the Southwest. It is signifi- ally over a 14-year period. The results indicated that seed
cant component in creosote bush scrub and Joshua tree quality had been poor, even though seeds were collected
woodland communities of the Mojave and Colorado Deserts numerous times. The sporadic germination under a variety
of California, south and east to Utah, Arizona, Mexico, and of conditions reflected this. Kay recommended that seeding
lower California (Kay 1977). Bursage, like creosote, has a guidelines should specify seeding rates in seed weight of
rhizomatous growth habit and is thus an extremely long- pure live seeds required for sowing an area (that is, kilo-
lived shrub (Muller 1953). grams per hectare or pounds per acre), and providing that
Flowering and fruiting. Bursage flowers are incon- extra seeds are planted to compensate for the low quality.
spicuous, with staminate and pistillate heads intermixed in Pregermination treatments. After overnight leach-
the terminal and lateral spikes of the panicle (Bainbridge ing/soaking, seeds begin germinating during the first and
and Virginia 1989). Blooming occurs primarily from second weeks in moist paper towels or directly in a 50%
February to June, and occasionally during the fall or after vermiculite–50% soil mixture (CALR 1995). Optimal ger-
rain (Kay 1977). Seeds resemble cockleburs (figure 1) and mination temperatures appear to be between 15 to 25 °C
mature 3 to 4 months after flowering. (table 1), as colder temperatures tend to inhibit germination
Collection, extraction, and storage. Seeds can be (Kay 1975).
hand-stripped from the plants; collecting burs from the Germination tests. Tests using activated carbon and
ground beneath the plants is impractical because the light scarification both resulted in a slightly improved early ger-
mination rate (Graves and others 1975). Germination condi-
tions tested at Joshua Tree National Park (JTNP) Native
Figure 1—Ambrosia dumosa, bursage: mature seed. Plants Nursery include: (1) direct sowing to blotter paper,
(2) overnight cold water soaking, and (3) initial cold water
soaking followed by overnight leaching. All of these meth-
ods had moderate success, indicating that no treatment is
necessary when sowing directly to moist toweling; average
gemination ranges from 30 to 50% (CALR 1995). Other tri-
Temperature (°C) 2 5 10 15 20 25 30
Germination (%) 0 0 4 26 21 18 10
Ambrosia • 243
als by Kay and others (1988) refer to initial germination of At JTNP, 12-month-old plants grown from seed have
A
seeds using 4 replications of 100 seeds in damp paper towel- been successfully outplanted using a 76-cm (30-in) tube
ing placed in a growth chamber at 15 °C. Test conditions “tall pot” with a 15-cm (6-in) diameter (CALR 1995). Other
were maintained for 28 days, with germination percentages outplantings of bursage in the park include a restoration
recorded every 7 days; initial germination rate for bursage project at an abandoned surface mine. Three types of con-
was 5%. Germination tests, conducted annually to test the tainers were used: 3.8-, 6.8-, and 9.2-liter (1-, 1.8-, and 2.6-
effects of storage, were then averaged to a “best germina- gal) pots with an elongated design 35 to 43 cm (14 to 17 in)
tion” of 9%. These annual tests consisted of 4 replications of in height. Latest monitoring noted an overall survival rate of
50 seeds using the same initial testing methods. Also tested 80% (CALR 1995). Prior to outplanting, plants in smaller
were the effects of temperature on germination rates containers were between 4 and 5 months old and those in
(table 1). larger containers, between 6 and 7 months.
Nursery practice. Mature specimens have been trans- Seedling care. Seedlings grow quickly in greenhouse
planted with greater than 90% survival (Ruffner and others conditions, and new growth can be pruned back frequently
1985). Graves (1976) transplanted 2-month-old stock in to strengthen the sensitive root collar (CALR 1995). Both
February 1973, with a survival rate 2 years later of 44 and Graves (1976) and the JTNP Native Plants Nursery have
48% for 2 separate sites. Flowering occurred in 25% of the noted seedling sensitivity to hardening-off in sub-freezing
plants during first year’s growth at one site, with no flower- temperatures. Using plant bands, Graves (1976) recorded
ing or seed at other site. Initial mortality was due to cold 80% mortality at 10 to –7 °C, with better survival after
transplanting temperatures. Spot-seeding, in comparison, restarting and hardening-off at day-night temperatures of
was poor, with 18 burs/spot resulting in 16% germination 14 and 4 °C. Stem pieces root easily from the field or
and 0 to 4% stocking at the same sites. A one-time irrigation greenhouse by dipping in rooting hormone powder and plac-
treatment did not improve results of either transplanting or ing cuttings in vermiculite in a mist house until rooted
spot-seeding. Seed germination may be induced from (Wieland and others 1971).
September–October rains (Went 1979).
References
Bainbridge DA,Virginia RA. 1989. Restoration in the Colorado Desert: Kay BL, Ross CM, Graves WL. 1977. Burrobush. Mohave Reveg. Notes 1.
species notes [Unpublished manuscript prepared for the California Davis: University of California, Department of Agronomy and Range
Department of Transportation]. Science.
CALR [Center for Arid Lands Restoration]. 1995. Seed test data filed Ruffner GA, Fedock DA, Carothers SW. 1985. Transplanting native Sonoran
1989–1995.Twentynine Palms, CA: USDI National Park Service, Joshua Desert plants. Proceedings, 1st North American Riparian Conference,
Tree National Park. 24 p. Riparian Ecosystems and Their Management: Reconciling Conflicting
Graves WL. 1976. Revegetation of disturbed sites with native shrub species Uses; 1985 April 16–18;Tuscon, AZ.
in the western Mojave Desert. In: Test seeds of Mojave Desert shrubs. Went FW. 1979. Germination and seeding behavior of desert plants. In:
Prog. Rep. BLM Contr. 53500-CT4-2(N): 11–35. Arid land ecosystems: structure, functioning and management.
Graves WL, Kay BL, Williams WA. 1975. Seed treatment of desert shrubs. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 477–489.
Agronomy Journal 67(Nov–Dec): 773–777. Weiland PAT, Frolich EF, Wallace A. 1971. Vegetative propagation of woody
Kay BL. 1975. Test of seeds of Mojave Desert shrubs: progress report. BLM shrub species from the northern Mojave and southern Great Basin
Contract 53500-CT4-2(N). 24 p. Deserts. Madroño 21: 149–152.
Kay BL, Graves WL,Young JA. 1988. Long-term storage of desert shrub
seed. Mojave Reveg. Notes 23. Davis: University of California,
Department of Agronomy and Range Science.
Amelanchier Medik.
serviceberry
Kenneth A. Brinkman and Terry F. Strong
Dr. Brinkman retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Forest Experiment Station; Mr. Strong is
a research forester at the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Research Station, Rhinelander,Wisconsin
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The service- tified, but they could occur in widely distributed species
berries—the genus Amelanchier—include about 25 species such as the Saskatoon and common serviceberries. Several
of small deciduous trees and shrubs native to North natural hybrids are known (Campbell and others 1991;
America, Europe, and Asia. The distribution and chief uses Cruise 1964; Flessner and others 1992).
of 6 species are listed in table 1. Most species provide Flowering and fruiting. The perfect white flowers of
browse and edible fruits for wildlife and many have attrac- serviceberries appear in terminal and lateral clusters early in
tive flowers. Saskatoon and common serviceberries have spring, before the leaves in some species (table 2). Fruits are
been used to a limited extent for shelterbelt and wildlife berrylike pomes (figure 1) that turn dark purple or black
plantings and as a minor fruit crop, but other species also when they ripen (table 3). Each fruit contains from 4 to 10
should be considered for these and other environmental small seeds weighing from 1.1 to 6.9 mg, although some of
uses. Native Americans have traditionally used most species these are usually abortive (St. Pierre and Steeves 1990).
of serviceberry for food and medicine (Meeker and others Gorchov (1985) reported that fruits containing more seeds
1993; Moerman 1986). Common and Saskatoon serviceber- develop quicker, suggesting asynchronous fruit development
ries are tolerant of temperatures to –60 °C (Junttila and oth- of the genus. Fertile seeds are dark brown with a leathery
ers 1983; Kaurin and others 1984; Lindstrom and Dirr seedcoat (figure 2) and with the embryo filling the seed cav-
1989). Common serviceberry regenerates vegetatively and ity (figure 3). Seeds are dispersed almost entirely by birds
by seed after clearcutting and burning (Scheiner and others and animals; however, Turcek (1961) reported that seeds of
1988). Geographic races of Amelanchier have not been iden- some species are distributed by insects. Fruits usually are
Amelanchier • 245
A Table 2—Amelanchier, serviceberry: phenology of flowering and fruiting
Sources: Fernald (1950), Jones (1946), Mowat (1969), Plummer and others (1968), Radford and others (1964), Rehder (1940), St. Pierre and Steeves (1990),Van Dersal
(1938).
Figure 1—Amelachier alnifolia var. semiintegrifolia, Pacific Figure 2—Amelachier alnifolia, Saskatoon serviceberry
serviceberry (top) and A. laevis, Allegheny serviceberry (left) and A. alnifolia var. semiintegrifolia, Pacific
(bottom): pomes. serviceberry (right): seeds.
Sources: Fernald (1950), Jones (1946), Petrides (1958), Rehder (1940), Small (1933), Strausbaugh and Core (1953).
eaten by birds or animals as soon as they ripen. Fruit loss of Collection of fruits. To minimize losses to wildlife,
Saskatoon serviceberry can be significant (up to 81% of the fruits must be picked from the shrubs as soon as possible
potential). These losses occurred because of insects and dis- after ripening (table 2). Fruit color is the best way to judge
ease (54%) and frost (27%), with the remaining losses maturity (table 3). Unless the seeds are to be extracted
(19%) undetermined (St. Pierre 1989). Fruit loss can exceed promptly, the fruits should be spread out in thin layers to
95% in some years and some locations (St. Pierre 1996). dry. Loss of viability will result if the fruits are allowed to
overheat.
82
80
54
84
/lb
Average
Cleaned seeds (x1,000) /weight
/kg
181
176
119
185
36.3–113.8
—
50–81
—
/lb
Range
80–251
—
110–178.6
—
/kg
Extraction and storage of seeds. Serviceberry seeds
are usually extracted by macerating the fruits in water and
Seed wt/fruit vol
lb/bu
—
—
1
Peterson 1953), which removes most of the pulp. After this
remainder is dried and rubbed through the screens, the seeds
and remaining debris are run through a fanning mill to
kg/hl
—
—
2.8
1
—
2
Seed wt/fruit wt
0.5
0.9
1996).
Pregermination treatments. Embryos of all species
show dormancy that can be at least partially overcome by
Table 4—Amelanchier, serviceberry: seed yield data
—
42
—
—
118
—
—
—
Amelanchier • 247
tions (Acharya and others 1989). Germination of stratified
A
seeds can be tested in sand or a sand–peat mixture. Constant
temperatures of 21 °C or alternating day/night temperatures
Purity
of 30 and 20 °C have been equally successful. Light does
—
10
93
(%)
—
—
not appear to be necessary during tests (table 5).
Germination is epigeal (figure 4). Germination of
Saskatoon serviceberry seeds often occurs during stratifica-
70
62
2
Samples
—
4
Germination percentage
tion (St. Pierre 1996). Previously stratified seeds of
Saskatoon serviceberry showed 84 to 99% germination at 2
to 5 °C (McKeever 1938; McLean 1967). Under natural con-
ditions, germination could begin in the early spring under
snow or shortly after snowmelt.
—
—
10
54
Avg (%)
—
61–74
Nursery practice. Serviceberry seeds may be either
sown in the fall or stratified and sown in the spring (Bailey
1935). Many seeds do not germinate until the second spring.
It is suggested that the seeds be sown as soon as possible
after collection and that the beds be kept mulched until ger-
Days
Germination rate
—
—
mination begins the following spring (Brinkman 1974). 8
Seeds should be sown in drills at the rate of 80 sound
Table 5—Amelanchier, serviceberry: cold stratification period, germination test conditions, and results
—
50
—
—
first year apparently is beneficial.
Days
6–7
30
70
31
20
21
20
20
—
20
Temp (°C )
Sources: Babb (1959), Brinkman (1974), Hilton and others (1965), McKeever (1938), Mclean (1967).
Day
‡ In an additional test on excised embryos, germination was 95% (Hilton and others 1965)
30
21
30
30
—
20
Filter paper
Medium
Kimpack
blotters
Sand or
Sand or
Sand
—
Daily
(hrs)
light
16
0
16
—
—
fication*
90–120
strati-
60+
(days)
180+
30–90
Cold
120
120
98
semiintegrifolia†
A. alnifolia var.
A. canadensis
A. arborea
A. alnifolia
Species
A. laevis‡
Acharya SN, Chu SB, Hermesh R. 1989. Effects of population, environment Columbia. Journal of Range Management 20(5): 321–322.
and their interaction on Saskatoon berry. Amelanchier alnifolia McTavish B. 1986. Seed propagation of some native plants is surprisingly
Nutt seed germination. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 69: 277–284. successful. American Nurseryman 164(4): 55–63.
Babb MF. 1959. Propagation of woody plants by seed. Alaska Agricultural Meeker JE, Elias JE, Heim JA. 1993. Plants used by the Great Lakes Ojibwa.
Experiment Station Bulletin 26: 1–12. Odanah, WI: Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission. 440 p.
Bailey LH. 1935. The nursery manual. New York: Macmillan. 456 p. Moerman DE. 1986. Medicinal plants of Native America,Volume 1.Tech.
Brinkman, KA. 1974. Amelanchier Med., serviceberry. In: Schopmeyer CS, Rep. 19. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology.
tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 534 p.
450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 212–215. Mowat EL. 1969. Phenological observations recorded 1969. Portland, OR:
Campbell CS, Greene CW, Dickinson TA. 1991. Reproductive biology in USDA Forest Service, Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station.
subfam. Maloideae (Rosaceae). Systematic Botany 16(2): 333–349. Munson RH. 1986. Extracting seeds from fleshy fruits. Plant Propagator
Crocker W, Barton LV. 1931. After-ripening, germination, and storage of 32(2): 14–15.
certain rosaceous seeds. Boyce Thompson Institute Contributions 3: Peterson RA. 1953. Comparative effect of seed treatments upon seedling
385–404. emergence in seven browse species. Ecology 34(4): 778–785.
Cruise JE. 1964. Studies of natural hybrids in Amelanchier. Canadian Journal Petrides GA. 1958. A field guide to trees and shrubs. Boston: Houghton
of Botany 42: 651–633. Mifflin. 431 p.
Fernald ML. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. New York: American Book Co. Plummer AP, Christensen DR, Monsen SB. 1968. Restoring big-game range
1632 p. in Utah. Pub. 68-3. Salt Lake City: Utah Department of Natural
Flessner TR, Darris DC, Lambert SM. 1992. Seed source evaluation of four Resources, Division of Fish and Game. 182 p.
native riparian shrubs for streambank rehabilitation in the Pacific Radford AE, Ahles HE, Bell CR. 1964. Guide to the vascular flora of the
Northwest. In: Proceedings, Symposium on Ecology and Management of Carolinas. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Book Exchange.
Riparian Shrub Communities: 1991 May 29–31; Sun Valley, ID. Gen.Tech. 383 p.
Rep. INT-289. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North
and Range Experiment Station: 155–162. America. New York: Macmillan. 996 p.
Gorchov DL. 1985. Fruit ripening asynchrony is related to variable seed Robinson WA. 1986. Effect of fruit ingestion on Amelanchier seed
number in Amelanchier and Vaccinium. American Journal of Botany germination. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 113(2): 131–134.
72(12): 1939–1943. St. Pierre RG. 1996. Personal communication. Saskatoon, SK.
Heit CE. 1967. Fall planting of fruit and hardwood seeds. American St. Pierre RG. 1989. Magnitude, timing, and causes of immature fruit loss in
Nurseryman 126(4): 12–13, 85–90. Amelanchier alnifolia (Rosaceae). Canadian Journal of Botany 67:
Heit CE. 1968. Thirty-five years’ testing of tree and shrub seed. Journal of 726–731.
Forestry 66: 632–634. St. Pierre RG, Steeves TA. 1990. Observations of shoot morphology, anthe-
Hilton RJ, Joswal AS,Teskey BJ, Barabas B. 1965. Rest period studies on sis, flower number, and seed production in the Saskatoon [serviceberry],
seeds of Amelanchier, Prunus, and Sorbus. Canadian Journal of Plant Amelanchier alnifolia (Rosaceae). Canadian Field-Naturalist 104(3):
Science 45(1): 79–85. 379–386.
Jones GN. 1946. American species of Amelanchier. Illinois Biological Scheiner SM, Sharik TL, Roberts MR, Kopple RV. 1988. Tree density and
Monographs 20(2): 1–126. modes of tree recruitment in a Michigan pine–hardwood forest after
Junttila O, Stushnoff C, Gusta LV. 1983. Dehardening in flower buds of clear-cutting and burning. Canadian Field-Naturalist 102(4): 634–638.
saskatoon-berry, Amelanchier alnifolia, in relation to temperature, Small JK. 1933. Manual of the southeastern flora. New York: J.K. Small.
moisture content, and spring bud development. Canadian Journal of 1554 p.
Botany 61(1): 164–170. Strausbaugh PD, Core EL. 1953. Flora of West Virginia: Part II. Morgantown:
Kaurin A, Stushnoff C, Junttila. 1984. Cold acclimation and dormancy of West Virginia University. 1075 p.
Amelanchier alnifolia. Journal of the American Society of Horticultural Turcek FJ. 1961. Ökologische Beziehungen der Vögel und Gehölze.
Science 109(2): 160–163. Bratislava:Verlag Slowakische Akademie der Wissenschaften. 329 p.
Lindstrom OM, Dirr MA. 1989. Acclimation and low-temperature tolerance Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their
of eight woody taxa. HortScience 24(5): 818–820. erosion control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC:
McKeever DG. 1938. The effect of various methods of treatment on ger- USDA. 362 p.
mination of seeds of some plants valuable for game and erosion Weber GP, Wiesner LE, Lund RE. 1982. Improving germination of
purposes [MS thesis]. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho School of skunkbush sumac and serviceberry seed. Journal of Seed Technology
Forestry. 128 p. 7(1): 60–71
McLean A. 1967. Germination of forest-range species from southern British
Amelanchier • 249
A Fabaceae—Pea family
Amorpha L.
amorpha, indigobush
John C. Zasada and David Martineau
Dr. Zasada retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Research Station; Mr. Martineau is the
plant division manager at the Prairie Nursery,Westfield,Wisconsin
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. In North from more southern seed sources grow more rapidly and are
America, the amorphas include about 15 species of decidu- taller than those from North Dakota sources, but they are
ous shrubs or subshrubs (Wilbur 1975). Wilbur (1975) pro- also more susceptible to winter damage (Lincoln Oakes
vides a thorough description of all species with range maps Nurseries 1996).
showing distribution. Four of the more common species and Leadplant and indigobush are reported to hybridize,
their ranges are listed in table 1. Leadplant and indigobush although hybrids are believed rare (Wilbur 1975). The
are the 2 most widely distributed and used species in the hybrid has the greatest affinity with leadplant and differs in
genus. having a taller growth form as well as in several morpholog-
Leadplant is common in dry to wet–mesic prairie com- ical traits (Wilbur 1975).
munities; in Wisconsin, its highest presence values are in the The growth form and stature of leadplant results from its
dry to dry–mesic communities (Curtis 1959; Henderson tendency to die-back to varying degrees each year. Regrowth
1995; Johnson and Anderson 1985; Voigt and Mohlenbrock from basal stem and root collar buds maintains the above
nd). Kotar and others (1988) list leadplant as a diagnostic ground stems. Under some conditions, stems will be rela-
species for the white oak–pin oak–leadplant habitat type that tively longer-lived and attain heights of 1.5 to 2 m (table 2).
is transitional between prairie and forest in Wisconsin. Indigobush is taller than leadplant and its stem longevity is
Indigobush has a large range and within that range occurs on like that of a true shrub.
sites with fairly wet to dry moisture regimes and is relatively Leadplant is palatable to domestic livestock and under
more common in riparian areas (Curtis 1959; Glad and heavy grazing tends to disappear (Voigt and Mohlenbrock
Halse 1993). It can be an aggressive invader, as demonstrat- nd); however its palatability for whitetail deer (Odocoileus
ed by its spread along the Columbia and Snake Rivers in virginiana) was rated as low in a study in the Black Hills
Oregon and Washington (Glad and Hulse 1993). Wilbur (Rosario 1988). A primary use, at present, is for landscap-
(1975) reported that indigobush is highly variable and that it ing, where low-maintenance, drought-resistant plants are
is best described as a complex with variation due to both desirable, and in restoration and reclamation projects
environmental and genetic factors. In North Dakota, plants (Brown and others 1983; Cox and Klett 1984; Dirr 1990;
A. californica Nutt. mock locust, false indigo, California Coast Range from Sonoma &
California amorpha Napa Cos. S to Riverside Co.
A. canescens Pursh leadplant, Michigan to Saskatchewan, S to Indiana,W
prairie shoestrings to Arkansas & New Mexico; prairies in region
A. fruticosa L. indigobush, S Quebec to N Manitoba, S to Florida &
false indigo Mexico; S California & Wyoming
A. nana Nutt. dwarf indigobush, Manitoba and Saskatchewan S to Iowa &
A. microphylla Pursh fragrant false indigo New Mexico
Sources: Brinkman (1974), Glad and Halsey (1993), Hickman (1993), Niering and Olmstead (1979), Rosario (1988),Voight and Mohlenbrock (nd),Wilbur (1975).
Sources: Brinkman (1974), Dirr (1990) Niering and Olmstead (1979), Rehder
(1940), Rosario (1988), Smith and Smith (1980),Vines (1960),Wilbur (1975).
Sources: Brinkman (1974), Fernald (1950), Lincoln Oakes Nurseries (1996), Mirov and Kraebel (1939), Rehder (1940), Smith and Smith (1980),Van Dersal (1938).
Amorpha • 251
Figure 2—Amorpha canescens, leadplant: exterior views species. As with many woody species, drying of seeds may
A of seed and embryo (top) and interior of seed (bottom). induce seedcoat dormancy in seeds that would normally ger-
minate without pretreatment (Dirr and Heuser 1987). Both
mock locust and leadplant will germinate completely with-
out treatment (Martineau 1996; Mirov and Kraebel 1939).
Leadplant seeds obtained from commercial dealers follow-
ing an unknown period of storage germinated without treat-
ment, but stratification at 3 to 4 °C for 2 and 8 weeks
increased the rate of germination; 30 minutes of scarifica-
tion in sulfuric acid reduced germination by 50% (Cox and
Klett 1984). Germination of some seed lots has been
improved by soaking the seed in hot water for about 10 min-
utes. Cold stratification has been used in preparation for
spring sowing in a nursery bed (Brinkman 1974). This cold
treatment may reduce seedcoat impermeability. Dirr and
Heuser (1987) indicate that fresh leadplant seeds germinate
without pretreatment but that stored seeds may benefit from
acid treatment.
Indigobush and dwarf indigobush appear to have seed
coat dormancy. Light scarification of indigobush seeds and
soaking seed of both this species and dwarf indigobush in
sulfuric acid for 5 to 8 minutes have been used to stimulate
germination (Brinkman 1974; Dirr and Heuser 1987).
However, fall sowing with no pretreatment results in some,
but not complete, germination (Brown and others 1983).
Simulated acid rain with pH of less than 5 tended to reduce
germination in indigobush, but significant germination
ty for 3 to 5 years at room temperature (Brinkman 1974); occurred at pH 3 and 4 (Lee and Kim 1986). Total seedling
more recent experience indicates that seeds can be stored at dry weight of indigobush increased with decreasing pH of
2 °C for at least several years with little loss in viability simulated acid rain (Lee and Kim 1986). Germination test
(Lincoln Oakes Nurseries 1996). The presence of leadplant conditions and results on pretreated seeds are in table 5.
in prairie soil seed banks also suggests that seeds may have Germination is epigeal (figure 3).
relatively long lives without cold storage (Johnson and Indigobush is the only species of amorpha that is listed
Anderson 1985). in official seed testing rules. International Seed Testing
Pregermination treatments and germination. The Association (ISTA 1993) prescriptions call for a 28-day test
degree and type of dormancy appear to differ among at alternating temperatures of 20/30 °C on the top of moist
Sources: Brinkman (1974), Lincoln Oakes Nurseries (1996), Prairie Nursery (1996), Salac and others (1978).
* One hundred pounds of dried fruit will produce about 60 pounds of clean seeds (Swingle 1939).
A. californica — 5 42
A. canescens* 30/20 15–40 28
A. fruticosa 30/20 15–40 63
A. nana 30/20 30–40 70
Sources: Blake (1935), Brinkman (1974), Christiansen (1967), Hutton and Porter (1937), Kraebel (1939), Lincoln Oakes Nurseries (1996), Martineau (1996), Pammel and
King (1928), Swingle (1939),Van Dersal (1938).
Note: Temperature is day/night regimen, photoperiod is 8 hours, based on Brinkman (1974).
* Germination of leadplant (Amorpha canescens) takes about 2 weeks when sown in nurserybeds in the spring (Lincoln Oakes Nurseries 1996; Martineau 1996).
Amorpha • 253
be taken when lifting, as the roots are split easily (Martineau the first year and 0.6 to 1.2 m (2 to 4 ft) the second
A
1996). Similar procedures are used for leadplant in North year.
Dakota (Lincoln Oakes Nurseries 1996). 5. Plants are harvested as 2+0 seedlings.
The following schedule for growing bareroot indigobush
seedlings is reported by the Lincoln Oakes Nurseries (1996): Seeds can also be sown in the fall to allow natural strati-
fication to occur; this appears to partially eliminate the need
1. Legumes are hand-stripped from the plants in late for acid treatment in those species where it is recommended
September–late October. (Brown and others 1983; Dirr and Heuser 1987). For lead-
2. Stem parts and impurities are removed, but the plant, 0.45 kg (1 lb) of commercial seed has produced about
legumes are not removed. 22,000 usable plants; for indigobush, 1,000 to 5,600 plants
3. Seeds are cold-stratified for 60 to 90 days in sand (Brinkman 1974).
before sowing in the spring. Amorpha species can be propagated from softwood and
4. Seeds are sown in a single row of 80 to 100 seeds/m semi-hardwood cuttings. Untreated softwood cuttings root
(25 to 35 seeds/ft) at a depth of 0.8 cm (1/3 in). readily, but later-season cuttings may require treatment with
Seedlings grow to heights of 25 to 35 cm (8 to 14 in) a rooting compound (Bailey 1939; Dirr 1990; Dirr and
Heuser 1987).
References
Bailey LH. 1939. The standard cyclopedia of horticulture. New York: Mirov NT, Kraebel CJ. 1939. Collecting and handling seeds of wild plants.
Macmillan. 3639 p. For. Pub. 5. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service, Civilian Conservation
Blake AK. 1935. Viability and germination of seeds and early life history of Corps. 42 p.
prairie plants. Ecology Monograph 5: 405–460. Niering WA, Olmstead NC. 1979. The Audubon Society field guide to
Brinkman KA. 1974. Amorpha, amorpha, false indigo. In: Schopmeyer CS, North American wildflowers: eastern region. New York: Knopf. 887 p.
tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk Pammel LH, King CM. 1928. Further studies of the germination and juve-
450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 216–219. nile forms of some trees and woody shrubs, 1927. Proceedings of the
Brown JE, Maddox JB, Splittstoesser WE. 1983. Performance of trees, Iowa Academy of Science 35: 169–183.
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soil. Journal of Environmental Quality 12: 523–525. guide. Westfield, WI: Prairie Nursery. 47 p.
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and transplanting [PhD thesis]. Ames: Iowa State University. 119 p. America. New York: Macmillan. 996 p.
Cox RA, Klett JE. 1984. Seed germination requirements of native Colorado Richards MS, Landers RQ. 1973. Responses of species in Kalsow Prairie,
plants for use in the landscape. Plant Propagator 30(2): 6–10. Iowa to an April fire. Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Science
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Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, Wehr Nature Center. 75 p.
ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. Champaign IL: Rogers CE, Garrison JC. 1975. Seed destruction in indigo amorpha by a
Stipes Publishing. 1007 p. seed beetle. Journal of Range Management 28(3): 241–242.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- Rosario LC. 1988. Amorpha canescens. In: Fischer WC, comp.The Fire
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1632 p. Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory. 12 p.
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Madroño 40(1): 62–63. Department of Horticulture. 27 p.
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Tech. Bull. 188. Madison: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Wisconsin Press. 52 p.
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Hickman JC, ed. 1993. The Jepson manual: higher plants of California. vation planting. SCS-TP-27. Washington, DC: USDA Soil Conservation
Berkeley: University of California Press. 1400 p. Service. 198 p.
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and introduced species of Leguminoseae. Iowa State College Journal of sion control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC: USDA.
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seed testing: rules 1993. Seed Science and Technology 21 (Suppl.): 1–59. University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
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Illinois. American Midland Naturalist 115(1): 123–130. Department of Conservation, Division of Forestry. 272 p.
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and seedling growth of several woody species. Seoul National University, shrubs and forbs. Journal of Seed Technology 5(2): 23–34.
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Aralia L.
aralia
John C. Zasada and Barton M. Blum
Dr. Zasada retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Research Station; Dr. Blum retired from
the USDA Forest Service’s Northeastern Forest Experiment Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. The genus Of the herbaceous perennials, wild sarsaparilla is the
Aralia comprises about 20 species of deciduous trees, most widely distributed. It is a common understory species
shrubs, and herbs found in North America, Asia, Malayasia, in a variety of forest types. In Wisconsin, for example, it
and Australia (Blum 1974; Fernald 1950). The main species occurs throughout the state but is most common in northern
in North America include 3 subshrubs and a small tree (table forests with dry-mesic to wet-mesic moisture regimes
1)—the devil’s-walkingstick—that is planted as an ornamen- (Curtis 1959); it occupies similar sites in Newfoundland,
tal, as is the exotic Japanese angelica-tree—A. elata (Miq.) Michigan, and British Columbia (MacKinnon and others
Seem. Animals utilize the vegetative growth and fruits to 1992; Meades and Moores 1994; Voss 1985). Compound
varying degrees. Two species were used for medicinal pur- leaves develop annually from a well-developed rhizome sys-
poses by Native Americans. Underground parts are known tem. Clones may be 10 m or more in diameter (Bawa and
for their aromatic qualities (Blum 1974; Braun 1961; Dirr others 1982; Edwards 1984). The age of the perennial shoot-
1990; Fernald 1950; Kenfield 1966; Krochmal and others bearing portion of the rhizome can be determined from leaf
1969; MacKinnon and others 1992; Meeker and others scars and frequency of flowering from inflorescence scars
1993; Moore 1993; Stupka 1964; Tehon 1951; Voss 1985). (Bawa and others 1982).
Within their respective ranges, the species occupy differ- Spikenard and bristly aralia are less widespread than
ent types of sites. Devil’s-walkingstick is intolerant of shade, wild sarsaparilla. Spikenard occurs on relatively richer sites
occurring mostly on disturbed sites with no or light forest and is described as one of the largest herbaceous plants in
canopy. It develops best on rich, mesic soils but also occurs the flora of Michigan (Voss 1985).
on a range of site conditions. Dense stands are formed by Bristly aralia occurs on drier sites. Small clones are
shoot production from rhizomes. The stem has prominent formed by development of the rhizome system and consist
spines, hence the species’ common name of devil’s-walking- of vegetative and reproductive ramets (Thomson and Barrett
stick (Sullivan 1992).
Aralia • 255
1981). A distinguishing characteristic is the presence of Figure 2—Aralia nudicaulis, wild sarsaparilla: developing
A spines on the stem (Curtis 1959; Voss 1985). fruits with stigmas still attached; additional blurred umbels
Flowering and fruiting. The flowers of Aralia are are part of the same inflorescence.
polygamous, white or green, and occur in umbels or pani-
cles (Fernald 1950; Harrar and George 1962). Wild sarsapa-
rilla has 3 to 4 umbels/inflorescence (figure 1) and bristly
aralia has approximately 9 umbels/ramet. Flowering occurs
from May to September depending on species; fruits mature
in late summer or fall (figure 2) (Blum 1974; Fernald 1950).
Flowers of wild sarsaparilla develop on a separate stalk that
is overtopped by the associated vegetative stalk. In the other
species, flowers are terminal and axillary or a combination
of the two (Fernald 1950). Fruits are light green when
immature, changing to bluish or purplish black when mature
(Dirr 1990; Mackinnon and others 1992; Meades and
Moores 1994; Soper and Heimberger 1982; Voss 1985).
Male flowers retained in bristly aralia umbels with both
male and hermaphrodite flowers turn red, making the fruit
more conspicuous than if only the fruits were present hermaphrodites and more than 90% of these produced fruits
(Thomson and Barrett 1981). (Thomson and Barrett 1981).
In bristly aralia, umbels contain male-only and herma- Wild sarsaparilla is dioecious with complete flowers
phrodite flowers. During the early stages of flowering, all uncommon (Bawa and others 1982). The sex ratio tends to
flowers function as males; the female portion of the her- be male-dominated but varies among sites and with time
maphrodite flowers is receptive after the male parts have- during the period of flowering, as male and female ramets
ceased to function. The number of flowers per umbel ranges do not flower synchronously (Barrett and Helenrum 1981).
from 30 to 40. Twenty-seven to 35% of the flowers are Infloresences on female plants contain on average 55 to 125
flowers. About 68% of the flowers produced fruits.
Controlled pollinations produced 90 to 100% fruit set; flow-
Figure 1—Aralia nudicaulis, wild sarsaparilla: male inflor- ers remain receptive for about 6 days. Some of the main dif-
escence with 3 umbels, stamens just beginning to appear; ferences between male and female clones are that males
the larger vertical stem in the background is the leaf- have more flowers per inflorescence, greater frequency of
bearing vegetative shoot. flowering, and occur in higher densities and greater numbers
of ramets than do females (Barrett and Helenrum 1981;
Barrett and Thomson 1982; Bawa and others 1982).
Insects are the major means of pollination in the genus
(Bawa and others 1982; Barrett and Helenrum 1981; Thaler
and Plowright 1980; Thomson and Barrett 1981; Thomson
and others 1982). In areas treated to control spruce bud-
worm, 71% of flowers produced fruits in sprayed and 49%
in unsprayed sites, respectively (Thaler and Plowright 1980).
The fruit is a small, berry-like drupe containing 2 to 5
compressed, crustaceous, light reddish brown nutlets that are
round, oblong, or egg-shaped. Each nutlet contains 1 com-
pressed, light brown seed with a thin coat that adheres close-
ly to the fleshy endosperm (Sargent 1965; Thomson and
Barrett 1981) (figures 2 and 3).
Collection, extraction, and storage. Aralia fruits may
be collected when they begin to fall from the plants in
autumn (table 2). The seeds are ripe when the endocarps of
the nutlets become hard and brittle, and this ripening may
occur somewhat later than the ripening of pulp. The fruits
should be run through a macerator, with water, immediately
after collection. This will prevent fermentation and enable
A. hispida June–July A
A. nudicaulis May–June A
A. spinosa July–Aug S
Cleaned seeds/weight
Range Average
Species /kg /lb /kg /lb Samples
Aralia • 257
Figure 4—Aralia nudicaulis, wild sarsaparilla: exterior Japanese angelica-tree may benefit from 3 months of warm
A views of nutlets in 2 planes and longitudinal section. followed by 3 months of cold treatment; however, 70% ger-
mination has been reported following cold treatment only
(Dirr and Heuser 1987).
Warm plus cold stratification of wild sarsaparilla
brought about germination of 24% (with a potential germi-
nation of 66 to 92%). The seeds were stratified for 60 days
at 20 °C (night) to 30 °C (day), plus 60 days at 5 °C, plus 60
more days at 20 to 30 °C, plus 60 more days at 5 °C.
Similar treatment brought about only 0.5% germination of
bristly aralia (Blum 1974). Obviously, this species still
needs further study before fully satisfactory seed treatments
can be developed (Heit 1967a).
Nursery practice. Heit (1968) recommends treating
small lots of aralia seeds with sulfuric acid for 30 to 40 min-
utes and broadcast sowing in September. The aralias also
may be propagated vegetatively. Root and rhizome cuttings
were shown to benefit from after-ripening at temperatures offer the best method of vegetative propagation (Dirr and
ranging between 1 to 10 °C; optimum 5 °C for 90 to 120 Heuser 1987).
days before planting in a greenhouse (Crocker 1948).
References
Barrett SCH, Helenrum K. 1981. Floral sex ratios and life history in Aralia Hirabuki Y. 1988. Significance of viable seeds of several woody pioneers
nudicaulis (Araliaceae). Evolution 35: 752–762. stored in the soil of a temperate mixed forest. Ecological Review 21(3):
Barrett SCH,Thomson JD. 1982. Spatial pattern, floral sex ratios, and 163–168.
fecundity in dioecious Aralia nudicaulis (Araliaceae). Canadian Journal of Kenfield WG. 1966. The wild gardener in the wild landscape. New York:
Botany 60: 1662–1670. Hofner Publishing. 232 p.
Bawa KS, Keegan CR,Voss RH. 1982. Sexual dimorphism in Aralia nudicaulis Krochmal A, Walters RS, Doughty RM. 1969. A guide to medicinal plants of
L. (Araliaceae). Evolution 36(2): 371–378. Appalachia. Res. Pap. NE-138. Upper Darby, PA: USDA Forest Service,
Blum BM. 1974. Aralia L., aralia. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 291 p.
woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: MacKinnon A, Pojar J, Coupe R. 1992. Plants of northern British Columbia.
USDA Forest Service: 220–222. Edmonton, AB: Lone Pine Publishing. 345 p.
Braun LE. 1961. The woody plants of Ohio. Columbus: Ohio State Meades WJ, Moores L. 1994. Forest site classification manual: a field guide
University Press. 362 p. to the Damman forest types of Newfoundland. FRDA Rep. 003.
Cheke AS, Nanakorn W, Yankoses C. 1979. Dormancy and dispersal of Cornerbrook, NF: Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service.
seeds of secondary forest species under the canopy of a primary tropi- Meeker JE, Elias JE, Heim JA. 1993. Plants used by the Great Lakes Ojibway.
cal rain forest in northern Thailand. Biotropica 11(2): 88–95. Odanah WI: Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission. 440 p.
Crocker W. 1948. Growth of plants. New York: Reinhold Publishing. 90 p. Moore M. 1993. Medicinal plants of the Pacific West. [Santa Fe, NM]: Red
Curtis JT. 1959. The vegetation of Wisconsin. Madison: University of Crane Books. 359 p.
Wisconsin Press. 657 p. Nichols GE. 1934. The influence of exposure to winter temperatures upon
Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, seed-germination in various native American plants. Ecology 15(4): 364,
ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation and uses. Champaign, IL: 373.
Stipes Publishing. 1007 p. Sargent CS. 1965. Manual of trees of North America. New York: Dover
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- Publishing. 934 p.
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. Soper JH, Heimburger ML. 1982. Shrubs of Ontario.Toronto: Royal Ontario
Edwards J. 1984. Spatial pattern and clone structure of the perennial herb Museum.
Aralia nudicaulis. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 111: 28–33. Stupka A. 1964. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of Great Smoky Mountains
Graber RE,Thompson DF. 1978. Seeds in the organic layers and soil of National Park. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. p. 96.
four beech–birch–maple stands. Res. Pap. NE-401. Upper Darby, PA: Sullivan J. 1992. Aralia spinosa. In: Fischer WC, comp. Fire Effects Information
USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 8 p. System [database]. Missoula, MT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain
Fernald, ML. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. New York: American Book Co. [now Rocky Mountain] Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory.
1632 p. Tehon LR. 1951. The drug plants of Illinois. Circ. 44. Urbana: Illinois Natural
Harrar ES, George J. 1962. Guide to southern trees. New York: Dover Historical Survey. 23 p.
Publications. 709 p. Thaler GR, Plowright RC. 1980. The effect of aerial insecticide spraying for
Hartmann HT, Davies DE, Davies FT Jr. 1990. Plant propagation: principles spruce budworm control on the fecundity of entomophilous plants in
and practice. 5th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 647 p. New Brunswick. Canadian Journal of Botany 58: 2022–2027.
Heit CE. 1967a. Propagation from seed: 11. Storage of deciduous tree and Thomson JD, Barrett SCH. 1981. Temporal variation in gender in Aralia
shrub seeds. American Nurseryman 126(10): 12–13, 86–94. nudicaulis Vent. (Araliaceae). Evolution 35: 1094–1107.
Heit CE. 1967b. Propagation from seed: 6. Hardseededness—a critical Thomson JD, Maddison WP, Plowright RC. 1982. Behavior of bumble bee
factor. American Nurseryman 125(10): 10–12, 88–96. pollinators of Aralia hispia Vent. (Araliaceae). Oecologia 54: 326–336
Heit CE. 1968. Propagation from seed: 15. Fall planting of shrub seeds for Voss EG. 1985. Michigan flora: 2. Dicots (Saururaceae–Cornaceae).
successful seedling production. American Nurseryman 128(4): 8–10, Cranbrook Institute of Science Bulletin 59: 1–724.
70–80.
Araucaria Juss.
araucaria
Gerald A.Walters and John K. Francis
Dr.Walters retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station;
Dr. Francis retired from the USDA Forest Service’s International Institute of Tropical Forestry
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The araucarias 2,400 mm of rainfall and well-drained soils. Cook-pine and
are 15 species of evergreen coniferous trees that are gener- Norfolk-Island-pine have been widely planted in Hawaii
ally confined to the Southern Hemisphere. They are found (Menninger 1964; Walters 1974). The botanical identities of
in South America, Australia, New Guinea, New Caledonia, these 2 species are often confused, and no one (not even vis-
the New Hebrides Islands, and Norfolk Island under tropi- iting foresters from Australia) is absolutely sure which
cal, subtropical, and temperate climates (Dallimore and species is which! Recipients of araucaria seeds shipped out
Jackson 1954; Howcroft 1978a&b; Ntima 1968; Record and of Hawaii should be made aware of this confusion. All data
Hess 1943; Veblen and Delmastro 1976; Webb and others on phenology and methods reported here are based on infor-
1984). They are noted for their long, straight, clear boles mation obtained from the areas of natural occurrence.
and symmetrical crowns; many are useful for timber and Norfolk-Island-pine is also a very common ornamental tree
some are cultivated as ornamental trees and houseplants in Florida, California, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin
(Streets 1962). Islands.
Several species have been introduced to California, Flowering and fruiting. Araucarias generally begin to
Oregon, Washington, Florida, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the U.S. flower and set seeds between the age of 15 to 20 years.
Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and other U.S. ter- Most hoop-pine trees begin producing female flowers and
ritories in the South Pacific region (table 1) (Francis 1988; fruits when they are between 10 and 12 years old and 6 to
Walters 1974). Araucaria species are generally found on 10 m tall. Flowering and fruiting is very intermittent from
sites at elevations from sea level to 2,100 m, with 1,200 to year to year, and pollen production begins when trees are 22
A. angustifolia (Bertol.) Kuntz parana-pine, candelabra tree, Brazil, Argentina, Hawaii & 36
Brazilian-pine & Paraguay Puerto Rico
A. araucana (Molina.) K. Koch. monkey-puzzle tree, Chile & California, Oregon, 50
A. imbracata Par. monkey-puzzle, Arauco-pine, Argentina & Washington
Chilean-pine
A. bidwillii Hook. bunya-pine, Australia California, Florida, 43
bunya-bunya Hawaii, & Puerto Rico
A. columnaris (Forster) Hook. Cook-pine, New Caledonia Hawaii, Florida, 60
A. excelsea (Lamb.) R. Br. columnar araucaria & Puerto Rico
A. cunninghamii Aiton ex D. Don) hoop-pine, New Guinea California, Hawaii, 60
Moreton-Bay-pine & Australia & Puerto Rico
A. heterophylla (Salisb.) Franko Norfolk-Island-pine, Norfolk Island California, Florida, 60
Australian-pine Hawaii, & Puerto Rico
A. hunsteinii K. Schum. & Hollrung klinki-pine New Guinea Hawaii & 80
A. schummaniana Warb. Puerto Rico
A. klinkii Laut.
Sources: Dallimore and Jackson (1954), LHBH (1976),Walters (1974).
Araucaria • 259
to 27 years old and are about 20 m tall (Haines and Nikles Figure 2—Araucaria heterophylla, Norfolk-Island-pine:
A
1987). Male and female flowers are generally found on dif- longitudinal section through a seed.
ferent parts of the same tree. Male flowers usually appear at
the base of the crown in young trees and the female flowers
at the top. As the tree grows older, the male and female
flowers come closer to each other. Bisexual flowers are also
found. After pollination, the female flowers develop slowly,
with the cones maturing in about 2 years (Ntima 1968). The
mature cones are ovoid or almost spherical, ranging in size
from 10 by 5 cm for hoop-pine to 30 by 20 cm for bunya-
pine (Ntima 1968). In natural stands, seedlots collected from
hoop-pines are rarely more than 65% viable (Haines and
Nikles 1987).
Upon maturing, cones turn from green to brown (Ntima
1968; Walters 1974). Cones disintegrate on the tree or fall to
the ground and disintegrate. The brown seeds are kite-
shaped and have papery wings on either side (figures 1 and
2) or are thick and heavy with much endosperm. Araucaria
seeds may be carried a short distance from the mother tree
by wind, but generally the seeds fall within the periphery of
the crown (Ntima 1968). Animals and birds that prey on the
seeds are the most effective natural dispersers of the heavy timed correctly to get the highest proportion of mature and
seeds. The time of flowering, seed development, and seed fertile seeds. A method for timing cone matureness is to pick
dispersal, as well as seedcrop intervals are listed for 5 a cone and measure the time it takes to disintegrate; ripe
species in table 2. cones spontaneously disintegrate within 7 days. Collected
Collection, cleaning, and storage. Most of the seeds cones should be spread on shelves in single layers for drying
of hoop-pine collected for planting are grown in seed and turned daily. The cones normally will begin to disinte-
orchards (Haines and Nikles 1987). Collection of cones grate within a few days. Cones that fail to disintegrate with-
should begin when the first trace of brownness is observed in 10 days should be discarded, as they are considered too
on the cone. In natural stands, the second-year cones are immature (Ntima 1968; Walters 1974). The average number
generally picked by climbing or felling trees (Howcroft of seeds per weight ranges from 77/kg (35/lb) for bunya-
1978; Ntima 1968; Walters 1974). Cone collection must be pine to 4,400/kg (1,995/lb) for hoop-pine (table 3)
(Howcroft 1986; Walters 1974).
Most araucaria are recalcitrant (that is, intolerant of des-
Figure 1—Araucaria, araucaria: seeds of A. columnaris,
Cook-pine (left) and A. heterophylla, Norfolk-Island-pine iccation). Their seeds have short viability under atmospheric
(right). conditions and normally should be sown within a month of
collection (Ntima 1968). If the seeds cannot be sown imme-
diately, they should be stored under cold, moist, and airtight
conditions at a temperature of 3 °C (Ntima 1968; Walters
1974). Klinki-pine seeds can be stored for at least 6 months
with 32% moisture at a temperature of 3.5 °C (Willan 1991).
Damp storage at 4 to 7 °C was best for monkey-puzzle-tree
seeds. After 3 months of storage, these seeds began to ger-
minate after 21 days at 25 to 30 °C and reached 70 to 90%
germination after 7 days (Swindells 1980). Hoop-pine seeds
appear to be orthodox (that is, tolerant of dessication); air-
dried seeds stored at temperatures ranging from 1.7 to
–15 °C showed little reduction in germination percentage for
17 months of storage (46 to 50% germination), but
decreased significantly between 17 and 100 months of stor- pollen is available to the parent trees, seed quality is gener-
age. However, after 100 months of storage, germination still ally good (Walters 1974).
ranged from 25 to 44% (Shea and Armstrong 1978). Twenty-nine and 45% of a large number of hoop-pine
Tompsett (1984) found that seeds of monkey-puzzle-tree, and klinki-pine seeds germinated within 9 weeks in a germi-
parana-pine, klinki-pine, and bunya-pine could not be safely nation test (Thong 1974). Klinki-pine seeds are pregerminat-
dried below 25 to 40% moisture content; seeds of cook-pine ed (incubated until the radicle begins to show) before sow-
and 2 other araucarias (A. nemorosa de Laubenfels and A. ing into containers. In a test with 3 replications of 1,200
scopulorum de Laubenfels) cannot be dried below 12%; and seeds each, germination averaged 85% in 22 days. Of those
seeds of hoop-pine could be dried to 2% without damage. seeds not germinating, 54% were dead, 30% were rotten,
Seeds in the second 2 groups dried to moisture contents just and 16% had not germinated yet. Survival of seedlings in
above the critical levels can be stored at –18 °C and thus containers to outplanting size was 88%. Broadcasting seeds
appear to be orthodox. Parana-pine, monkey-puzzle-tree, on the surface of wet sawdust with a second shadecloth a
and bunya-pine seeds are classified as recalcitrant (Farrant few centimeters above the bed gave better germination than
and others 1989; Ramos and others 1988). Plastic bags are covering seeds with sawdust or germinating them without
good containers (Ntima 1968). Seeds of hoop-pine can be the second shadecloth covering (Howcroft 1974). Tompsett
stored up to 8 years (Shea and Armstrong 1978). (1984) obtained 80 to 100% germination of 6 species tested
Germination. No pregermination treatments are need- when seed moisture contents were optimal.
ed for araucaria seed (Ntima 1968; Walters 1974). Under Nursery practice. Araucarias can be grown under
suitable moisture and temperature (21 to 30 °C) conditions, high shade or low shade. For both types of shade, seeds are
germination (which is cryptogeal in this genus) may begin sown during spring. Norfolk-Island-pine seeds are placed on
about 10 days after sowing. Germination is delayed by cool- a bed of sand–soil–peat mix to germinate with the pointed
er temperatures, sometimes taking 50 days or more (Ntima end of the seed slightly embedded. About 70% of fresh
1968). Seed quality varies from year to year; if sufficient seedlots germinate in 4 to 12 days (Logsdon 1973). Seeds
Araucaria • 261
should be treated with a fungicide to prevent damping-off. stocking of 130 to 180 plants/m2 (12 to 17/ft2) (Ntima 1968;
A
Fungi pathogenic to seedlings can be isolated from seed col- Walters 1974).
lected from the ground and even from seeds extracted from Newly sown beds should be given full overhead shade
cones collected from trees (El-Lakany and others 1981). within several days of sowing. Best shoot development
Rhizoctonia solani Kühn—the fungal species causing most occurs when the seedbeds are given 75% shade for the first
of the cases of pre- and post-emergence damping-off—was few months and 5% shade for the next 3 months (except for
one of the most commonly isolated fungi from Araucaria hoop-pine). Shading should be removed in 2 steps after this
seeds (Kamara and others 1981). Control of seedborne and shading treatment to give full exposure 2 weeks before
soilborne fungi should be undertaken before planting. With transplanting to containers. Full light is not admitted until
high shade, the seeds of all species except bunya-pine are nearly 1 year after sowing hoop-pine. When 75% of the
sown in flat-bottomed drills about 1.25 cm (1/2 in) deep and seedlings are 15 to 22 cm (6 to 9 in) tall, the seedlings
then covered with the same amount of softwood sawdust should be transplanted. Lifting and planting need to be done
(fungicide-treated hardwood sawdust may also be suitable). carefully to minimize damage to the roots. Transplanting
Bunya-pine seeds are sown in drills 7 to 10 cm (3 to should be done about 5 months before field planting. The
4 in) deep or on shaded, moist media. A few months after seedlings should be spaced 5 by 20 cm (2 to 8 in) apart
sowing, fusiform radicles, called “tubers,” are formed. The (stem to stem) and given full shade. The shade should be
seedbeds are re-dug, and these tubers are collected and then gradually removed to give full sunlight to the seedlings for
either planted directly into containers or stored at room tem- at least a month before transferring them to the planting site
perature until required for planting. Exposure of the tubers (Ntima 1968). About 50 to 60% of the seeds will develop
to sunlight before re-planting breaks their dormancy, and the into plantable seedlings. Seedlings are generally outplanted
plants begin to grow. Almost every seed produces a tuber when 2 years old (Ntima 1968). Norfolk-Island-pine
and all of these develop into plants (Walters 1974). seedlings grown in nursery beds or containers will be 15 to
With low shade, the seeds are broadcast on well- 20 cm (6 to 8 in) tall in 1 year and 60 to 76 cm (24 to 30 in)
prepared nursery beds and covered with about 2 cm (3/4 in) tall in 2 years (Logsdon 1973).
of sawdust. The aim in both types of sowing is to have a
References
Dallimore W, Jackson AB. 1954. A handbook of Coniferae and Ramos A, Carneiro JG de A, Souza GB de, Banchelli A. 1988. Biochemical
Ginkgoaceae. London: Edward Arnold, Publisher. 686 p. and physiological alterations of Araucaria angustifolia (Bert.) O. Ktze.
El-Lakany MH, Kamara AM, Badran OA, Attia YG. 1981. Seed pathology of seeds immediately after oven drying. In: Carneiro JG de A and others,
Araucaria spp.: 2. Fungal species associated with Araucaria heterophylla eds. Proceedings, Bilateral Symposium (Brazil–Finland) on Forestry
seed. Australian Forestry Research 11(3/4): 275–281. Activities; 16–22 October 1988; Cuitiba, Parana, Brazil. Cuitiba, Parana,
Farrant PM, Pammenter NW, Berjak P. 1989. Germination-associated events Brazil: Instituto Agronomico do Parana: 108–117.
and the desiccation sensitivity of recalcitrant seeds: a study on three Record SJ, Hess RW. 1943. Timbers of the new world. New Haven, CT:
unrelated species. Planta 178(2): 189–198. Yale University Press. 640 p.
Francis JK. 1988. Araucariaceae in Puerto Rico.Turrialba 38(3): 202–207. Shea GM, Armstrong PA. 1978. The effect of postharvest environmental
Haines RJ, Nikles DG. 1987. The Araucaria araucana gene resource in Chile. factors on the longevity of hoop pine seed. Res. Note 24. Brisbane,
For. Occ. Pap. 1976/1. Rome: FAO: 2–6. Australia: Queensland Department of Forestry. 2 p.
Howcroft NHS. 1974. Pregermination techniques for Araucaria hunsteinii. Streets RJ. 1962. Exotic forest trees in the British Commonwealth. Oxford,
Trop. For. Res. Note SR.27. Boroko, Papua New Guinea: Department of UK: Clarendon Press. 765 p.
Forests. 10 p. Swindells P. 1980. Monkey puzzle. Garden Chronicle and Horticultural
Howcroft NHS. 1978a. Exploration and provenance seed collection in Trade Journal 187(11): 17–19.
Papua New Guinea 1976/1977. For. Occ. Pap. 1978/2. Rome: FAO: 5–11. Thong HL. 1974. Germination and seedling survival of araucaria with
Howcroft NHS. 1978b. Data sheet on Araucaria hunsteinii K. Schumann. For. Demosan (chloroneb, 1,4- dichloro-2,5-dimethoxybenzene) treatment.
Occ. Pap. 1978/2. Rome: FAO: 31–37. Malaysian Forester 37(1): 54–61.
Kamara AM, El-Lakany MH, Badran OA, Attia YG. 1981. Seed pathology of Tompsett PB. 1984. Desiccation studies in relation to the storage of
Araucaria spp.: 1. A survey of seed-borne fungi associated with four Araucaria seed. Annals of Applied Biology 105: 581–586.
Araucaria spp. Australian Forest Research 11(3/4): 269–274. Veblen TT, Delmastro R. 1976. The Araucaria araucana gene resource in
LHBH [Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium]. 1976. Hortus third: a concise dic- Chile. For. Occ. Pap. 1976/1. Rome: FAO: 2–6.
tionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Walters GA. 1974. Araucaria, araucaria. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord.
Macmillan: 98. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450.
Logsdon BB. 1973. Growing the Norfolk Island pine.Tree Planters’ Notes Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 223–235.
24(1): 33–36. Webb DB, Wood PJ, Smith JP, Henman GS. 1984. A guide to species
Menninger EA. 1964. Seaside plants of the world. New York: Hearthside selection for tropical and sub-tropical plantations. Oxford, UK:
Press. 303 p. Commonwealth Forestry Institute. 256 p.
Ntima OO. 1968. Fast growing timber trees of the lowland tropics: the Willan RL. 1991. A guide to forest seed handling. For. Pap. 20/2. Rome: FAO.
araucarias. Oxford: Commonwealth Forestry Institute. p. 139. 379 p.
Other common names. madrone, arbutus, madroño. made into bobbins and spools. This species was first culti-
Occurrence and growth habit. Pacific madrone— vated in 1827 and has been planted occasionally as an orna-
Arbutus menziesii Pursh—is 1 of 3 species of Arbutus native mental tree in Europe and the United States (McMinn and
to the western United States (Little 1979). It is an evergreen Maino 1959).
tree that occurs in coastal mountains from southwestern Flowering and fruiting. Flowers, which bloom from
British Columbia to southern California, and also in the March to June, are formed on a panicle 12 to 15 cm long.
Sierra Nevada of north central California. It often is found The 8-mm flowers consist of 5 sepals fused at the base with
as a single tree or in groves, only rarely occupying extensive 5 fused urn-shaped petals and 10 stamens. The anthers split
areas (McDonald and Tappeiner 1990; McDonald and others open when ripe, the awns are elongate, and the superior
1983). Seldom does Pacific madrone form pure stands; usu- ovary is rough and bumpy with 5 chambers (Hickman
ally it is found in mixture with several conifer and hardwood 1993). The fruit is a berry, also rough and bumpy, less than
species. It also competes successfully in both overstory and 12 mm in diameter (figure 1). The generic name derives
understory canopies (Sawyer and others 1977). Although from arboise, a Celtic word for “rough fruit” (Roy 1974).
some trees originate from seed, most begin life as root The thin-skinned berry has rather dry, mealy flesh and gen-
crown sprouts. Tree height and form vary widely: height erally is 5-celled (figures 1 and 2). McDonald (1978) found
from 8 to 38 m, and form from straight to crooked that, in northern California, the number of seeds per berry
(Sudworth 1908). Stand density is a prime determinant of ranged from 2 to 37, with an average of 20. The berries
form and also affects tree height. In general, the more dense ripen in September through November but often remain on
the stand, the better the form and the greater the height. On the trees through December. Fully ripe berries are bright red
good sites with well-stocked stands, plentiful moisture, and
some shade, the tree grows straight and tall with a narrow
crown. On poorer sites with lower stocking and inadequate Figure 1—Arbutus menziesii, Pacific madrone: exterior
view of the fruit (left) and transverse section of fruit
soil moisture, the tree becomes short and crooked, with a showing its 5 carpels (right).
relatively wide crown. Clumps of trees are prevalent and
increase as stands become more open. The species seems to
be phototropic and trees are often observed leaning into
gaps in the canopy. Asymmetric bole development is com-
mon. Over the entire range, the majority of Pacific madrone
trees have some lean and some crook. Forking also is
common.
Use. The strong, smooth, fine-grained wood has been
utilized for many purposes, ranging from lumber, veneer,
and fuelwood to furniture, flooring, interior trim, and panel-
ing (EDA 1968; Overholser 1968). In the past, the wood of
Pacific madrone was prized for making charcoal for gun-
powder (Koch 1973) and was found to be without peer when
Arbutus • 263
Figure 2—Arbutus menziesii, Pacific madrone: longitudinal above freezing (Roy 1974). Fresh berries picked in the
A section through a seed (left) and exterior view of a seed northern Sierra Nevada numbered 1,390 to 2,490/kg (630 to
(right). 1,130/lb), and the yield of cleaned seeds was 1.6 to 2.0
kg/45 kg (3.6 to 4.4 lb/100 lb) of fruit. The number of seeds
ranged from 434,310 to 705,470/kg or 197,000 to
320,000/lb (McDonald 1978). Dried berries from an
unknown source numbered 900/kg (2,000/lb) (Mirov and
Kraebel 1939).
Pregermination treatments. Because the seeds
exhibit strong embryo dormancy, stratification is critical.
McDonald (1978) found that only 1 of 400 sound seeds ger-
minated without stratification. For stratification, much evi-
dence shows that storage in a plastic bag containing a small
amount of moist paper or peat moss at temperatures just
above freezing for 35 to 45 days is all that is needed to
break dormancy (McDonald 1978; Roy 1974). With this
treatment, 78 to 90% of a seedlot will have germinated in
or bright reddish orange (Peattie 1953). However, the small- 10 days.
er numbers of yellowish orange or yellowish green berries Germination tests. Only sound seeds should be used
that are usually present at the same time also furnish viable in germination trials. For red berries, darker color and slight
seeds (McDonald 1978). rounding at the pointed end proved diagnostic for separating
The minimum seed-bearing age (from root crown sound from unsound seeds; for yellowish berries, only seed
sprouts) is 4 years but more commonly at least 8 years. size was a worthwhile indicator—larger seeds were more
Older trees have tremendous capability to produce seeds. On likely to be sound than small ones (McDonald 1978).
a good site in northern California, the number of berries pro- Extensive trials in laboratory and field have shown the perils
duced during a light seed year for 3 representative trees that of germinating seeds in berries. If berries were present, so
were 23, 36, and 41 cm in dbh ranged from 13,320 to more were virulent fungi and consumers. Indeed, in a field trial,
than 107,000/tree and related best to amount of living crown snaptraps baited with a single red madrone berry caught
(McDonald 1978). On this same site, annual records showed more white-footed deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) than
that during a 24-year period (1958–1981), Pacific madrone those baited with peanut butter and wheatflakes.
produced 2 medium to heavy and 10 very light to light seed- Nursery practice. Pacific madrone can be propagated
crops (McDonald 1992). In years when the overall seedcrop by germinating seeds in flats and transplanting the seedlings
is poor or nonexistent, madrone trees may be stimulated to to individual containers. Losses from damping-off fungi,
produce heavy crops by logging and thinning. Apparently, however, can be huge. Hundreds of seedlings die overnight
the reduced stand density provides additional water and and the number available for planting often is small. Van
nutrients that become manifest in reproductive material. Dersal (1938) noted that a yield of about 450 usable
A recent phenomenon that has greatly reduced seed pro- plants/kg of seeds (1,000/lb) was the best that could be
duction (Thornburgh 1994) is dieback and death of Pacific expected. Although this species has been propagated vegeta-
madrone trees infected by the madrone canker— tively by grafting, layering, and rooting of cuttings (Roy
Botryosphaeria dothidea Moug.:Fr.) Ces. & De Not.— 1974), no operational application of these techniques is
which is virulent in northern California (McDonald and known.
Tappeiner 1990). Seedling care. The problem of fungi does not end
Collection, extraction, and storage. Berries of after the germinants become seedlings. Even after transfer to
Pacific madrone can be collected during the ripening period, peat pots or other containers, the seedlings need to be pro-
dried thoroughly, and stored at room temperature for 1 or 2 tected from fungi. And even after great care, survival and
years (Mirov and Kraebel 1939). Separating the seeds from growth in a conventional (sunlit) plantation is poor. In a trial
the pulp after soaking and maceration of the berries proba- on a high site in the northern Sierra Nevada, survival of
bly is best (McDonald 1978). Only dry seeds should be seedlings in large containers (plugs) on competition-free
stored, probably in sealed containers at temperatures just ground was 33% after 6 years (McDonald 1978). All
References
EDA [Economic Development Administration]. 1968. The Hoopa Valley Overholser JL. 1968. Oregon hardwood sawtimber. Rep. G-9. Corvallis:
Reservation hardwood study report. Washington, DC: USDC. 154 p. Oregon State University, Forest Products Laboratory. 52 p.
Hickman JC, ed. 1993. The Jepson manual of higher plants of California. Peattie DC. 1953. A natural history of western trees. Boston:
Berkeley: University of California Press. 1400 p. Houghton-Mifflin. 751 p.
Koch M. 1973. Santa Cruz County: parade of the past. Fresno, CA:Valley Pelton J. 1962. Factors influencing survival and growth fo a seedling
Publishers: 33–43. population of Arbutus menziessii in California. Madrono 16: 237–276.
Little EL Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). Roy DF. 1974. Arbutus menziesii Pursh, Pacific madrone. In: Schopmeyer CS,
Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p. tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk.
McDonald PM. 1978. Silviculture-ecology of three native California 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 226–227.
hardwoods on high sites in north-central California [PhD dissertation]. Sawyer JO,Thornburgh DA, Griffin JR. 1977. Mixed evergreen forest. In:
Corvallis: Oregon State University, Department of Forest Science. 309 p. Barbour MG, Major J, eds.Terrestrial vegetation of California. New York:
McDonald PM. 1992. Estimating seed crops of conifer and hardwood John Wiley and Sons: 359–381.
species. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 22: 832–838. Sudworth GB. 1908. Forest trees of the Pacific slope. Washington, DC:
McDonald PM,Tappeiner JC II. 1990. Arbutus menziesii Pursh, Pacific USDA Forest Service. 441 p.
madrone. In: Burns RM, Honkala BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North Tappeiner JC II, McDonald PM, Hughes TF. 1986. Survival of tanoak
America.Vol. 2, Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA (Lithocarpus densiflorus) and Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii)
Forest Service: 124–132. seedlings in forests of southwestern Oregon. New Forests 1: 43–55.
McDonald PM, Minore D, Atzet T 1983. Southwestern Oregon–Northern Thornburgh DA. 1994. Personal communication. Arcata, CA: Humboldt
California hardwoods. In: Burns RM, tech. comp. Silvicultural systems for State University, Department of Forestry.
the major forest types of the United States. Agric. Handbk. 445. Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United states: their ero-
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 29–32. sion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC: USDA.
McMinn HE, Maino E. 1959. An illustrated manual of Pacific Coast trees. 362 p.
Berkeley: University of California Press. 490 p.
Mirov NT, Kraebel CJ. 1939. Collecting and handling seeds of wild plants.
For. Pub. 5. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service, Civilian Conservation
Corps. 5 p.
Arbutus • 265
A Ericaceae—Heath family
Arctostaphylos Adans.
manzanita
Susan E. Meyer
Dr. Meyer is a research ecologist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Station,
Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. The shrub genus abundant in the fire-prone vegetation of regions with dry
Arctostaphylos, or manzanita, comprises about 50 species, summers.
90% of which are endemic to California and adjacent areas The manzanitas are moderately important as winter
(Munz and Keck 1959). Three species—greenleaf manzani- browse plants for wild ungulates but are less important for
ta, Mexican manzanita, and rosybract manzanita—are wide- domestic livestock (Berg 1974). They are used principally
ly distributed in the southwestern United States and Mexico. after fire, when new shoots or seedlings are produced in
One species—bearberry or kinnickinnick—is circumboreal abundance. The fruits are eaten by bears (Ursus spp.),
in distribution (table 1). The manzanita habit varies from grouse (Dendragapus spp.), and coyotes (Canis latrans)
mat-forming (bearberry) to nearly arborescent (bigberry (Belcher 1985; Kauffmann and Martin 1991) and the seeds
manzanita). About a quarter of the species have subterranean by various rodents (Keeley and Hays 1976). The sprouting
burls that generate new sprouts both after fire and through- species are particularly important for watershed protection
out the long life of the plant (Keeley 1992; Wells 1969). The after fire, and many species could be used in revegetation
leaves of manzanitas are leathery, entire, and evergreen. for erosion control. Manzanitas also have great potential for
They are major components of chaparral and are also com- use as ornamentals. Their smooth red bark; interesting,
mon understory species in montane coniferous forest types, twisted growth forms; and bright evergreen leaves make
especially ponderosa (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws.) them attractive year-round. Bearberry has found wide
and Jeffrey (P. jeffreyi Grev. & Balf.) pines. They are most
Arctostaphylos • 267
may be checked in the field by cutting the fruits transverse- Figure 3—Arctostaphylos patula, greenleaf manzanita:
A seedling at 1 month.
ly, preferably before the endocarp hardens (Berg 1974).
Kelly and Parker (1991) reported a mean set (percentage of
ovules forming seeds) of 62% for 14 California species,
with a range from 50 to 80%.
To clean manzanita seeds, the fruits should be soaked in
water, then macerated by hand or in a macerator to separate
the pulp from the stones. The pulp may be removed by
flotation, or the material may be dried, after which nutlets
may be separated from the dried pulp using screens or a fan-
ning mill (Berg 1974). Seedlots may be cleaned to high
purity (Belcher 1985). Representative seed unit weights are
given in table 2. Seed unit weights are highly variable even
within a seedlot because a seed unit may be single or
multiple-seeded, depending on the degree of coalescence of
the nutlets.
Manzanita seeds form persistent seed banks and are
apparently long-lived under field conditions (Kelly and
Parker 1990). There is little information on longevity in the embryo level) that renders them more responsive to the
warehouse storage, but it is probable that seedlots would charate stimulus. Parker and Kelly (1989) report that hoary
maintain viability over periods of 10 years or more. manzanita seeds retrieved from the soil seedbank
Germination and seed testing. In natural stands, germinated readily in response to charate, whereas hand-
new seedlings (figure 3) of most species of manzanita grow harvested seeds less than 1 year old did not. In spite of the
only after fire, and the seeds of these species are considered massive endocarp, manzanita nutlets are permeable to water,
to be refractory, that is, germinating only in response to fire- and the enclosed seeds are capable of imbibition without
related environmental cues (Keeley 1991, 1995). But unlike any pretreatment, at least in greenleaf manzanita (Meyer
the refractory seeds of most chaparral shrubs, manzanita 1997). This explains how charate rather than heat shock
seeds apparently do not become germinable through heat could trigger germination. Presumably the charate stimulus
shock (Kauffman and Martin 1991; Keeley 1987a). There is enters the seed through the periole.
evidence that charate leached from incompletely burned Even though manzanitas form persistent seedbanks,
wood can trigger germination in manzanita seeds, but the there is evidence that these seedbanks turn over fairly quick-
maximum percentages attained using recently collected ly, as there was no net gain in size of the seedbank in the
seeds were not high (13% for Eastwood manzanita and 19% absence of fire over 10 years for 2 chaparral species (big-
for greenleaf manzanita (Keeley 1987a, 1991). It is probable berry and Eastwood manzanitas), even in the face of mas-
that, under field conditions, the seeds change in some way sive inputs (Keeley 1987b). Most of the seed loss appears to
following dispersal (perhaps through dry after-ripening at be due to rodent predation rather than germination or loss of
Sources: Belcher (1985), Berg (1974), Keeley (1977, 1991), Keeley and Hayes (1976), Meyer (1997).
References
Belcher E. 1985. Handbook on seeds of browse-shrubs and forbs.Tech. Kauffman JB, Martin RE. 1991. Factors influencing scarification and germina-
Pub. R8-8. Atlanta: USDA Forest Service, Southern Region. 246 p. tion of three montane Sierra Nevada shrubs. Northwest Science 65:
Berg AR. 1974. Arctostaphylos Adans., manzanita. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. 180–187.
coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Keeley JE. 1977. Seed production, seed populations in soil, and seedling
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 228–231. production after fire for two congeneric pairs of sprouting and
Carlson JR, Sharp WC. 1975. Germination of high elevation manzanitas. nonsprouting chaparral shrubs. Ecology 58: 820–829.
Tree Planters’ Notes 26(3): 10–11, 25. Keeley JE. 1987a. Role of fire in seed germination of woody taxa in
Dirr MA. 1983. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, orna- California chaparral. Ecology 68: 434–443.
mental characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. Champaign, IL: Keeley JE. 1987b. Ten years of change in seed banks of the chaparral shrubs
Stipes Publishing. 826 p. Arctostaphylos glauca and A. glandulosa. American Midland Naturalist 117:
Emery DE. 1988. Seed propagation of native California plants. Santa 446–448.
Barbara, CA: Santa Barbara Botanic Garden. 107 p. Keeley JE. 1991. Seed germination and life history syndromes in the
Fulton RE, Carpenter FL. 1979. Pollination, reproduction, and fire in California chaparral. Botanical Review 57: 81–116.
California Arctostaphylos. Oecologia 38: 147–157. Keeley J. 1992. Recruitment of seedlings and vegetative sprouts in
Giersbach J. 1937. Germination and seedling production of Arctostaphylos unburned chaparral. Ecology 73: 1194–1208.
uva-ursi. Contributions to the Boyce Thompson Institute 9: 71–78.
Arctostaphylos • 269
Keeley JE. 1995. Seed germination patterns in fire-prone Mediterranean Kelly VR, Parker VT. 1991. Percentage seed set, sprouting habit, and ploidy
A climate regions. In: Arroyo MTK, Zedler PH, Fox MD, eds. Ecology and level in Arctostaphylos (Ericaceae). Madroño 38 (4): 227–232.
biogeography of Mediterranean ecosystems in Chile, California, and Meyer SE. 1997. Personal observation. Provo, UT: USDA Forest Service,
Australia. New York: Springer-Verlag: 239–273. Rocky Mountain Research Station.
Keeley JE, Hays RL. 1976. Differential seed predation on two species of Munz PA, Keck DD. 1959. A California flora. Berkeley: University of
Arctostaphylos (Ericaceae). Oecologia 24: 71–81. California Press. 1681 p.
Keeley JE, Zedler PH. 1978. Reproduction of chaparral shrubs after fire: a Parker VT, Kelly VR. 1989. Seed banks in California chaparral and other
comparison of sprouting and seeding strategies. American Midland Mediterranean climate shrublands. In: Leck MA, Parker VT, Simpson RL,
Naturalist 99: 142–161. eds. Ecology of soil seed banks. San Diego: Academic Press: 231–253.
Kelly VR, Parker VT. 1990. Seed bank survival and dynamics in sprouting and Wells PV. 1969. The relation between mode of reproduction and extent of
nonsprouting Arctostaphylos species. American Midland Naturalist 124: speciation in woody genera of the California chaparral. Evolution 23:
114–123. 264–267.
Aronia Medik
chokeberry
John D. Gill, Franz L. Pogge, and Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Gill and Mr. Pogge retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Northeastern Forest Experiment Station;
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. The choke- species will tolerate drier conditions, and black chokeberry
berries—genus Aronia—discussed here are 2 closely related is better adapted than the others to growth in drier thickets
species (red and black chokeberries) and 1 hybrid deciduous or clearings on bluffs or cliffs (Fernald 1950; Gleason
shrub (purple chokeberry) (table 1). Black chokeberry is 1963). All are valuable as food sources for wildlife in fall
small, only 0.5 to 1 m tall. Red chokeberry and purple and winter (Hosely 1938). Their handsome foliage, flowers,
chokeberry are medium sized, 3 to 4 m tall. Red and black and fruits also make them attractive as ornamentals, but
chokeberries hybridize readily and may be difficult to distin- none has been cultivated extensively. Red and black choke-
guish. Red and purple chokeberries are practically identical berries were first cultivated about 270 years ago (Rehder
ecologically (Van Dersal 1938), and the only satisfactory 1940).
way to distinguish between them is by the color of their ripe Flowering and fruiting. The white, bisexual flowers
fruit. Both have pubescence on younger branches, leaf bloom for 2 to 3 months during March to July, the local
stems, and lower leaf surfaces. In contrast, black chokeberry flowering period depending on latitude and elevation. Fruit
is smooth or has only a few scattered hairs on these parts ripening dates are similarly dependent and range from
(Gleason 1963). The combined ranges of these 3 include August to November (table 2). Fruits drop from the plants
most of the eastern United States and southern parts of adja- shortly after ripening and may continue through the winter
cent Canadian provinces (table 1). All are moderately toler- and spring. The fruits are rather dry, berrylike pomes (figure
ant of shading and prefer moist soils, which usually are 1) containing 1 to 5 seeds (figure 2), some of which may be
acidic. The most likely habitats are bogs and swamps, low empty (aborted). Natural seed dispersal is chiefly by ani-
woods, clearings, and damp pine barrens. However, each mals. Black chokeberry fruits shrivel soon after ripening,
Aronia • 271
A Table 2—Aronia, chokeberry: phenology of flowering and fruiting
Sources: Ammons (1975), Fernald (1950), McDonald (1960), Mahlstede and Maber (1957),Van Dersal (1938).
Figure 1—Aronia arbutifolia, red chokeberry: leaf and Figure 2—Aronia melanocarpa, black chokeberry:
cluster of fruits (pomes). exterior views of seed, as well as longitudinal and
transverse
A. arbutifolia 90 20 20 30 94 4
A. melanocarpa 90–120 30 20 30 22 4
A. x prunifolia 60 20 20 30 96 2
There are no official test prescriptions for chokeberries, days for black chokeberry may increase germination in the
but tests of stratified seeds can be done on paper or in soil, nursery. Fall planting is done by some growers (Dirr and
sand, or peat for 28 days, at diurnally alternating tempera- Heuser 1987). The recommended sowing depth is about 10
tures of 30 (day) and 20 °C (night) or at a constant 20 °C. mm (1/3 in) (Sheat 1948). Germination mostly takes place
Gemination starts after about 8 days and may be virtually within a few days after sowing. As a rule of thumb, 0.45 kg
complete in 20 to 30 days (Crocker and Barton 1931). (1 lb) of cleaned seed may yield about 10,000 usable plants
Germination of seeds stratified as recommended here was (Van Dersal 1938). Outplanting may be done with 2-year-
mostly in the 90 to 100% range (table 3). Germination of old seedlings (Sheat 1948).
unstratified seed was quite low, 0 to 15%, in tests that Vegetative propagation is possible with red chokeberry
extended into a second year (Adams 1927). Germination is (and perhaps the others). Softwood cuttings taken in July
epigeal. and treated with 4,000 ppm of indole-butyric acid solution
Nursery practice. In some nurseries, the dried fruits root very well. Cuttings taken in December or January will
are soaked in water for a few days and mashed and then the root also (Dirr and Heuser 1987). Irrigation of the mother
whole mass is stratified until spring. Limiting the stratifica- plant a few days before the cuttings are taken will help root-
tion period to 60 days for purple, 90 days for red, and 120 ing (Dehgan and others 1989).
References
Adams J. 1927. The germination of the seeds of some plants with fleshy Hosely NW. 1938. Woody plants used by wildlife in the northeastern
fruits. American Botanist 15(8): 415–428. United States [PhD thesis]. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. 409 p.
Ammons N. 1975. Shrubs of West Virginia. Grantsville, WV: Seneca Books. McDonald EE. 1960. Fruiting trees.Texas Game and Fish 18 (5): 9.
127 p. Mahlstede JP, Maber ES. 1957. Plant propagation. New York: John Wiley and
Chadwick LC. 1935. Practices in propagation by seeds: stratification treat- Sons. 413 p.
ment for many species of woody plants described in fourth article of Morrow EB, Darrow GM, Scott DH. 1954. A quick method of cleaning
series. American Nurseryman 62(12): 3–9. berry seed for breeders. American Society of Horticultural Science
Crocker W, Barton LV. 1931. After-ripening and storage of certain rosea- Proceeddings 63: 265.
ceous seeds. Contributions of the Boyce Thompson Institute 3: 385–404. Munson RH. 1986. Extracting seeds from fleshy fruits. Plant Propagator
Dehgan B, Gooch M, Almira F, Kane M. 1989. Vegetative propagation of 32(2): 14–15.
Florida native plants: 3. Shrubs. Proceedings of the Florida State Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. 2nd ed. New York:
Horticultural Society 102: 254–266 [Seed Abstracts 1991; 14(4): 1155]. Macmillan. 996 p.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- Sheat WG. 1948. Propagation of trees, shrubs and conifers. London:
agation: from seeds to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. MacMillan. 479 p.
Fernald ML. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. 8th ed. New York: American Spinner GP, Ostrum GF.1945. First fruiting of woody food plants in
Book Co. 1632 p. Connecticut. Journal of Wildlife Management 9(1): 79.
Gill JD, Pogge FL. 1974. Aronia Medik, chokeberry. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. Swingle CF, comp. 1939. Seed propagation of trees, shrubs and forbs for
coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. conservation planting. SCS-TP-27. Washington, DC: USDA Soil
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 232–234. Conservation. Service. 187 p.
Gleason HA. 1963. The new Britton and Brown illustrated flora of the Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their ero-
Northeastern United States and adjacent Canada. 3 vol. New York: sion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC: USDA.
Hafner Publishing. 362 p.
Aronia • 273
A Asteraceae—Aster family
Artemisia L.
sagebrush
Susan E. Meyer
Dr. Meyer is a research ecologist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Sagebrush— Most sagebrush species rely on seeds for regeneration
Artemisia L.—species are probably the most common and have neither the ability to resprout following burning—
shrubs in western North America. Big sagebrush alone occu- with notable exceptions (McArthur and others 2004)—nor a
pies an estimated 60 million ha as a landscape dominant or long-lived soil seedbank (Young and Evans 1975, 1989;
codominant in the semiarid interior, and related species of Meyer 1990). Invasion by exotic annual grasses and the
the subgenus Tridentatae are estimated to occupy an addi- associated increase in fire frequency has resulted in loss of
tional 50 million ha (Beetle 1960; McArthur and Stevens in big sagebrush over vast acreages of its former area of domi-
press). Sagebrush-dominated vegetation occurs mostly under nance (Billings 1990; D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992). This
semiarid climatic regimes characterized by cold winters and loss has led to a realization of the importance of the shrub
predominantly winter precipitation. The genus is circum- overstory for maintaining the integrity of the ecosystem and
boreal in distribution and consists of about 400 species of also to a renewed interest in seed propagation of sagebrush
mostly evergreen shrubs, subshrubs, and herbaceous peren- species (Meyer 1994). Sagebrush has been seeded as part of
nials. big-game winter-range rehabilitation and mined-land recla-
The 20 or so shrubby sagebrush species in the United mation efforts for over 30 years, so there is a considerable
States differ widely in their growth form, ecology, distribu- fount of knowledge to draw upon (Plummer and others
tion, and abundance (table 1). Big, black, silver, and low 1968).
sagebrushes are widely distributed, polymorphic species of Subspecies and ecotypes. The more complex sage-
relatively broad ecological amplitude, whereas most of the brush species are made up of series of subspecies that are
remaining species are either more geographically restricted morphologically and ecologically distinct. In addition, many
or more specialized in their habitat requirements. The sub- sagebrush taxa have been shown through common garden
shrub fringed sagebrush, common and widespread in both studies to be made up of numerous ecotypes that result from
the Old and New Worlds, may be the most widely distrib- adaptation to local conditions through the process of natural
uted sagebrush taxon. Sand sagebrush is an important selection (McArthur and others 1979). Such site-specific
species on sandy soils on the Great Plains and in the adaptation may be reflected in traits such as frost or drought
Southwest, whereas the summer-deciduous subshrub bud- hardiness, growth rate, competitive ability, flowering time,
sage is the principal sagebrush species of salt desert shrub and seed germination regulation (McArthur and Welch
vegetation in the Great Basin. 1982; Meyer and Monsen 1990). This means that the use of
Because of their status as regional dominants, sagebrush seed from locally adapted or at least habitat-matched popu-
species—especially those of the subgenus Tridentatae— lations is important to successful long-term restoration of
have been the object of a great deal of study (McArthur and these species.
Welch 1986). Many have long been regarded as undesirable An alternative to using adaptedness as the principal cri-
plants by the ranching industry because of their perceived terion for ecotype selection has been to identify native
low palatability to livestock and propensity for increase germplasms with desirable traits such as high winter-forage-
under conditions of abusive grazing. However, they provide quality for wild ungulates (for example, Welch and others
a principal source of browse on winter ranges for both wild 1986). Their use is recommended in artificial seedings with
and domestic ungulates, and undoubtedly are central to the specific management objectives on sites that fall within their
habitat requirements of many other wildlife species. range of adaptation.
SUBGENUS TRIDENTATAE
A. arbuscula Nutt. low sagebrush Widely distributed, Shallow, rocky soils in mtns
mostly intermountain
A. bigelovii Gray Bigelow sagebrush, SW deserts Shallow rocky soils at
rimrock sagebrush middle to low elevations bottoms or
A. cana Pursh silver sagebrush NW Great Plains, N Deep sandy soils in valley
intermountain region snow catchment basins in mtns
& N Sierras
A. nova A. Nels. black sagebrush Widely distributed, Shallow soils over bedrock
mostly intermountain at middle to low elevations region
A. pygmaea Gray pygmy sagebrush Utah & adjacent parts Fine-textured calcareous
of Nevada & Colorado soils at low elevations
A. rigida (Nutt.) Gray stiff sagebrush, Columbia Plateau, Shallow rocky soils over
scabland sagebrush E Washington & Oregon basalt at low elevations
A. tridentata Nutt. big sagebrush Widely distributed, Wide ecological amplitude
W North America
A.t. ssp. tridentata Nutt. basin big sagebrush See species Mostly on deep well-drained
soils of valley bottoms
A.t. ssp. vaseyana (Rydb.) mountain big sagebrush, See species Mostly on coarse soils at
Beetle Vasey sagebrush middle to high elevations benchlands
A.t. ssp. wyomingensis Wyoming big sagebrush See species On coarse to fine soils of
Beetle & Young at middle to low elevation
A. tripartita Rydb. threetip sagebrush Columbia Plateau E Deep to shallow mostly
into Wyoming volcanic soils at low elevations
OTHER SUBGENERA
A. filifolia Torr. sand sagebrush, W Great Plains & Sandy soils at low to middle
old man sagebrush SW deserts elevations
A. frigida Willd. fringed sagebrush W North America Very wide ecological
to central Asia amplitude
A. spinescens D.C. Eat. budsage Widely distributed, Semiarid bottoms, benches,
Picrothamnus desertorum mostly N intermountain & foothills, salt desert shrublands
Nutt. region
Flowering and fruiting. Most North American sage- Figure 1—Artemisia, sagebrush: achenes (cleaned seeds)
brush species flower in late summer or autumn and ripen of A. arbuscula, low sagebrush (top); A. nova, black sage-
fruit from September through December. Seeds of high-ele- brush (middle); and A. tridentata, big sagebrush (bottom).
vation populations generally ripen earlier than those of low-
elevation populations. Budsage, which flowers in March or
April and sets seed in May or June before entering summer
dormancy, is a major exception. The tiny yellowish or
brownish flowers are wind-pollinated and are borne in
groups of about 2 to 70 (depending on species) in small
heads enclosed in overlapping bracts with thin, dry mar-
gins. The numerous heads are arranged in spikelike or open
panicles that occur terminally on the branches of current-
season growth. Each fertile floret within a head may devel-
op into a small, 1-seeded fruit (achene) that lacks any spe-
cial appendages for dispersal (figure 1). The pericarp of the
achene is papery and membranous, whereas the seedcoat of
the enclosed seed is firmer and somewhat shiny. The
endosperm is reduced to a membrane fused to the inner
wall of the seedcoat, whereas the embryo is well-developed
and fills the interior of the seed. Mucilaginous nerves on
Artemisia • 275
the exterior of the pericarp may aid in adhesion to the soil moisture content during storage; and better metered flow
A
surface during radicle penetration (Walton and others 1986). through seeding devices (Welch 1995). On the other hand,
The hypocotyl hairs that develop as a first manifestation of sagebrush seeds are so small that lots at high purity must be
germination have been shown to have a similar function diluted with a carrier in order to achieve realistic seeding
(Young and Martens 1991). rates. Seed size varies substantially among species and also
The fruits fall or are shaken from the plant by wind among populations within species (table 2). Seeding rates
within a few weeks of maturation. The potential yearly seed should take seed size and therefore seed number per unit
production of a single plant of big sagebrush is prodigious, weight into account.
on the order of hundreds of thousands of seeds (Welch and Sagebrush seeds are not long-lived in warehouse stor-
others 1990). However, many factors operate to restrict seed age. Seedlots commonly hold full viability for 2 or 3 years
production in wildland stands, including excessive browsing (Stevens and others 1981). Seedlots of initial low quality
(Fairchild 1991; Wagstaff and Welch 1991), intraspecific lose viability more quickly than high-quality lots. Careful
competition (Fairchild 1991; Young and others 1989), insect attention to moisture content (6 to 8% is optimal) and stor-
and disease attack (Welch and Nelson 1995), and cycles of age at relatively low temperatures (<10 °C) can extend stor-
dry years (Young and others 1989). Sagebrush in field culti- age life to 5 years and possibly longer. Because of late
vation for seed production yields harvestable crops within 2 ripening dates, almost all sagebrush seed is held at least
years of establishment and generally produces high yields 1 year (until the following autumn) before planting.
yearly (Welch and others 1990). Wildland stands vary in the Germination. We have good information on seed ger-
consistency and quality of their seedcrops, depending on the mination patterns for only a few species of sagebrush, but
factors listed above and also on the taxon under considera- evidence indicates that this information may be broadly
tion and on site quality factors. An alternative to field culti- applicable to other species (Meyer and Monsen 1991, 1992;
vation for needed ecotypes that produce minimal numbers of Meyer and others 1990). Variation in germination response
seeds in the wild is management of wildland stands through is generally related to climatic variation at collection sitse
thinning or protection from browsing to maximize seed pro- rather than to specific or subspecific identity. Timing mecha-
duction. nisms are keyed to a pattern of winter or early spring germi-
Seed collection, cleaning, and storage. Sagebrush nation and early spring emergence for all species examined
seeds (actually, the 1-seeded achenes) are collected by beat- so far. Sagebrush seeds are characterized by relatively low
ing or stripping them into shoulder hoppers, baskets, or levels of dormancy at dispersal but may be more or less
bags. They are much more easily harvested by beating when strongly light-requiring or slow to germinate. Both dorman-
dry than wet. Usually there is considerable among-bush cy and light requirement are removed through moist chilling
variation in ripening date within a population. Harvesting (stratification), so that most seeds become germinable dur-
too late may result in a high proportion of half-filled and ing winter. After-ripening in storage also tends to reduce
aborted fruits. dormancy or light requirement. In the studies of big sage-
Purity on a dry-weight basis before cleaning is often brush germination ecophysiology cited above, patterns of
10% or less. Passage through a barley de-bearder serves to variation in dormancy, light requirement, and germination
break up the inflorescences to release the seeds; hammer- rate were shown to be linked to collection site habitat. Seeds
milling is less desirable, as it tends to make the material of populations from montane habitats with long, snowy win-
ball-up and may damage the seeds (McArthur and others ters tend to be dormant, light-requiring, or slow to germinate
2004). Screening and fanning can then be used to remove at autumn temperatures. These traits protect them from
sticks and other debris, resulting in lot purities of 50% or autumn germination, a risk for seeds dispersed in early
more. This cleaning procedure may strip many of the seeds autumn into relatively mesic environments. Seeds of popula-
of their membranous pericarps, but this has no effect on via- tions from habitats with short, mild winters and hot, dry
bility or storage life, although it may reduce seed dormancy springs are dispersed later. They tend to be nondormant, not
or light requirement somewhat (Meyer and others 1990; light-requiring, and quick to germinate, which facilitates
Welch 1995). Sagebrush seeds are not easily damaged in germination during winter, when conditions are most favor-
cleaning equipment because of their small size (Welch able on warm desert fringe sites.
1995). Advantages to cleaning to relatively high purities Germination under winter snowcover conditions is also
include improved accuracy in quality evaluation; reduced keyed to habitat. Seeds of montane populations may take 20
shipping, handling, and storage costs; better regulation of weeks or more to germinate under conditions simulating
Sources: Belcher (1985), Deitschman (1974), McArthur and others 2004, Meyer (1990).
* Subspecies not distinguished.
Sources: All data from Meyer (1990) except for A. tridentata lots stored 4 months (Meyer and others 1990).
* Expressed as percentage of viable seeds.
Artemisia • 277
others 1959; Wilson 1982) probably stems from the fact that centage considerably. In research, we routinely exclude such
A
sagebrush seeds have no need for protection from germina- fruits and only occasionally encounter recently collected or
tion at summer temperature, as they almost never encounter properly stored lots whose viability is less than 90%. The
summer regimes. Budsage, a species with seeds that ripen in seed analyst has a more difficult problem and we hope that
early summer but do not germinate until the following early the advent of better cleaning procedures for sagebrush seeds
spring, shows strong germination suppression at summer will help to make these difficulties unnecessary.
temperatures (Meyer and Kitchen 1997). Nursery and field practice. Many species of sage-
Germination testing for sagebrush species is a relatively brush have been successfully grown both as container and as
straightforward process. We recommend a 21-day test at 15 bareroot stock (Long 1986; McArthur and others 2004;
or 20 °C with light as the standard for big sagebrush and Welch and others 1986). In addition, the practice of trans-
black sagebrush, with a 2-week chill (stratification) for more planting wildlings has been particularly successful with
dormant lots (AOSA 1993; Meyer and others 1988a, 1988b). sagebrush (McArthur and others 2004). Planting is best car-
Because many dormant sagebrush seeds will not germinate ried out in early spring, when moisture conditions are favor-
in response to a short chilling, the viability of ungerminated able. Container stock requires careful hardening (Long
seeds should be evaluated with tetrazolium. 1986).
Tetrazolium staining also represents an alternative to the Sagebrush species are among the few native shrubs that
germination test for evaluating the viability of sagebrush can be reliably established by direct seeding. Seedling
seeds. The fruits are pierced with a needle through the cen- recruitment is regularly observed on small-scale distur-
ter of the cotyledon region of the embryo (figure 2) and bances in wildland stands where competition from adult
immersed in buffered 1% tetrazolium chloride solution for 6 plants and from weedy understory species is not too severe.
hours at 25 °C. The pericarp and seedcoat are then slit with Artificial seeding should mimic natural processes of disper-
a needle at the cotyledon end, and the embryos are squeezed sal. Seeding in late fall or onto snow in winter is most suc-
out. Embryos stained a uniform bright red may be classed as cessful; spring-seeding is not recommended. Seeding rates
viable. that result in an average of 50 to 100 seeds/m2 (5 to 9/ft2)
The principal source of inconsistent results in sagebrush usually result in adequate stands. This corresponds to a rate
seed testing comes from decisions made during the purity of 0.1 to 0.2 kg/ha (1.5 to 3 oz/ac) on a pure live seed (PLS)
evaluation. The inclusion of non-viable half-filled and abort- basis for a lot that averages 4 million seeds/kg (113,400/oz).
ed fruits in the pure seed fraction has little effect on the The seeds should be planted at or near the surface of a firm
value for percentage purity but can affect the viability per- but not compacted seedbed. Because of their small size,
drilling or broadcasting seeds into a loose, sloughing
seedbed may bury them too deeply for successful emergence
Figure 2—Artemisia nova, black sagebrush: longitudinal (Jacobsen and Welch 1987; Monsen and Meyer 1990).
section through an achene. Sagebrush plants are generally quite long-lived, and suc-
cessful recruitment from seeds every year is not necessary
for perpetuation of the stand. On drier sites, winter snowfall
may be inadequate for successful emergence and establish-
ment in a typical year, especially on the bare, windswept
surfaces of artificial seedings. Small-scale use of snow-
fencing has been shown to enhance sagebrush stand estab-
lishment under such marginal conditions (Monsen and oth-
ers 1992). Once nuclear stands are established, the shrubs
themselves may act as both seed sources and living snow
entrapment structures. It is common to see newly establish-
ing seedlings spread out on the leeward side of an adult
plant, where drifting snow accumulates.
Sagebrush species have been successfully seeded onto
drastic disturbance sites such as mine- waste rock dumps,
but adding topsoil (even minimally) often greatly enhances
References
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1993. Rules for testing implications for community restoration. In: Monsen SB, Kitchen SG, eds.
seeds. Journal of Seed Technology 16(3): 1–113. Proceedings, Ecology and Management of Annual Rangelands. 1992 May
Bai Y, Romo JT. 1994. Germination of previously-buried seeds of fringed 18–22; Boise, ID. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-313. USDA Forest Service,
sage (Artemisia frigida). Weed Science 42: 390–397. Intermountain Research Station: 244–251.
Beetle AA. 1960. A study of sagebrush: the section Tridentatae of Meyer SE, Kitchen SG. 1997. Unpublished data. Provo, UT: USDA Forest
Artemisia. Wyoming Agriculture State Bulletin 368: 1–83. Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.
Belcher E. 1985. Handbook on seeds of browse-shrubs and forbs.Tech. Meyer SE, Monsen SB. 1990. Seed-source differences in initial establishment
Pub. R8-8. Atlanta: USDA Forest Service, Southern Region. 246 p. for big sagebrush and rubber rabbitbrush. In: McArthur ED, Romney EM,
Billings WD. 1990. Bromus tectorum, a biotic cause of ecosystem impover- Smith SD,Tueller PT, eds. Symposium, Cheatgrass Invasion, Shrub Die-off
ishment in the Great Basin. In: Woodell GM, ed.The Earth in transition: and Other Aspects of Shrub Biology and Management. 1989 April 5–7;
patterns and processes of biological impoverishment. Cambridge, UK: Las Vegas. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-276. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service,
Cambridge University Press: 301–322. Intermountain Research Station: 200–208.
D’Antonio CM,Vitousek PM. 1992. Biological invasions by exotic grasses, Meyer SE, Monsen SB. 1991. Habitat-correlated variation in mountain big
grass-fire cycle, and global change. Annual Review of Ecology and sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. vaseyana: Asteraceae) seed
Systematics 23: 63–88. germination patterns. Ecology 72: 739–742.
Deitschman GH. 1974. Artemisia, sagebrush. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech Meyer SE, Monsen SB. 1992. Big sagebrush germination patterns: subspecies
coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. and population differences. Journal of Range Management 45: 87–93.
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 235–237. Meyer SE, Kitchen SG, Wilson GR, Stevens R. 1988a. Proposed rule for
Fairchild JA. 1991. Plant community and shrub vigor responses to one-way Artemisia nova. Association of Official Seed Analysts Newsletter 62(1):
and two-way chaining of decadent big sagebrush on a critical mule deer 16–17.
winter range in east central Utah [PhD dissertation]. Provo, UT: Meyer SE, Kitchen SG, Wilson GR, Stevens R. 1988b. Proposed rule for
Brigham Young University. Artemisia tridentata. Association of Official Seed Analysts Newsletter
Hassan MA, West NE. 1986. Dynamics of soil seed pools in burned and 62(1): 17–18.
unburned sagebrush semi-deserts. Ecology 67: 269–272. Meyer SE, Monsen SB, McArthur ED. 1990. Germination response of
Jacobsen TLC, Welch BL. 1987. Planting depth of ‘Hobble Creek’ mountain Artemisia tridentata to light and chill: patterns of between-population
big sagebrush. Great Basin Naturalist 47: 497–499. variation. Botanical Gazette 152: 176–183.
Long LE. 1986. Container nursery production of Artemisia and Chryso- Monsen SB. 1995. Personal communication. Provo, Utah: USDA Forest
thamnus species. In: McArthur ED, Welch BL, comps. Proceedings, Service Rocky Mountain Research Station.
Symposium on the Biology of Artemisia and Chrysothamnus. 1984 July Monsen SB, Meyer SE. 1990. Seeding equipment effects on establishment of
9–13; Provo, UT. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-200. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest big sagebrush on mine disturbances. In: Munkshower F, ed. Fifth Billings
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 395–396. Symposium on Disturbed Land Rehabilitation.Volume 1, Hardrock waste,
McArthur ED, Welch BL, eds. 1986. Proceedings, Symposium on the analytical, and revegetation. 1990 March 25–30; Billings, MT. Pub. 9003.
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Tech. Rep. INT-200. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain 192–199.
Forest and Range Experiment Station. 398 p. Monsen SB, Richardson BL. 1984. Seeding shrubs and herbs on a semiarid
McArthur ED, Blauer AC, Plummer AP, Stevens R. 1979. Characteristics minesite with and without topsoil. In:Tiedemann AR, McArthur ED, Stutz
and hybridization of important Intermountain shrubs: 3. Sunflower fami- HC, Stevens R, Johnson KL, eds. Proceedings, Symposium on the Biology
ly. Res. Pap. INT-220. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain of Atriplex and Related Chenopods. 1983 May 2–6; Provo, UT. Gen.Tech.
Forest and Range Experiment Station. 82 p. Rep. INT-172. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research
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204–205. Pechanec JF, Plummer AP, Robertson JH, Hull AC. 1944. Eradication of big
Meyer SE. 1990. Unpublished data. Provo, UT: USDA Forest Service, Rocky sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata). Res. Pap. 10. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest
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in northern Utah. In: Munkshower F, ed. Fifth Billings Symposium on in Utah. Pub. 68-3. Salt Lake City: Utah Division of Fish and Game
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Unit: 184–191. shrub and forb species through fifteen years of warehouse storage.
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A brush enhanced through short-term protection from heavy browsing. sagebrush seed production. In: McArthur ED, Romney EM, Smith S,
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Forest and Range Experiment Station. 10 p.
Asimina Adans.
pawpaw
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Growth habit and use. Of the 9 species of the genus Figure 1— Asimina, pawpaw: fruits and seeds of A. parvi-
Asimina, seed data are available only for small-flower paw- flora, small-flower pawpaw (top) and A. triloba, pawpaw
(bottom).
paw and pawpaw (table 1). Both form shrubs or small decid-
uous trees (Vines 1960). Their fruits provide food for
wildlife and are also eaten by humans. There is some inter-
est in commercial fruit production of pawpaw, and cultivar
selections have been made since the early part of the century
(Peterson 1990).
Flowering and fruiting. Flowers of the pawpaw
genus are solitary, perfect, and greenish purple. They appear
in the spring during March to May, about the same time as
the leaves. In natural stands of pawpaw, pollination and
seed set are very poor (Norman and others 1992; Willson
and Schemske 1980), conditions that discourage commercial
productions. In central Illinois, pawpaw averaged 3.5 to 10.5
seeds/fruit (Willson and Schemeske 1980). Pawpaw fruits
are 5 to 17 cm long, whereas those of small-flower pawpaw
are 5 to 12 cm long (Halls 1973). Pawpaw fruits are green-
ish yellow before maturity and turn brown to black as they and have a yellowish or orange flesh with a much better
ripen in July to August and fall to the ground in August and taste (Bonner and Halls 1974). The seeds themselves are
September. Seeds of small-flower pawpaw mature while the oblong, rounded, flat, and bony (figures 1 and 2).
fruit coat is still green (Norman and others 1992). The fruits Collection and extraction. Pawpaw fruits should be
are fleshy berries that contain several dark brown, shiny picked or shaken from the trees as soon as the flesh is soft.
seeds (figure 1). The fleshy part of the fruit is considered The seeds may be extracted by macerating the fruits in
edible, but there appear to be 2 different fruit types. Those water and floating off the pulp, but the entire fruit may be
with white flesh are barely edible, whereas others are larger sown (Bonner and Halls 1974). Seed yield, purity, and
Asimina • 281
soundness are as follows (Bonner and Halls 1974; Vines Figure 2—Asimina parviflora, small-flower pawpaw:
A longitudinal section through a seed.
1960):
References
Bonner FT, Halls LK. 1974. Asimina, pawpaw. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech.
coord. Seeds of woody plants of the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450.
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 238–239.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant propa-
gation. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p.
Halls LK. 1973. Flowering and fruiting of southern browse species. Res. Pap.
SO-90. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment
Station. 10 p.
Norman EM, Rice K, Cochran S. 1992. Reproductive biology of Asimina
parviflora (Annonaceae). Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 119: 1–5.
Peterson RN. 1990. Pawpaw (Asimina). In: Moore JN, Ballington JR, eds.
Genetic resources of temperate fruit and nut crops. Acta Horticulturae
290: 567–600.
Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
Willson MF, Schemske DW. 1980. Pollinator limitation, fruit production, and
floral display in pawpaw (Asimina triloba). Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical
Club 107: 401–408.
Atriplex L.
saltbush
Susan E. Meyer
Dr. Meyer is a research plant ecologist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus Shrubby saltbush species are extremely important as for-
Atriplex L.—saltbush—is cosmopolitan in distribution and age plants for livestock and wildlife in arid and semiarid
comprises about 250 species of annual and perennial herbs, regions worldwide (Goodall 1982). They provide palatable
subshrubs, and shrubs (McArthur and Sanderson 1984). and nutritious feed on a year-round basis and are especially
Most species are halophytic (at least to some degree) and important on winter ranges. As a consequence, they have
occupy salt desert, coastal strand, or saltmarsh habitats. been studied and used in range rehabilitation far more exten-
Shrubby species are important in arid and semiarid regions sively than most other shrubs (Jones 1970; McArthur and
throughout the world, with centers of diversity in south cen- Monsen in press; Osmond and others 1980; Tiedemann and
tral Asia, Australia, temperate South America, and western others 1984). There is also considerable interest in utilizing
North America. Western North America is an area of partic- saltbush species as irrigated forage crops on marginal, salin-
ularly high genetic diversity, with more than 20 principal ized agricultural land (Glenn and others 1992; Watson and
species of shrubs and subshrubs as well as countless hybrids O’Leary 1993). Some shrubby saltbush species are also used
and variants; 12 of these species are described here (table 1). extensively for the stabilization of drastically disturbed land
The genus is in a state of active evolution in the Inter- because of their ability to establish and grow on harsh sites.
mountain region (Stutz 1978, 1984). The drying up of Geographic races and hybrids. An important feature
Pleistocene lakes 10,000 or so years ago opened up vast of infraspecific variation in many saltbush species is the
areas of unexploited salt-desert habitat. Shrubby saltbush presence of series of races at different ploidy levels
species migrated in rapidly from several directions and (Sanderson and others 1990; Stutz 1978; Stutz and
hybridized freely, giving rise to the rich complex of forms in Sanderson 1979). Polyploid races often show dwarfing and
the region today. adaptation to extremely harsh environments. The tendency
In terms of areal extent, the most important species are
to evolve polyploid races has also been important in facili-
probably shadscale and Gardner saltbushes (Blauer and oth-
tating the formation and stabilization of interspecific
ers 1976). These species are regional dominants over mil-
hybrids. Saltbush species possess a wealth of genetic vari-
lions of hectares in the Intermountain and northwestern
ability, both within and among ploidy levels for numerous
Great Plains regions, respectively. Shadscale saltbush mostly
traits that may be important for survival both of local popu-
occurs with winterfat (Krascheninnikovia lanata (Pursh)
lations in nature and of the products of artificial seedings.
Guldenstaedt.); budsage (Artemesia spinescens D.C. Eaton);
Hybrid forms, even those that have not yet formed stabilized
and other salt-desert shrubs, whereas Gardner saltbush is
populations in nature, may possess attributes that make them
able to maintain codominance with perennial grasses (Stutz
useful in specific disturbed land rehabilitation applications
1978). In the Mojave Desert, desert-holly is an upland land-
(Stutz 1995).
scape dominant, particularly in the Death Valley region,
Common garden studies with fourwing saltbush have
whereas allscale saltbush is a dominant species on playa
demonstrated ecotypic variation in growth form, growth
fringes. Fourwing saltbush is the most widely distributed
shrubby saltbush in North America and is often an important rate, winter-greenness, drought and cold hardiness, palatabil-
component of grassland communities, especially in the ity, nutrient status, seed size, and seed germination and
Chihuahuan Desert and western Great Plains. Sickle and establishment traits (McArthur and others 1983; Springfield
basin saltbushes are inconspicuous but common components 1970; Van Epps 1975; Welch and Monsen 1981, 1984). It is
of northern Intermountain salt-desert vegetation.
Atriplex • 283
A
A. canescens (Pursh) Nutt. fourwing saltbush, chamisa Widely distributed in W North America Wide ecological amplitude; mostly in
sandy uplands & gravelly washes
A. confertifolia (Torr. & Frem.) shadscale saltbush, spiny Widely distributed in W North America Wide ecological amplitude; mostly on silt
S.Wats. saltbush, sheepfat or clay soils of low to moderate salinity
A. corrugata S.Wats. mat saltbush Colorado Plateau N to Restricted to heavy saline clays on shale
Red Desert of Wyoming outcrops
A. cuneata A. Nels. Castle Valley saltbush Colorado Plateau Restricted to heavy saline clays on shale
outcrops
A. falcata (M.E. Jones) Standl. sickle saltbush, falcate saltbush, N Great Basin Subsaline soils of benches & alluvial fans
Nuttall saltbush
A. gardneri (Moq.) D. Dietr. Gardner saltbush NW Great Plains,Wyoming, & Montana Mostly on saline or subsaline clay soils
A. hymenelytra (Torr.) S.Wats. desert-holly Mojave Desert Clay flats & gravelly fans under extreme aridity
A. lentiformis (Torr.) S.Wats. big saltbush, quailbush, lensscale Mojave Desert; cismontane & Mostly around saline springs & seeps
coastal California
A. obovata Moq. mound saltbush, broadscale saltbush Chihuahuan Desert Saline flats
A. polycarpa (Torr.) S.Wats. allscale saltbush, cattle saltbush, Mojave Desert; Central Valley Saline & subsaline slopes & flats
desert saltbush of California
A. semibaccata R. Br. Australian saltbush, trailing saltbush Introduced from Australia Along roadsides & in saline disturbances
A. tridentata Kuntze basin saltbush, trident saltbush NE Great Basin, & Uinta Basin of Utah Saline flats
Sources: Ansley and Abernathy (1985), Meyer (1996), Mikhail and others (1992),Young and others (1980).
likely that other widely distributed saltbush species possess Figure 1—Atriplex, saltbush: bract-enclosed utricles
(“fruits”) of; A. canescens, fourwing saltbush (top), A. confer- A
similar ecotypic differentiation. Many researchers who have
tifolia, shadscale saltbush (middle); and A. falcata, sickle salt-
studied saltbush establishment from artificial seedings bush (bottom).
emphasize the importance of using not just adapted species,
but locally adapted ecotypes of these species (Bleak and
others 1965; McArthur and others 2004; Nord and others
1971; Plummer and others 1968; Springfield 1970).
Cultivar development for saltbush has also emphasized
ecotypic adaptation. The 3 released cultivars of fourwing
saltbush were developed for warm winter (‘Marana’), inter-
mountain cold desert (‘Rincon’), and northwestern Great
Plains (‘Wytana’) planting applications (Carlson 1984).
‘Wytana’ was developed from a fourwing saltbush ×
Gardner saltbush hybrid entity known as Atriplex aptera
A. Nels.
Flowering and fruiting. The flowers of saltbush are
yellowish or brownish, inconspicuous, and unisexual, and
are borne in the axils of the upper leaves or in terminal
spikes. The male flowers consist of groups of stamens with- (figure 1). The bracteoles are not fused to the utricle, but in
in a shallow 5-toothed calyx; petals are absent. Both petals native species they usually enclose it so completely that
and calyx are absent in the female flowers. The naked 1- threshing is not possible. In Australian saltbush, the bracte-
seeded ovary is borne instead between 2 leaflike bracteoles. oles are not fused across the top and the utricles may be
Most native shrubby saltbush species are dioecious, that threshed free (figure 2) (Foiles 1974).
is, the sexes are borne on separate plants. Fourwing saltbush The saltbush seed itself is contained within the utricle
possesses a unique gender system known as trioecy, with and is generally not separable from it (figure 3). The disk-
genetically male plants, genetically female plants, and a shaped seed has a curved embryo on its outer perimeter and
third category that can switch sexes depending on environ- a scanty provision of storage tissue (in this case perisperm)
mental conditions (McArthur and others 1992). Australian in the center. In most native species, the ovule (and thus the
saltbush is monoecious, that is, the flowers are unisexual seed) is inverted within the fruit, meaning that the radicle
and both sexes are present on the same plant. end points upward. This facilitates radicle emergence from
Saltbush species flower in early to late summer, and between the bracteoles, which often have their only opening
fruits ripen from early fall to winter. The flowers are wind- or weakest point at the tip. The degree of woody thickening
pollinated. The leaflike bracteoles stay green and photosyn- of the bracteole walls varies among and within species and
thetically active until quite late in the ripening process and may be linked to the persistent seed dormancy often encoun-
probably provide resources directly to the ripening ovule tered.
within. The fruits often persist on the bushes at least until Seed collection, cleaning and storage. Saltbush seeds
spring, and it is not uncommon to find 2 generations of are harvested by stripping or beating the ripe fruits into
fruits on a plant simultaneously. Harvestable seedcrops of shoulder hoppers, boxes, or bags, or onto tarps spread under
fourwing saltbush are produced on average 3 of every 5 the bushes. Vacuum or reel-type harvesters may also be used
years, whereas some of the more xerophytic species, such as (McArthur and others 2004). In field cultivation, ‘Wytana’
mat saltbush, produce good seedcrops only occasionally. fourwing and Gardner saltbushes have been cut and wind-
The terminology describing the fruits of saltbush has rowed with a hay-swather and then combine-harvested.
been a source of confusion. The family Chenopodiaceae as a Seeds shattered during combining were salvaged using a
whole is characterized by a fruit type known as a utricle, vacuum harvester (Carlson and others 1984).
which is defined as a small, bladdery 1-seeded fruit with a Seed collections of fourwing and shadscale saltbushes
thin, membranous pericarp (Munz 1974). The utricle in salt- are commonly hammermilled to remove the bracteole wings
bush is contained within the bracteoles, which enlarge in (McArthur and others 2004). This reduces bulk by half and
size and become more or less sealed, forming a false-fruit, facilitates cleaning, handling, and seeding through conven-
which will hereafter be referred to simply as “the fruit” tional drills. Hammermilling has little effect on dormancy of
Atriplex • 285
Figure 2—Atriplex semibaccata, Australian saltbush: carried out before harvest. Fills of 40% or less are usually
A bract-enclosed utricle considered substandard. Such a seedlot would not normally
be worth the expense of harvesting, cleaning, and transport-
ing. Field-grown saltbush seedlots often have higher fill than
wild-collected lots (Briggs 1984; Carlson and others 1984;
McArthur and others 1978; Stroh and Thornberg 1969).
Most of the weight of a saltbush fruit is in the bracteole
walls, even after de-winging. Filled and unfilled fruits thus
have similar density, making it impossible to remove
unfilled fruits by fanning. Also, the variation in fruit size
within a lot is not highly correlated with fill, so that screen-
ing to improve fill is not feasible.
Fruit size varies considerably among and within lots,
especially for fourwing and shadscale saltbushes (table 2).
Polyploid races often have smaller fruits. This variation in
fruit size makes it essential to explicitly consider number of
fruits per unit weight as well as fill percentage when plan-
ning seeding rates.
Seeds of most saltbush species are long-lived in dry
Figure 3—Atriplex semibaccata, Australian saltbush: exter- storage and can be stored in an open warehouse for at least
or views in 2 planes of utricles removed from their bracts
and a longitudinal section through a utricle. 5 to 10 years with little or no loss of viability (Springfield
1970; Stevens and others 1981). Controlled storage presents
little advantage over open warehouse storage for these
species. Attack by seed-destroying insects such as dermestid
beetles (Dermestes spp.) during storage has been reported
(Haws and others 1984)
Germination. Seeds of saltbush species as a group
are characterized by high levels of dormancy and complex
multiple dormancy mechanisms. The most universal charac-
teristic seems to be the tendency to lose dormancy, or after-
ripen, under dry conditions. For less-dormant species and
lots this is manifested as an increase through time in the
fraction of seeds germinable without pretreatment, or in the
fraction of seeds able to germinate under non-optimum con-
ditions, for example, osmotic stress. For more dormant
species, after-ripening is manifested as an increase through
time in storage in the response to dormancy-breaking treat-
ments such as chilling (table 3).
In general, species and populations from warm desert
and California cis-montane habitats produce seeds that are
fourwing saltbush but may speed the germination of nondor- relatively nondormant, after-ripen quickly, and do not
mant seeds somewhat (Gerard 1978; Springfield 1970). require chilling (Cornelius and Hylton 1969; Edgar and
Collections of wingless small-fruited species such as Springfield 1977; Kay and others 1977a&b; Mikhiel and
Gardner, sickle, and mat saltbushes do not require hammer- others 1992; Springfield 1970; Warren and Kay 1984; Young
milling. Seed collections of all species may be cleaned by and others 1980) (tables 1 and 3). Seeds of species and pop-
screening and blowing in a fanning mill (McArthur and ulations from cold desert, foothill, and northern plains habi-
others 2004). tats often require chilling for germination even after an
Even relatively high-quality seedlots of saltbush may after-ripening period (Ansley and Abernethy 1985; Meyer
average only 50% fill. A cut test to determine fill is often and others 1998) (tables 1 and 3). Shadscale saltbush seeds
A. canescens
intact 17–120 8–55 68 31
de-winged 29–326 13–148 118 54
A. confertifolia 65–277 30–126 142 65
A. corrugata — — 174 79
A. cuneata — — 180 82
A. falcata — — 434 197
A. gardneri 210–262 95–119 233 106
A. hymenelytra — — 477 217
A. lentiformis 900–2,000 409–909 1,957 890
A. obovata — — 457 208
A. polycarpa 785–1,370 357–623 1,078 490
A. semibaccata 165–317 75–144 — —
A. tridentata 120–370 55–168 280 128
A. canescens 3 15 °C 32 4–96 23
24 15 °C 54 10–100 23
3 4 wk @ 1–15 °C 41 4–93 23
24 4 wk @ 1–15 °C 69 21–100 23
A. confertifolia 3 5/15 °C 0 0–1 15
36 5/15 °C 2 0–6 15
3 16 wk @ 1–5/15 °C 16 0–47 15
36 16 wk @ 1–5/15 °C 46 4–83 15
A. gardneri 3 Mean multiple treatments 26 — 1
15 Mean multiple treatments 48 — 1
A. hymenelytra 8 5/15 °C 33 — 1
A. lentiformis 8 10/20 °C 56 29–71 3
24 Mean multiple treatments 39 39–40 2
24 Best treatment 10/25 %C 68 — 1
A. obovata 8 10/20 °C & 0.05 M NaCl 42 — 1
A. polycarpa 8 10/20 °C 53 11–94 2
8 20/30 °C 50 21–79 2
A. semibaccata 24 Mean multiple treatments 41 37–46 3
24 Best treatment 10/25 °C 69 — 1
Sources: Ansley and Abernathy (1985), Meyer (unpublished data), Mikhail and others (1992),Young and others (1980).
Note: Germination period is 28 days and germination is expressed as percentage of filled fruits, except for A. gardneri data, where germination is 14 days, and for A.
lentiformis and A. semibaccata data, where germination is expressed as percentage of total fruits.
rarely become germinable without chilling, regardless of weakening the bracteole walls. Actual rupture of the mem-
their habitat of origin (Mikhiel and others 1992) (table 3). branous utricle wall is usually damaging to the seed (Sabo
Other treatments that have sometimes been found to and others 1979). After-ripening may also act on the bracte-
remove dormancy include scarification and leaching (Ansley ole walls, as evidenced by work with a seedlot of the South
and Abernethy 1985; Graves and others 1975; Nord and American species A. repanda Phil., for which optimum time
Whitacre 1957; Sabo and others 1979; Twitchell 1955; for sulfuric acid scarification decreased from 7 to 2 hours
Young and others 1980). Scarification apparently acts by during 5 years in dry storage (Fernandez 1978). The bracte-
Atriplex • 287
ole walls may also be weakened by the action of saprophytic tudinal bisection (Belcher 1985). The utricles are then
A
fungi under field conditions (Vest 1952). Hand-removal of pierced in the center and placed in 1% tetrazolium solution
the bracteoles promotes increased germination in many for several hours, and the staining patterns on the linear
species but does not necessarily remove dormancy com- embryos are evaluated. Saltbush seed quality is somewhat
pletely, suggesting that either the utricle wall or the testa difficult to evaluate using tetrazolium. Staining is often
interacts with the embryo to impose dormancy even in weak and incomplete for embryos that are germinable,
excised fruits. The failure of excised fruits to germinate sug- resulting in viability estimates that tend to be low (Ansley
gests a chilling requirement. Sanderson and others (1990) and Abernethy 1984; Springfield 1970).
found that excised fruits of warm-winter populations of Nursery and field practice. Saltbush species have
shadscale saltbush were more likely to germinate without been successfully propagated in the nursery, both as contain-
chilling than those of cold winter populations. er stock (Ferguson 1980) and as bareroot stock (Shaw and
Leaching probably promotes germination by removing Monsen 1984). Most of the information available is for four-
some inhibitor from the fruit, either inorganic salts such as wing saltbush, but it is probably broadly applicable to other
sodium chloride (Beadle 1952) or an organic inhibitor such species. Propagation may be from seeds or from stem cut-
as saponin (Nord and Van Atta 1960). It is important to tings (McArthur and others 1984; Richardson and others
remove excess water after soaking, as germination can be 1979). The latter are advantageous for obtaining clonal
inhibited by inadequate aeration (Beadle 1952; Young and material of known sex for the establishment of seed orchards
others 1980). Rates of leaching under field conditions are with optimal sex ratios (McArthur and others 1978). When
probably controlled by the osmotic potential of the seedbed. high-quality seedlings of an adapted ecotype are outplanted
In the highly saline litter underneath bushes of many during periods of optimal moisture, survival can be high
species, the salts in the bracteole walls would make only a (Foiles 1974; McArthur and others 2004). Wildlings of four-
minor contribution. wing saltbush have also been used as transplant stock.
The complex dormancy mechanisms shown by many Saltbush species may also be direct-seeded successfully,
saltbush species function both to time germination appropri- although results have been inconsistent (McArthur and oth-
ately within a given year and to ensure carryover of a per- ers 2004). Pitfalls include poor choice of species or eco-
sistent seedbank between years (Garvin and others 1996). types; using poor-quality seeds (low fill); planting too deep;
Seed pretreatments to circumvent these mechanisms have planting at the wrong season; excessive competition from
limited application in field plantings but may be useful in weeds or seeded grasses; interactions with pathogenic fungi
seed quality evaluation and in nursery propagation. such as damping-off diseases; and seedling predation by
Seed quality evaluation in saltbush is complicated by grasshoppers, rabbits, or other animals. Fourwing saltbush
dormancy problems. Seedlots are usually cleaned to high fruits are apparently not particularly attractive to granivo-
purity, making the purity analysis quite simple. For four- rous rodents (Everett and others 1978), possibly because of
wing saltbush, we proposed a 21-day germination test at the saponin content of the bracts (Sanderson and others
15 °C, a recommendation that was subsequently accepted as 1986), so pre-emergence seeds predation is rarely a prob-
the official testing procedure (Meyer and others 1986). The lem. Seeding rates of 4 to 8 kg/ha (3.5 to 7 lb/ac) have been
most important determinant of viability is the fill percent- recommended for de-winged lots of fourwing saltbush. This
age, that is, the proportion of fruits that contain an undam- corresponds to about 200 to 530 live seeds/m2 (25 to 50/ft2)
aged seed with a well-developed embryo. Post-test viability for a seedlot of average fruit size (122,000/kg) and fill
determination is essential in fourwing saltbush. Germination (50%). In regions of low and unpredictable precipitation,
percentage may vary as a function of after-ripening status, saltbush seedlings may fail to emerge or survive in dry years
or the test temperature may not be optimum for a particular even when all planting guidelines are followed. As annual
lot. Post-test evaluation is even more essential for species of recruitment is not necessary for the perpetuation of natural
saltbush with less-known germination requirements. stands, this poses a problem only in artificial revegetation.
In practice, few seedlots of saltbush are evaluated using Once seedlings establish, however, young plants grow rapid-
a germination test. Because of dormancy problems, the ly (figure 4) and may become reproductively mature in their
tetrazolium test has become the standard method. The gener- second growing season.
al method is to soak the intact (bracteoled) fruit for several The large fruits may create the impression that saltbush
hours or overnight and extract the utricle by either prying should be drill-seeded at considerable depth, but seed
open the bracts, clipping at the stem end, or off-center longi- reserves are small, as bracteole tissue is not nutritive. Most
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Notes 17. Davis: University of California, Department of Agronomy and shrub and forb species through fifteen years of warehouse storage. Great
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McArthur ED, Sanderson SC. 1984. Distribution, systematics, and evolution Stroh JR,Thornberg AA. 1969. Culture and mechanical harvest of fourwing
of Chenopodiaceae: an overview: In:Tiedemann AR, McArthur ED, Stutz saltbush grown under irrigation. Journal of Range Management 22: 60–62.
HC, Stevens R, Johnson KL, comps. Proceedings, Symposium on the Stutz HC. 1978. Explosive evolution of perennial Atriplex in western North
Biology of Atriplex and Related Chenopods; 1983 May 4–6; Provo, UT. America. Great Basin Naturalist Memoirs 2: 161–168.
Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-172. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Stutz HC. 1984. Atriplex hybridization in western North America. In:
Forest and Range Experiment Station: 14–23. Tiedemann AR, McArthur ED, Stutz HC, Stevens R, Johnson KL, comps.
McArthur ED, Blauer AC, Noller GL. 1984. Propagation of fourwing salt- Proceedings, Symposium on the Biology of Atriplex and Related
bush by stem cuttings. In:Tiedemann AR, McArthur ED, Stutz HC, Chenopods. 1983 May 4–6; Provo, UT. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-172. Ogden,
Stevens R, Johnson KL, comps. Proceedings, Symposium on the Biology of UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Atriplex and Related Chenopods; 1983 May 4–6; Provo, UT. Gen.Tech. Station: 25–27.
Rep. INT-172. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest Stutz HC. 1995. Personal communication. Provo, UT: Brigham Young
and Range Experiment Station: 261–264. University.
McArthur ED, Freeman CD, Luckinbill LS, Sanderson SC, Noller GL. 1992. Stutz HC, Sanderson SC. 1979. The role of polyploidy in the evolution of
Are trioecy and sexual lability in Atriplex canescens genetically based? Atriplex canescens. In: Goodin JR, Northington DK, eds. Arid land plant
Evidence from clonal studies. Evolution 46: 1708–1721. resources. Lubbock:Texas Tech University, International Center for Arid
McArthur ED, Monsen SB, Shaw NL. 2004. Chenopod shrubs. In: Monsen and Semi-arid Land Studies: 615–621.
SB Stevens R. Shaw NL, eds. Restoring western ranges and wildlands. Tiedemann AR, McArthur ED, Stutz HC, Stevens R, Johnson KL, comps. 1984.
USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. Proceedings, Symposium on the Biology of Atriplex and Related
McArthur ED, Plummer AP, Van Epps GA, Freeman DC, Jorgensen KR. 1978. Chenopods; 1983 May 4–6; Provo, UT. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-172. Ogden,
Producing fourwing saltbush seed in seed orchards. In: Heyder DC, ed. UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Proceedings, 1st International Rangeland Congress. Denver: Society for Station: 308 p.
Range Management: 406–410. Twitchell LT. 1955. Germination of fourwing saltbush as affected by soaking
McArthur ED, Stevens R, Blauer AC. 1983. Growth performance compar- and chloride removal. Journal of Range Management 8: 218–220.
isons among 18 accessions of fourwing saltbush (Atriplex canescens) at Van Epps GA. 1975. Winter injury to fourwing saltbush. Journal of Range
two sites in central Utah. Journal of Range Management 36: 78–81. Management 28: 157–159.
Meyer SE, Allen PS, Wilson GR, Davis TD, Davis JN, Stevens R, Jorgensen K. Vest ED. 1952. A preliminary study of some of the germination characteris-
1986. Proposed rule for Atriplex canescens. Association of Official Seed tics of Atriplex confertifolia [MS thesis]. Salt Lake City: University of Utah.
Analysts Newsletter 60(1): 14–15. 46 p.
Meyer SE, Carlson SL, Garvin SC. 1998. Seed germination regulation and Warren DC, Kay BL. 1984. Pericarp inhibition of germination in Atriplex
field seed bank carryover in shadscale (Atriplex confertifolia: confertifolia. In:Tiedemann AR, McArthur ED, Stutz HC, Stevens R,
Chenopodiaceae). Journal of Arid Environments 38: 255–267. Johnson KL, comps. Proceedings, Symposium on the Biology of Atriplex
Mikhiel G, Meyer SE, Pendleton RL. 1992. Variation in germination response and Related chenopods; 1983 May 4–6; Provo, UT. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-
to temperature and salinity in shrubby Atriplex species. Journal of Arid 172. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range
Environments 22: 39–49. Experiment Station: 158–174.
Munz PA. 1974. A flora of southern California. Berkeley: University of Watson MC, O’Leary JW. 1993. Performance of Atriplex species in the San
California Press. 1086 p. Joaquin Valley, California, under irrigation and with mechanical harvests.
Nord EC, Whitacre JE. 1957. Germination of fourwing saltbush seed Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 43: 255-266.
improved by scarification and grading. Forest Research Notes 125: 1–5. Welch BL, Monsen SB. 1981. Winter crude protein differences among
Nord EC, Hartless PF, Nettleton WD. 1971. Effects of several factors on accessions of fourwing saltbush grown in a common garden. Great Basin
saltbush establishment in California. Journal of Range Management 24: Naturalist 41: 343–346.
216–223. Welch BL, Monsen SB. 1984. Winter nutritive value of accessions of four-
Nord EC,Van Atta GR. 1960. Saponin: a seed germination inhibitor. Forest wing saltbush grown in a common garden. In: Tiedemann AR, McArthur
Science 6: 350–353. ED, Stutz HC, Stevens R, Johnson KL, comps. Proceedings, Symposium on
Osmond CB, Bjorkman O, Anderson DJ. 1980. Physiological processes in the Biology of Atriplex and Related Chenopods. 1983 May 4–6; Provo,
plant ecology: toward a synthesis with Atriplex. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. UT. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-172. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service,
Plummer AP, Monsen SB, Christensen DR. 1966. Fourwing saltbush, a shrub Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 138–144.
for future game ranges. Pub. 66-4. Salt Lake City: Utah State Department Young JA, Kay BL, George H, Evans RA. 1980. Germination of three species
of Fish and Game: 1–12. of Atriplex. Agronomy Journal 72: 705–709..
Plummer AP, Christensen DR, Monsen SB. 1968. Restoring big game range
in Utah. Pub. 68-3. Salt Lake City: Utah Division of Fish and Game. 183 p.
Baccharis L.
baccharis
Robert P. Karrfalt and David F. Olson, Jr.
Mr. Karrfalt is director of the USDA Forest Service’s National Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, Georgia;
Dr. Olson retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Southeastern Forest Experiment Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus hairs 13 mm long or less (figures 1 and 2). Achenes are dis-
Baccharis is composed of more than 400 species native to persed by wind soon after ripening (table 2). Seedcrops are
tropical and subtropical America (Barkley 1986; Correl and borne annually.
Johnson 1970). Some species are used as ornamentals, some Quantities of seeds produced on an individual plant can
for erosion control, and some for medicinal purposes (Olson be very high in full sunlight. A single plant of eastern bac-
1974). There are 21 species native to the United States (table charis has been estimated to produce over 1 million seeds
1); 14 of which are found in the far western United States. (Westman and others 1975). Dense shade (3% of full sun-
Baccharis plants are of poor forage value and some are poi- light) reduced seed production dramatically but did not
sonous to livestock and can cause contact dermatitis in totally eliminate it (Westman and others 1975).
humans. On the positive side, baccharis species have Collection of fruits; extraction and storage of seeds.
metabolites that have antitumor, antimicrobial, and insectici- The ripe fruits of baccharis are either collected by hand or
dal properties (Kuti and others 1990). Coyotebrush has a brushed onto cloth or plastic sheets spread beneath the
special use in southern California as a fire protection plant shrubs. The fruits should be spread out to dry in a warm
(Olson 1974). Desertbroom has been found suitable for cop- well-ventilated room or in the sun, protected from the wind.
per mine reclamation in Arizona (Day and Ludeke 1980). When dried, the fruits may be rubbed between the hands or
Eastern baccharis is reported to be an important flower for treated in bulk to remove the pappus. Alternatively, full
beekeepers in Queensland, Australia (Westman and others inflorescences can be fed into a brush machine, where the
1975). Many species have good salt tolerance, and saltwater fruit is threshed from the stems and the pappus removed.
falsewillow and eastern baccharis are known for good The seeds can then be cleaned with air, screens, or other
growth in soil conditions that range from pure sand to pure equipment described in the seed handling chapter.
clay (Dirr and Heuser 1987). Sometimes the entire fruits are used without removing the
Growth habit varies considerably among the different pappus. The number of fruits per weight for coyotebrush is
species; a few examples follow. Saltwater falsewillow is a about 180,800/kg (82,000/lb) (1 sample); for mulefat
small evergreen shrub to 2.4 m high; eastern baccharis is baccharis, about 110,250/kg (50,000/lb) (1 sample) (Olson
deciduous to 3.6 m in height; Rooseveltweed is also decidu- 1974). Cleaned seeds of baccharis species can be stored dry
ous, growing to 2.7 m or more; coyotebrush is a low ever- at 1.7 to 4.5 °C in airtight containers (McBride 1964). Data
green shrub, 15 to 30 cm high, spreading out as much as published by Westman and others (1975) indicate that seeds
3 m; mulefat baccharis is an evergreen shrub to 3.6 m of eastern baccharis could be stored for 1 to 4 months at
(LHBH 1976). Desertbroom is a shrub to 3.6 m (Sundberg room temperature. After 4 months of room temperature stor-
1993). age, the final germination was actually slightly higher than
Flowering and fruiting. The white or yellowish male with seeds stored for only 1 month. Panetta (1979) found
and female flowers, borne separately on different plants, are that seeds stored in an atmosphere of 33% relative humidity
in heads that occur in clusters. In eastern baccharis, the male maintained their germination of 98% for 12 months at 20 °C
flowers are yellow and the female are white (Westman and but that their percentage germination had dropped to 67%
others 1975). The female flowers develop into compressed, by 24 months. For seeds stored in the laboratory in a con-
usually 10-ribbed achenes, tipped by a pappus of bristly stant 70% relative humidity, germination began to drop at 6
Baccharis • 291
B Table 1—Baccharis, baccharis: nomenclature and occurrence
months. By contrast, seeds buried in the soil in the field at a 20 °C but germinated at higher numbers between 15 and 20
depth of 5 cm maintained their germination rate at 99% for °C. Light was necessary for germination of eastern baccharis
2 years. Numbers of cleaned seeds per weight (determined and mulefat baccharis. Without light, no or minimal germi-
from 1 sample, except for coyotobrush, which was deter- nation was obtained. In another experiment with eastern bac-
mined from 2) for 4 species are as follows (McBride 1964; charis (Panetta 1979), alternating temperatures of
Mirov and Kraebel 1939; Olson 1974; Panetta 1979): 19/22 °C partially compensated for the lack of light.
Species seeds/kg seeds/lb However, in this same experiment, it was shown that an
saltwater falsewillow 4,989,600 2,268,000 8-hour photoperiod produced twice as much germination as
eastern baccharis 10,000,000 4,500,000 constant light. Alternating temperatures were used and the
coyotebrush 8,316,000 3,780,000 effective range was from 19/22 °C to 19/24 °C. The ratio of
mulefat baccharis 11,000,000 5,000,000 red to far red light was also examined by Panetta (1979), but
it was found to be important only when constant light was
Germination tests. Tests have been completed in 15 used. Therefore, either incandescent or fluorescent light for
to 30 days at diurnally alternating temperatures of 8 hours each day would give good germination results for
30/20 °C (table 3). When comparing germination at constant eastern baccharis. No pregermination treatments are needed
10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 °C, Westman and others (1975) (Emery 1964; McBride 1964; Mirov and Kraebel 1939),
found that eastern baccharis germinated most quickly above although prechilling at 5 °C for 1 week gave higher germi-
Figure 2—Baccharis viminea, mulefat baccharis: achene Figure 3—Baccharis pilularis, coyotebrush: seedling
with pappus (left) and longitudinal section through an development 60 days after germination.
achene (right).
Baccharis • 293
B Table 3 —Baccharis, baccharis: germination test conditions and resulting germination
Sources: McBride (1964, 1969), Mirov and Kraebel (1939), Olson (1974), Panetta (1979).
References
Barkley TM. 1986. Flora of the great plains. Lawrence: University Press of McBride JR. 1969. Plant succession in the Berkeley Hills [PhD
Kansas. 181 p. dissertation]. Berkeley: University of California.
BONAP. 1996. The digital checklist of the vascular flora of North America Mirov NT, Kraebel CJ. 1939. Collecting and handling seeds of wild plants.
[access website at For. Pub. 5. Washington, DC: USDA Civilian Conservation Corps. 42 p.
http://shanana.berkeley.edu/bonap/checklist_intro.html]. Olson DF. 1974. Baccharis, baccharis: In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds
Correll DS, Johnston MC. 1970. Manual of vascular plants of Texas. of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington,
Renner:Texas Research Foundation. 1881 p. DC: USDA Forest Service: 244–246.
Day AD, Ludeke KL. 1980. Reclamation of copper mine wastes with Panetta FD. 1979. Germination and seed survival in the woody weed,
shrubs in the southwestern U.S.A. Journal of Arid Environments 3: groundsel bush (Baccharis halimifolia L.). Australian Journal of Agricultural
107–112. Research 30: 1067–1077.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant Panetta FD. 1990. The effects of shade upon seedling growth in groundsel
propagation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. bush (Baccharis halimifolia L.) Australian Journal of Agricultural Research
239 p. 28(4): 681–690.
Emery D. 1964. Seed propagation of native California plants. Leaflets of Radford AE, Ahles HE, Bell CR. 1964. Guide to the vascular flora of the
the Santa Barbara Botanic Garden 1(10). Carolinas. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Book Exchange.
Everett P C. 1957. A summary of the culture of California plants at the 383 p.
Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden, 1927–1950. 223 p. Sundberg S. 1993. Baccharis. In: Hickman JC, ed.The Jepson manual: higher
Kuti JO, Jarvis BB, Mokhtari-Rejali N, Bean G.A. 1990. Alleochemical regula- plants of California. Berkeley: University of California Press: 209–210.
tion of reproduction and seed germination of two Brazilian Baccharis USDA Forest Service. 1948. Woody-plant seed manual. Misc. Pub. 654.
species by phytotoxic tricothecenes. Journal of Chemical Ecology Washington, DC. 416 p.
16(12): 3441–3453. Van Auken OW, Bush JK. 1990. Influence of light levels, soil nutrients, and
LHBH [Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium]. 1976. Hortus third. New York: competition on seedling growth of Baccharis neglecta (Asteraceae).
Macmillan. 1290 p. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 117(4): 438–444.
McBride JR. 1964. Invasion of park grasslands by Baccharis pilularis DC [MS Westman WE, Panetta FD, Stanley TD. 1975. Ecological studies on repro-
thesis]. Berkeley: University of California. duction and establishment of the woody weed, groundsel bush
(Baccharis halimifolia L.: Asteraceae). Australian Journal of Agricultural
Research 26: 855–870.
Bauhinia L.
bauhinia
Kristina F. Connor
Dr. Connor is a plant physiologist at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Auburn University, Alabama
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. There are about (figure 1) are flat and dark, and dehiscent or indehiscent
600 species of the bauhinia genus found in the tropical legumes (pods) varying in length from 8 to 60 cm (Bailey
regions of the world (Larson 1974). The genus includes 1941). Flowers of butterfly bauhinias have only 1 fertile
trees, vines, and shrubs that are frequently planted for their
showy flowers and ornamental foliage (Bailey 1941; Neal Figure 1—Bauhinia variegata, orchidtree: flowers and
1965). Practical usage of the bark of orchidtree as an astrin- legumes (from Little and others 1974).
gent in tanning and dyeing and of the leaves and flower buds
as a vegetable has been reported (Bailey 1941). Seeds of
some bauhinia species have served as a human food source
(malucreeper, B. vahlii Wight & Arn.) (Ramasastri and
Shenolikar 1974); a source of vitamin A (butterfly bauhinia)
(Essien and Fetuga 1989); and as a possible pest control
agent (malucreeper) (Freedman and others 1979). Butterfly
bauhinia is used for fuelwood on Puerto Rico and for fences
on Jamaica (Little and Wadsworth 1964), but it is considered
a weed on Guam (McConnell and Muniappan 1991). Four
species, all small evergreen or deciduous trees, have been
planted in the continental United States (table 1). Hawaii has
13 species of introduced bauhinias (Neal 1965), whereas
Puerto Rico has at least 5 (Francis and Liogier 1991).
Flowering and fruiting. The large 5-petaled orchid-
like flowers of bauhinias occur in racemes and range in
color from white to deep purple and yellow. The fruits
Sources: Francis and Liogier (1991), Little and others (1974), Neal (1965).
Bauhinia • 295
B Table 2—Bauhinia, bauhinia: flower and fruit morphology
Species Flowering time Petal color Fertile stamens/flower Legume
B. monandra All year Pink with red dots 1 15–30 cm long, pointed at apex,
twists as opens
B. purpurea Autumn & winter Deep pink to purple 3–4 15–30 cm long, black, thin, twists as opens
stamen per flower and a calyx splitting along one side (Little Ramasastri and Shenolikar 1974; Sherwani and others 1982;
and Wadsworth 1964; table 2). Flowers of purple bauhinias Zaka and others 1983).
have 3 to 4 fertile stamens and a 2-parted calyx, whereas Collection, storage, and germination. Seeds may be
those of orchidtrees have 5 to 6 fertile stamens/flower and a stripped from unopened legumes (pods). Some and others
calyx that splits on one side (Little and others 1974; Neal (1990) reported satisfactory germination after 52 weeks
1965). Information on pollinators is scarce, but Heithaus and when seeds of Bauhinia rufescens Lam. were scarified using
others (1982) report that B. ungulata L. is pollinated by 97% sulfuric acid (H2SO4), washed, dried, sealed into con-
bats and that 59.4% of flowers examined show evidence of tainers, and stored at 4 °C. Another study determined that
herbivory. seeds of orchidtree had a higher germination percentage
Butterfly bauhinia seeds are elliptic, flat, and 1 cm long; when stored after cleaning; however, viability was lost with-
fruits are present throughout the year (Little and Wadsworth in 3 years (Athaya 1985). Because Bauhinia is a hard-seed-
1964). Purple bauhinia seeds are shiny-brown, rounded, flat, ed Fabaceae, dry seeds should store well for many years.
and range in length from 1.3 to 1.6 cm; flowering and fruit- Loss of viability after 3 years could be attributable to high
ing occur in autumn and winter months (Little and others moisture content or mechanical damage. Germination stud-
1974). Orchidtree seeds are fairly large, about 1.3 cm in ies of orchidtree using excised embryos produced results
diameter, and the fruits mature in late spring or early sum- comparable to experiments using intact seeds (Babeley and
mer. Bauhinia megalandra seeds are shown in figure 2 Kandya 1986). Francis and Rodríguez (1993) reported
and 3. Rugenstein and Lersten (1981) report the presence of excellent germination of bauhinia without scarification
stomata on the seeds and pods of purple bauhinias and (table 3).
orchidtrees. In general, bauhinia seeds contain high amounts Nursery practices. Bauhinias species grow easily
of linoleic and oleic fatty acids and low amounts of myristic from seeds and bloom within 3 to 4 years (Bailey 1941).
and linolenic fatty acids (Balogun and Fetuga 1985; Some species can be propagated from suckers but rarely
from cuttings.
Seeds/wt Germination *
Species /kg /lb Period (days) Percentage
References
Athaya CD. 1985. Ecological studies of some forest tree seeds: 2. Seed stor- Larson SS. 1974. Pollen morphology of Thai species of Bauhinia
age and viability. Indian Journal of Forestry 8(2): 137–140 [Forestry (Caesalpiniaceae). Grana 14: 114–131.
Abstracts 47: 3250; 1986]. Little EL Jr, Wadsworth FH. 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the
Babeley GS, Kandya AK. 1986. Excised-embryo test of seed germinability: Virgin Islands. Agric. Handbk. 249. Washington DC: USDA Forest
an evaluation through the seeds of six dry-deciduous tropical forest tree Service: 168–170.
species. Journal of the Japanese Forestry Society 68(5): 197–199 Little EL Jr, Woodbury RO, Wadsworth FH. 1974. Trees of Puerto Rico and
[Forestry Abstracts 47: 5543; 1986]. the Virgin Islands. Agric. Handbk. 449. Washington DC: USDA Forest
Bailey LH. 1941. The standard cyclopedia of horticulture. New York: Service: 266–269.
MacMillan. 1200 p. McConnell J, Muniappan R. 1991. Introduced ornamental plants that have
Balogun AM, Fetuga BL. 1985. Fatty acid composition of seed oils of some become weeds on Guam. Micronesia 3 (supplement): 47-49 [Weed
members of the Leguminosae family. Food Chemistry 17(3): 175–182 Abstracts 41: 3097; 1992].
[Nutritional Abstracts and Review Series A 55: 6146; 1985]. Neal MC. 1965. In gardens of Hawaii. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press.
Essien AI, Fetuga BL. 1989. Beta-carotene content and some characteristics 924 p.
of under-exploited seed oils of forest trees in Nigeria. Food Chemistry Ramasastri BV, Shenolikar IS. 1974. Nutritive value of two unusual foods:
32(2): 109–116 [Forestry Abstracts 50: 5676; 1989]. adda (Bauhinia vahlii) and marking nut (Semecarpus anacardium) kernels.
Francis JK, Liogier HA. 1991. Naturalized exotic tree species in Puerto Indian Journal of Medical Research 62(11): 1673–1677 [Nutritional
Rico. Gen.Tech. Rep. SO-82. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Abstracts and Review 1973–1976].
Southern Forest Experiment Station. 12 p. Rugenstein SR, Lersten NR. 1981. Stomata on seeds and fruits of Bauhinia
Francis JK, Rodríguez A. 1993. Seeds of Puerto Rican trees and shrubs: (Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae). American Journal of Botany 68(6):
second installment. Res. Note SO-374. New Orleans: USDA Forest 873–876 [Seed Abstracts 9: 575; 1989].
Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 5 p. Sherwani MRK, Siddiqui SF, Ahmad I, Hasan SQ, Osman SM. 1982. Studies
Freedman B, Nowak LJ, Kwolek WF, Berry EC, Guthrie WD. 1979. A on Leguminosae seed oils. Journal of the Oil Technologists’ Association
bioassay for plant-derived pest control agents using the European corn of India 14(2): 66–67 [Tropical Oil Seeds Abstracts 1976+].
borer. Journal of Economic Entomology 72(4): 541–545 [Rev. Applied Some LM, Sary H, Bellefontaine R. 1990. Cold chamber storage of seeds
Entomology, Series A: 1973+]. of six Sahelo-Sudanese tree species. Bois et Forets des Tropiques 225:
Heithaus ER, Stashko E, Anderson PK. 1982. Cumulative effects of 42–46 [Forestry Abstracts 53: 6262].
plant–animal interactions on seed production by Bauhinia ungulata, a Zaka S, Saleem M, Shakir N, Khan SA. 1983. Fatty acid composition of
neotropical legume. Ecology 63(5): 1294–1302 [Herbage Abstracts Bauhinia variegata and Bauhinia malabarica seed oils: comparison of their
1973+]. physico-chemical properties. Fette Seifen Anstrichmittel 85(4): 169–170
[Tropical Oil Seeds Abstracts 1976+].
Bauhinia • 297
B Berberidaceae—Barberry family
Berberis L.
barberry
Don Minore and Paul O. Rudolf
Dr. Minore retired from USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Northwest Research Station;
Dr. Rudolf (deceased) retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Forest Experiment Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The barberries common barberries (B. × ottawensis Scheid.), and Japanese
include about 500 species of spiny or unarmed, evergreen or barberry and Julian berberis (Rehder 1940). There are more
deciduous shrubs (rarely small trees) native to Asia, Europe, than 60 crosses within Berberis, 6 in Mahonia, and 4
North Africa, and to North, Central, and South America “mahoberberis” hybrids (Ahrendt 1961).
(Ahrendt 1961). Some authorities consider that the genus Several barberry species are grown as ornamentals
Mahonia, consisting of about 100 species that closely because of their handsome foliage and often attractive flow-
resemble the barberries, should be a section of Berberis ers or fruits (Bailey 1939; Rehder 1940; Schlosser and oth-
(Hitchcock and others 1964), whereas others consider ers 1992). Barberries also are of value for wildlife food
Mahonia to be a separate genus (Ahrendt 1961). The USDA (Decker and others 1991), cover, and erosion-control plant-
plant nomenclature system (USDA NRCS 1999) separates ing. However, Japanese and common barberries, as “inva-
them into 2 separate genera, and that is the authority used sive aliens,” are considered by many to be noxious weeds
for this manual (table 1). Thus, Mahonia is treated separate- (Mack 1991). The names, heights, habits, and ripe fruit col-
ly in a later chapter. The barberry genus is essentially ors of some common species are listed in table 1.
diploid, with 2n = 28 (Cadic 1992). Many interspecific A yellow dye can be extracted from barberry roots, and
hybrids are known, such as those between Japanese and the plants contain many alkaloids (Hussain and others 1984;
Table 1—Berberis, barberry: nomenclature, height, growth habit, and color of ripe fruit
Height at Color of
Scientific name & synonym Common name(s) maturity (m) Growth habit ripe fruits
Sources: Ahrendt (1961), Dirr (1990), Dirr and Heuser (1987), Garrett (1969), Hitchcock and others (1964), McMinn (1951), Rehder (1940), Rudolf (1974),Vines (1960).
Berberis • 299
B Table 2—Berberis, barberry: phenology of flowering and fruiting for 3 species
Sources: Bailey (1939), Loiseau (1945), McMinn (1951), Mirov and Kraebel (1939), NBV (1946), Ohwi (1965), Plummer and others (1965), Radford and others (1964),
Rudolf (1974),Van Dersal (1938),Vines (1960),Wappes (1982),Wyman (1947).
* Fruits of these 3 species often remain on bushes over winter.
† To 1,525 m in the Alps.
not increase fruit attractiveness, but physical alteration of the Germination tests. Germination of seeds from sever-
fruit surface reduces fruit selection by birds (Allen and Lee al barberry species has been tested in sand-filled flats, in
1992). Seed dispersal by both birds and mammals is wide- petri dishes, on paper or blotters, or in standard germinators.
spread (Rudolf 1974; Vines 1960). Day temperatures of 16 to 30 °C, night temperatures of
Collection of fruit; extraction and storage of seeds. 13 to 21 °C, and germination periods of 20 to 95 days have
Ripe barberry fruits may be picked by using protective been used. Results are summarized in table 4. For Japanese
gloves, or they may be flailed onto cloths or receptacles and common barberries, the Association of Official Seed
spread beneath the bushes. The ripe fruits may be run Analysts (AOSA 1993) recommends germination of excised
through a macerator or blender with water and the pulp then embryos in covered petri dishes at temperatures of 18 to
screened out or floated off. The seeds should then be dried 22 °C for 10 to 14 days. This method may be satisfactory
superficially and either sown immediately or stored in sealed for other barberry species.
containers at temperatures slightly above freezing (Heit Nursery practice. Whole berries or (preferably)
1967a; NBV 1946; Rudolf 1974). Seed purity and sound- cleaned seeds may be sown in the fall, or stratified seeds
ness for the species included here have been as high as 90 to may be sown in the spring. Injury from molds is more likely
99% (Davis 1927; Rafn and Son nd; Rudolf 1974). Seeds of if whole berries are used (Chadwick 1936). Fall-sown beds
Japanese and common barberries remained viable for at should be mulched until germination begins (NBV 1946).
least 4 years when held at 1 to 3 °C in sealed containers The seeds should be covered with 0.3 to 1.3 cm (1/8 to
(Heit 1967b), which indicates that these species are ortho- 1/ in) of soil plus 0.6 cm (1/ in) of sand (Rudolf 1974).
2 4
dox in storage behavior. Fruit yields, seed yields, and num- Germination is epigeal (Terabayashi 1987), and seedlings
bers of seeds per weight for 3 species are listed in table 3. develop rapidly (figure 2). In a sowing of common barberry,
Pregermination treatments. Seeds of some barberry 22% of the seeds survived to produce shrubs (Swingle
species have embryo dormancy that requires cold stratifica- 1939). Barberries may be field-planted as 2+0 stock (Rudolf
tion to provide prompt germination. Dirr and Heuser (1987) 1974).
recommend 1 to 2 months for wildfire and Japanese barber- The barberries can be propagated from rooted stem cut-
ries, and 2 to 3 months for boxleaf, paleleaf, cutleaf, tings. Several deciduous species are best rooted when prop-
Darwin, Julian, and Korean barberries. Germination data for agated from softwood cuttings collected in the summer, but
3 species are found in table 4. However, a simple cold strati- many of the evergreen species root better when hardwood
fication is not always successful. Immature or improperly cuttings are collected in the autumn or winter (Dirr and
developed embryos may be present in some barberry seeds, Heuser 1987). Both should be treated with indole butyric
and maximum germination may require warm incubation, acid (IBA) rooting hormone in talc or in solution.
followed by cold stratification as in the closely related
Mahonia genus (Dirr and Heuser 1987; McLean 1967).
Under natural conditions, barberry seeds germinate in the
spring following seed dispersal (Kern 1921).
Table 4—Berberis, barberry: stratification periods, germination test conditions, and results for 3 species
Cold
strati- Daily Germination test conditions Germination rate % germination
fication* light Temp (°C) Amount Avg Purity Soundness
Species (days) (hrs) Medium Day Night Days (%) Days (%) Samples (%) (%)
Sources: Davis (1927), Heit (1968a,b), McLean (1967), Mirov and Kraebel (1939), Morinaga (1926), Plummer and others (1968), Rafn and son (nd), Rudolf (1974), Swingle (1939),Vines (1960).
* Cold stratification temperatures ranged from -1 to 5 °C.
† Twenty-one to 27 °C during the day and 10 to 16 °C during the night.
Berberis
•
301
B
References
B
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Davis OH. 1927. Germination and early growth of Cornus florida, Sambucus Mosch J, Zeller W. 1989. Bekampfung des Feuerbrandes (Erwinia amylovora)
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Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, orna- NBV [Nederlandsche Boschbouw Vereeniging]. 1946. Boomzaden:
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Fleurat-Lessard P, Millet B. 1984. Ultrastructural features of cortical Acta Oecologica, Oecologica Plantarum 10(3): 321–328 [Biological
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Wyman D. 1947. Seed collection dates of woody plants. Arnoldia 7(9):
53–56.
Betula L.
birch
Robert P. Karrfalt
Mr. Karrfalt is director of the USDA Forest Service’s National Seed Laboratory,
Dry Branch, Georgia
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The birch- Some individuals are precocious in flowering and this
genus—Betula—consists of about 40 to 50 species of decid- appears to be under genetic control (Huhtinen and
uous trees and shrubs occurring in the cooler parts of the Yahyaoglu 1974). Clausen (1980) reported on a progeny test
Northern Hemisphere (Weaver 1978). Several species pro- of 147 open-pollinated yellow birch families from 21 stands.
duce valuable lumber. Other species are useful for ornamen- He found that some female-flowering began at 6 years from
tal plantings because of their attractive growth habit, foliage, seed, but this occurred in only 1% of the trees. By age 9,
and bark. Nearly all species provide food and cover for 14% of the trees were producing seeds. Male-flowering
wildlife, and some are valuable because they seed-in commenced 1 year later than female-flowering. Seedlings
promptly on harvested or burned lands. The 14 species from northern sources tended to flower earlier than those
native to the Unites States are listed in table 1, along with from southern sources. In greenhouse conditions with irriga-
several species that are introduced or are referenced in the tion, fertilization, and CO2-enriched air, European white
seed literature. birch seedlings have produced male catkins as early as 9
Flowering and fruiting. The flowers are monoecious months and commercial quantities of seed at 5 years
and borne in catkins. Staminate catkins are formed in late (Lepisto 1973).
summer or autumn, remain naked during winter, and open Birches are known to hybridize readily. These hybrids
after considerable elongation in the spring (table 2). The pis- appear to be at least partially fertile, allowing for the pro-
tillate catkins, which are cone-like with closely overlapping duction of second generation hybrids and backcrossing to
scales, are born terminally on short, spur-like lateral branch- the parent species (Barnes and others 1974).
es and appear with the leaves (table 2). When the female The holartic lygaeid—Kleidocerys resedae (Panzer)—
catkins (strobiles) ripen in late summer or autumn (table 2), feeds on the seeds of European white birch and cause pre-
they become brown and woody and are either erect or pen- mature drop of catkins and seed failure. The feeding does
dulous (figure 1). Each scale may bear a single small, not affect the vigor of the parent plant, even though the
winged nut (seed) (figures 2 and 3) that is oval, with 2 per- insects can be quite numerous and visible (Wheeler 1976).
sistent stigmas at the apex. The seeds turn from greenish tan Seed production is usually regular and abundant.
to light brown or tan when mature (Brinkman 1974). Seeds Bjorkbom and others (1965) reported that paper birch pro-
disperse from late fall until the following spring (Houle and duced a higher proportion of viable seeds in good seed years
Payette 1990; Matlack 1989). Although seeds can begin to than it did during poor seed years. The percentage of viable
disperse in late summer, these early-shed seeds may be of birch seeds can be estimated by examining the seeds on a
poor quality. Seeds of yellow birch shed in August were light table (Patterson and Bruce 1931). The seeds are prima-
found to not be viable. Viable seeds were not released in rily dispersed by wind as they are shed from the catkins.
meaningful amounts until September, with the maximum of Wind can also blow seeds along the surface of the snow up
good seeds being released in October (Houle and Payette to 80 m from the mother tree. This secondary dispersal may
1990). After seedfall, the strobiles slowly disintegrate on the be the more effective method; it has been predicted to
trees, with the axes persisting on the branchlets. increase sweet birch seed dispersal by a factor of 3.3 over
Seed production. Birch tends to flower at the rela- that of aerial dispersal alone (Matlack 1989). Ford and oth-
tively young age of 10 to 15 years (Lepisto 1973) (table 3). ers (1983) trapped about 5% of the total seed-fall from
round-leaf birch at nearly 100 m from the parent tree.
Betula • 303
B Table 1—Betula, birch: nomenclature and occurrence
Sources: Ahlgren (1957), Brinkman (1974), Damberg (1915), Fernald (1950), NBV (1946), Sarvas (1952),Van Dersal (1938),Wappes (1932).
Although an abundance of seeds can be found in the forest directly into bags rather than allowed to fall onto the ground
soil, these seeds are short-lived. Most seeds are nonviable or tarps, which can result in loss of the seeds. However,
after the second or third year (Granstrom 1987; Granstrom seeds can also be collected from paved surfaces in urban
and Fries 1985; Johnson 1975; Moore and Wein 1977; areas.
Perala and Alm 1989; Steijlen and Zackrisson 1986). The Seed extraction. Freshly collected strobiles can be
abundance of seeds in the forest soil is, therefore, likely sup- subject to heating because they usually are at least some-
ported by regular replenishment from new crops (Komarova what green. They should be spread out to dry for several
1986). A rare case of excessive seed production has been weeks until they begin to disintegrate. Low relative humidity
observed to lead to crown deterioration and reduced growth is the most important factor in drying the strobiles. Matlack
of the parent trees (Gross 1972). (1989) found that sweet birch strobiles released their seeds
Seed collection. Birch seeds are collected by picking at low humidity anywhere in the temperature range of –14 to
or stripping the strobiles from standing trees or shrubs or 16 °C. Once the strobiles begin to fall apart, they can be
from trees recently felled in logging operations. This is best shattered by rubbing or shaking, and the seeds can be sepa-
done while strobiles are still green enough to hold together. rated from most of the scales and debris by screening and
Because ripe strobiles shatter readily, they are usually put fanning. Round-hole screens of the following sizes have
Betula • 305
Figure 1—Betula, birch: ripe female strobiles; B. pendula, Figure 3—Betula nigra, river birch: longitudinal section
B European white birch (top right); B. populifolia, gray birch through a nut (seed).
(bottom left); B. papyrifera, paper birch (bottom middle);
and B. lenta, sweet birch (bottom right).
B. allenghaniensis 30 1800 40 2
B. davurica 19.5 1883 — 2
B. lenta 24 1759 40 1–2
B. nana 1.8 1880 — —
B. nigra 30 1736 — —
B. papyrifera 21 1750 15 2
B. pendula 19.5 Long 15 2–3
B. populifolia 12 1750 8 1
B. pubescens 19.5 1789 15 2–3
B. pumila 3 1762 — 1–2
(1996) found that not only did prechilling result in faster increased by providing prechilling (Nagada and Black
and higher germination, but it also improved the ability to 1977). Therefore, prechilling can reduce the requirement for
germinate at temperatures below the optimum. light when growing plants under artificial conditions. This
Furthermore, the birch genus is divided into 2 groups in might provide some cost savings during the germination
regards to prechilling: those that will germinate in the dark phase by reducing lighting expense. Reducing the light
with adequate prechilling and those that require light. For requirement might also allow birch to be germinated in a
example, European white birch (Black and Wareing 1955, greenhouse with other plants that had low light require-
Vaartaja 1956) and paper birch (Bevinton and Hoyle 1981) ments. On the other hand, if there is not time for pre-
can germinate in the dark, whereas monarch and Japanese germination chilling, then light sufficient to keep dark
white birches and Erman birch require light regardless of periods less than about 6 hours may fully replace the need
prechilling (Nagata and Black 1977; Nagata and Tsuda for prechilling.
1975; Odani and Anma 1986). Giberellic acid (GA3) in con- It is important to know a seedlot’s characteristics well
centrations of 50 to 100 ppm could substitute for the light when making the refined manipulations of light and
with Erman birch (Odani and Anma 1986). However, in the prechilling suggested above, for prechilling beyond 3 weeks
light-obligatory group, the sensitivity to light is markedly can lead to increased dormancy and obligatory use of light
Betula • 307
Table 5—Betula, birch: germination of 3 seedlots °C for 8 hours and 20 °C for 16 hours with light supplied
B
stored for 8 years at the USDA Forest Service’s during the 30 °C period. Testing by AOSA rules requires
National Tree Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, Georgia planting 4 dishes of 100 seeds each. Should the seedlot be
Moisture Prechilling Percent less than 98% pure, then a partial purity analysis must be
Species content (%) (days) germination done to acquire the needed pure seeds for the germination
test. Because catkin bracts are not removed from many seed-
B. alleghaniensis
1974 — — — lots, the seedlots have low purity and ISTA prescribes test-
1977 5.0 0 45 ing by weighed replicate. In the weighed replicate test, 0.10
1983 — 63 70
1988 7.0 63 67 g of seed are planted in each of the 4 replicates. The number
1991 — 0 32 of normal seedlings per weight of seeds is then reported
1992 — 0 56 instead of a germination percentage. The results of some
1992 — 21 58
B. lenta published test data are presented in table 6.
1974 — 30 54 Nursery practice. Birch seeds can be sown after col-
1977 — —
1983 — 63 72 lection in the late summer or fall, or in the spring after
1988 7.9 63 67 prechilling for 4 to 8 weeks. Seeds are broadcast and cov-
1991 — — — ered as lightly as possible, with about 3 mm (1/16 to 3/16 in)
1992 — 0 45
1992 — 63 37 of soil. The seeds can be sown without covering (Brinkman
B. papyrifera 1974) if adequate irrigation can be supplied, which provides
1974 — — —
1977 7.0 0 76 more light to the seed. Germination is epigeal (figure 4) and
1977 63 82 usually complete in 4 to 6 weeks after spring-sowing. Birch
1983 — 63 87 seedlings require light shade for 2 to 3 months during the
1988 8.9 — —
1991 — 0 4 first summer. Tree percent is low; only 15 to 20% of
1991 — 63 16 European white birch and downy birch seeds will produce
1992 — 0 18
1+0 seedlings (Deasy 1954; Wappes 1932). A seedling den-
sity of 278 to 500/m2 (25 to 45/ft2) is desirable (Heit 1964).
in some sources of paper birch (Bevington 1986; Bevington Stock usually is field planted as 1+0 or 2+0 seedlings. Birch
and Hoyle 1981). Although light use was obligatory in these seeds have shown marked sensitivity to herbicides and
sources of paper birch, the seeds were well sensitized to the insecticides (Weinberger and others 1978; Weinberger and
light and germination was prompt and complete. Bevington Vladut 1981).
(1986) further found that seeds from different sources varied In a study of open-pollinated families of yellow birch
in the range of temperatures at which they would germinate. (Wearstler and Barnes 1977), heavier seeds produced taller
Seeds from northern sources were able to germinate over a seedlings immediately after germination. Seeds from moun-
wider range of temperatures than those from southern tain and more northern sources germinated earlier, but the
sources, mostly because they could germinate at cooler tem- seedlings tended to be shorter. The shorter seedlings and
peratures. Sensitivity to light did not seem to be related to faster germination were generally associated with shorter
geographic source but was universally enhanced in propor- growing season.
tion to the length of prechilling, at least up to 6 weeks as Cherry leaf roll virus is known to be transmitted through
demonstrated by faster and higher germination (Bevington seeds. Transmission of this pathogen is highly variable and
1986). not generally strong. Two generations were estimated to be
Prechilling temperatures need to be close to 2 or 3 °C. enough for the disease to be lost from a population of
A rise in temperature to even 5 °C can increase the time European white birch (Cooper and others 1984).
needed to effectively overcome the dormancy (Bevington Germination on adverse sites. Environmental distur-
and Hoyle 1981; Vanhatalo and others 1996). bances caused by mining operations and air pollution create
Germination tests. The use of light during the test conditions that have been suspected of interferring with nor-
can reduce or eliminate the need for prechilling. However, mal seed germination for birch. The germination of
because some seedlots may benefit from prechilling, a test European white and downy birches was found to be inhibit-
with and a test without prechilling are frequently recom- ed by high zinc concentrations (Brown and Wilkins 1986).
mended (AOSA 1998; ISTA 1996). Tests should be made on Such heavy metal concentrations were thought to be a major
germination paper or sand at alternating temperatures of 30 reason for lack of colonization of these 2 species on mine
Sources: Black and Waring (1954, 1955), Brinkman (1974), Heit (1968), Gorshenin (1941),Yelenosky (1961).
Figure 4—Betula populifoliaa, gray birch: seedling devel- spoil in Wales. On the other hand, Scherbatskoy and others
opment at 1, 10, and 40 days after germination. (1987) found that heavy metals and low pH did not reduce
germination of yellow or paper birch seed samples taken in
Vermont. Reduced regeneration of these 2 species had been
associated with low soil pH and increasing concentrations of
heavy metals believed to be caused by air pollution. In fact,
pH of 3 produced germinations higher than controls or pH
values of 4 or 5. Growth of gray birch on coal mine spoils
in Pennsylvania is likely to be inhibited by the high
temperatures of the soil surface(Pratt 1986).
Betula • 309
Johnson EA. 1975. Buried seed populations in the subarctic forest east of
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semyan, posevy i posadke lesnykh porod [in Russian; Planting and
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Scherbatskoy T, Klein RM, Badger GJ. 1987. Germination responses of forest
Deasy JJ. 1954. Notes on the raising of forest trees in the nursery. Irish
tree seed to acidity and metal ions. Environmental and Experimental
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Botany 27(2): 157–164.
Fernald ML. 1950. Gray’s Manual of Botany. 8th ed. New York: American
Steijlen I, Zackrisson O. 1986. Long-term regeneration dynamics and suc-
Book Co. 1632 p.
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Ford RH, Sharik TL, Feret PP. 1983. Seed dispersal of the endangered Virginia
Journal of Botany 65: 839–848.
round-leaf birch (Betula uber). Forest Ecology and Management 6:
Vaartaja O. 1956. Photoperiodic response in germination of seed of certain
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trees. Canadian Journal of Botany 34: 377–388.
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Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their
melioration]. Moscow. 392 p.
erosion control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC:
Granstrom A. 1987. Seed viability of fourteen species during five years of
USDA 362 p.
storage in a forest soil. Journal of Ecology 75: 321–331.
Vanhatalo V, Leinonen K, Rita H, Nygren M. 1996. Effect of prechilling on the
Granstrom A, Fries C. 1985. Depletion of viable seeds of Betula pubescens
dormancy of Betula pendula seeds. Canadian Journal of Forest Research
and Betula verrucos sown onto some north onto some north Swedish
26: 1203–1208.
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Wappes L. 1932. Wald und Holz ein Nachschlagebuch für die Praxis der
Gross HL. 1972. Crown deterioration and reduced growth associated with
Forstwirte, Holzhändler und Holzindustriellen.Vol. 1, Berlin: J. Neumann.
excessive seed production by birch. Canadian Journal of Botany 50:
872 p.
2431–2437.
Wearstler KA Jr., Barnes BV. 1977. Genetic diversity of yellow birch
Heit CE.1964. The importance of quality, germinative characteristics and
seedlings in Michigan. Canadian Journal of Botany 55: 2778–2788.
source for successful seed propagation and plant production.
Weaver RE Jr. 1978. The ornamental birches. Arnoldia 1978. 38(4):
International Plant Propagators’ Society Proceedings 1964: 74–85.
117–131.
Heit CE. 1967. Propagation from seed: 11. Storage of deciduous tree and
Wheeler AG. 1976. Life history of Kleidocerys resedae on European white
shrub seeds. American Nurseryman 126(10): 12–13, 86–94.
birch and Ericaceous shrubs. Annals of Entomological Society of America
Heit CE. 1968. Thirty-five years’ testing of tree and shrub seeds. Journal of
69(3): 459–463.
Forestry 66(8): 632–634.
Weinberger P, Vladut R. 1981. Comparative toxic effects of some xenobiotics
Huhtinen O,Yahyaoglu Z. 1974. Das frühe Blühen von aus Kalluskulturen
on the germination and early seedling growth of jack pine (Pinus
herangezogenen Pflänzchen bei der Birke (Betula pendula Roth.). Silvae
banksiana Lamb.) and white birch (Betula papyrifera Marsh.). Canadian
Genetica 23(1/3): 32–34.
Journal of Forest Research 11: 796-804.
Houle G, Payette S. 1990. Seed dynamics of Betula alleghaniensis in a decid-
Weinberger P, Pomber L, Prasad R. 1978. Some toxic effects of fenitrothion
uous forest of north-eastern North America. Journal of Ecology 78:
on seed germination and early seedling growth of jack pine, spruce, and
677–690.
birches. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 8: 243–246.
ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1996. International rules for
Yelenosky G. 1961. Birch seeds will germinate under a water–light treatment
seed testing 1996. Seed Science and Technology 24 (Suppl.): 1996.
without pre-chilling. Res. Note 124. Upper Darby, PA: USDA Forest
Iriondo JM, Perez C, Perez-Garcia F. 1992. Effect of seed storage in liquid
Service, Northeast Forest Experiment Station. 5 p.
nitrogen on germination of several crop and wild species. Seed Science
and Technology 20: 165–171.
Callicarpa americana L.
American beautyberry
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Other common names. French-mulberry, Spanish- Figure 1—Callicarpa americana, American beautyberry:
mulberry, sour-bush, sow-berry. seeds.
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. American
beautyberry—Callicarpa americana L.—is a small, woody
shrub of the pine forests in the southern coastal plain. It sel-
dom grows taller than 2 or 3 m. The shrub is common
underneath the pine overstory and along roads and forest
edges, where it grows best. It is found from Virginia to
Florida and west to Texas and Oklahoma; it also occurs in
the West Indies (Vines 1960). American beautyberry is an
important food plant for wildlife, especially birds and east-
ern white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) (Blair and
Epps 1969; Grelen and Duvall 1966; Halls 1973). The
shrub’s well-branched root system and drought resistance
make it desired for erosion control in some areas (Brown
1945), and it is frequently grown as an ornamental because Figure 2—Callicarpa americana, American beautyberry:
of the colorful fruits (Dirr and Heuser 1987). longitudinal section through a seed.
Flowering and fruiting. The small, inconspicuous
flowers are borne in axillary, dichotomous cymes about 8 to
36 mm long. Flowering starts in early June and may contin-
ue into the fall months, even as the fruits mature in August
to November (Dirr and Heuser 1987; Vines 1960). The fruit
is a berrylike, globose drupe, about 3 to 6 mm in diameter,
that is borne in conspicuous axillary clusters on the current
season’s growth. The rose to purple, or sometimes white
(Brown 1945), fruit color gives this plant its ornamental
value. A single fruit cluster may contain as many as 300
fruits, although about 100 is typical. Each fruit usually con-
tains 4 small flattened seeds that are light brown in color
and about 1 to 1.5 mm in length (Grelen and Duvall 1966;
Vines 1960) (figures 1 and 2). Plants begin to bear fruit as
early as 2 years of age, and mature plants may yield over
1/ kg (about 1 lb) annually (Halls 1973).
2
Collection of fruits; extraction and storage of seeds.
Fruits can be easily collected by hand in autumn, when their
rose to purple color indicates maturity. The soft fruits quick-
ly disintegrate when they are macerated with water. Filled
Callicarpa • 311
seeds sink in water, and the pulp can be floated off. Any type Nursery practice. No details of nursery practices for
C
of macerator should work, even laboratory or kitchen American beautyberry are available, except the successful
blenders for small lots. There are about 600 seeds/g fall-sowing mentioned above. The small seed size suggests
(17,000/oz), and good cleaning should yield a purity of prac- that soil or mulch covers after sowing must be very light.
tically 100%. There are no known storage data for this Vegetative propagation is not difficult with this species.
species, but soil seed bank studies show that the seeds will Softwood cuttings taken anytime from June to September
survive for at least 1 year buried in the soil. This fact, plus root well if treated with IBA (1,000 ppm) and placed in a
the hard seedcoat, suggest that these seeds are orthodox in mist bed (Dirr and Heuser 1987).
storage behavior. Long-term storage at temperatures near or
below freezing should be successful with seeds that are dried
References
to below 10% moisture content.
Pregermination treatments and germination tests. Blair RM, Epps EA Jr. 1969. Seasonal distribution of nutrients in plants of
seven browse species in Louisiana. Res. Paper SO-51. New Orleans:
The seeds have a hard seedcoat, and germination is relatively USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 35 p.
slow. One sample stratified for 30 days yielded only 22% Brown CA. 1945. Louisiana trees and shrubs. Bull. 1. Baton Rouge: Louisiana
Forestry Commission. 262 p.
germination in 90 days when tested at an alternating temper- Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop-
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p.
ature of 20 °C at night and 30 °C in the light. Untreated Grelen HE, Duvall VL. 1966. Common plants of longleaf pine–bluestem
seeds sown in the fall, however, were reported to give excel- range. Res. Pap. SO-23. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern
Forest Experiment Station. 96 p.
lent germination in the spring (Dirr and Heuser 1987). There Halls LK. 1973. Flowering and fruiting of southern browse species. Res.
Paper SO-90. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest
are no official test prescriptions for American beautyberry. Experiment Station. 10 p.
Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
Dr. Stein is a forest ecologist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Northwest
Research Station, Corvallis, Oregon
Synonyms. Libocedrus decurrens Torr., Heyderia kinds of soil and is one of the most prominent conifers on
decurrens (Torr.) K. Koch. serpentine soils. Typically, it is a component of mixed
Other common names. California incense-cedar, conifer forest and may make up as much as 50% of the total
pencil cedar, pecky cedar. stand (Powers and Oliver 1990).
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. Incense-cedar Trees are harvested primarily for lumber and for round
was once classified as the only species in the genus or split wood products. The wood is variable in color,
Libocedrus native to the United States (Harlow and others durable, light, moderately soft, uniformly textured, easy to
1979; Little 1979), but recent taxonomic changes have split and whittle, and finishes well. Incense-cedar is also
included it as 1 of 3 species in the genus Calocedrus Kurz. used as a pulp additive and for making a variety of specialty
Regional genetic variation within incense-cedar is small, but items, the best known being the wooden pencil (Betts 1955;
12-year growth of trees from southern California was less Panshin and others 1964). Boughs, particularly those bear-
than that of trees from more northerly regions (Rogers and ing staminate cones, are harvested commercially for decora-
others 1994). Recognized cultivars under the former classifi- tions (Schlosser and others 1991), and young trees are a
cation include L. decurrens cv. aureovariegata Beissner, minor component of the Christmas tree trade.
L. decurrens cv. columnaris Beissner, L. decurrens cv. First cultivated in 1853, ornamental specimens with
compacta Beissner, and L. decurrens cv. glauca Beissner shapely crowns have grown well in many places outside of
(Harrison and Dallimore 1966; Rehder 1940). their native range in the Pacific Northwest—in New
Mature trees of this evergreen conifer vary in height England and in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States
from 15 to 46 m and from 0.3 to 2.13 m in diameter (Jepson and western, central, and southern Europe (Edlin 1968;
1910; Sargent 1961; Sudworth 1908). A maximum circum- Harrison and Dallimore 1966; Jelaska and Libby 1987;
ference of 12.9 m (van Pelt 2001) and a maximum height of Sargent 1961). Within its native range, incense-cedar is
68.6 m have been reported (Stein 1974). Young trees gener- commonly planted for highway landscaping, screenings, and
ally have dense pyramidal to columnar crowns; older trees home-site improvement.
are characterized by more open, irregular crowns; rapidly Young incense-cedars are sometimes browsed extensive-
tapering trunks with buttressed bases; and deeply furrowed ly (Stark 1965), but in general, the species rates low to mod-
and ridged bark. erate in value as wildlife browse (Longhurst and others
The range of incense-cedar spans about 15 degrees of 1952; Sampson and Jespersen 1963; Van Dersal 1938). Its
latitude, from the southeastern slopes of Mount Hood in seeds are eaten by small mammals (Martin and others 1951)
Oregon southward within and adjacent to the Cascade, but are not a preferred food of chipmunks (Tevis 1953).
Siskiyou, coastal, and Sierra Nevada ranges to the Sierra de Dense understory incense-cedars provide an important
San Pedro Martír in northwestern Mexico (Griffin and source of cover and food for overwintering birds in the
Critchfield 1976; Sudworth 1908). It extends eastward from western Sierra Nevada (Morrison and others 1989).
the coastal fog belt to arid inland parts of central Oregon, Flowering and fruiting. Yellowish green staminate
northern California, and westernmost Nevada. In elevation, flowers develop terminally on twigs as early as September
incense-cedar is found from 50 to 2,010 m in the north and even before the current year’s cones on the same twigs have
from 910 to 2,960 m in the south (Peattie 1953; Powers and opened (Stein 1974). These flowers, 5 to 7 mm long, are
Oliver 1990; Sudworth 1908). Incense-cedar grows on many prominently present “...tingeing the tree with gold during
Calocedrus • 313
the winter and early spring...” (Sargent 1961). The incon- 1955; Mitchell 1918; Sudworth 1908; Van Dersal 1938) has
C
spicuous pale yellow ovulate flowers also develop singly at not been confirmed by systematic observations made in
tips of twigs. Flowering has been reported to occur as early 3 locations. During a 35-year period on the Stanislaus
as December and as late as May (Britton 1908; Hitchcock National Forest in California, incense-cedars bore a heavy
and others 1969; Mitchell 1918; Peattie 1953; Sargent 1961; or very heavy crop in 7 of those years, a medium crop in
Sudworth 1908), but it is not clear how well observers dis- 11 years, and a light crop in 17 years (Schubert and Adams
tinguished between flower appearance and actual pollen dis- 1971). On the Challenge Experimental Forest in central
semination. Unopened staminate flowers and open or nearly northern California, there were 1 medium to heavy and
open ovulate flowers were present on branches collected in 9 light to very light crops in 24 years (McDonald 1992).
the first week of April west of Klamath Falls, Oregon (Stein During 15 years on the South Umpqua Experimental Forest
1974). in southwest Oregon, there were 2 abundant crops, 1 medi-
Individual cones (figure 1), each containing up to 4 um crop, and 12 years with light or no crops (Stein 1974).
seeds, are scattered throughout the crown, and mature in a Generalized statewide reports for California and Oregon
single growing season. As they ripen, their color changes show that incense-cedar cone crops are often light and that
from a medium green to a yellowish green or yellow tinged there is wide geographic variability in crop abundance
with various amounts and shades of brown. During opening, (Schubert and Adams 1971). During years when crops are
the cone becomes reddish brown and acquires a purplish reported as light or a failure, scattered cones, even an occa-
cast. Insect-attacked cones are among the first to change sional heavily loaded tree, may be found somewhere.
color. Generally, cones of many color shades are found on a Flowers and young cones may be damaged or killed
tree as opening commences. occasionally by adverse climatic factors, and squirrels cut
Seed dispersal may extend over a lengthy period, from some mature cones (Fowells and Schubert 1956). Losses are
late August through November or later (Fowells and also caused by sawflies (Augomonoctenus libocedrii
Schubert 1956; McDonald 1992; Mitchell 1918; Powers and Rohw.), juniper scale (Carulaspis juniperi Bouche), and
Oliver 1990; Sudworth 1908). For example, in 1937 and leaf-footed bugs (Leptoglossus occidentalis Heidemann) that
1940, respectively, 11 and 32% of the seed had fallen by feed on developing cones and seeds (Furniss and Carolin
early October at 1 or 2 California locations, yet 47 and 66% 1977; Koerber 1963).
of the total fell after November 11 (Fowells and Schubert Collection of cones. Cones are generally hand-picked
1956). Cutting tests have shown that 14 to 65% of the natu- from standing or felled trees. Stripping cones or using a
rally dispersed seeds appear sound, with higher values coin- cone rake will expedite collection because cones hang dis-
cident with heavy crops (Fowells and Schubert 1956). persed over the crown. The ideal time for collection is the
The oft-repeated generalization that incense-cedars bear short period when cleavages appear between the scales of
some seeds every year and abundant crops frequently (Betts many cones on a tree. If large quantities of seeds are need-
ed, both collecting them from plastic sheets spread beneath
Figure 1—Calocedrus decurrens, incense-cedar: cones or enclosing the tree and vacuum-harvesting seeds from the
hang singly from branch tips well-dispersed over the crown
and contain up to 4 seeds each. ground merit consideration. Dispersed seeds should be col-
lected promptly to minimize heat damage. To facilitate later
seed cleaning, foliage intermixed with cones or seeds should
be removed during collection or shortly afterward, before it
dries and crumbles.
Cones are normally handled and transported in partly
filled open-mesh sacks that facilitate cone expansion and air
exchange. Good aeration should be provided around each
sack to keep the cones from overheating during storage.
Extraction and storage of seeds. To maintain high
seed viability, cones should not be exposed to high tempera-
tures. Under warm, dry conditions, cones will air-dry out-
doors or indoors in 3 to 7 days if layered thinly in trays or
on sheeting or tarps. Turning or stirring layered cones will
Average Range
Region & seed zone series no. /kg /lb /kg /lb Samples
Siskiyou Mtns. & inland north
coastal range (SZ #300) 27,270 12,368 24,820–29,960 11,260–13,588 41
Sierra Nevada (SZ #500) 31,820 14,433 21,540–45,330 9,768–20,562 36
Southern California &
Central Valley (SZ #900) 33,420 15,160 24,120–38,760 10,940–17,583 5
Calocedrus • 315
Reported averages representing collections made largely in lowed by soaking in water at room temperature for 6 to 18
C northern and central parts of the species’ range vary from hours (overnight). Shallow longitudinal cuts are then made
27,270 to 44,450 seeds/kg (12,368 to 20,160 seeds/lb) (CDF on both ends of the seed to expose the embryo. Cut seeds
1969; Lanquist 1946; Lippitt 1995; Mitchell 1918; Rafn
are immersed in a 1% tetrazolium solution and kept in dark-
1915; Show 1918; Stein 1963; Sudworth 1900; Tillotson
1925; Toumey and Korstian 1942). The smaller averages are ness for 6 to 18 hours at 30 to 35 °C. Seeds having a com-
probably the most realistic, for samples weighed by several pletely stained embryo and a completely stained endosperm
investigators contained only 60 to 67% full seeds either are considered viable. Viability determined by the tetrazoli-
winged or wingless (Lanquist 1946; Show 1918). um test reveals the seeds’ maximum potential and generally
Incense-cedar seeds do not keep well in dry storage at is somewhat higher than indicated by a germination test.
room temperature (Shaw 1918), but high viability can be Nursery practice and seedling development. Soil
maintained for several years in cool storage. In limited tests, fumigation of outdoor beds to combat damping-off and
2 seedlots retained 98% and 74% viability after storage in other diseases may or may not be necessary before sowing
closed metal containers at 5 °C for 2 and 3 years, respective- incense-cedar seeds. Maintenance or replacement of
ly, but lost all viability after 8 years (Schubert 1954). It is endomycorrhizal fungi is of concern if beds are fumigated.
now common practice to store incense-cedar seeds dried to Spring-sowing is now most common even though fall-sown
low moisture content near –18 °C in cloth or plastic bags or seeds germinated earlier and more uniformly than those
in plastic-lined fiberboard containers. Mature, undamaged sown in the spring and resulting seedlings grew larger in the
seedlots have retained viability in cold storage for 10 years first season if they escaped damage by late spring frosts
at 5 to 9% moisture content (Lippitt 1995); maximum dura- (Show 1930). An intermediate approach is to prepare
tion before such lots begin losing viability has not been seedbeds in the fall to facilitate early sowing in February or
determined. March. Before sowing, seeds are usually stratified naked or
Pregermination treatments and germination tests. in a moist medium at 2 to 5 °C for 30 to 60 days (Lippitt
Standard procedures prescribed by the Association of 1995). Well-timed spring-sowings of unstratified seeds have
Official Seed Analysts (1999) for testing incense-cedar seeds produced satisfactory crops (Show 1930; Stein 1974), but
include chilling them for 30 days at 2 to 5 °C before germi- results are less certain. Some spring-sown seeds may hold
nation. Comparison tests showed that prechilling markedly over to produce seedlings the following spring (Show 1930).
improved total germination and rate of germination of some The winged seeds are usually hand-sown in rows. They
but not all lots (Stein 1974). Short of making a paired test, should be covered about 6 to 12 mm (1/4 to 1/2 in) deep
there is no way to identify which lots benefit from (Show 1930). Burlap mulch proved satisfactory to keep
prechilling and which ones do not. To prepare them for seedbeds moist (Show 1930); sawdust or other mulch mate-
prechilling, seed samples are either (1) placed on a moist rial and frequent sprinkler irrigation are currently used.
substratum in a closed dish; (2) placed in a loosely woven Incense-cedar can readily be grown in containers to
bag or screen surrounded by moist peat, sand, or vermicu- plantable size in one season. Containers about 15 cm (6 in)
lite; or (3) allowed to soak for 24 hours in tap water at room deep with a volume of 165 to 215 cm3 (10 to 13 in3) are
temperature, drained, and then placed in a glass or plastic recommended. The seedlings may be started about February
container. in a greenhouse and moved outdoors after 4 to 8 weeks or
Following prechilling, germination of incense-cedar is they may be germinated and grown entirely outdoors.
determined by subjecting seeds for 28 days to alternating Germination is epigeal and the radical emerges from the
temperatures—16 hours at 20 °C and 8 hours at 30 °C with narrow winged end of the seed (figure 4). Young seeds usu-
750 to 1250 lux (75 to 125 foot-candles) exposure to cool- ally have 2, rarely 3, cotyledons (Harlow and others 1979).
white fluorescent illumination at least during the high-tem- Leaves about 1.2 cm (0.5 in) long develop along the epicotyl
perature period (AOSA 1999). Tests should be carried out (figure 5). On the first branches, awl-shaped transitional
on cellulose paper wadding or blotters in closed germination leaves grade into the normal scalelike leaves (Jepson 1910).
boxes. Germination for 85 lots now in storage at one nursery Seedlings grow 5 to 20 cm (2 to 8 in) tall in the first season
has averaged 72% following 8 weeks of naked stratification and develop a well-branched root system. Young seedlings
(Lippitt 1995). are fairly resistant to frost and drought (Fowells and Stark
The viability of incense-cedar seeds can also be deter- 1965; Pharis 1966; Stone 1957). They are preferentially
mined by a tetrazolium test (AOSA 2000). The preparation attacked by cutworms, however, and need protection from
sequence involves removal of wings from dry seeds fol- damping-off (Fowells 1940; Fowells and Stark 1965; Show
Calocedrus • 317
McDonald PM. 1992. Estimating seed crops of conifer and hardwood Schubert GH. 1954. Viability of various coniferous seeds after cold storage.
C species. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 22: 832–838. Journal of Forestry 52: 446–447.
Mitchell JA. 1918. Incense cedar. Bull. 604. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Schubert GH, Adams RS. 1971. Reforestation practices for conifers in
Service. 40 p. California. Sacramento: California Department of Conservation,
Morrison ML, Dahlsten DL,Tait SM, Heald RC, Milne KA, Rowney DL. 1989. Division of Forestry. 359 p.
Bird foraging on incense-cedar and incense-cedar scale during winter in Show SB. 1918. The relation of germination in the greenhouse and nursery.
California. Res. Pap. PSW-195. Berkeley: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Journal of Forestry 16: 319–328.
Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 10 p. Show SB. 1930. Forest nursery and planting practice in the California pine
Nicholson R. 1984. Propagation notes on Cedrus deodara ‘Shalimar’ and region. Circ. 92. Washington, DC: USDA. 74 p.
Calocedrus decurrens. Plant Propagator 30(1): 5–6. Stark N. 1965. Natural regeneration of Sierra Nevada mixed conifers after
Panshin AJ, De Zeeuw C, Brown HP. 1964. Textbook of wood technology. logging. Journal of Forestry 63: 456–457, 460–461.
Vol. 1, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. 643 p. Stein WI. 1963. Comparative juvenile growth of five western conifers [PhD
Peattie DC. 1953. A natural history of western trees. Boston: Houghton thesis]. New Haven, CT: Yale University. 194 p.
Mifflin. 751p. Stein WI. 1974. Libocedrus decurrens Torr., incense-cedar. In: Schopmeyer CS,
Pharis RP. 1966. Comparative drought resistance of five conifers and foliage tech coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk.
moisture content as a viability index. Ecology 47: 211–221. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 494–499.
Powers RF, Oliver WW. 1990. Libocedrus decurrens Torr., incense-cedar. In: Stone EC. 1957. Dew as an ecological factor: 2.The effect of artificial dew
Burns RM, Honkala BH, tech coords. Silvics of North America.Volume l, on the survival of Pinus ponderosa and associated species. Ecology 38:
Conifers. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 414–422.
173–180. Sudworth GB. 1900. The forest nursery: collection of tree seeds and prop-
Rafn J. 1915. The testing of forest seeds during 25 years, 1887–1912. agation of seedlings. Bull. 29. Washington, DC: USDA Division of Forestry.
Copenhagen: Langkjaers Bogtrykkeri. 91 p. 63 p.
Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North Sudworth GB. 1908. Forest trees of the Pacific slope. Washington, DC:
America. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan. 996 p. USDA Forest Service. 441 p.
Rogers DL, Harry DE, Libby WJ. 1994. Genetic variation in incense-cedar Tevis L Jr. 1953. Stomach contents of chipmunks and mantled squirrels in
(Calocedrus decurrens): 1. Provenance differences in a twelve-year-old northeastern California. Journal of Mammalogy 34: 316–324.
common-garden study. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 9(4): Tillotson CR. 1925. Growing and planting coniferous trees on the farm.
113–117. Farm. Bull. 1453. Washington, DC: USDA. 38 p.
Sampson AW, Jespersen BS. 1963. California range brushlands and browse Toumey JW, Korstian CF. 1942. Seeding and planting in the practice of
plants. Pub. 4010. Berkeley: University of California, Division of forestry. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 520 p.
Agriculture and Natural Resources. 162 p. Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States, their ero-
Sargent CS. 1961. Manual of the trees of North America (exclusive of sion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC: USDA.
Mexico).Volume 1, 2nd corrected edition. New York: Dover. 433 p. 362 p.
Schlosser WE, Blatner KA, Chapman RC. 1991. Economic and marketing van Pelt R. 2001. Forest giants of the Pacific Coast. Seattle: University of
implications of special forest products harvest in the coastal Pacific Washington Press: 80–85.
Northwest. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 6(3): 67–72.
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Synonyms. Bignonia radicans L., Tecoma radicans Figure 1—Campsis radicans, common trumpet-creeper:
(L.) Juss. fruit (top) and seed (bottom).
Other common names. trumpetvine, cowitch vine,
trumpet-flower.
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. Common trum-
pet-creeper—Campsis radicans (L.) Seem. ex Bureau, a
deciduous vine—is native from Texas to Florida and north to
Missouri, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey (Vines 1960). It has
also been introduced into New England (Bonner 1974). The
vine is sometimes used in erosion control and as an orna-
mental, but its greatest value is for wildlife food.
Hummingbirds are common visitors to trumpet-creeper
flowers.
Flowering and fruiting. The large, orange-to-scarlet,
perfect flowers are 5 to 9 cm long and appear from May
through September (Bonner 1974; Vines 1960). This species
is largely self-sterile, but pollinates well when self and cross
pollen are mixed (Bertin and Sullivan 1988). The fruit is a Figure 2—Campsis radicans, common trumpet-creeper:
longitudinal section through a seed.
2-celled, flattened capsule about 5 to 15 cm long (figure 1)
that matures from September to November (Vines 1960).
The capsules turn from green to gray brown as they mature,
and the small, flat, winged seeds (figures 1 and 2) are dis-
persed chiefly by wind as the mature capsules split open on
the vine from October through December (Bonner 1974;
Vines 1960). Good seed crops are borne annually.
Collection and extraction. Ripe capsules should be
gathered when they turn grayish brown in the fall before
splitting open. Seeds can be extracted by hand-flailing.
There are approximately 300,000 cleaned seeds/kg
(136,000/lb) (Bertin 1990; Bonner 1974). One sample had a
purity of 98%, with 52% sound seeds (Bonner 1974). The
longevity of common trumpet-creeper seeds in storage is not
known, but if the seeds are dried to about 10% moisture
content, they should store as well as other orthodox seeds.
Germination and nursery practice. The seeds exhib-
it some embryo dormancy. Pretreatment is not necessary for
germination, but cold, moist stratification for 60 days at 5 to
Campsis • 319
10 °C is recommended for quick and uniform germination Figure 3—Campsis radicans, common trumpet-creeper:
C seedling development at 1 and 9 days after germination.
(Bonner 1974; Dirr and Heuser 1987). Germination tests in
sand have been run for 30 days at 20 °C night and 30 °C
day temperatures. Four tests with stratified seeds averaged
66% germination, and germination rate was 51% in 19 days
(Vines 1960). Germination is epigeal (figure 3). Seedlings
can be grown in nurserybeds from either untreated seeds
sown in the fall or from stratified seeds sown in the spring.
Some horticultural cultivars are propagated by stem and root
cuttings and layering. Softwood cuttings taken in June to
September are easily rooted without hormone treatments
(Dirr and Heuser 1987).
References
Caragana • 321
Figure 3—Caragana arborsecens, Siberian peashrub: germinators for 14 to 60 days at the same alternating tem-
C longitudinal section through a seed. peratures (Dietz and Slabaugh 1974; Hamm and Lindquist
1968). Germination after 25 to 41 days averaged 45 to 72%,
and 55 to 100% after 60 days (Dietz and Slabaugh 1974).
Nursery practice. Seeds of Siberian peashrub may be
drilled or broadcast in late summer or spring. In a North
Dakota nursery, Siberian peashrub is seeded during the last
week in July or the first week in August. A cover crop of
oats is seeded between the tree rows early enough to give
winter protection. The shrubs are large enough to dig the
following fall (Dietz and Slabaugh 1974). Many nurseries
recommend drilling 80 to 160 seeds/m (25 to 50/ft) at 6, 9,
or 12 mm (1/4 to 1/2 in) depth; percentages of seeds growing
into seedlings have varied from 35 to 50 (Dietz and
Slabaugh 1974; Lindquist and Cram 1964).
Grading seeds for size has greatly increased the percent-
age of plantable seedlings. To be plantable, seedlings should
be 30 cm (12 in) or more in height at the time of lifting.
Only 87% of the seedlings grown from seeds measuring
2.5 mm in diameter were plantable, whereas 77% of seeds
of 13 to 20 kg of seeds/100 kg (13 to 220 lb/100 lb) of fresh measuring 4.0 mm in diameter were plantable (Lindquist
legumes has also been reported. and Cram 1967). Inoculation of seeds with Rhizobium ssp.
Seeds of Siberian peashrub, like those of other legumes, before sowing has been recommended (Wright 1947), but
are orthodox in storage behavior. Studies in Canada have other workers report no significant effect on 1+0 seedlings
shown that the seeds remain viable for at least 5 years when (Cram and others 1964). Commercial nurseries have recom-
stored dry at room temperatures. Germination of seedlots mended anywhere from 1+0 to 3+0 stock for outplanting
stored this way was 94% after 1 and 2 years and 93% after (Dietz and Slabaugh 1974).
5 years (Cram 1956). For the best long-term storage, seeds Spraying to control insects in the nursery may be neces-
should be stored dry in polyethylene bags (or other sealed sary. Grasshoppers are especially destructive to Siberian
containers) at –18 to 4 °C, with a moisture content between peashrub, sometimes completely defoliating the plants
9.6 and 13.5% (Lindquist and Cram 1967). (Kennedy 1968). Plants have also been extensively damaged
Pregermination treatments and germination testing. by deer browsing.
For a leguminous species, Siberian peashrub does not have a Vegetative propagation of Siberian peashrub is also pos-
very impermeable seedcoat. Untreated seeds will germinate sible. Untreated cuttings taken in late July rooted 80% in
in 15 days after sowing, but the best germination (87 to sand, whereas cuttings taken earlier (May to June) respond-
100% in 5 days) can be obtained by soaking seeds for 24 ed well to indole-butyric acid (IBA) in talc (Dirr and Heuser
hours in cold or hot (85 °C) water (Dirr and Heuser 1987). 1987).
Successful germination has also been reported after acid
scarification, cold stratification for 2 weeks, or fall planting
(Dietz and Slabaugh 1974; Dirr and Heuser 1987; Hamm
and Lindquist 1968; Lindquist 1960). Certain pesticides,
such as captan and thiram, can apparently increase germina-
tion, possibly by inhibiting seed-borne disease (Cram 1969).
The official testing prescription for Siberian peashrub seeds
calls for clipping or filing through the seedcoat on the
cotyledon end, soaking these seeds in water for 3 hours,
then germinating them for 21 days at alternating tempera-
tures of 20/30 °C (ISTA 1993). Germination tests have also
been carried out in flats of sand or perlite and in Jacobsen
Cram WH. 1956. Research. In: 1956 summary report of the Forest Kelsey HP, Dayton WA. 1942. Standardized plant names. 2nd ed.
Nursery Station. Indian Head, SK: Canadian Department of Agriculture, Harrisburg, PA: J. Horace McFarland Co. 675 p.
Experimental Farms Service: 93–94. Kennedy PC.1968. Insects and diseases of Siberian peashrub (Caragana) in
Cram WH. 1969. Breeding and genetics of Caragana. Forestry Chronicle North Dakota, and their control. Res. Note RM-104. Ft. Collins, CO:
45(6): 400–401. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment
Cram WH,Thompson AC, Lindquist CH. 1964. Nursery production investi- Station. 4 p.
gations. In: 1964 Summary report for the tree nursery. Indian Head, SK: Lindquist CH. 1960. Notes on the moisture requirements of the stratifying
Canadian Department of Agriculture, Prairie Farm Rehabilitation media for the seed of Caragana arborescens Lam. Canadian Journal of
Administration: 19–25. Plant Science 40: 576–577.
Dietz DR, Slabaugh PE. 1974. Caragana arborescens Lam., Siberian Lindquist CH, Cram WH. 1964. Tree improvement and propagation studies.
peashrub. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the In: 1964 summary report for the tree nursery. Indian Head, SK: Canadian
United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Department of Agriculture, Prairie Farms Rehabilitation Administration:
Service: 262–264. 15–19.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- Lindquist CH, Cram WH. 1967. Propagation and disease investigations. In:
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. 1967 summary report for the tree nursery. Indian Head, SK: Canadian
George EJ. 1953. Tree and shrub species for the northern Great Plains. Department of Agriculture, Prairie Farms Rehabilitation Administration:
Agric. Circ. 912. Washington, DC: USDA. 46 p. 21–26.
Graham EH. 1941. Legumes for erosion control and wildlife. Misc. Pub. 412. Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. 2nd ed. New York:
Washington, DC: USDA. 153 p. Macmillan. 966 p.
Hamm JW, Lindquist CH. 1968. Research for production and distribution Ross NM. 1931. Tree-planting on the prairies of Manitoba, Saskatchewan,
programs: performance and propagation. In: 1968 summary report for and Alberta. Bull. 1, 8th ed. Ottawa: Canadian Department of Interior,
the Tree Nursery. Indian Head, SK: Canadian Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 64 p.
Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration: 12–20. Wright PH. 1947. Caragana needs inoculation.Your Garden and Home
ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds: [Toronto] 1(5): 19.
rules 1993. Seed Science and Technology 21 (Suppl.): 1–259.
Caragana • 323
C Cactaceae Cactus family
Dr. Meyer is a research ecologist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station, Shrub
Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Saguaro— only until midday the following day. The flowers produce
Carnegiea gigantea (Engelm.) Britton & Rose—has the copious pollen and nectar and are pollinated primarily by
northernmost distribution of any of the large, columnar cacti nectar-feeding bats, although many other visitors take
of the tropical and subtropical Americas. Formerly regarded advantage of the rich resource (Hevly 1979; Steenbergh and
as a member of the genus Cereus, it is now considered the Lowe 1977).
single species of its own genus, Carnegiea. It is a principal Fruits ripen from June through August. A single fruit
indicator species of the Sonoran Desert and is found at ele- contains 2,000 to 2,500 seeds. The succulent fruits usually
vations below 1,200 m from extreme southeastern California split open while still attached to the plant, exposing the tiny
east to south central Arizona and south into northern Sonora seeds (figures 1 and 2) to removal by rain, but the fruits
(Kearney and Peebles 1960; Munz 1964). Saguaro is an eventually fall to the ground. Many animals utilize the fruits
arborescent, sometimes branched, stem succulent that reach- and seeds. Larger mammals such as coyotes (Canis latrans)
es 10 m in height. It is found primarily in desert upland may act as dispersers, but most users, especially harvester
communities with coarse, gravelly, well-drained soils. ants (Pogonomyrmex spp.) and doves (Zenaida spp.), are
Saguaro is an important component of the communities consumers only. Most of the seeds are consumed before the
where it occurs, providing food and shelter to a host of beginning of summer rains, especially in years when fruits
desert animals. Its wood has been used for fence and hogan ripen early or initiation of the summer rainy season is
construction by indigenous people of the area, and its fruits delayed (Steenbergh and Lowe 1977).
provided one of their most reliable wild food sources. The
sweet, fleshy fruit pulp can be eaten raw or used to make
confections or jams. The nectar is reported to be a source of Figure 1—Carnegiea giganteus, saguaro: seeds.
excellent honey (Alcorn and Martin 1974). In addition,
saguaro is one of the most well-known and beloved plants in
the country, recognizable at a glance by most Americans.
Flowering and fruiting. Saguaro plants normally pro-
duce fruit on a yearly basis, even if the winter has been dry
(Steenbergh and Lowe 1977). They have sufficient water
and energy reserves in their succulent stems to buffer fruit
production from the yearly vagaries of water availability.
Even plants that have been severed at the base are capable of
fruit production for 2 subsequent years. Plants in the wild
reach reproductive maturity at a height of about 2 m and an
age of about 40 years (Steenbergh and Lowe 1983).
Flowering occurs from March through May, depending on
latitude and elevation, with later flowering on cooler sites.
The fruit crop may be damaged or destroyed by frost during
flowering. The large, fragrant, epigynous flowers are borne
at the stem apices. They open in the evening, and each lasts
References
Alcorn SL, Martin SC. 1974. Cereus giganteus Engelm., saguaro. In: Nobel PS. 1980. Morphology, nurse plants, and minimum apical temperatures
Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United for young Carnegiea gigantea. Botanical Gazette 141: 188–191.
States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: Steenbergh WF, Lowe CH. 1969. Critical factors during the first years of life
313–314. of the saguaro (Cereus giganteus) at Saguaro National Monument,
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds. Arizona. Ecology 50: 825–834.
Journal of Seed Technology 16(3): 1–113. Steenbergh WF, Lowe CH. 1976. Ecology of the saguaro: 1.The role of
Despain DG. 1974. The survival of saguaro (Carnegiea gigantea) seedlings freezing weather in a warm desert population. In: Research in the parks.
on soils of differing albedo and cover. Journal of the Arizona Academy of Symp. Ser. 1. Washington DC: USDI National Park Service: 49–92.
Science 9: 102–107. Steenbergh WF, Lowe CH. 1977. Ecology of the saguaro: 2. Reproduction,
Hevly RH. 1979. Dietary habits of two nectar and pollen feeding bats in germination, establishment, growth, and survival of the young plant. Sci.
southern Arizona and northern Mexico. Journal of the Arizona–Nevada Monogr. Ser. 8. Washington, DC: USDI National Park Service. 248 p.
Academy of Science 14: 13–18. Steenbergh WF, Lowe CH. 1983. Ecology of the saguaro: 3. Growth and
Kearney TH, Peebles RH. 1960. Arizona flora. Berkeley: University of demography. Sci. Monogr. Ser. 17. Washington, DC: USDI National Park
California Press. 1085 p. Service: 228 p.
Munz PA. 1974. A flora of southern California. Berkeley: University of
California Press. 1086 p.
Carnegiea • 325
C Hydrangeaceae—Hydrangea family
Dr. Neal retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Southwest
Forest and Range Experiment Station
Growth habit. Carpenteria (bush-anemone or tree- seedlings were found where mineral soil was exposed
anemone)—Carpenteria californica Torr.—is an erect ever- (Clines 1994) and many of them later had become estab-
green shrub that is 1 to 3 (sometimes 4 m) tall with large lished plants. In one study, hand-seeding in mineral soil
showy white flowers. Plants are usually multi-stemmed and after a fire produced abundant seedlings (Clines 1994). Stem
about as wide as tall. The leaves are oblong–lanceolate on layering and adventitious rooting have also been observed
short petioles and placed opposite. The leaves are leathery (Clines 1994).
and in response to moisture stress, they turn yellow and Use. Carpenteria was first collected by the John C.
twist and their edges roll under. They return to normal Fremont expedition of 1845. It drew the attention of horti-
appearance and color when moisture is available (Kottcamp culturalists early and was found in gardens in the United
1983; Sanwo 1997). States, England, and Europe by the early 1880s (Cheatham
Occurrence. The range of carpenteria is extremely 1974). It is raised commercially for the garden in several
limited, occurring only between 300 and 1,500 m on the California nurseries (Laclergue 1995).
west slope of the Sierra Nevada, between the San Joaquin Flowering and fruiting. Flowers are large (3 to 7 cm
and Kings Rivers in eastern Fresno County, California. The in diameter) and appear in May and June in a terminal
shrub is found in scattered stands over an area 20 by 30 km cyme. The calyx is 5 (or 6) parted and there are 5 to 8 large
or about 60,000 ha. The total number of plants has been white petals. The ovary is incompletely 5 (2 to 8)–celled.
estimated to less than 5,000 (Clines 1995). Up to 1,500 (2,000) ovules are attached to axile placentas
Most stands are in small drainages on dry rocky slopes, that protrude into the locule (Clines 1994). The style has 5
mixed with Digger pine (Pinus sabiniana Dougl. ex Dougl.), to 7 closely grouped branches topped with numerous spread-
interior live oak (Quercus wislizeni A. DC.), chaparral ing yellow stamens. Pollination seems to be mostly out-
whitethorn (Ceanothus leucodermis Greene), and other rep- crossing by insects but geitonogamy also produces viable
resentatives of the foothill woodlands at the lower elevation- seeds (Clines 1994).
al limits of its range. At their upper elevational limit, carpen- Extraction and cleaning. Capsules (figure 1) can be
teria plants can be found growing with ponderosa pine collected by hand in July and August from native or com-
(Pinus ponderosa P. & C. Lawson), interior live oak, and mercially grown stands. The capsules are hard and must be
other species of the lower yellow pine zone. cut open when collected intact. They can be found partially
About two-thirds of the existing plants occur on lands of open on the shrubs later in the season. Each capsule may
the USDA Forest Service’s Sierra National Forest, and car- contain over 1,000 viable seeds (figure 2). Germination
penteria is classified as a sensitive plant by the Forest occurs easily without treatment and ranges from 70 to 100%
Service. It receives some protection on 2 areas set aside by (Mirov and Kraebel 1939; Clines 1994). There are 33 to
the Sierra National Forest and 1 owned by The Nature 47.2 million seeds/kg (15.0 to 21.5 million/lb) (Mirov and
Conservancy. Carpenteria is a threatened species under the Kraebel 1939).
California Endangered Species Act, and in October of 1994 Nursery practice. Carpenteria is grown in commer-
it was proposed for listing as endangered under the Federal cial nurseries both from seeds and cuttings. One common
Endangered Species Act (Federal Register 1994). practice involves direct seeding into flats of well-drained
Natural reproduction. Until recently, all observed soil. Damping-off is a problem and top dressing with perlite
natural reproduction was by stump-sprouting after fire reduces but does not eliminate this problem. Cuttings root
(Stebbins 1988; Wickenheiser 1989). However, after a large readily, especially those taken from the terminal few inches
wildfire in 1989, an abundance of naturally occurring of the branches and treated with rooting compound.
Carpenteria • 327
C Betulaceae—Birch family
Carpinus L.
hornbeam or ironwood
Paula M. Pijut
Dr. Pijut is a plant physiologist at the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Research Station,
Hardwood Tree Improvement and Regeneration Center,West Lafayette, Indiana
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The hornbeam Appalachian Mountains and northern interior regions to the
genus—Carpinus L.—includes about 35 species of decidu- West (Furlow 1987b). The Latin American C. tropicalis is
ous, monoecious, small to large trees, that are native to the divided into subsp. tropicalis of the highlands of southern
Northern Hemisphere from Europe to eastern Asia, south to Mexico and north Central America and subsp. mexicana of
the Himalayas, and in North and Central America (Furlow the mountains in northeastern Mexico and the trans-Mexican
1990; Hillier 1991; Krüssmann 1984; LHBH 1976; Suszka volcanic belt (Furlow 1987b).
and others 1996). Five species are considered here (table The wood of hornbeams is extremely hard—hence the
1). Hornbeams occur mainly as understory trees in rich, common name “ironwood”—and is used for making tool
moist soils on bottomlands and on protected slopes handles and mallet heads. It is also used to produce the
(Metzger 1990; Rudolf and Phipps 1974). European horn- high-quality charcoal used in gunpowder manufacture
beam is an important forest tree species throughout Europe (Bugala 1993; Furlow 1990). Species of ornamental interest
(Furlow 1990). In Mexico and Central America, Carpinus in the United States are listed in table 1. Most of the infor-
tropicalis (J.D. Sm.) Lundell forms a dominant canopy mation presented in this chapter deals with European and
component (Furlow 1990). American hornbeams, which are American hornbeams, unless noted otherwise.
native to the eastern United States and Canada, are smaller European hornbeam is a slow-growing tree (about 3 m
trees that grow in the mixed hardwood forest understory over 10 years) that is pyramidal in youth but oval-rounded to
(Furlow 1990; Metzger 1990). Several geographic races of rounded at maturity (Dirr 1990; Suszka and others 1996).
American hornbeam exist in North America (Fernald 1935; This species is planted in the landscape as single specimen
Furlow 1990). The races are morphologically variable and trees or as screens or hedges. It tolerates a wide range of soil
difficult to distinguish on the basis of independent charac- and light conditions but grows and develops best in full sun
ters. Furlow (1987a), using multivariate analysis, analyzed on rich, moist sites with good drainage (Dirr 1990; Metzger
this geographical variation. The northern American horn- 1990). Several cultivars produce excellent color, form, and
beam species is divided into the subsp. caroliniana from texture. The cultivar ‘Fastigiata’ is the most common one in
along the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains of the southeast- cultivation, with foliage more uniformly distributed along
ern United States and the subsp. virginiana of the the branches than on other cultivars (Dirr 1990; Hillier
Table 1—Carpinus, hornbeam: nomenclature, occurrence, height at maturity, and date of first cultivation
C. betulus L. European hornbeam Europe, Asia Minor, & SE England 12–21 1800s
C. caroliniana Walt. American hornbeam, Nova Scotia S to Florida,W to Texas, & N 6–9 1812
musclewood, blue to Minnesota & Ontario; also in central
beech, ironwood & S Mexico & Central America
C. cordata Blume heartleaf hornbeam Japan, NE Asia, & China 6–15 1879
C. japonica Blume Japanese hornbeam Japan 6–9 1895
C. orientalis Mill. Oriental hornbeam SE Europe & SW Asia 6–8 1739
Sources: Dirr (1990), Hillier (1991), Krüssmann (1984), LHBH (1976), Metzger (1990).
Carpinus • 329
C Table 2—Carpinus, carpinus: phenology of flowering and fruiting
Table 3—Carpinus, hornbeam: seed-bearing age, seedcrop frequency, seed weight, and fruit ripeness criteria
and others 1966). The debris can be removed from seedlots weeks, compared to stratification alone. Scarification of the
by screening and fanning (Macdonald 1986). European seedcoat plus gibberellic acid also improved germination
hornbeam seeds with bracts weigh 15 to 18 kg/0.35 hl (33 to (Bretzloff and Pellet 1979). Gordon and others (1991) and
40 lb/bu). Fruits weighing 45 kg (100 lb) yield about 23 kg Suszka and others (1996) provide extensive information on
(50 lb) of cleaned seed (Rudolf and Phipps 1974). The aver- the sampling, seed pretreatment, purity, viability, and germi-
age numbers of cleaned seeds per weight of European and nation testing, seedling evaluation, and storage of forest tree
American hornbeam are listed in table 3. and shrub seeds. Specific procedures are presented for a
Hornbeam seeds stratified immediately after extraction number of species.
can be stored up to 2 years (Rudolf and Phipps 1974). Germination tests. Germination percentage of strati-
European hornbeam seeds in nuts partially dried to 8 to 10% fied seeds is low, usually less than 60% and occasionally as
moisture content can be stored in sealed containers at a tem- low as 1 to 5% (Metzger 1990). Germination tests may be
perature of –3 °C for at least 5 years (Bugala 1993). Seeds made on pretreated seeds in germinators, or in flats of sand,
of this species stored at 10% moisture content in sealed con- or sand plus peat (Rudolf and Phipps 1974). Viability of
tainers at 3 °C lost no viability after 14 months (Suszka and European and American hornbeams is best determined by
others 1969). using the tetrazolium test for viability (Chavagnat 1978;
Pregermination treatments. Hornbeam seeds that are Gordon and others 1991; ISTA 1993; Suszka and others
allowed to mature and become dry will develop a hard seed- 1996). Details of germination test results are shown in table
coat. Dormancy, caused by conditions in the embryo and 5. Germination of hornbeam seeds is epigeal.
endosperm, may be overcome by stratification treatments Nursery practice and seedling care. The optimum
(a warm period followed by a cold period). In general, 1 to 2 seedbed is continuously moist, rich loamy soil protected
months of warm stratification followed by 2 to 3 months of from extreme atmospheric changes (Rudolf and Phipps
cold stratification are necessary to break dormancy of the 1974; Suszka and others 1966). Germination of many natu-
European hornbeam. The International Seed Testing rally disseminated seeds is delayed until the second spring
Association (1993) prescribes 1 month of moist incubation after seed dispersal (Rudolf and Phipps 1974). If germina-
at 20 °C, followed by 4 months at 3 to 5 °C, for laboratory tion is expected the first spring, seeds should be collected
testing of European hornbeam. Results of stratification treat- while they are still green (the wings turning yellow and still
ments vary for different species of hornbeam, so several are soft and pliable) and sown in the fall, or stratified immedi-
presented in table 4. Bretzloff and Pellet (1979) reported ately and sown the following spring (Bugala 1993; Dirr
that gibberellic acid treatment at 0.025, 0.1, and 0.5 g/liter 1990; Hartmann and others 1990; Rudolf and Phipps 1974).
(25, 100, and 500 ppm) generally increased germination of Macdonald (1986) suggested collecting European hornbeam
American hornbeam seeds stratified at 4 °C for 6, 12, or 18 seeds in the fall, followed by extraction, stratification for 8
Sources: Allen (1995), Blomme and Degeyter (1977), Bretzloff and Pellet (1979), Bugala (1993), Rudolf and Phipps (1974), Suszka and others (1996).
NS = not stated.
Table 5—Carpinus, hornbeam: germination test conditions and results with stratified seed
Test conditions*
Temp (°C) Germination rate % Germination Purity Soundness
Species Day Night Days % Days Avg Samples (%) (%)
C. betulus 20 20 70 30 7 18–90 50 97 60
C. caroliniana 27 16 60 2 12 1–5 2 96 62
weeks at 18 to 21 °C and then for 8 to 12 weeks at 0.5 to Cultivars of hornbeam may be grafted (side whip or
1 °C, and then spring-sowing. Seeds collected later should basal whip) or budded onto seedlings of the same species
be partially dried, stratified, and sown the next fall or the (Hartmann and others 1990; Macdonald 1986; MacMillan-
following spring to avoid having seedbeds with germination Browse 1974). Hornbeam can also be propagated by cut-
spread out over 2 years (Rudolf and Phipps 1974). Seeds tings, but with variable success. Stem cuttings of European
should be sown in well-prepared beds at a rate of 323 to hornbeam ‘Fastigiata’ rooted when treated with 2% (20,000
431/m2 (30 to 40/ft2) and covered with 0.6 to 1.3 cm (1/8 to ppm) indole-3-butyric acid (IBA); American hornbeam
1/ in) of soil (Rudolf and Phipps 1974). Macdonald (1986) ‘Pyramidalis’ with 1 and 1.6% IBA; heartleaf hornbeam
4
suggested sowing seeds at a rate of 250/m2 (23/ft2) for lin- (var. chinensis) with 1.6 and 3% IBA–talc; and Japanese
ing-out stock and 150 to 250/m2 (14 to 23/ft2) for root- hornbeam with 3 g/liter (3,000 ppm) IBA–talc plus thiram
stocks. Fall-sown beds should be mulched with burlap, pine (Cesarini 1971; Dirr 1990; Dirr and Heuser 1987; Obdrzalek
straw, or other material until after the last frost in spring 1987). After rooting, the cuttings require a dormancy period
(Rudolf and Phipps 1974). The soil surface should be kept (Dirr 1990). Placing cuttings at a temperature of 0 °C during
moist until after germination, and beds should shaded lightly the winter months satisfies the dormancy requirements (Dirr
for the first year (Rudolf and Phipps 1974). Davies (1987, 1990). Stock plant etiolation and stem banding have been
1988) demonstrated that growth of European hornbeam shown to improve the rooting of hornbeam (Bassuk and oth-
transplants was greatly increased by using a chemical for ers 1985; Maynard and Bassuk 1987, 1991, 1992, 1996).
weed control and various synthetic sheet mulches. Black Chalupa (1990) reported the successful micropropagation of
polythene sheets (125 m thick) gave the best results for con- European hornbeam by using nodal segments and shoot tips
trolling weeds and aiding in tree establishment (Davies as initial explants. Oriental hornbeam has been established
1988). in bonsai culture (Vrgoc 1994).
Carpinus • 331
C References
Allen DH. 1995. Personal communication. Sandwich, MA: F.W. Schumacher. Hartmann HT, Kester DE, Davies FT. 1990. Plant propagation: principles and
Bassuk N, Miske D, Maynard B. 1985. Stock plant etiolation for improved practices. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 647 p.
rooting of cuttings. Combined Proceedings of the International Plant Hillier Nurseries (Winchester) Ltd. 1991. The Hillier manual of trees and
Propagators Society 34: 543–550. shrubs. Melksham, Wiltshire, UK: Redwood Press. 704 p.
Beckett JL. 1994. American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana). Morton ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. International rules for
Arboretum 30(2): 23–25. seed testing. Rules 1993. Seed Science and Technology 21 (Suppl.):
Blomme R, Degeyter L. 1977. Problemen bij de kieming vanzaden van 1–259.
Carpinus betulus (Haagbeuk) [in Dutch: Problems with the germination Krüssmann G. 1984. Manual of cultivated broad-leaved trees and shrubs.
of seeds of Carpinus betulus].Verbondsnieuws voor de Belgische Sierteelt Vol. 1, A–D. Beaverton, OR:Timber Press. 448 p.
21(13): 429–432. Leiss J. 1985. Seed treatments to enhance germination. Combined
Bretzloff LV, Pellet NE. 1979. Effect of stratification and gibberellic acid on Proceedings of the International Plant Propagators’ Society 35: 495–499.
the germination of Carpinus caroliniana Walt. HortScience 14(5): LHBH [Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium]. 1976. Hortus third, a concise dic-
621–622. tionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York:
Bugala W, ed. 1993. Grab zwyczajny: Carpinus betulus L. In: Nasze Drzewa Macmillan. 1290 p.
Lesne [in Polish: chapter summaries in English]. Monogr. Pop. 9. Kornik: Macdonald B. 1986. Practical woody plant propagation for nursery
Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Dendrology. 352 p. growers. Portland, OR:Timber Press. 669 p.
Cesarini J. 1971. Propagation of Carpinus betulus ‘Fastigiata’. Combined MacMillan-Browse P. 1974. No system is foolproof in propagating horn-
Proceedings of the International Plant Propagators’ Society 21: 380–382. beam. Nurseryman and Garden Centre 159(21): 649, 651–652.
Chalupa V. 1990. Micropropagation of hornbeam (Carpinus betulus L.) and Maynard BK, Bassuk NL. 1987. Stockplant etiolation and blanching of
ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.). Biologia Plantarum 32(5): 332–338. woody plants prior to cutting propagation. Journal of the American
Chavagnat A. 1978. Utilisation des tests topographiques au tétrazolium Society for Horticultural Science 112(2): 273–276.
pour déterminer la viabilité des semences d’arbres et d’arbustes d’orne- Maynard BK, Bassuk NL. 1991. Stock plant etiolation and stem banding
ment [in French:The use of topographical tetrazolium tests to determine effect on the auxin dose-response of rooting in stem cuttings of
the seed viability of ornamental trees and shrubs]. L’Horticulture Carpinus betulus L. ‘Fastigata’. Plant Growth Regulation 10: 305–311.
Francaise 95: 3–6. Maynard BK, Bassuk NL. 1992. Stock plant etiolation, shading, and banding
Davies RJ. 1987. A comparison of the survival and growth of transplants, effects on cutting propagation of Carpinus betulus. Journal of the
whips and standards, with and without chemical weed control. American Society for Horticultural Science 117(5): 740–744.
Arboricult. Res. Note 67. Surrey: UK Department of the Environment. Maynard BK, Bassuk NL. 1996. Effects of stock plant etiolation, shading,
5 p. banding, and shoot development on histology and cutting propagation of
Davies RJ. 1988. Sheet mulching as an aid to broadleaved tree establish- Carpinus betulus L. fastigata. Journal of the American Society for
ment: 1.The effectiveness of various synthetic sheets compared. Forestry Horticulural Science 121(5): 853–860.
(Journal of the Institution of Chartered Foresters, London) 61(2): Metzger FT. 1990. Carpinus caroliniana Walt. In: Burns RM, Honkala BH, tech.
89-105. coord. Silvics of North America,Volume 2, Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk.
Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, orna- 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 179–185.
mental characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. Champaign, IL: Obdrzalek J. 1987. Produkce mladych rostlin listnatych stromu a kvetoucich
Stipes Publishing Co. 1007 p. keru z letnich rizku ve foliovych krytech [in Czech, summary in English:
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- Production of young plants of broad- leaved trees and flowering shrubs
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. from summer cuttings in plastic houses]. Forestry Abstracts 1988. 49(8):
Fernald ML. 1935. Midsummer vascular plants of southeastern Virginia. 5003.
Rhodora 37: 378–413, 423–454. Rudolf PO, Phipps H. 1974. Carpinus, hornbeam. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech.
Furlow JJ. 1987a. The Carpinus caroliniana complex in North America: 1. A coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450.
multivariate analysis of geographical variation. Systematic Botany 12(1): Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 266–268.
21–40. Suszka B, Muller C, Bonnet-Masimbert M. 1998. Seeds of forest broad-
Furlow JJ. 1987b. The Carpinus caroliniana complex in North America: 2. leaves: from harvest to sowing. Paris: Institut National de la Recerche
Systematics. Systematic Botany 12(3): 416–434. Agronomique. 294 p.
Furlow JJ. 1990. The genera of Betulaceae in the southeastern United Vrgoc P. 1994. Fraxinus rotundifolia Mill., Pinus nigra ssp. austriaca (Hoess)
States. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 71(1): 1–67. Vid.; Carpinus orientalis Mill. u bonsai kultur [in Croatian; figures, tables,
Gordon AG, Gosling P, Wang BSP. 1991. Tree and shrub seed handbook. and summary in English]. Glasnik za Sumske Rokuse 31: 135—197.
Zurich: International Seed Testing Association. 9.1–9.19.
Carya Nutt.
hickory
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Of the dozen or others 1990) and advanced research on the reproductive
so species of hickories native to the United States, 9 are biology and genetics of pecan (Graves and others 1989;
valuable for timber and the food they provide for wildlife McCarthy and Quinn 1990; Yates and Reilly 1990; Yates and
(table 1). All are deciduous trees. Pecan and its many horti- Sparks 1990) demonstrate the promise for future improve-
cultural varieties and hybrids are widely cultivated for nuts ments in nut production and disease resistance. Shellbark
in large plantations in the southern and southwestern United and shagbark hickories have also been planted for nut pro-
States, as well as in many other countries. The first known duction.
selections were made in 1846, and many cultivars were Flowering and Fruiting. Hickories are monoecious
available by the late 19th century (Madden and Malstrom and flower in the spring (table 2). The staminate catkins
1975). Budding and grafting have been the primary means develop from axils of leaves of the previous season or from
of improvement, but new provenance studies (Grauke and inner scales of the terminal buds at the base of the current
C. alba (L.) Nutt. ex Ell. mockernut hickory, bullnut, S New Hampshire to S Michigan,
C. tomentosa (Lam. ex Poir.) Nutt. white hickory, whiteheart S to E Texas & N Florida Valley to Illinois
Hicoria tomentosa (Lam. ex Poir.) Raf. hickory, hognut, mockernut
C. aquatica (Mich f.) Nutt. water hickory, bitter pecan Coastal plain from Virginia to S Florida & E
Hicoria aquatica (Michx. f.) Britt. swamp hickory Texas; N in Mississippi Valley to Illimois
C. cordiformis (Wangenh.) K. Koch. bitternut hickory, bitternut, New Hampshire to Minnesota,
Hicoria cordiformis (Wagenh.) Britt. swamp hickory, pignut S to E Texas & Georgia
C. glabra (P. Mill.) Sweet pignut hickory, sweet pignut, New Hampshire to NE Kansas,
Hicoria glabra (Mill.) Britt. pignut, swamp hickory S to Arkansas & NW Florida
C. microcarpa (Nutt.) Britt.
C. illinoensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch pecan, sweet pecan, nuez S Indiana to SE Iowa; S to Texas &
Hicoria pecan (Marsh.) Britt. encarcelada E to Mississippi & W Tennessee;
C. oliviformis (Michx. f.) Nutt. local to Ohio, Kentucky, & Alabama
C. pecan (Marsh.) Engl & Graebn.
C. laciniosa (Michx. f.) G. Don shellbark hickory, bigleaf Ohio & Mississippi Valleys;W New
Hicoria laciniosa (Michx. f.) Sarg. shagbark hickory, big shellbark, York to E Kansas, E to Georgia &
kingnut, bottom shellbark, Virginia; local in Louisiana, Alabama,
big shagbark hickory & Virginia
C. myristiciformis (Michx. f.) Nutt. nutmeg hickory, bitter water Mississippi W to SE Oklahoma, S
Hicoria myristicaeformis (Michx. f.) Britt. hickory, swamp hickory to E Texas & Louisiana; also
E South Carolina & central Alabama
C. ovata (P. Mill.) K. Koch shagbark hickory, scalybark Maine to SE Minnesota, S to E Texas
Hicoria alba Britt. p.p.; H. ovata (P. Mill.) Britt. hickory, shagbark, shellbark hickory & Georgia
C. pallida (Ashe) Engl. & Graebn. sand hickory, pale hickory, New Jersey & Illinois, S to
Hicoria pallida Ashe pallid hickory Florida & SE Louisiana
Carya • 333
C Table 2—Carya, hickory: phenology of flowering and fruiting
growth. The pistillate flowers appear in short spikes on releasing the nuts. Husks of pignut, bitternut, sand, and
peduncles terminating in shoots of the current year. Hickory water hickories split only to the middle or slightly beyond
fruits are ovoid, globose, or pear-shaped nuts enclosed in and generally cling to the nuts. The nut is 4-celled at the
husks developed from the floral involucre (figure 1). Husks base and 2-celled at the apex. The edible portion of the
are green prior to maturity and then turn brown to brownish embryonic plant is mainly cotyledonary tissue (figure 2) and
black as they ripen (Bonner and Maisenhelder 1974). The has a very high lipid content (Bonner 1971; Bonner 1974;
husks become dry at maturity in the fall (table 2) and split Short and Epps 1976).
away from the nut into 4 valves along sutures. Husks of Collection, extraction, and storage. Hickory nuts
mockernut, nutmeg, shagbark, and shellbark hickories, as can be collected from the ground after natural seedfall or
well as those of pecan, split to the base at maturity, usually after shaking the trees or flailing the limbs. Persistent husks
may be removed by hand, by trampling, or by running the
Figure 1—Carya, hickory: nuts with husks attached and fruits through a macerator or a corn sheller. Several studies
removed (the size and shape of individual nuts varies greatly have shown that the larger nuts of pecan make larger
within a species and may differ from the examples shown seedlings (Adams and Thielges 1977; Herrera and Martinez
here); C. aquatica, water hickory (first row left) and C.
cordiformis, bitternut hickory (first row right); C. glabra, 1983), so sizing of nuts may be beneficial. Shagbark and
pignut hickory (second row left) and C. myristiciformis, nut- shellbark hickory trees have been known to produce 0.5 to
meg hickory (second row right); C. illinoensis, pecan (third 0.75 hl (11/2 to 2 bu) and 0.75 to 1.1 hl (2 to 3 bu) of nuts,
row left) and C. laciniosa, shellbark hickory (third row respectively (Bonner and Maisenhelder 1974). Good crops
right); C. ovata, shagbark hickory (fourth row left) and
C. alba, mockernut hickory (fourth row right). of all species are produced at intervals of 1 to 3 years (table
3). Some typical yield data are presented in table 4.
Cleaned seeds/weight
Place Fruits/vol Seed wt/fruit vol Range Average
Species collected /hl /bu kg/hl lb/bu /kg /lb /kg /lb
Storage tests with pecan and shagbark hickory have Pregermination treatments. Hickories are generally
demonstrated that the hickories are orthodox in storage considered to exhibit embryo dormancy, although work with
behavior, that is, they should be dried to low moisture con- pecan suggests that mechanical restriction by the shell is the
tents and refrigerated. Seedlots of nuts of both species dried reason for delayed germination in that species (van Staden
to below 10% moisture and stored at 3 °C in sealed contain- and Dimalla 1976). Other research with pecan has shown
ers retained viability well for 2 years before losing half to that there is a clinal gradient in stratification requirement.
two-thirds of their initial viability after 4 years (Bonner Seedlots from southern sources are practically nondormant,
1976b). The poor results after 4 years are probably due to whereas those from northern sources require treatment for
the high lipid levels in these seeds, which places them in the prompt germination (Madden and Malstrom 1975). The
sub-orthodox storage category (Bonner 1990). There are no common treatment is to stratify the nuts in a moist medium
storage data for other species of hickory, but it is reasonable at 1 to 4 °C for 30 to 150 days (table 5). Stratification of
to think that they can be stored in a similar fashion.
Carya • 335
imbibed nuts in plastic bags without medium is suitable for hickory at alternating temperatures of 20 °C (dark) for 16
C
most species (Bonner and Maisenhelder 1974), and good hours and 30 °C (light) for 8 hours on thick creped paper for
results have been reported for pecans from southern sources 28 days. Stratification for 60 days as described above is also
by soaking the nuts at 20 °C for 64 hours (Goff and others recommended. Adequate germination tests can also be made
1992). There are indications that stratification should be on stratified nuts in flats of sand, peat, or soil at the same
shortened for stored nuts; this was the case in one storage temperature regime (table 5). Quick tests with tetrazolium
test on pecan and shagbark hickory (Bonner 1976b). If cold salts can also be used with hickories (Eliason 1965).
storage facilities are not available, stratification in a pit with Nursery practice. Either fall-sowing with untreated
a covering of about 0.5 m of compost, leaves, or soil to pre- seed or spring-sowing with stratified seed may be used.
vent freezing will suffice. Prior to any cold stratification, Excellent results with fall-sowing have been reported for
nuts should be soaked in water at room temperature for 2 to shagbark hickory, but good mulching is necessary (Heit
4 days with 1 or 2 water changes each day to ensure full 1942). Drilling in rows 20 to 30 cm (8 to 12 in) apart and 2
imbibition (Eliason 1965). There is evidence that germina- to 4 cm (3/4 to 1 1/2 in) deep with 20 to 26 nuts/m (6 to 8/ft)
tion of pecan can be increased by treatment with gib- is recommended; about 100 seedlings/m2 (10/ft2) is a good
berellins (Bonner 1976a; Dimalla and van Staden 1977), but density (Williams and Hanks 1976). Mulch should remain
practical applications have not been developed. until germination is complete. Shading is generally not nec-
Germination tests. Official testing rules for North essary, but shellbark hickory may profit from shade.
America (AOSA 1993) prescribe testing pecan and shagbark Protection from rodents may be required for fall-sowings.
Table 5—Carya, hickory: stratification period, germination test conditions, and results
References
Adams JC,Thielges BA. 1977. Research underway of pecan timber Bonner FT. 1976b. Storage and stratification recommendations for pecan
management. Louisiana Agriculture 20(2): 14–15. and shagbark hickory. Tree Planters’ Notes 27(4): 3–5.
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds. Bonner FT. 1990. Storage of seeds: potential and limitations for germplasm
Journal of Seed Technology 16 (3): 1–113. conservation. Forest Ecology and Management 35: 35–43.
Bonner FT. 1971. Chemical contents of southern hardwood fruits and Bonner FT, Maisenhelder LC. 1974. Carya Nutt., hickory. In: Schopmeyer
seeds. Res. Note SO-136. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric.
Forest Experiment Station. 3 p. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 269–272.
Bonner FT. 1974. Chemical components of some southern fruits and seeds. Dimalla GG, van Staden J. 1977. The effect of temperature on the germina-
Res. Note SO-183. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest tion and endogenous cytokinin and gibberellin levels of pecan nuts.
Experiment Station. 3 p. Zeitschrift für Pflanzenphysiologie 82: 274–280.
Bonner FT. 1976a. Effects of gibberellin on germination of forest tree seeds Eliason EJ. 1965. Treatment of forest tree seed to overcome dormancy
with shallow dormancy. In: Hatano I, Asakawa S, Katsuta M, Sasaki S, prior to direct seeding. In: Proceedings, Direct Seeding in the
Yokoyama T, eds. Proceedings, 2nd International Symposium on Northeast—A Symposium. Exp. Sta. Bull. Amherst: University of
Physiology of Seed Germination; 1976 October 18–30; Fuji, Japan.Tokyo: Massachusetts: 87–90.
Government Forest Experiment Station: 21–32.
Carya • 337
C Fagaceae—Beech family
Castanea P. Mill.
chestnut
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus States, mostly in orchards for nut production. Allegheny
Castanea—the chestnuts—comprises 11 species of small to chinkapin is somewhat resistant to the blight and might be
medium-sized deciduous trees found in southwestern and useful as a rootstock in grafting; its other good features are
eastern Asia, southern Europe, northern Africa, and the east- small size, precocity of fruiting, and heavy seedcrops
ern United States. Five species are covered in this chapter; (Payne and others 1994). Breeding for resistance has not
only 2 are native to the United States (table 1). American been highly successful, but advances in tissue culture offer
chestnut formerly ranked as one of the most valuable timber new promise (Dirr and Heuser 1987).
species in the Appalachian region, and the nuts were an Flowering and fruiting. Chestnuts are monoecious,
important wildlife food as well as being extensively market- but some trees produce bisexual catkins also (Sander 1974).
ed for human consumption. In the years since the chestnut Unisexual male catkins, 15 to 20 cm long, appear near the
blight—Cryphonectria parasitica (Murr.) Barr—was discov- base of the flowering branches. The pistillate flowers occur
ered in New York in 1904, the disease has spread throughout singly or in clusters of 2 to 3, near the end of the branches
the range of the American chestnut and completely (Brown and Kirkman 1990; Sander 1974), with the female
destroyed it as a commercial species. Many rootstocks still catkins at the base of the shoot (Payne and others 1994).
survive and send up multiple sprouts that grow to the size of Flowering begins in April or May in the Southeast (Hardy
a small tree (table 2) before dying. Some of these sprouts 1948) and in June in the Northeast (Sander 1974).
occasionally produce a few seeds, but they usually do not Chestnut fruits are spiny, globose burs, from 2.5 to 7.5
live long enough for significant production (Sander 1974). cm in diameter, borne singly or in spikelike clusters (Sander
Japanese, Chinese, and European chestnuts (table 1) 1974; Vines 1960). The fruits each contain from 1 to 3
were introduced into the United States in the 18th and 19th seeds (nuts); Allegheny chinkapins have 1 seed and
centuries (Anagnostakis 1990; Sander 1974). The Asian American chestnuts (figure 1) have 3 seeds/fruit (Brown and
species demonstrated good resistance to the chestnut blight, Kirkman 1990; Sander 1974). The nuts are flattened on one
and breeding programs were started as early as the 1890s to side and range from light to dark brown or black in color
transfer the resistance to American chestnut (Jaynes 1975). (Brown and Kirkman 1990; Rehder 1940). Nuts of
Chinese chestnut, the most promising of these introductions, American chestnut are 12 to 25 mm wide and about 25 mm
has been widely planted throughout the eastern United long. The exotic chestnuts bear larger nuts that are 19 to 38
C. crenata 10 1876 33 15
C. dentata 20–25* 1800 220–360 100–162
C. mollissima† 21 1853 50–220 23–100
C. pumilla 15 — 300 136
C. sativa 21 Pre 1880 33 15
Sources: Payne and others (1994), Sander (1974).
* Height refers to sprouts from living rootstocks of trees killed by the blight; before the blight this species obtained heights of 21 to 30 m.
† Bears large crops annually in orchards beginning at about 8 years of age.
Figure 1—Castanea dentata, American chestnut: fruit Figure 2—Castanea dentata, American chestnut:
(bur) and nut. longitudinal section through a nut.
mm wide (Sander 1974). Food reserves, primarily starch, are and innovative budding and grafting techniques (Ackerman
stored in the large cotyledons (figure 2). Fresh nuts are 40 to and Jayne 1980; ACF 2002).
45% starch by weight, with very little lipid content (Jaynes Collection of fruits. Chestnuts can be picked from the
1975; Payne and others 1994; Wainio and Forbes 1941). trees, collected from the ground by hand, or shaken from the
Seeds ripen in August to October, depending on species and trees onto ground cloths. Burs of Allegheny chinkapin do
location (Hardy 1948; Sander 1974). Seed weights are listed not open widely, and the seeds are difficult to shake out.
in table 2. Some remain on the trees throughout winter (Payne and oth-
Superior strains and hybrids. There are no identified ers 1994). Harvesting should begin as soon as the burs begin
superior strains of native chestnuts, but many cultivars and to split open. The nuts are intolerant of desiccation (recalci-
hybrids have been developed with the exotic chestnuts, pri- trant) (Aldous 1972; Pritchard and Manger 1990), so collec-
marily in Europe. The search for blight-resistant American tions from the ground should be done very soon after dis-
chestnuts continues, however, with breeding, tissue culture, semination to prevent excessive drying. Frequent collection
Castanea • 339
is especially important if the weather is hot and dry, as nuts is to submerge the nuts for 20 to 40 minutes in water at
C
can lose viability within a week on the ground (USDA 49 °C (Payne and Wells 1978).
1951). If the weather is wet, Allegheny chinkapin nuts will Germination tests. The standard laboratory testing
sometimes germinate on the trees (Payne and others 1994). procedure for European chestnut is to (1) soak the seeds in
Storage of seeds. Because of their recalcitrant nature, water for 24 hours; (2) cut off a third of the seed at the cup-
chestnuts are normally stored no longer than 6 months scar end; (3) remove the testa; and (4) germinate the seeds
(overwinter). With good care, however, storage for 18 for 21 days in or on top of sand at the standard test regime
months is not difficult, and some have been successfully of alternating 20 and 30 °C (ISTA 1993). If only constant
stored for 3.5 years (Jaynes 1975). Immediately after collec- temperatures are available, 28 °C is recommended for this
tion, the nuts should be floated in water to remove trash and species, which also has no specific light requirement of ger-
immature and damaged nuts. If collected from the ground in mination (Pritchard and Manger 1990). Data are lacking on
a dry condition, they should be left in water overnight to other chestnut species with this procedure, but it quite likely
restore their naturally high moisture content. Upon removal will work for any of them. There are alternate procedures
from water, the nuts should be spread to dry in a cool, well- for whole nuts. Stratified nuts of Chinese chestnut have been
ventilated place to remove all surface moisture. The nuts germinated in a moist medium at 15 to 21 °C; germination
should be placed in containers that inhibit drying, such as reached 100% in 42 days (Berry 1960).
polyethylene bags, and stored at 1 to 3 °C; however, the Nursery practice. Chestnuts may be planted in
containers should not be airtight so that some gas exchange autumn or spring. Nuts that have been kept in cold storage
between nuts and the storage atmosphere is possible. from the time they are harvested should be planted in
Moisture content of the nuts should be about 40 to 45% dur- September or October (Sander 1974). Fall-sown beds should
ing storage (Sander 1974). Too much moisture can result in be mulched and protected as much as possible against
loss of seeds to microorganisms (Woodruff 1963). rodents (Williams and Hanks 1976). Nuts for spring-plant-
Pregermination treatments. Chestnut seeds are dor- ing should be stratified for 2 to 3 months.
mant and require a period of cold, moist stratification for In both fall- and spring-plantings, nuts should be sown
prompt germination. In normal nursery practice, overwinter 2 to 4 cm (3/4 to 1 1/2 in) deep and spaced 7.5 to 10 cm
storage of fully imbibed nuts at 1 to 3 °C will satisfy the (3 to 4 in) apart in rows 7.5 to 15 cm (3 to 6 in) apart in the
chilling requirement to overcome dormancy. For nuts that nursery beds. Nuts can be either sown or drilled by hand, or
have not been stored moist, or if a deeper dormancy than broadcast mechanically (Sander 1974; Williams and Hanks
usual is suspected, then stratification should be used; 1 to 3 1976). Some growers recommend planting by hand so that
months is the recommended period for American and the nuts can be placed on their sides to promote better
Chinese chestnuts (Dirr and Heuser 1987; Jaynes 1975). If seedling form (Jaynes 1975). European chestnuts are nor-
nuts are planted in the fall, stratification is not necessary, but mally broadcast at a density of 100 nuts/m2 (9 to 10/ft2)
the nuts should be kept in cold storage until planted (Sander (Aldous 1972). One should expect 75 to 80% germination in
1974). beds with good seeds (Aldous 1972; Sander 1974). A study
Chestnuts are commonly infested with the larvae of the with Chinese chestnuts found that grading nuts by size had
seed weevils Curculio sayi Gyllenhall and C. caryatrypes no influence on time of emergence, although larger seeds
Bohemon (Gibson 1985). A simple method to kill the larvae did tend to produce larger seedlings (Shepard and others
1989).
References
Ackerman WL, Jayne HT. 1980. Budding the epicotyls of sprouted chestnut Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop-
seeds. HortScience 15: 186–187. agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p.
Aldous JR. 1972. Nursery practice. For. Comm. Bull. 43. London: Her Gibson LP. 1985. Description and key to larvae of Curculio spp. of eastern
Majesty’s Stationery Office. 184 p. United States and Canada (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Proceedings of
ACF [American Chestnut Foundation]. 2002. Bennington,VT: ACF [website the Entomological Society of Washington 87: 554–563.
available at www.acf.org/ ]. Hardy MB. 1948. Chestnut growing in the Southeast. Northern Nut
Anagnostakis SL. 1990. An historical reference for chestnut introductions Growers Association Annual Report 39: 40–50.
into North America. Northern Nut Growers Annual Report (1989) 80: ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. International rules for
132–143. seed testing. Rules 1993. Seed Science and Technology 21 (Suppl.):
Berry FH. 1960. Germination of Chinese chestnut seed. Northern Nut 1–259.
Growers Association Annual Report 51: 40–42. Jaynes RA. 1975. Chestnuts. In: Janik J, Moore JN, eds. Advances in fruit
Brown CL, Kirkman LK. 1990. Trees of Georgia and adjacent states. breeding. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press: 490–503.
Portland, OR:Timber Press. 292 p.
Castanea • 341
C Casuarinaceae—Casuarina family
Casuarina Rumph. ex L.
casuarina
David F. Olson, Jr., E. Q. P. Petteys, and John A. Parrotta
Dr. Olson retired from the USDA Forest Service; Dr. Petteys is the district forester of
Kauai, Hawaii Department of Lands and Natural Resources, Division of Forestry and Wildlife;
Dr. Parrotta is a research program leader at the USDA Forest Service’s Research and Development National
Office, Arlington,Virginia
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus Flowering and fruiting. Casuarinas are monoecious
Casuarina—the only genus in the Casuarina family—com- or dioecious. Minute male flowers are crowded in rings
prises about 50 species, chiefly Australian, with a few hav- among grayish scales. Female flowers lack sepals but have
ing native ranges extending from Bangladesh to Polynesia. pistils with small ovaries and threadlike dark red styles
Casuarina trees are evergreen angiosperms, resembling (Little and Wadsworth 1964). The multiple fruit is conelike,
conifers, with thin crowns of drooping branches and leaves about 8 to 20 mm in diameter (figure 1), and composed of
reduced to scales (Little 1949; Little and Wadsworth 1964). numerous individual fruits. Each fruit is surrounded by 2
Three species of this genus have been introduced successful- bracteoles and a bract that splits apart at maturity and
ly into continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico releases a 1-winged light brown samara (figures 2 and 3).
(table 1) (Bailey 1949; Rockwood and others 1990). Beach The immature fruits of the genus are green to gray-green,
she-oak, especially, is planted as a windbreak throughout its becoming brown to reddish brown when ripe (Neal 1965).
native and introduced ranges and as an ornamental in parks In warm climates, flowering and fruiting occur throughout
and gardens (Parrotta 1993; Rockwood and others 1990). It the year. Consequently, time of seed collection varies from
was first introduced into Hawaii in 1882 (Neal 1965). The place to place (Little and Wadsworth 1964; Olson and
bark has been used in tanning, in medicine, and for the Petteys 1974). In Hawaii, Florida, and Puerto Rico, the peak
extraction of dye (Parrotta 1993). The fruits are made into of the flowering period appears to be April through June,
novelties and Christmas decorations (Little and Wadsworth with fruiting from September through December (Magini
1964). The wood is hard and heavy and is difficult to work, and Tulstrup 1955; Neal 1965; Olson and Petteys 1974;
hence the common name “ironwood.” It was once heavily Rockwood and others 1990). Minimum seed-bearing age is
used for building poles and firewood but now is seldom used 2 to 5 years, and good seedcrops occur annually (Magini
commercially in the United States (Parrotta 1993). Beach and Tulstrup 1955; Olson and Petteys 1974; Parrotta 1993).
and gray she-oaks are considered invasive pests in southern Collection, extraction, and storage. The multiple
Florida and gray she-oak in Hawaii. fruits may be picked from the trees or shaken onto canvas or
Occurrence
Scientific name(s) & synonym Common name(s) (native & introduced)
C. cunninghamiana Miq. river she-oak, river-oak casuarina, Australia & New Caledonia;
C. tenuissima Hort. Cunningham beefwood, ironwood Hawaii, S US, & California
C. equisetifolia L. beach she-oak, Australian pine, Burma through Australia & Polynesia;
C. litorea L. horsetail casuarina, horsetail beefwood Hawaii, Florida, & Puerto Rico
Casuarina glauca Sieb. ex Spreng. gray she-oak, longleaf Australia; Hawaii
casuarina, longleaf ironwood
Figure 2—Casuarina cunninghamiana, river she-oak: days (Kondas 1990). A kilogram of fruits (about 250 cones)
longitudinal section through a seed. yields between 20 and 60 g of seeds (1 lb of cones yields
1.5 to 2.4 oz of seeds). There are about 650 to 760 seeds/g
(300,000 to 350,000 seeds/lb) (Kondas 1990; Turnbull and
Markensz 1990). The application of an insect repellant
effective against ant predation is advisable during the drying
process (Kondas 1990). Seeds do not retain their viability
for more than 3 months at ambient temperatures (Kondas
1990), but appear to be orthodox in storage behavior (Jones
1967). Seeds stored at subfreezing (–7 °C) or close to freez-
ing (3 °C) temperatures, with moisture contents ranging
from 6 to 16%, retain viability for up to 2 years (Turnbull
and Markensz 1990). In Hawaii, seeds have been successful-
ly stored in sealed polyethylene bags at 1 °C (Olson and
Petteys 1974).
Germination. Germination in beach she-oak is
epigeal; it takes place 4 to 22 days after sowing and is opti-
mal at 30 °C under well-lighted conditions (Parrotta 1993).
Casuarina seeds are usually sown without pretreatment
(Magini and Tulstrup 1955; Olson and Petteys 1974),
although soaking seeds for 36 hours in a 1.5% solution of
potassium nitrate reportedly enhances germination (Rai
1990). Germination ranges from 40 to 90% for fresh seeds
and from 5 to 25% for seeds stored in airtight containers at
4 °C for 1 year (Parrotta 1993). Official test prescriptions
plastic sheets. Seeds reach maximum weight and ger- for casuarina species call for a 14-day test at alternating
minability 18 weeks after anthesis, or when cones change in temperatures of 20/30 °C on the top of moist blotter paper
color from green to brown (Rai 1990). The samaras, which (AOSA 1993). In the Philippines, germination of seedlots
are used as seeds, may be separated from the fruits by shak- collected from different trees within a single plantation
ing and screening (Olson and Petteys 1974). Cones placed ranged from 33 to 75% for fresh seeds (Halos 1983). A
in trays, covered by a thin cloth, and dried under full sun- significant positive relationship between cone size and seed
light will soon begin to release their seeds, usually within 3 germination rate was also noted in this study.
Casuarina • 343
Nursery practice. In the nursery, seeds are generally stock. Seedlings should be kept under partial shade until
C
germinated in trays under full sunlight at an optimal density shortly before outplanting. Seedlings reach plantable size of
of 1,000 to 7,500 seeds (weighing 2 to 10 g) /m2 (93 to 700 20 to 50 cm (8 to 20 in) in height in 4 to 8 months (Parrotta
seeds/ft2), covered with about 0.5 cm of soil (Olson and 1993). It is recommended that seedlings be inoculated in the
Petteys 1974; Parrotta 1993). In South Africa, seedling yield nursery with pure cultures of effective strains of Frankia (a
averages are 18,000 plants/kg (8,200/lb) of river she-oak nitrogen-fixing actinomycete) or an inoculum from a nodule
seeds (Magini and Tulstrup 1955). Nursery soils should be suspension prepared from fresh, healthy nodules collected in
light textured, optimally sandy loams or a mixture of sand the field. Roots can be inoculated by dipping them into the
and peat moss. Seedlings are transferred from germination suspension or by directly applying the suspension to the
trays to containers when they reach a height of 10 to 15 cm soil. Alternatively, crushed, fresh nodules, leaf litter, or soils
(4 to 6 in), usually within 6 to 10 weeks after germination. from the vicinity of effectively inoculated trees may be
Seedling containers measuring about 15 cm (6 in) in diame- incorporated directly into the nursery potting mix (Parrotta
ter and 20 cm (8 in) in depth are recommended. Seedlings 1993).
may also be transplanted to new beds at densities of 100 to
400 seedlings/m2 (9 to 37/ft2) to obtain bareroot planting
References
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1993. Rules for testing Magini E;Tulstrup NP. 1955. Tree seed notes. For. Dev. Pap. 5. Rome: FAO.
seeds. Journal of Seed Technology 16(3): 1–113. 354 p.
Bailey LH. 1949. Manual of cultivated plants most commonly grown in the Neal MC. 1965. In gardens in Hawaii. Spec. Pub. 50. Honolulu: Bishop
continental United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan. 1116 p. Museum Press. 924 p.
Halos SC. 1983. Casuarinas in Philippine forest development. In: Midgeley Olson DF Jr, Petteys EQP. 1974. Casuarina, casuarina. In: Schopmeyer CS,
SJ;Turnbull, RD, Johnston RD, eds. Casuarina Ecology, Management and tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk.
Utilization: Workshop Proceedings; 1990 January 15–20; Cairo, Egypt. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 278–280.
Cairo: American University in Cairo, Desert Development Center: Parrotta JA. 1993. Casuarina equisetifolia L. ex J.R. & G. Forst.: casuarina,
102–109. Australian pine. Res. Note SO-ITF-SM-56. New Orleans: USDA Forest
Jones L. 1967. Effect of storage at various moisture contents and tempera- Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 11 p.
tures on seed germination of silk oak, Australian pine, and Eucalyptus Rai RSV. 1990. Seed management in Casuarina equisetifolia. In: Midgeley SJ;
spp. Res. Note SE-83. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Turnbull, RD, Johnston RD, eds. Casuarina Ecology, Management and
Forest Experiment Station. 4 p. Utilization: Workshop Proceedings; 1990 January 15–20; Cairo. Cairo:
Kondas S. 1990. Casuarina equisetifolia: a multipurpose tree cash crop in American University in Cairo, Desert Development Center: 78–84
India. In: Midgeley SJ;Turnbull, RD; Johnston RD, eds. Casuarina Ecology, Rockwood DL, Fisher RF, Conde LF, Huffman JB. 1990. Casuarina L. ex
Management and Utilization: Workshop Proceedings; 1990 January Adans. In: Burns RM, Honkala BH, tech. coord. Silvics of North America.
15–20; Cairo. Cairo: American University in Cairo, Desert Development Volume 2, Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: US
Center: 66–76. Department of Agriculture: 240–243.
Little EL Jr. 1949. Fifty trees from foreign lands. In:Yearbook of Agriculture Turnbull JW, Martensz PN. 1990. Seed production, collection and germina-
(1949). Washington, DC: USDA: 815–832. tion in Casuarinaceae. In: Midgeley SJ;Turnbull, RD, Johnston RD, eds.
Little EL Jr; Wadsworth FH. 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the Casuarina Ecology, Management and Utilization: Workshop Proceedings;
Virgin Islands. Agric. Handbk. 249. Washington, DC: USDA Forest 1990 January 15–20; Cairo. Cairo: American University in Cairo, Desert
Service. 548 p. Development Center: 126–132.
Catalpa Scop.
catalpa
Franklin T. Bonner and David L. Graney
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station, Mississippi State,
Mississippi; Dr. Graney is a research forester at the USDA Forest Service’s
Southern Research Station, Fayetteville, Arkansas
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The catalpas Haitian catalpa flowers, which vary from white to solid rose
include about 10 species of deciduous or rarely evergreen in color, appear irregularly throughout the year. Even 6-
trees native to North America, the West Indies, and eastern month-old seedlings flower, and abundant seed crops are
Asia (Rehder 1940). Two deciduous species, southern catal- borne by the age of 18 months (Francis 1993). Mature fruits
pa and northern catalpa (table 1), are native to the continen- are round, brown, 2-celled capsules, 15 to 75 cm long
tal United States and have been planted quite widely outside (figure 1). In late winter or early spring, the capsules of
their native range, especially northern catalpa. Mature trees northern and southern catalpas split into halves to disperse
of both species attain heights of 9 to 18 m (Little and the seeds (Sargent 1965). Each capsule contains numerous
Delisle 1962; Sargent 1965). Both have been grown to some oblong, thin, papery, winged seeds 1 to 5 cm long and about
extent in Europe. Catalpas are used in shelterbelts and orna- 1 to 6 mm wide (figure 2). Removal of the papery outer
mental planting and have minor value as timber trees, main- seedcoat reveals an embryo with flat, round cotyledons
ly for posts and small poles. Haitian catalpa, or yokewood, (figure 3). Southern and northern catalpas are separate from
a native of the West Indies, has also been widely planted for each other. The most consistent identification feature is the
forestry and ornamental purposes (table 1). relative thickness of the fruit walls. Northern catalpa fruit
Flowering and fruiting. Attractive clusters of showy, walls are considerably thicker than those of southern catalpa
white perfect flowers with purplish and orange blotches and (Brown and Kirkman 1990).
stripes in the throat are borne in May and June on southern Collection, extraction, and storage. Fruits should be
and northern catalpas (Brown and Kirkman 1990; Sargent collected only after they have become brown and dry. When
1965). Fruits of these species ripen in October, and good dry enough, the seeds can be separated by light beating and
crops are borne every 2 to 3 years beginning at about age 20 shaking. Pods of northern catalpa collected in February and
(Bonner and Graney 1974; Sargent 1965; Vines 1960). March had seeds of higher quality than those collected in
C. bignonioides Walt. southern catalpa, common SW Georgia & Florida to Louisiana; 1726
C. catalpa (L.) Karst. catalpa, Indian-bean, naturalized to New England, Ohio,
catawba, cigar-tree Michigan, & Texas
C. longissima (Jacq.) Haitian catalpa, yokewood, Hispaniola & Jamaica; naturalized —
Dum.-Cours. roble de olor, chenn in Martinique, Guadeloupe, & the
Grenadines; planted in Florida,
Hawaii, & the West Indies
C. speciosa (Warder) northern catalpa, hardy SW Indiana & Illinois to NE 1754
Warder ex Engelm. catalpa, western catalpa, Arkansas & W Tennessee; widely
western Catawba-tree, naturalized in NE & SE US
Indian-bean, catawba
Catalpa • 345
Figure 1—Catalpa bignonioides, southern catalpa: Germination tests. Seeds of all 3 species germinate
C capsule and leaf. promptly without pretreatment. Tests should be made on wet
germination paper for 21 days with 20 °C night and 30 °C
day temperatures. Other moist media also are satisfactory.
Although northern catalpa is known to be photosensitive
(Fosket and Briggs 1970), light is not necessary for germi-
nation tests (AOSA 1993). Germination in excess of 90%
(25+ samples) has been obtained in about 12 days with good
quality seeds of southern and northern catalpas (Bonner and
Graney 1974). Francis (1993) has reported 40% germination
of Haitian catalpa in 8 days on potting mix. Germination is
epigeal, and the emerging 2-lobed cotyledons look like 4
leaves (figure 4).
Nursery practice. Catalpa seeds should be sown in
late spring in drills at the rate of about 100/linear m (30/ft),
and covered lightly with 4 mm (1/8 in) of soil or sown on the
surface. A target bed density of 108 to 215 seedlings/m2
Figure 2—Catalpa speciosa, northern catalpa: seed.
(10 to 20/ft2) is recommended (Williams and Hanks 1990).
Stratification or other pretreatment is not needed. A pine
needle mulch has been recommended for southern catalpa
(Bonner and Graney 1974). In Louisiana, this species starts
germination about 12 days after March sowing and germina-
tion is about 80%. In Puerto Rico, Haitian catalpa seeds can
be spread thinly on a shaded bed of moist, sterile soil or
Figure 3—Catalpa speciosa, northern catalpa: longitudinal
section through a seed.
Figure 4—Catalpa bignonioides, southern catalpa: seedling
development at 1, 5, 8, and 20 days after
germination.
sand and covered lightly with sand (Francis 1990). This References
species can also be sown directly into containers; germina-
tion begins in about 10 days. Nematodes, powdery mildews, AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds.
Journal of Seed Technology 16(3): 1–113.
and the catalpa sphinx—Ceratonia catalpae (Boisduval)— Bonner FT, Graney DL. 1974. Catalpa, catalpa. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech.
coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450.
may give trouble in the nursery. Southern and northern Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 281–283.
catalpas are normally planted as 1+0 stock (Bonner and Brown CL, Kirkman LK. 1990. Trees of Georgia and adjacent states.
Portland, OR:Timber Press. 292 p.
Graney 1974). Haitian catalpa seedlings should be ready for Fosket EB, Briggs WR. 1970. Photosensitive seed germination in Catalpa
speciosa. Botanical Gazette 131(2): 167–172.
planting 10 to 14 weeks after sowing in containers. Francis JK. 1990. Catalpa longissima (Jacq.) Dum. Cours., yokewood. Silvics
Untreated woody cuttings can also be used for vegetative Manual SO-ITF-SM-37. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern
Forest Experiment Station. 4 p.
propagation of Haitian catalpa (Francis 1990). Francis JK. 1993. Seeds of Puerto Rican trees and shrubs: second install-
ment. Res. Note SO-374. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern
Forest Experiment Station. 5 p.
Little EL Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized).
Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p.
Little EL, Delisle AL. 1962. Flowering, size, growth rate and life span: forest
trees, North American. In: Altman PL, Dittmer DS, eds. Biological hand-
book on growth. Washington, DC: Federation of American Societies for
Experimental Biology: table 103.
Rehder A.1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. 2nd ed. New York:
Macmillan. 996 p.
Sargent CS. 1965. Manual of the trees and of North America (exclusive of
Mexico). 2nd ed., corrected and reprinted. New York: Dover. 934 p.
Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
Williams RD, Hanks SH. 1976. Hardwood nurseryman’s guide. Agric.
Handbk. 473. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 78 p.
Catalpa • 347
C Rhamnaceae—Buckthorn family
Ceanothus L.
ceanothus
Susan G. Conard and Merton J. Reed
Dr. Conard is a program leader at the USDA Forest Service’s Research and Development National Office,
Arlington,Virginia; Dr. Reed retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Southwestern Forest and Range
Experiment Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Van Rensslaer cial conifers and a benefit because of their nitrogen-fixing
and McMinn (1942) recognized 55 species of ceanothus, 25 ability and their wildlife value (Conard and others 1985).
varieties, and 11 named natural hybrids, all restricted to the Although there was early experimentation with planting
North American continent. Most of them are found along ceanothus species for erosion control on chaparral sites
the Pacific Coast of the United States, and only 2 are found (DFFW 1985) and there has been some interest in ceanothus
east of the Mississippi River (Hitchcock and others 1961; establishment for browse or general site improvement in for-
Kearney and Peebles 1951; Munz and Keck 1968; Rowntree est sites (Hickey and Leege 1970; Radwan and Crouch
1948; Sampson and Jesperson 1963; Schmidt 1993; Van 1977), the dominant horticultural uses have continued to be
Rensslaer and McMinn 1942). Forty-three species and 21 for domestic, commercial, and right-of-way landscaping—
varieties are described in the most recent flora of California, particularly in California and the Pacific Northwest.
which does not recognize hybrid forms (Schmidt 1993). Ceanothus species are valued particularly for their showy
Although hybridization appears to be common in nature, flowers (they are sometimes called “California lilacs”), rela-
there are few named hybrids (Lentz and Dourley 1981; tively rapid early growth, drought adaptation, and ability to
Schmidt 1993). Ceanothus species are mainly evergreen or tolerate landscape watering. Some species have been culti-
deciduous shrubs, some of which may attain the height of vated for many years (table 2), and the potential for
small trees. In the West, they occur in a diversity of habitats, hybridization has led to the development of numerous culti-
ranging from interior desert chaparral to moist redwood for- vars, many of which are available from commercial native
est along the Pacific Coast (table 1). Ceanothus species are plant nurseries (for example, Lentz and Dourley 1981; Perry
important as wildlife food and shelter, for erosion control, as 1992). Distribution and uses of some of the more common
hedges and shelterbelts, and in soil development and soil species are described in table 1.
nitrogen regimes (Conard and others 1985; Graham and Flowering and fruiting. Flowers are small, bisexual,
Wood 1991). Deerbrush ceanothus is rated as one of the and regular, and are borne in racemes, panicles, or umbels.
most important summer browse species in California for The 5 sepals are somewhat petal-like, united at the base with
deer and cattle (Sampson and Jesperson 1963), and redstem a glandular disk in which the ovary is immersed. The 5
ceanothus is a key winter browse plant for deer (Odocoileu petals are distinct, hooded, and clawed; the 5 stamens are
spp.) and elk (Cervus cervus) in parts of Idaho, Washington, opposite the petals, with elongated filaments. Petals and
and Oregon (Hickey and Leege 1970). All species that have sepals can be blue, white purple, lavender, or pink. The
been investigated bear root nodules containing a nitrogen- ovary is 3-celled and 3-lobed, with a short 3-cleft style.
fixing Frankia symbiont (for example, Delwiche and others Fruits are drupaceous or viscid at first but soon dry up into
1965); species from both forest and chaparral systems have 3-lobed capsules (figure 1) that separate when ripe into 3
been associated with accretion of soil nitrogen over time parts. Seeds are smooth, varied in size among species (fig-
(Binkley and Husted 1983; Binkley and others 1982; Conard ures 2 and 3; table 3), and convex on one side.
and others 1985; Hellmers and Kelleher 1959; Youngberg Flowering and fruiting dates for several species are list-
and Wollum 1976; Youngberg and others 1979; Zavitkovski ed in table 2. Feltleaf ceanothus is reported to begin bearing
and Newton 1968; Zinke 1969). seeds at 1 year (Van Rensslaer and McMinn 1942), deer-
On forest sites, ceanothus species have alternately been brush ceanothus at 3 years (McDonald and others 1998),
considered a problem because they compete with commer-
Sources: Franklin and others (1985), Hitchcock and others (1961), Lenz and Dourley (1981), McMinn (1964), Munz and Keck (1968), Reed (1974), Sampson and
Jesperson (1963), Schmidt (1993).
Ceanothus • 349
Figure 1—Ceanothus, ceanothus: capsules of C. ameri- Figure 3—Ceanothus americanus, New-Jersey-tea:
C canus, New-Jersey-tea (top) and C. velutinus, snowbrush longitudinal section through a seed.
(bottom).
Sources: Evans and others (1987), Furbush (1962), Hitchcock (1961), Hubbard (1958), Kearney (1951), McMinn (1964), Mirov and Kraebel (1939), Plummer and others
(1968), Reed (1974), Rowntree (1948), Sampson and Jesperson (1963), Swingle (1939),Van Dersal (1938),Van Rensslaer (1942).
Elevations: * 900–1,500 m. † 700 m. ‡ 1,650 m.
178,000/lb), depending on the species (table 3). Adequate ceanothus, Gratkowski (1962) observed that when seeds
information on long-term storage is not available, but the were exposed to drying conditions at normal air tempera-
seeds are apparently orthodox in storage behavior. Dry stor- ture, the hilum (the attachment scar on the seed, through
age at around 4.5 °C should be satisfactory. Quick and which the radicle would normally emerge) functioned as a
Quick (1961) reported good germination in seeds of a dozen one-way hygroscopic valve that allowed moisture to pass
ceanothus species that had been stored for 9 to 24 years, out but prevented moisture uptake by the seeds. Heat caused
with no apparent effect of seed age on viability. Seeds are a permanent, irreversible opening of the hilar fissure, which
apparently long-lived in litter; viable seeds of snowbrush rendered the seed permeable to water. However, the seedcoat
ceanothus have been found in the surface soil of forest itself remained impermeable to moisture even after heating.
stands that were between 200 to 300 years old (Gratkowski This mechanism likely accounts for the abundant germina-
1962). tion of ceanothus species that often occurs after fire on both
Germination. The long-term viability of seeds of chaparral and forest sites (Conard and others 1985).
ceanothus species apparently results from a strong seed coat In the laboratory, germination has been induced by
dormancy, which in nature is typically broken by fire but soaking in hot water or heating in an oven, with or without a
may occasionally be broken by solar heating or mechanical subsequent period of cold stratification (table 4). The typical
scarification, such as from forest site preparation activities pattern is that germination increases with the temperature of
(Conard and others 1985). Germination of ceanothus seeds heat treatments up to a maximum, at which point seed mor-
generally increases with increasing fire intensity (Conard tality begins to occur. Seed germination and mortality are a
and others 1985; Moreno and Oechel 1991), although at function of both temperature and length of exposure, but for
very high intensities, soil temperatures may be high enough most species these optima are poorly defined. For hoaryleaf
to kill substantial numbers of seeds, resulting in decreased ceanothus, for example, maximum germination was
germination (Lanini and Radosevich 1986). In varnish-leaf obtained after heat treatments of 10 minutes to 1 hour at
Ceanothus • 351
C Table 3—Ceanothus, ceanothus: thousands of cleaned seeds per weight
Range Average
Species /kg /lb /kg /lb Samples
Sources: Emery (1964), Hubbard (1958), Mirov and Kraebel (1939), Plummer and others (1968), Quick (1935), Quick and Quick (1961), Reed (1974), Swingle (1939).
70 to 80 °C. At higher temperatures, germination dropped general, longer periods of cold stratification are more effec-
off increasingly rapidly with duration of treatment, until at tive than short ones. For example, Radwan and Crouch
100 °C there was a linear decrease in germination with (1977) observed increasing germination of redstem ceanoth-
times over 5 minutes (Poth and Barro 1986). In the wild, us as cold stratification was increased from 1 to 3 or 4
this range of time and temperature optima gives the advan- months; no germination occurred without stratification.
tage of allowing dormancy to be broken at a range of soil Similar patterns were observed by Quick and Quick (1961)
depths as a function of fire temperature and residence times. for deerbrush ceanothus (increased germination up to 2
Quick and Quick (1961) reported that germination of moun- months of stratification) and Bullock (1982) for mountain
tain whitethorn and, to a lesser extent, deerbrush ceanothus whitethorn (increased germination up to 3 months). In lieu
began to drop off rapidly after a few seconds to several min- of cold stratification, a chemical treatment with gibberellin
utes in boiling water. Although “steeping” treatments at and thiourea was used to induce germination of buckbrush
cooler temperatures (for example, 70 to 95 °C) were also ceanothus (Adams and others 1961). Treatment with potassi-
found effective on several species (Quick 1935; Quick and um salts of gibberellin also sucessfully replaced cold stratifi-
Quick 1961), many investigators have continued to use treat- cation in germination tests on redstem ceanothus seeds
ments of boiling water (table 4). Dry heat treatments may be (Radwan and Crouch 1977). Following chemical treatments,
less damaging at higher temperatures than wet heat (table 4), seeds may then be germinated or dried again and stored
although careful comparisons have not been made. In place (Adams and others 1961). Although emphasis has been on
of hot water treatments, seeds can also be immersed in sul- more natural methods of stimulating germination, seeds of
furic acid for 1 hour (Reed 1974). snowbrush ceanothus and other species can be germinated
Seeds of species found at high elevations also require quite successfully with acid scarification followed by a gib-
cold stratification for good germination (Quick 1935; Van berellin treatment (Conard 1996).
Rensslaer and McMinn 1942). Although some lower- Specific germination test conditions have not been well
elevation species from chaparral sites can germinate reason- defined for most species of ceanothus. Sand or a mixture of
ably well without this cold treatment, their germination rates sand and soil has been used as the moisture-supplying medi-
generally increase with stratification (table 4). Cold stratifi- um in most of the reported germination tests (Emery 1964;
cation is accomplished by storing seeds in a moist medium Quick 1935; Reed 1974), but filter paper has also been used
for periods of 30 to 90 days at temperatures of 1 to 5 °C. In successfully (Keeley 1987a). Diurnally alternating tempera-
Pregermination treatments
Hot water soak Cold Germination rate
Temp Time* stratification Germination Avg
Species (°C) (min) (days) test days (%) Samples
C. americanus — 0 90 50 65 4
77–100 ttc 60 30 32 1
C. arboreus 71–91 ttc 0 40–112 90 3+
C. cordulatus 90 ttc 94 35 74 4
85 ttc 94 35 90 4
80 ttc 94 35 74 4
C. crassifolius 71 ttc 90 21–90 76 1+
71 ttc 0 90 48 1+
C. cuneatus 71 ttc 90 21–90 92 1+
120† 5 30 21 28 3
100 5 30 21 38 3
70 60 30 21 3 3
— 0 30 21 10 3
C. cuneatus var. rigidus 71 ttc 0 60–112 85 2+
C. diversifolius 77–100 ttc 60 60 61 1+
C. fendleri — 0 0 — 16 —
C. greggii 100 1 30–60 17 51 —
C. impressus 77–100 ttc 60 30 73 1+
C. integerrimus 85 ttc 56 — 100 1
71 ttc 90 20 85 1+
C. leucodermis 120† 5 30 21 68 3
100 5 30 21 50 3
70 60 30 21 47 3
— 0 30 21 7 3
C. megacarpus 120† 5 30 21 88 3
100 5 30 21 53 3
70 60 30 21 54 3
— 0 30 21 6 3
C. oliganthus 71 ttc 0 70 62 1+
C. prostratus 100 0.5 115 — 92 —
77–100 ttc 90 30 71 1+
C. sanguineus 100 1 120 32 97 3
100 5 120 32 92 3
100 15 120 32 41 3
100 1–5 0 32 0 3
C. sorediatus 100 5 90 30 100 1+
100 5 0 30 38 1
C. thyrsiflorus 71 ttc 90 60 83 1+
71 ttc 0 60 73 1
C. velutinus 90 ttc 63–84 — 82 1
71 ttc 90 30 70 2+
Sources: Emery (1964), Keeley (1987a), Mirov and Kraebel (1939), Quick (1935), Quick and Quick (1961), Radwan and Crouch (1977), Reed (1974),Van Dersal (1938).
* ttc = “time to cool” (to room temperature) varied from several hours to overnight.
† Results reported here are for dry heat treatments, with germination in the dark; see Keeley (1987) for data on light germination.
tures of 30 °C in light and 20 °C in darkness have been The genus includes both species that sprout vegetatively
effective, but constant temperatures of 10 °C (Reed 1974) following fire (sprouters) and species that are killed by fire
and 24.5 °C (Emery 1988) also have been suitable for ger- and reproduce only from seeds (obligate seeders). Obligate
mination. A need for light has not been reported (Keeley seeders appear to have overall higher germination following
1991), and at least 1 species (deerbrush ceanothus) appears heat treatment and to tolerate higher temperatures and
to germinate significantly better in the dark (Keeley 1987a). longer periods at high temperature without damage to seed
Germination rates resulting from selected pregermination viability (Barro and Poth 1987). Germination test results
treatments are listed in table 4 for 19 species. suggest that eastern species may not be dependent on fire to
Ceanothus • 353
stimulate germination. For western species, however, some Figure 4—Ceanothus americanus, New-Jersey- tea:
C seedling development at 1, 5, and 15 days after germination.
level of heat treatment, followed by stratification, will typi-
cally enhance germination. Although there has certainly
been considerable variability in test results (table 4), a 5- to
10-minute dry heat treatment at 100 °C or a steeping treat-
ment starting with 85 °C water, followed by several months
of cold stratification, should effectively stimulate germina-
tion in most species.
Nursery practice. Seeding has been done in flats con-
taining a medium of 5 parts loam, 4 parts peat, and 3 parts
sand (Van Rensslaer and McMinn 1942). Leaf-mold may be
substituted for the peat, but the peat is preferred because it is
comparatively free of fungi. Sand is needed for drainage, a
higher proportion being used in the seeding than in the pot-
ting medium. Seedlings are sensitive to sowing depth. In a
trial by Adams (1962), deerbrush and buckbrush ceanothus-
es emerged best when sown at depths of 12 to 25 mm (1/2 to
1 in), and shading favored emergence of the first 2 species.
However, some germination and emergence occurred at
sowing depths ranging from 6 to 64 mm (1/4 to 21/2 in).
Many species are sensitive to damping off, so for safety soil
should be sterilized (Van Rensslaer and McMinn 1942). In
California, seeding is usually done in November to January.
Germination is epigeal (figure 4). Although all species of
Ceanothus apparently fix nitrogen symbiotically, there has
apparently been little or no research into the efficacy of or
need for seed inoculation with Frankia to ensure nodulation been developed for the nursery trade. Cultural notes on
of seedlings after outplanting. This is not likely to be a prob- some of the commonly available species (table 1) and culti-
lem on soils where Ceanothus species are present, as nodu- vars (Brickell and Zuk 1997) follow:
lation appears to occur readily (Conard 1996) but may be of
concern for horticultural uses of the genus. • feltleaf ceanothus—C. arboreus—which can attain a
Seedling care. When several sets of leaves have height of 5 to 8 m and has pale blue flowers, grows
formed, the seedlings can be carefully planted into 2- or 3- best in coastal areas or with partial shade in areas with
inch (5- or 7.6-cm) pots. A good potting medium is 5 parts hot, dry summers.
loam, 3 parts peat or leaf mold, and 1 part sand (Van • Fendler ceanothus—C. fendleri—up to 2 m tall with
Rensslaer and McMinn 1942). Care must be taken not to pale, bluish-white flowers, has been propagated from
place the seedlings too deep in the soil, with root crowns seeds sown in the spring and from cuttings in autumn.
should be just below the soil surface. Seedlings are suscepti- It grows best in light, well-drained soils and can toler-
ble to stem rot, and the loss will be greater if young plants ate cold.
are kept in moist soil that covers the root crown. The root • Carmel ceanothus—C. griseus var. horizontalis
development should be examined from time to time. When a McMinn—a spreading, low-growing (to 1 m) variety,
loose root system has formed on the outside of the ball, the is used as ground cover and for slope stabilization. It
plant is ready for shifting to a larger pot or gallon can. It is performs best in mild coastal regions but will do well
best to discard potbound plants rather than to carry them in partial shade in drier areas with adequate watering.
along. Several named varieties are available.
Planting stock of most common western ceanothus • prostrate ceanothus—C. prostratus—a spreading, pros-
species is now available from commercial nurseries or trate groundcover with small blue flower clusters, usu-
botanic gardens, and numerous hybrids and cultivars have ally is propagated by layering. It is best if grown with-
in its native range (for example, ponderosa pine zone
of Sierra Nevada) and does not grow well at low eleva-
tions.
References
Ceanothus • 355
Poth M, Barro SC. 1986. On the thermodynamics of heat survival by seeds Swingle CF, comp. 1939. Seed propagation of trees, shrubs and forbs for
C [unpublished manuscript on file]. Riverside, CA: USDA Forest Service, conservation planting. SCS-TP-27. Washington, DC: USDA Soil
Pacific Southwest Research Station, Forest Fire Laboratory. Conservation Service. 198 p.
Plummer AF, Christensen DR, Monsen SB. 1968. Restoring big-game range Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their
in Utah. Pub. 68-3. Salt Lake City: Department of Natural Resources, erosion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC:
Division of Fish and Game. 182 p. USDA. 362 p.
Quick CR. 1935. Notes on the germination of ceanothus seeds. Madroño Van Rensslaer M, McMinn HE. 1942. Ceanothus. Berkeley, CA: Gillick Press.
3: 135–140. 308 p.
Quick CR, Quick AS. 1961. Germination of ceanothus seeds. Madroño 16: Youngberg CT, Wollum AG II. 1976. Nitrogen accretion in developing
23–30. Ceanothus velutinus stands. Soil Science Society of America Journal 40(1):
Radwan MA, Crouch GL. 1977. Seed germination and seedling establish- 109–112.
ment of redstem ceanothus. Journal of Wildlife Management 41(4): Youngberg CT, Wollum AG II, Scott W. 1979. Ceanothus in Douglas-fir
760–766. clearcuts: nitrogen accretion and impact on regeneration. In: Proceedings,
Reed MJ. 1974. Ceanothus L., ceanothus. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation in the Management of Temperate Forests
Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Conference; 1979 April 2–5; Corvallis, OR. Corvallis: Oregon State
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 284–290. University. 224–233.
Rowntree L. 1948. Flowering shrubs of California. Stanford, CA: Stanford Zammit CA, Zedler PH. 1988. The influence of dominant shrubs, fire, and
University Press: 23–86. time since fire on soil seed banks in mixed chaparral.Vegetatio 75:
Sampson AW, Jespersen BS. 1963. California range brushlands and browse 175–187.
plants. Manual 33. Berkeley: University of California Agricultural Zammit CA, Zedler PH. 1992. Size structure and seed production in even-
Experiment Station, Extension Service: 102–112. aged populations of Ceanothus greggii in mixed chaparral. Journal of
Schmidt CL. 1993. Ceanothus. In: Hickman JC, ed.The Jepson manual: higher Ecology 81: 499–511.
plants of California. Berkeley: University of California Press: 932–938. Zavitkovski J, Newton M. 1968. Ecological importance of snowbrush
Schmidt MG. 1980. Growing California native plants. Berkeley: University of (Ceanothus velutinus) in the Oregon Cascades. Ecology 49(6): 1134-1145.
California Press. 366 p. Zinke PJ. 1969. Nitrogen storage of several California forest soil-vegetation
Sunset Western Garden Book. 1995. Ceanothus. Menlo Park, CA: Sunset systems. In: Proceedings, Symposium on Biology and Ecology of Nitrogen;
Publishing Corp.: 212–214. 1967 November 28–December 1. Washington, DC: National Academy
Sunset National Garden Book. 1997. Ceanothus. Menlo Park, CA: Sunset of Sciences: 40–53.
Publishing Corp.: 235.
Cedrus Trew
cedar
Paula M. Pijut
Dr. Pijut is a plant physiologist at the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Research Station,
Hardwood Tree Improvement and Regeneration Center, West Lafayette, Indiana
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus of tinguishing gene marker was detected (Panetsos and others
true cedars—Cedrus—consists of 4 (or fewer) closely relat- 1992). There is disagreement as to the exact taxonomic sta-
ed species of tall, oleoresin-rich, monoecious, coniferous, tus of the various cedars, with some authors suggesting that
evergreen trees, with geographically separated distributions they be reduced to only 2 species: deodar cedar and cedar
(Arbez and others 1978; Bariteau and Ferrandes 1992; of Lebanon. In this writing, we will examine all 4 species.
Farjon 1990; Hillier 1991; LHBH 1976; Maheshwari and The cedars are both valuable timber trees and quite
Biswas 1970; Tewari 1994; Vidakovié 1991). The cedars are striking specimen plants in the landscape. The wood of
restricted to the montane or high montane zones of moun- cedar of Lebanon is fragrant, durable, and decay resistant;
tains situated roughly between 15°W and 80°E and 30 to and on a historical note, the ancient Egyptians employed
40°N (Farjon 1990). This discontinuous range is composed cedar sawdust (cedar resin) in mummification (Chaney
of 3 widely separated regions in North Africa and Asia 1993; Demetci 1986; Maheshwari and Biswas 1970). Upon
(Farjon 1990): the Atlas Mountains of North Africa in north- distillation of cedar wood, an aromatic oil is obtained that is
ern Morocco and northern Algeria; Turkey, the mountains on used for a variety of purposes, from scenting soap to medic-
Cyprus, and along the eastern border of the Mediterranean inal practices (Adams 1991; Chalchat and others 1994;
Sea in Syria and Lebanon; the Hindu Kush, Karakoram, and Maheshwari and Biswas 1970; Tewari 1994).
Indian Himalayas. The 4 species of cedars (table 1) are so Atlas cedar is a large tree that grows rapidly when
closely related that habitual characteristics help differentiate young and is closely related to cedar of Lebanon. The Atlas
the species (Farjon 1990). Isozyme analysis of cedar diploid cedar is distinguished by a taller crown, less densely
tissue raises questions about the separation of Atlas cedar arranged branchlets, bluish green leaves (needles) that vary
and cedar of Lebanon into 2 distinct species, because no dis- from light green to silvery blue, smaller cones, and smaller
Table 1—Cedrus, cedar: nomenclature, occurrence, height at maturity, and date first cultivated
C. atlantica (Endl.) G. Atlas cedar In Algeria on Mts. Babor & Tababort & 9–40 Before 1840
Manetti ex Carriere in Hodna Mtns; in Morocco in Rif Mtns
(at 1,370–2,200 m); planted in US
C. breviifolia (Hook. f.) A. Cyprian cedar Two separate locations on Mt Paphos in 8–24 1879
Henry western Cyprus (at 900–1,525 m)
C. deodara (Roxb. ex D. deodar cedar E Afghanistan (Hindu Kush), NW Pakistan 15–50 1831
Don) G. Don F. (Karakoram), NW India (Kashmir & Gharwal
Himalaya), rare in Nepal (1,700–3,000 m in
western range & 1,300–3,300 m in eastern
range); planted in US
C. libani A. Rich. cedar of Lebanon In S Turkey (Taurus Mtns), also Syria (Djebel 15–40 Pre-1650
el Ansiriya) & Lebanon (Djebel Loubnan);
disjunct relict population in N Turkey near
Black Sea (at 1,300–3,000 m ); planted in US
Sources: Dirr (1990), Farjon (1990), Hillier (1991).
Cedrus • 357
seeds (table 2) (Dirr 1990; Farjon 1990; Hillier 1991; cal differences between cedar of Lebanon and Atlas cedar
C
Loureiro 1990, 1994). Young trees appear stiff, with an erect are small and not entirely constant (Farjon 1990;
leader and a pyramidal overall shape; with maturity this Maheshwari and Biswas 1970). Cedar of Lebanon is hardy
species assumes a flat-topped habit with horizontally spread- in USDA Zones 5 to 7 (Dirr 1990; Dirr and others 1993). A
ing branches (Dirr 1990). Atlas cedar is hardy in USDA geographical form—C. libani ssp. stenocoma (Schwarz)
zones 6 to 9, with several beautiful cultivars that differ in Davis—differs from the typical Lebanon cedar in having a
color and characteristic habit (Dirr 1990; Hillier 1991; broadly columnar habit and needle and cone characteristics
Vidakovié 1991). Of special note is ‘Glauca’ (f. glauca), that are intermediate between Atlas cedar and cedar of
with very blue to silvery blue leaves, which is a spectacular Lebanon; it is also more cold-hardy (Hillier 1991; Vidakovié
specimen tree (Dirr 1990; Hillier 1991). 1991). There are also several dwarf cultivars of cedar of
Cyprian cedar is a rare species that grows slowly but Lebanon that are of interest for use in the landscape (Hillier
eventually develops into a medium-sized tree. This species 1991; Vidakovié 1991).
is distinguished from cedar of Lebanon only by its habitual Flowering and fruiting. The male flowers of cedar
form and shorter leaves (table 2) and the broad and umbrel- are erect catkins, up to 5 cm in length, whereas the female
la-shaped crown on older specimens (Farjon 1990; Hillier flowers are erect, cone-like inflorescences, 1 to 1.5 cm long,
1991; Vidakovié 1991). surrounded by needles at the base (Vidakovié 1991). Male
Deodar cedar is an excellent specimen tree. The deodar and female strobili of the true cedars are borne (usually) on
cedar is broadly pyramidal when young, with gracefully the same tree, but on separate branches (Farjon 1990;
pendulous branches (Dirr 1990; Tewari 1994). It is distin- Maheshwari and Biswas 1970; Rudolf 1974). The male
guished from the other species by its drooping leader and cones are solitary, grow more or less erect from the short
longer leaves (table 2) (Hillier 1991). Multi-stemmed shoots, and bear abundant yellow pollen (Farjon 1990;
crowns occasionally evolve from the higher branches turned Maheshwari and Biswas 1970). Depending upon the alti-
erect, but the crown seldom becomes flat-topped, remaining tude, locality, and weather, the pollen is shed late in the year
conical or pyramidal (Farjon 1990). Deodar cedar is hardy (September through November), relating to the late develop-
in USDA zones 7 to 8, but young trees are prone to injury ment of the female strobilus (Farjon 1990; Maheshwari and
from frosts and cold wind (Dirr 1990). There are many culti- Biswas 1970). The female cones are borne singly at the tips
vars of deodar cedar, but 2 worth mentioning are ‘Kashmir’ of the dwarf shoots, stand erect, and are less abundant than
and ‘Shalimar’. The former is winter-hardy—it tolerates the male cones (Farjon 1990; Maheshwari and Biswas
cold winters to –30 °C—with silvery blue-green foliage 1970). Although pollination takes place in the fall, the cones
(Dirr 1990; Vidakovié1991). The latter displays good blue- do not mature until the second year, requiring about 17 to 18
green leaf color and is the hardiest cultivar planted in the months for full development (Farjon 1990; Maheshwari and
United States (Dirr 1990; Koller 1982). Biswas 1970; Rudolf 1974).
Cedar of Lebanon is a majestic tree with innumerable The mature, barrel-shaped cones (figure 1) are resinous
historical and biblical references. It has a thick, massive and characterized by numerous closely appressed, very
trunk and wide-spreading branches; it is pyramidal when broad scales, each containing 2 seeds (table 2) (Rudolf
young but develops a flat-topped crown and horizontally 1974). The scales are attached to the persistent rachis with a
tiered branches when mature (Chaney 1993; Dirr 1990; narrowed, petiolate base and dismember from it by abscis-
Farjon 1990; Hillier 1991). The dark green foliage, stiff sion at maturity, as in fir (Abies) (Farjon 1990; Rudolf
habit, and rigidly upright cones (table 2) give this tree its 1974). The irregularly triangular mature seed is rather soft
splendor for landscape specimen planting. The morphologi- and oily, with resin vesicles present on each side of the seed,
Figure 1—Cedrus libani, cedar of Lebanon: mature cone. Figure 2—Cedrus libani, cedar of Lebanon: seeds with
membranous wing attached.
Cedrus • 359
temperatures of 20 °C (night) and 30 °C (day) for a period Figure 3—Cedrus brevifolia, Cyprian cedar: longitudinal
C
of 4 weeks. Tests may also be made in sand flats (Rudolf section through a seed (top) and exterior view of a
1974). Deodar cedar seeds stratified at 4 °C in moist sand de-winged seed (bottom).
for 30 days showed 45% germination versus 11% without
stratification (Dirr and Heuser 1987). Thapliyal and Gupta
(1980) also found that the percentage of germination with-
out stratification to vary from 16 to 69%. Singh and others
(1992) found that seeds from larger cones exhibited higher
germination (66%) in Himalayan cedar. Singh and others
(1997) also found that there were significant differences
between tree-diameter classes in fresh and dry weight of
seeds and also in germination in the laboratory and in the
nursery. Germination of cedar seed is epigeal (figure 4).
Nursery practice and seedling care. Deodar cedar
seeds should be sown in the fall (or in spring) at a rate of
200 to 250 seeds/m2 (19 to 23/ft2), in drills 10 to 15 cm
(4 to 6 in) apart for lining-out stock and for root stocks
(Macdonald 1986; Rudolf 1974). Chandra and Ram (1980)
recommend sowing deodar seeds at a depth of 1 cm (0.4 in);
further increase in depth results in decreased germination.
Al-Ashoo and Al-Khaffaf (1997) reported that the best treat-
ment for germination of cedar of Lebanon seeds was a
1.5-cm (0.6-in) sowing depth, with a covering medium of
clay or alluvial soil. In northern areas, fall-sown beds should
be mulched over winter, the mulch removed early in the
spring, and the bed racks covered with burlap on critical
spring nights to prevent freezing (Heit 1968). Cedar seeds
can be sown in containers in the fall, transplanted into other
Cone Seed
Species Flowering ripening dispersal
References
Adams RP. 1991. Cedar wood oil: analyses and properties. Modern Chandra JP, Ram A. 1980. Studies on depth of sowing deodar (Cedrus deo-
Methods of Plant Analysis 12: 159–173. dara) seed. Indian Forester 106(12): 852–855.
Al-Ashoo JA, Al-Khaffaf RS. 1997. Effect of sowing depth and covering Chaney WR. 1993. Cedrus libani, cedar of Lebanon. Arbor Age 13 (1):
medium on the germination and germination energy of Cedrus libani 26–27.
Loud. seeds [in Arabic, summary in English]. Dirasat Agricultural Sciences Demetci EY. 1986. Toros sediri (Cedrus libani A. Richard) odununun bazi
24(1): 112–118. fiziksel ve mekanik özellikleri üzerine arastirmalar [in Turkish; summary in
Allen DH. 1995. Personal communication. Sandwich, MA: F.W. Schumacher English: Studies on the some physical and mechanical properties of
Co. cedar (Cedrus libani A. Richard) wood].Teknik Bülten Serisi 180.
Appleton BL, Whitcomb CE. 1983. Effects of propagation container size and Ormancilik Arastirma Enstitüsü Yayinlari. 60 p.
transplanting date on the growth of tree seedlings.Tech. Pub. R8-4. Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification,
USDA Forest Service, Southern Region: 41–46. ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. Champaign, IL:
Arbez M, Ferrandes P, Uyar N. 1978. Contribution à l’étude de la variabilité Stipes Publishing Company. 1007 p.
géographique des Cèdres [in French, summary in English: Contribution to Dirr MA, Heuser Jr CW. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop-
the study of the geographic variability of the genus Cedrus]. Annales des agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p.
Sciences Forestières 35(4): 265–284. Dirr MA, Lindstrom OM, Lewandowski R,Vehr MJ. 1993. Cold hardiness
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds. estimates of woody taxa from cultivated and wild collections. Journal of
Journal of Seed Technology 16(3): 1–113. Environmental Horticulture 11(4): 200–203.
Bariteau M, Ferrandes P. 1992. Les cèdres. In: Gallais A, Bannerot H, ed. Doty JC. 1982. Seedling production: Cedrus deodara. Combined
Amelioration des especes vegetales cultivees: objectifs et criteres de Proceedings of the International Plant Propagators Society 31: 61–63.
selection [in French: Cedars: improvement of cultivated plant species]. Erkuloglu OS. 1995. Kayin, goknac ve sedir tohumlarini: uzun sure saklama
Paris: 732–743, 750. olanaklari uzerine arastirmalar [in Turkish, summary in English: Possiblities
Bhatnagar SP, Singh MN, Kapur N. 1983. Preliminary investigations on organ for long-term storage of beech, fire and cedar seeds]. Ic Anadolu
differentiation in tissue cultures of Cedrus deodara and Pinus roxburghii. Ormancilik Arastirma Enstitusu Dergisis 77: 45–87.
Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 21(9): 524–526. Farjon A. 1990. Pinaceae: drawings and descriptions of the genera Abies,
Blomme R,Vanwezer J. 1986. Het enten van koniferen [in Dutch: The graft- Cedrus, Pseudolarix, Keteleeria, Nothotsuga, Tsuga, Cathaya, Pseudotsuga,
ing of conifers]. Verbondsnieuws voor de Belgische Sierteelt. 30(9): 469, Larix, and Picea. Königstein, Germany: Koeltz Scientific Books. 330 p.
471–473. Guehl JM, Falconnet G, Gruez J. 1989. Caractéristiques physiologiques et
Burger DW, Svihra P, Harris R. 1992. Treeshelter use in producing container- survie après plantation de plants de Cedrus atlantica élevés en con-
grown trees. HortScience 27(1): 30–32. teneurs sur différents types de substrats de culture [in French, summary
Chalchat JC, Garry RP, Michet A, Benjilali B. 1994. Essential oil components in English: Physiological characteristics and field survival of Cedrus
in sawdust of Cedrus atlantica from Morocco. Journal of Essential Oil atlantica seedlings grown on different container growth media]. Annales
Research 6(3): 323–325. des Sciences Forestieres 46: 1–14.
Cedrus • 361
Hartmann HT, Kester DE, Davies FT. 1990. Plant propagation: principles and Piola F, Rohr R, Heizmann P. 1999. Rapid detection of genetic variation
C practices. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 647 p. within and among in vitro propagated cedar (Cedrus libani Loudon)
Heit CE. 1968. Propagation from seed: 16.Testing and growing Cedrus clones. Plant Science 141(2): 159–163.
species. American Nurseryman 128(6): 12–13, 87–94. Puxeddu M, Alias S. 1991. Prove sperimentali sull’impiego di diversi tipi di
Hillier Nurseries (Winchester) Ltd. 1991. The Hillier manual of trees and postime di cedro dell’Atlante (Cedrus atlantica Manetti) in Sardegna [in
shrubs. Melksham, Wiltshire: Redwood Press Ltd. 704 p. Italian; English summary: Experimental trials on use of different nurserys-
ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. International rules for tock of Cedar of Atlas (Cedrus atlantica Manetti) in Sardinia]. Monti e
seed testing. Rules 1993. Seed Science & Technology 21 (Suppl.): 1–259. Boschi 42(2): 44–48.
Koller GL. 1982. Introducing Cedrus deodara ‘Shalimar’. Arnoldia 42(4): Richards M. 1972. Bare root grafting of Cedrus. Plant Propagator 18(2): 8.
153–157. Rudolf PO. 1974. Cedrus, cedar. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of
LHBH [Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium]. 1976. Hortus third: a concise dic- woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC:
tionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: USDA Forest Service: 291–294.
Macmillan. 1290 p. Shamet GS, Bhardwaj SD. 1995. Vegetative propagation of deodar, spruce,
Liu M. 1990. Deodara cedar. In: Chen Z, Evans DA, Sharp WR, Ammirato and silver-fir using stem cutting under intermittent mist.Van Vigyan 33(2):
PV, Söndahl MR, eds. Handbook of plant cell culture,Volume 6, Perennial 80–84.
crops. New York: McGraw-Hill. 506 p. Singh V, Bana OPS, Sah VK. 1997. Effect of tree diameter classes on seed
Loureiro AM. 1990. Cultura da Cedrus atlantica (Endl.) Carr. [in Portuguese, yield, germination and early seedling growth in Himalayan cedar (Cedrus
English summary: Silviculture of Cedrus atlantica]. Série Didáctica 5. deodara Royale ex D. Don). Journal of Hill Research 10(2): 77–81.
Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Ciéncias Aplicadas. 61 p. Singh V, Sah VK, Singh AK. 1992. Effect of cone diameter on seed yield,
Loureiro A[M]. 1994. Algumas notas sobre a cultura de Cedrus atlantica moisture content and germination in Himalayan cedar (Cedrus deodara
(Endl.) Carr. [in Portuguese, summary in English: Some notes on the cul- Royle ex D. Don). Indian Journal of Forestry 15(4): 335–338.
ture of Cedrus atlantica]. Informacao Florestal 5: 8–11. Siniscalco C. 1995. Propagazione tramite innesto di piante selezionate di
Lyon L. 1984. Winter grafting of cedar, spruce, and ornamental cherry. cedro (Cedrus atlantica (Endl) Carr) [in Italian, summary in English:
Combined Proceedings of the International Plant Propagator’s Society Grafting propagation of cedar: selected plants (Cedrus atlantica)]. Monti e
33: 54–55. Boschi 46(3): 18–20.
Macdonald B. 1986. Practical woody plant propagation for nursery grow- Tewari DN. 1994. A monograph on deodar (Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) G.
ers. Portland, OR:Timber Press. 669 p. Don). Dehra Dun, India: International Book Distributors. 212 p.
Maheshwari P, Biswas C. 1970. Cedrus. Bot. Monogr. 5. New Delhi: Council Thapliyal RC, Gupta BN. 1980. Effect of seed source and stratification on
of Scientific and Industrial Research. 112 p. the germination of deodar seed. Seed Science and Technology 8:
Mittal RK. 1983. Studies on the mycoflora and its control on the seeds of 145–150.
some forest trees: 1. Cedrus deodara. Canadian Journal of Botany 61: Toth J. 1979. Le Cedre: 1. De la floraison a la recolte des cones [in French:
197–201. Cedar: 1. From flowering to harvesting of cones]. La Forét Privée 130:
Nicholson R. 1984. Propagation notes Cedrus deodara ‘Shalimar’ and 32–38.
Calocedrus decurrens. Plant Propagator 30: 5–6. Toth J. 1980a. Le Cedre: 2. La Graine: dissémination, extraction, qualité, ger-
Panetsos KP, Christou A, Scaltsoyiannes A. 1992. First analysis on allozyme mination, conservation [in French: Cedar: 2.The seed: dissemination,
variation in cedar species (Cedrus sp.). Silvae Genetica 41(6): 339–342. extraction, quality, germination, preservation]. La Forét Privée 131: 78–84.
Piola F, Rohr R. 1996. A method to overcome seed and axillary bud dor- Toth J. 1980b. Le Cedre: 3. Élevage des plants en pépinière, reboisement,
mancy to improve Cedrus libani micropropagation. Plant Tissue Culture régénération naturelle [in French: Cedar: 3. Growing plants in the nurs-
and Biotechnology 2(4): 199–201. ery, reforestation, natural regeneration]. La Forét Privée 132: 41–47.
Piola F, Label P,Vergne P, von Aderkas P, Rohr R. 1998. Effects of endoge- Vidakovié M. 1991. Conifers: morphology and variation [1st edition pub-
nous ABA levels and temperature on cedar (Cedrus libani Loudon) bud lished in 1982 in Croatian; revised and expanded edition published in
dormancy in vitro. Plant Cell Reports 18: 279–283. 1991 in English]. Zagreb: Graficki Zavod Hrvatske. 754 p.
Celastrus scandens L.
American bittersweet
G.W. Wendel, Jill R. Barbour, and Robert P. Karrfalt
Dr.Wendel retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Northeastern Forest Experiment Station;
Ms. Barbour is a germination specialist at and Mr. Karrfalt is director of the USDA Forest Service’s
National Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, Georgia
Other common names. climbing bittersweet, shrubby (Brizicky 1964; Fernald 1950). Hymenopterous insects,
bittersweet. especially bees, seem to be the main pollinators, although
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. American bitter- wind may also be involved (Brizicky 1964). Seeds are about
sweet is a deciduous climbing or twining shrub of eastern 6.3 mm long and are borne in bright orange to red, fleshy
North America (Brizicky 1964; Fernald 1950) that occurs in arils, 2 of which are usually found in each of the 2 to 4 cells
thickets, in stands of young trees, along fence rows, and composing the fruit, a dehiscent capsule (figure 1). The yel-
along streams, usually in rich soil. It occurs naturally from low to orange capsules ripen from late August to October.
southern Quebec; west to southern Manitoba; and south to They split open soon thereafter, exposing the seeds covered
Oklahoma and central Texas, Arkansas, Tennessee, northern with showy red arils (figures 2 and 3). Good seedcrops are
Alabama, and western North Carolina (Brizicky 1964). borne annually and may persist on the bushes throughout
Some authors (Fernald 1950; USDA FS 1948) reported it in much of the winter (USDA Forest Service 1948). In
Louisiana, New Mexico, Georgia, and Mississippi, but its Pennsylvania, only 1 seedcrop failure was reported in a 14-
occurrence has not been verified in Georgia, Louisiana, or year period (Musser 1970). Sunlight is reported necessary
Mississippi (Brizicky 1964). for abundant fruiting to occur (Musser 1970).
The plant is valuable for ornamental purposes and game Collection of fruit. The ripe fruits should be collect-
food and cover; the bark has been used for medicinal pur- ed as soon as the capsules separate and expose the arils, or
poses (USDA FS 1948). Among the animals and birds feed- from about mid-September as long as they hang on the
ing on American bittersweet are the bobwhite quail (Colinus vines (USDA FS 1948), but rarely later than December (Van
virginianus), ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), ringneck Dersal 1938). In Pennsylvania, the fruits are collected from
pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), eastern cottontail late October through November (Musser 1970).
(Silvilagus floridanus), fox squirrel (Sciurus niger), and var-
ious songbirds (Van Dersal 1938). It was introduced into
cultivation in 1736 (USDA FS 1948). Figure 1—Celastrus scandens, American bittersweet:
By 1970, oriental or Asiatic bittersweet—C. orbiculatus fruiting branch.
Thunb.—had become naturalized on at least 84 sites from
Georgia to Maine and west to Iowa (McNab and Meeker
1987), occupying many of the same sites as American bitter-
sweet. It is listed as an invasive plant by the United States
Government (USDA NRCS 1999). In some locales, the
species is found mainly along fence lines, resulting from the
germination of seeds contained in the droppings from frugi-
vorous birds (McNab and Meeker 1987). The stem, leaves,
and berries of oriental bittersweet are reported to be toxic
for human consumption (McNab and Meeker 1987).
Flowering and fruiting. The small greenish, polygamo-
dioecious or dioecious flowers open from May to June and
are borne in raceme-like clusters at the end of branches
Celastrus • 363
Extraction and storage of seeds. Collected fruits Figure 3—Celastrus scandens, American bittersweet:
C longitudinal section through a seed.
should be spread out in shallow layers and allowed to dry
for 2 or 3 weeks (USDA FS 1948). In Pennsylvania, the
fruits are allowed to air-dry for 1 week in shallow trays
(Musser 1979). The seeds are then removed from the cap-
sules by flailing or running the fruits through a hammermill
or macerator with water (Musser 1970; USDA FS 1948).
Then the seeds are allowed to dry for another week and the
chaff is separated by windmilling (Musser 1979). The dried
arils are left on the seeds (USDA FS 1948) except when
seeds are to be stored.
American bittersweet has 4 to 8 seeds/fruit. On the basis
of 10 samples, the number of seeds per weight ranged from
26,000 to 88,000/kg (12,000 to 40,000/lb) with an average
of 57,000/kg (26,000/lb). Average purity was 98% and aver-
age soundness 85% (USDA FS 1948).
In Pennsylvania, the seeds usually are sown in the fall
soon after collection and extraction or stored in cloth bags
until used (Musser 1970). For longer storage periods, viabil-
ity has been retained for 4 to 8 years by cleaning the fleshy
material from the seeds, air-drying the seeds at low humidi-
ty, and then storing them in sealed containers at a tempera-
ture between 1 and 3 °C (Heit 1967). by fall-sowing or by stratification in moist sand or peat for 2
Pregermination treatments. Seeds of American bit- to 6 months at 5 °C (Heit 1968; Musser 1970; USDA FS
tersweet have a dormant embryo and thus require after- 1948). Three months of cold stratification has resulted in
ripening for germination. There is also some evidence that good germination for American bittersweet (Dirr and Heuser
the seedcoat may have an inhibiting effect on germination 1987). It seems to make little difference whether cleaned
(Hart 1928; USDA FS 1948). Good germination is obtained seeds or dried fruits are sown; however, it appears that both
cleaned seeds and fruits should be dried at room temperature
for 2 to 3 weeks before they are sown (USDA FS 1948).
Figure 2—Celastrus scandens, American bittersweet:
seeds with aril removed. Germination tests. On the basis of 6 tests, using
stratified seedlots in sand flats, at temperatures alternating
from 10 to 25 °C, germinative capacity was found to range
from a low of 9 to a high of 80% in 30 days, with an aver-
age of 47%. Potential germination varied from 9 to 93%
(USDA FS 1948). Seedlots of oriental bittersweet showed
100% germination after 3 months of cold stratification (Dirr
and Heuser 1987). Germination of American bittersweet is
epigeal (figure 4).
A good estimate of germination can be obtained by the
excised embryo method (Heit and Nelson 1941). The seeds
are soaked until plump; seedcoats are removed and the
embryos excised. The excised embryos are placed on mois-
tened filter paper in covered petri dishes. A room tempera-
ture of 21 to 22 °C appears to be most satisfactory. Viable
embryos will either show greening of the cotyledons, remain
perfectly white in color but grow larger, or exhibit radicle
elongation. Embryos exhibiting such characteristics can be
counted as being from healthy seeds, capable of germinating
References
Brizicky GK. 1964. The genera of Celastrales in the southeastern United McNab W, Meeker H, Meeker M. 1987. Oriental bittersweet: a growing
States. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 45: 206–234. threat to hardwood silviculture in the Appalachians. Northern Journal of
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- Applied Forestry 4: 174–177.
agation from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. Musser EG. 1970. Personal communication. Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Fish
Fernald ML.1950. Gray’s manual of botany. 8th ed. New York: American and Game Commission.
Book Co. 1632 p. Sheat WG. 1948. Propagation of trees, shrubs, and conifers. London:
Hart HT. 1928. Delayed germination in seed of Peltandra virginica and Macmillan. 479 p.
Celastrus scandens. Puget Sound Biology Sation Publication 6: 255–261. USDA FS [USDA Forest Service]. 1948. Woody-plant seed manual. Misc.
Heit CE.1967. Propagation from seed: 11. Storage of deciduous tree and Pub. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 416 p.
shrub seeds. American Nurseryman 126(10): 12–13, 86–94. USDA NRCS [USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service]. 1999. The
Heit CE.1968. Thirty-five years’ testing of tree and shrub seed. Journal of PLANTS database. Baton Rouge, LA: National Plant Data Center.
Forestry 66: 632–634. Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their
Heit CE, Nelson C. 1941. Approximate germination tests of dormant seeds erosion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC:
by excising embryos. Proceedings of the Association of Official Seed USDA. 362 p.
Analysts 194: 87–89.
Celastrus • 365
C
Ulmaceae—Elm family
Celtis L.
hackberry
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus Collection of fruits. Mature fruits can be picked by
Celtis—hackberry—is a large, widespread genus that hand from trees as late as midwinter. Collection is much
includes about 70 species of shrubs and trees in the easier after all leaves have fallen (Bonner 1974). Limbs of
Northern Hemisphere. The 3 species listed in table 1 are sugarberry can be flailed to knock the fruits onto sheets
all medium to large deciduous trees. spread under the trees. Fruits collected early in the season
Flowering and fruiting. The small, greenish flowers should be spread to dry to avoid overheating and molding
of all 3 species appear in the spring as the new leaves (Williams and Hanks 1976). Fruits collected later in the sea-
emerge (table 2). These species are polygamo-monoecious son, unless the collection is done in wet, rainy weather, usu-
(Krajicek and Williams 1990; Kennedy 1990; Vines 1960). ally do not require additional drying (Bonner 1974).
Hackberry fruits are spherical drupes 6 to 13 mm in diame- Extraction and storage. Twigs and trash can be
ter with a thin pulp enclosing a single bony nutlet (figures removed by screening or fanning, and the fruits can be
1–3). Good seedcrops are borne practically every year, and depulped by wet or dry maceration. If wet maceration is
the fruits persist on the branches into winter (Bonner 1974; used, the seeds will have to be dried for storage. If they are
Krajicek and Williams 1990; Kennedy 1990). Other fruit to be planted immediately, drying is not necessary. The pulp
and seed data (Little 1950; Preston 1947; Rehder 1940; on dried fruits can be crushed and the resulting debris
Swingle 1939) are presented in tables 2 and 3. removed by washing on a screen under water pressure
(Williams and Hanks 1976).
C. laevigata Willd. sugarberry, sugar hackberry, Maryland & Virginia to Florida & Texas;
C. mississippiensis Spach hackberry, sugarberry, palo blanco N to Kansas,Texas, Illinois, & Kentucky
C. laevigata var. reticulata netleaf hackberry, hackberry, Washington & Colorado S to W Texas,
(Torr.) L. Benson western hackberry, palo S California, & central Mexico
C. reticulata Torr.
C. occidentalis L. common hackberry, hackberry, New England to North Dakota; S to NW
C. crassifolia Lam. sugarberry, northern hackberry Texas & N Georgia
Celtis • 367
C Table 3—Celtis, hackberry: height, seed-bearing age, and fruit color
Minimum
Height at Year first seed-bearing Fruit color
Species maturity (m) cultivated age (yrs) Preripe Ripe
Cleaned seeds/weight
Fruits/weight Range Average
Species /kg /lb /kg /lb /kg /lb
Nursery practice. Both fall-sowing of untreated seeds bird screens until germination starts. Germination is epigeal
and spring-sowing of stratified seeds are satisfactory. Seeds (figure 4). These species can be propagated by cuttings
may be broadcast or drilled in rows 20 to 25 cm (8 to 10 in) (Bonner 1974), and grafting and budding success has been
apart and covered with 13 mm (1/2 in) of firmed soil. Beds reported for common hackberry and sugarberry (Williams
should be mulched with straw or leaves held in place with and Hanks 1976).
References
Bonner FT. 1974. Celtis, hackberry. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of Little EL Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized).
woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p.
USDA Forest Service: 298–300. Preston RJ Jr. 1947. Rocky Mountain trees. 2nd ed. Ames: Iowa State
Bonner FT. 1984. Germination tests for sugarberry (Celtis laevigata Willd.). College Press. 285 p.
AOSA Newsletter 58(2): 24–26. Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. 2nd ed. New York:
Kennedy HE Jr. 1990. Celtis laevigata Willd., sugarberry. In: Burns RM, Macmillan. 996 p.
Honkala BH, tech. coord. Silvics of North America.Volume 2. Swingle CF, comp. 1939. Seed propagation of trees, shrubs, and forbs for
Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: conservation planting. SCS-TP-27. Washington, DC: USDA Soil
258–261. Conservation Service. 198 p.
Krajicek JE, Williams RD. 1990. Celtis occidentalis L., hackberry. In: Burns RM, Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
Honkala BH, tech. coord. Silvics of North America.Volume 2. University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: Vora RS. 1989. Seed germination characteristics of selected native plants of
262–265. the lower Rio Grande Valley,Texas. Journal of Range Management 42:
Little EL Jr. 1950. Southwestern trees, a guide to the native species of new 36–40.
Mexico and Arizona. Agric. Handbk. 9. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Williams RD, Hanks SH. 1976. Hardwood nurseryman’s guide. Agric.
Service. 109 p. Handbk. 473. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 78 p.
Cephalanthus occidentalis L.
buttonbush
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Other common names. common buttonbush, honey- Figure 1—Cephalanthus occidentalis, common buttonbush:
balls, globe-flowers. fruiting heads.
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Buttonbush is a
deciduous shrub or small tree that grows on wet sites from
New Brunswick to Florida, west to southern Minnesota,
Kansas, southern New Mexico, Arizona, and central
California. It also occurs in Cuba, Mexico, and Central
America (Little 1979). In the southern part of its range,
buttonbush reaches heights of 4.5 to 6 m at maturity
(Maisenhelder 1958), but it is shrubby in other areas. The
seeds are eaten by many birds, and the tree has some value
as a honey plant (Van Dersal 1938). Cultivation as early as
1735 has been reported (Vines 1960).
Flowering and fruiting. The perfect, creamy white
flowers are borne in clusters of globular heads and open
from June to September (Vines 1960). There is good evi-
dence that buttonbush is largely self-incompatible (Imbert
and Richards 1993). The fruiting heads (figure 1) become
reddish brown as they ripen in September and October. Figure 2—Cephalanthus occidentalis, common buttonbush:
Single fruits are 6 to 8 mm long (figure 2). Each fruit is single fruits.
composed of 2 or occasionally 3 or 4 single-seeded nutlets
(figure 3) that separate eventually from the base (Bonner
1974b).
Collection and extraction. Collection can begin as
soon as the fruiting heads turn reddish brown. Many heads
disintegrate after they become ripe, but some persistent
through the winter months. When the heads are dry, a light
flailing will break them into separate fruits. Data from
4 samples of scattered origin showed 295,000 fruits/kg
(134,000/lb), with a range of 260,000 to 353,000 (118,000
to 160,000). Purity in these seed lots was 96% (Bonner
1974b). The number of seeds per weight is about twice the
number of fruits. Longevity of buttonbush seeds in storage is
not known, but they appear to be orthodox in nature and
thus easy to store. The principal storage food in the seeds is
carbohydrate (Bonner 1974a).
Cephalanthus • 369
Germination tests. Buttonbush seeds germinate Figure 4—Cephalanthus occidentalis, common buttonbush:
C seedling development at 1, 23, and 40 days after
promptly without pretreatment. Germination is epigeal
germination.
(figure 4). Results with 2 test methods on seed from
Louisiana (DuBarry 1963) and Mississippi (Bonner 1974b)
were as follows:
Louisiana Mississippi
Medium Water Blotter paper
Temperature (°C) 24–34 30
Light Yes No
Test duration (days) 30 10
Germination (%) 86 78
No. of samples 4 4
References
Ceratonia siliqua L.
carob
Wayne D. Shepperd
Dr. Shepperd is a principal silviculturist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fort Collins, Colorado
Growth habit. Ceratonia siliqua L.—carob, St. addition, they can be used as a cheap carbohydrate source
John’s bread, or locust—is a small to medium-sized for ethanol production, yielding 160 g of ethanol/kg of dry
broadleaf, evergreen tree that may grow to 20 m in height legumes (Roukas 1994). The annual production of carob
under ideal climatic conditions (Catarino 1993) but usually legumes is 340,000 to 400,000 metric tons (374,800 to
reaches heights of 8 to 15 m (Goor and Barney 1968). Carob 441,000 tons), with Greece, Spain, Italy, and Portugal being
is thought to be a tropical plant that has adapted well to primary producers (Roukas 1994; Catarino 1993).
Mediterranean climates by utilizing its deep rooting habit Carob seeds are extremely hard, but the endosperm con-
and xerophilous leaves to avoid water stress (Catarino tains 30 to 40% by weight of galactomanane polysaccha-
1993). The deep taproot’s penetration into moist regions of rides collectively known as carob-, or locust-bean gum
the soil profile effectively lengthens the active growth period (Catarino 1993). The compound is a valuable stabilizing and
for carob leaves during the Mediterranean dry season thickening additive used in the food processing, pharmaceu-
(Rhizopoulou and Davies 1991). tical, textile, paper, and petroleum industries.
Occurrence. Carob is native to the eastern The adaptability, ease of cultivation, and aesthetic
Mediterranean from the southern coast of Asia Minor to appeal of carob also make it a desirable landscape plant
Syria (Goor and Barney 1968; Griffiths 1952; Karschon (Catarino 1993). It is chiefly valuable in the United States as
1960). It has been cultivated for thousands of years as a for- an ornamental evergreen but has been used to some extent in
age crop on a wide variety of soils in Asian, European, and environmental plantings (Toth 1965).
North African countries along the coast of the Mediter- Flowering and fruiting. The flowers, borne in small,
ranean Sea (Bailey 1947; Catarino 1993). Carob’s sensitivity lateral, red racemes, are polygamo-trioecious (Loock 1940).
to low temperatures limits its area of distribution (Catarino Nearly all cultivated species are dioecious, although flowers
1993). Since its introduction to the United States in 1854, of both sexes may possess vestigial components of the other
carob has done well only in the warm subtropical climates sex. Rarely, plants will possess both male and female flow-
(southern Florida, the Gulf States, New Mexico, Arizona, ers on the same stalk or completely hermaphroditic flowers
and southern California) where annual rainfall is not below (Catarino 1993). Flowers bloom from September to
30 to 35 cm (Bailey 1947; Coit 1951, 1962). December in California, depending on the variety and the
Use. Carob legumes (pods) are commonly used as ani- weather (Bailey 1947; Coit 1951).
mal feed or ground into flour and mixed with other cereals The fruit is a coriaceous, indehiscent legume 10 to 30
for human consumption. The legumes are rich in protein and cm long, 6 to 20 mm thick, filled with a sweet, pulpy sub-
sugar and are a highly nutritious livestock feed, comparable stance bearing 5 to 15 obovate, transverse, brown, bony
to barley and superior to oats (Bailey 1947; Coit 1962). seeds about 6 mm wide (figures 1 and 2) (Bailey 1947; Coit
However, the high sugar content (< 50%) is offset by a high 1951). Legumes ripen, turn dark brown, and begin to fall
tannin content (16 to 20%) that inhibits protein assimilation from September to November (California), depending on the
(Catarino 1993). Techniques are currently being developed variety and the weather (Bailey 1947; Coit 1951, 1962).
to enzymatically separate and extract the phenolic tannin Natural seedlings appear in Greece in November, even
compounds to increase utilization (Catarino 1993). Legumes though temperatures do not favor shoot growth
are also used in making health foods (as a chocolate “substi- (Rhizopoulou and Davies 1991). Plants begin to bear fruit
tute”), carob syrup, and medicines such as laxatives and when 6 to 8 years old, and crops are abundant every second
diuretics (Binder and others 1959; Coit 1951, 1962). In year (Bailey 1947). Average annual yield per tree at maturity
Ceratonia • 371
Figure 1—Ceratonia siliqua, carob: seed. to be stored for a time before extracting the seeds, they
C
should be fumigated with an acceptable substitute for
methyl bromide, which was recommended by Coit (1962)
but is scheduled to be removed from use in the future. One
kilogram (2.2 lb) of legumes yields about 50 to 140 g (1.8 to
4.9 oz) of cleaned seeds (Binder and others 1959). Cleaned
seeds average 4,400 to 5,500 seeds/kg (2,000 to 2,500
seeds/lb) (Alexander and Shepperd 1974; Goor and Barney
1968). Soundness appears to be relatively high (<80% for 2
samples) (Alexander and Shepperd 1974). Seeds have
remained viable for as long as 5 years when stored dry at
low temperatures in sealed containers (Goor and Barney
1968).
Pregermination treatments. Seeds sown from recent-
ly ripened legumes germinate well without pretreatment
Figure 2—Ceratonia siliqua, carob: longitudinal sections (Rhizopoulou and Davies 1991), but if the seeds dry out
through a seed. they become very hard and do not readily imbibe water
(Coit 1951). The best treatments to overcome seedcoat
impermeability are soaking in concentrated sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) for 1 hour and then in water for 24 hours, or alter-
natively, soaking for 24 hours in water that has first been
brought to a boil and then allowed to cool (Goor and Barney
1968; Karschon 1960). Mechanical scarification is also
effective in increasing the rate of water absorption with
small lots of seeds (Coit 1951).
Germination tests. Germination tests have been run
in moist vermiculite for 34 days at 21 °C. The germination
rate was 66% for 16 days and the percentage germination
was 80% (Alexander and Shepperd 1974).
Nursery practice. Seeds should be scarified by acid
is about 90 to 113 kg (200 to 250 lbs) of fruit (Coit 1951, or hot water treatment and sown immediately afterwards in
1962). sterile soil or vermiculite under partial shade (Coit 1962;
Collection of fruits. Fruits may be collected on the Karschon 1960). Seeds can be sown in either the spring or
ground, or the ripe legumes may be shaken from the trees fall (Goor and Barney 1968). Seedlings have also been
onto canvas sheets (Coit 1951). Legumes shaken from the grown at 14 to 17 °C greenhouse temperatures with a
tree should be allowed to remain on the ground for 2 to 3 12-hour photoperiod of natural light supplemented with
days until completely dry (Coit 1962). Because of their high 250-W metal halide lamps (Rhizopoulou and Davies 1991).
sugar content, legumes are likely to become moldy and Seedlings develop a single deep taproot with a few small lat-
quickly infested with a small scavenger worm— eral roots less than 1.0 cm in length (Rhizopoulou and
Paramycelios transitella Walker—if wet weather occurs dur- Davies 1991). Because the long taproot is easily injured,
ing the harvesting season (Coit 1951, 1961, 1962). Because seeds should be sown in flats, pots, or containers so that
the worms infect the legumes while they are still attached to seedlings can be outplanted with the original rooting medi-
the tree, it is advisable to limit collections to dry years. um intact (Coit 1951; Loock 1940). An alternate practice is
Extraction and storage of seed. Seeds are easily to soak the legumes in water for 2 to 3 days and then plant
extracted after the legumes have been air-dried for a few without removing the seeds, but the germination rate is
days (Coit 1951; Goor and Barney 1968). If the legumes are usually low (Coit 1951).
Alexander RR, Shepperd WD. 1974. Ceratonia siliqua L., carob. In: Goor AY, Barney CW. 1968. Forest tree planting in arid zones. New York:
Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United Ronald Press. 409 p.
States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: Griffiths C. 1952. Locust kernel gum. Food 21: 58–59.
303–304. Karschon R. 1960. Studies in nursery practice for carob (Ceratonia siliqua
Bailey LH. 1947. Standard cyclopedia of horticulture. 2nd ed. New York: L.). Leafl. 14. Ilanot: Israel Department of Forestry. 8 p. [Forestry
Macmillan. 717–718. Abstracts 22: 3017, 1961].
Binder RJ, Coit JE, Williams KT, Brekke JE. 1959. Carob varieties and compo- Loock EEM. 1940. The carob or locust tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.). Journal
sition. Food Technology 13: 213–216. South African Forestry Association 4: 78–80 [Forestry Abstracts 34.27:
Catarino F. 1993. The carob tree: an exemplary plant. Naturopa 1993(73): 12.2, 1941].
14–15. Rhizopoulou S, Davies WJ. 1991. Influence of soil drying on root develop-
Coit JE. 1951. Carob or St. Johnsbread. Journal of Economic Botany 5(1): ment, water relations and leaf growth of Ceratonia siliqua L. Oecologia
82–96. 88(1): 41–47.
Coit JE. 1961. Carob varieties. Fruit Varieties and Horticultural Digest 15(4): Roukas T. 1994. Solid-state fermentation of carob pods for ethanol produc-
75–77. tion. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 41(3): 296–301.
Coit JE. 1962. Carob culture in the semiarid southwest.Vista, CA: J. Eliot Toth J. 1965. The forest aspect of a plantation in the Sahara. Revue
Coit. 6 p. Forestiere Francaise 17: 674–695 [in French; Forestry Abstracts 27: 3883,
1966].
Ceratonia • 373
C Fabaceae—Pea family
Cercis L.
redbud
Valerie A. Banner and William I. Stein
Ms. Banner is a general biologist and Dr. Stein is a forest ecologist emeritus at the
USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Northwest Research Station, Corvallis, Oregon
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. The genus tall; the tallest one on record is 8.8 m and the tallest Texas
Cercis L.—redbud—includes 8 species of trees and shrubs; redbud is about the same (AFA 1996). Eastern redbud
2 are indigenous to North America, 5 to China, and 1 to an occurs on many soils in moist open woodlands, flood plains,
area from southern Europe eastward to Afghanistan (Little river thickets, and borders of small streams, whereas the
1979; Robertson and Lee 1976). Eastern redbud is widely variety, Texas redbud, often inhabits drier locations, primari-
distributed from southernmost Canada to central Mexico, ly paleozoic limestone formations such as xeric pastures,
spans about 24 degrees of longitude and 23 degrees of lati- hills, outcrops, and bluffs (Hopkins 1942). California redbud
tude, and has at least 1 well-defined variety, Texas redbud is unevenly distributed at elevations of 70 to 1,524 m along
(table 1). This species shows clinal variation and substantial foothill streams, flats, draws, low slopes and canyons and on
differences in morphological, dormancy, and hardiness char- dry gravelly and rocky soils (Chamlee 1983; Jepson 1936;
acteristics associated with climatic and geographic condi- Sudworth 1908).
tions (Donselman 1976; Donselman and Flint 1982; Redbuds are valued particularly for their showy buds
Raulston 1990). California redbud also has variable charac- and flowers that appear before the leaves (Clark and
teristics (Smith 1986) within its much more restricted range Bachtell 1992; McMinn and Maino 1937). They exhibit
in the southwestern United States. About 15 cultivars of cauliflory—flowering directly along older branches and
eastern redbud have been developed and cultivars of other trunks—which is rare among temperate species (Owens and
redbuds also are propagated (Raulston 1990). Ewers 1991) and contributes greatly to flowering showiness.
Redbuds are deciduous, small- to medium-sized trees or Flowers typically are a deep reddish purple (magenta) but
shrubs with unarmed slender branchlets that lack terminal vary among localities (Coe 1993; Smith 1986) and species
buds. Eastern redbud typically is a straight-trunked tree up (table 3). Some white ones occur naturally, and cultivars
to 12 m tall (table 2); the tallest on record reaches 13.4 m have been developed for particular flower and leaf colors
(AFA 1996). Although they also reach tree size, California (Raulston 1990). Ornamental uses are extensive within each
and Texas redbuds are more commonly described as multi- species’ indigenous range and several species have proven
ple-stemmed shrubs. California redbud grows from 2 to 6 m hardy more extensively (McMinn and Maino 1937;
Sources: Clark and Bachtell (1992), Hopkins (1942), Hosie (1969), Little (1979), Robertson and Lee (1976), Sargent (1933).
Sources: Fernald (1950), Hopkins (1942), Hosie (1969), Jepson (1936), McMinn (1939), Munz and Keck (1959), Sargent (1933).
Sources: Abrahms (1944), Clark and Bachtell (1992), Fernald (1950), Hopkins (1942), Jepson (1936), Mirov and Kraebel (1939),Van Dersal (1938).
Robertson 1976). Where redbuds are numerous, they pro- reddish purple and develop on older wood from dormant
vide valued bee pasture in early spring (Magers 1970). The axillary buds laid down 1 to several years earlier (Owens
buds, flowers, and legumes (pods) of redbuds are edible and and Ewers 1991). The flowers are borne sessile or on short,
have been used in salads or batter (Coe 1993). Native thin pedicels in umbel-like clusters densely covering the
Californians used the roots and bark of California redbud in branches and trunk. Flowers of California redbud are some-
basketry (Coe 1993; Jepson 1936); remedies for diarrhea what larger than those of eastern redbud (Hopkins 1942;
and dysentery were also made from the astringent bark Robertson 1976). Eastern redbud begins flowering in 3 to 4
(Balls 1962). years from seed when trees are 1.5 to 2 m tall, and trees in
Redbuds also are used for borders, erosion control, open or semi-open locations flower most abundantly (Clark
windbreaks, and wildlife plantings. Eastern redbud is and Bachtell 1992; Raulston 1990). Pollination is usually
browsed by white-tail deer (Odocoileus virginiana) and the done by long- and short-tongued bees (Robertson 1976).
seeds are eaten by birds, including bobwhite (Colinus Crops of legumes are produced abundantly by both eastern
virginianus) (Van Dersal 1938). California redbud is moder- and California redbud but seed set is more variable (Hopkins
ately important as fall and spring browse for deer but has 1942; Jepson 1936).
been rated only fair to poor for goats and poor or useless for Redbud fruits are pendulous, flattened legumes
other livestock (Sampson and Jespersen 1963). (figure 1) 4 to 10 cm long (table 2). The generic name
Two fungal diseases affect the flowering and attractive- Cercis (Greek kerkis, weaver’s shuttle) apparently alludes to
ness of eastern redbud—verticillium wilt (Verticillium sp.) the shape of the legume (Robertson and Lee 1976). The
and botryosphaeria canker (Botryosphaeria dothidea legumes of California redbud are somewhat wider and short-
(Moug.:Fr.) Ces. & De Not.)—by causing die-back of er than those of eastern redbud. Legumes of eastern redbud
branches. The canker has become more common and contain 4 to 10 seeds each; those of California redbud only a
destructive in the eastern United States, appearing to attack few (Hopkins 1942; Robertson 1976). Legume color varies
trees that are under stress (Geneve 1991a; Raulston 1990; from lustrous reddish brown to dull red and turns tan or
Vining 1986). brown as the fruits mature and dry in July or later. Some
Flowering and fruiting. Flowering occurs from legumes open and release their seeds in autumn, but many
February to May, varying somewhat by species and location remain closed for most of the winter. Seeds are released
(table 3). The bisexual redbud flowers are brilliant pink to from legumes on the tree or on the ground when the legume
Cercis • 375
Figure 1—Cercis canadensis, eastern redbud: 4 to 10 Figure 2—Cercis canadensis, eastern redbud: the flat-
C seeds (left) are in each legume (right). tened seed in transverse section (above) and longitudinal
section (below).
Table 5—Cercis, redbud: scarification, stratification, germination test conditions, and test results*
Sources: Afanasiev (1944), Flemion (1941), Frett and Dirr (1979), Hamilton and Carpenter (1975), Heit (1967a), Liu and others (1981), Roy (1974),Tipton (1992), USDA
FS (1948, 1996),Williams (1949).
* Only the better results for each test series are listed. In several studies, only full seeds were tested.
† Best results from a set of tests on each of 7 seedlots.
‡ Test combinations used to develop a response surface.
§ Moist heat applied by immersing seeds in 82 °C water that cooled gradually.
// Dry heat applied in oven at 121 °C.
Cercis • 377
whether to dip the seeds for 15 or more seconds in boiling excised embryo test reveals that the seeds’ maximum poten-
C
water or immerse them overnight in 60 to 88 °C water that tial and generally is higher than indicated by a germination
cools gradually. Application of dry heat also appears to have test (Flemion 1941; Hamilton and Carpenter 1975; USDA
promise (Williams 1949). FS 1996).
After scarification, cold stratification is generally Nursery practice. Redbuds are propagated most read-
required to overcome some degree of internal dormancy and ily from seeds sown either in the fall or spring. Fall-sown
maximize seed germination. Germination differences seeds may or may not be scarified, and stratification occurs
between unstratified and cold-stratified seeds range from naturally in the seedbeds (Lippitt 1996; Raulston 1990). In
none (Hamilton and Carpenter 1975), to fractional differ- one reported instance, immature seeds of eastern redbud col-
ences in the response of excised embryos (Geneve 1991b), lected, extracted, and sown before the seedcoats hardened
up to major differences for intact seeds (Afanasiev 1944; yielded 90% germination the following spring (Titus 1940).
Fordham 1967; Frett and Dirr 1979; Geneve 1991b). When seeds need to be scarified for either fall- or spring-
Stratification of eastern redbud for 28 to 60 days at 1 to sowing—acid treatment for 15 to 60 minutes, rinsing, and a
7 °C has proven satisfactory (table 5) and 90 days for 24-hour soak in water; a boiling water dip for 15 seconds or
California redbud (Heit 1967a; Van Dersal 1938). Up to a more followed by a 24-hour soak in cooler water; or immer-
point, seed response improves with longer stratification, and sion overnight in 88 °C hot water that gradually cools—can
extended stratification generally does no harm. Seeds should be generally used to overcome seedcoat dormancy (Frett and
be sown promptly after stratification; drying out for more Dirr 1979; Heit 1967b; Lippitt 1996; Raulston 1990;
than 6 days at room temperature reduced germination of Robertson 1976; Smith 1986). After scarified seeds have
eastern redbud seeds (Afanasiev 1944). imbibed water, they may need to be sorted to separate those
A pretreatment and germination test protocol has not yet not swollen and still impermeable for further treatment.
been specified for redbud seeds due perhaps to extensive When necessary, seeds are stratified at 1 to 5 °C for 30 to 90
variability in seedlot characteristics, length of time required, days. Stratification requirements are uncertain for 2 reasons:
and low demand for a standard test. Pretreated seeds of east- variability among seedlots and the unknown stratification
ern redbud will germinate at temperatures of 1 to 38 °C; effect produced by low temperature storage of the seeds.
Afanasiev (1944) concluded 8 days at 21 °C was most satis- Surface-dried seeds are drill- or broadcast-sown and
factory. Texas redbud seeds germinate at 24 to 31 °C and covered 0.6 to 2.5 cm (0.2 to 1 in) deep with soil, sand, saw-
28 °C was optimum (Tipton 1992). Germination test meth- dust, or bark. Some nurseries fumigate, then reinoculate
ods currently used for many species—14 to 28 days at alter- before sowing seedbeds. Presence of an endomycorrhizal
nating temperatures of 20 and 30 °C—seem to nicely brack- fungus is important; inoculation with Glomus fasciculatum
et conditions that yielded high germination from pretreated (Thaxter) Gerdemann and Trappe has increased first-season
redbud seeds (table 5). growth of eastern redbud as much as 72% (Maronek and
Viability of redbud seeds is most easily and rapidly Hendrix 1978). Mulching of fall-sown beds can be benefi-
determined by a tetrazolium (TZ) test or a growth test of cial but the mulch must be removed when germination
excised embryos. The TZ test is the only method prescribed starts. Germination is epigeal (figure 3).
by the International Seed Testing Association; preparation Seedling return from nursery sowings is very variable.
and evaluation procedures to use are listed in a published For eastern redbud, an average of 2,425 usable seedlings
handbook (Moore 1985). In brief, the seeds are cut at the (range 617 to 7,055) were produced per kilogram of seeds
distal end of the cotyledons either dry or after overnight (1,100 usable seedlings/lb, range 280 to 3,200/lb) (Roy
soaking in water at room temperature. Soaking in a 1% TZ 1974). Germination is fairly consistent year to year for
solution follows for 6 to 24 hours at 35 °C. The embryos are California redbud, averaging 54 to 60% (Lippitt 1996).
then cut longitudinally, and the staining pattern of cotyle- Under favorable conditions, seedling height growth of east-
dons, hypocotyl, and radicle evaluated. A growth test of ern redbud can be rapid: about 0.5 m (20 in) in reinoculated
excised embryos requires making the seedcoats permeable soil (Maronek and Hendrix 1978), 1 m (40 in) or more
with acid, hot water, or mechanical scarification; soaking the under an intensive nitrogen fertilizer schedule, and about
seeds overnight, excising the embryos, and incubating them 2 m (80 in) if started in January in a greenhouse under long-
for 4 to 6 days on moist filter paper at 20 °C (Flemion 1941; day conditions and transplanted outdoors after the danger
Geneve 1991b). Viability determined by tetrazolium or from frost is over (Raulston 1990).
References
Abrams L. 1944. Illustrated flora of the Pacific States.Volume 2, Fordham AJ. 1967. Hastening germination of some woody plant seeds with
Polygonaceae to Krameriaceae. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. impermeable seed coats. Combined Proceedings of the International
635 p. Plant Propagators’ Society 17: 223–230.
Afanasiev M. 1944. A study of dormancy and germination of seeds of Frett JL, Dirr MA. 1979. Scarification and stratification requirements for
Cercis canadensis. Journal of Agricultural Research 69(10): 405–420. seeds of Cercis canadensis L., (redbud), Cladrastis lutea (Michx. F.) C. Koch
AFA [American Forestry Association]. 1996. 1996–97 National register of (yellowwood), and Gymnocladus dioicus (L.) C. Koch (Kentucky coffee
big trees. American Forests 102(1): 20–51. tree). Plant Propagator 25(2): 4–6.
Balls EK. 1962. Early uses of California plants. Berkeley: University of Geneve RL. 1991a. Eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis L.) and Judas tree
California Press. 103 p. (Cercis siliquastrum L.). Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry 16:
Bennett L. 1987. Tissue culturing redbud. American Nurseryman 166(7): 142–151.
85–91. Geneve RL. 1991b. Seed dormancy in eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis).
Chamlee H. 1983. The redbud in southern California. Fremontia 10(4): 27. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 116(1): 85–88.
Clark R, Bachtell KR. 1992. Eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis L.). Morton Hamilton DF, Carpenter PL. 1975. Regulation of seed dormancy in Cercis
Arboretum Quarterly 28(1): 6–10. canadensis L. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science
Coe FW. 1993. Redbuds and Judas trees. Pacific Horticulture 54(2): 37–41. 100(6): 653–656.
Donselman HM. 1976. Variation in native populations of eastern redbud Heit CE. 1967a. Propagation from seed: 6. Hardseededness: a critical factor.
(Cercis canadensis L.) as influenced by geographic location. Proceedings American Nurseryman 125(10): 10–12, 88–96.
of the Florida State Horticultural Society 89: 370–373. Heit CE. 1967b. Propagation from seed: 8. Fall planting of fruit and hard-
Donselman HM, Flint HL. 1982. Genecology of eastern redbud (Cercis wood seeds. American Nurseryman 126(4): 12–13, 85–90.
canadensis). Ecology 63(4): 962–971. Hopkins M. 1942. Cercis in North America. Rhodora 44: 193–211.
Fernald ML. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. 8th ed. New York: American Hosie RC. 1969. Native trees of Canada. 6th ed. Ottawa: Canadian
Book Company. 1632 p. Forestry Service, Department of Fisheries and Forestry. 380 p.
Flemion F. 1941. Further studies on the rapid determination of the germi- Jepson WL. 1936. A flora of California.Volume 2, Capparidaceae to
native capacity of seeds. Contributions from Boyce Thompson Institute Cornaceae. Berkeley: University of California. 684 p.
11: 455–464.
Cercis • 379
Jones RO, Geneve RL. 1995. Seedcoat structure related to germination in Riggio-Bevilacqua L, Roti-Michelozzi G, Serrato-Valenti G. 1985. Barriers to
C eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis). Journal of the American Society for water penetration in Cercis siliquastrum seeds. Seed Science and
Horticultural Science 120(1): 123–127. Technology 13: 175–182.
Lippitt L. 1996. Personal communication. Davis: California Department of Robertson KR. 1976. Cercis: the redbuds. Arnoldia 36(2): 37–49.
Forestry and Fire Protection, Lewis A. Moran Reforestation Center. Robertson KR, Lee YT. 1976. The genera of Caesalpinioideae
Little EL Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees, native and naturalized. (Leguminosae) in the southeastern United States: 8. Cercis Linnaeus.
Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 57: 48–53.
Liu NY, Khatamian H, Fretz TA. 1981. Seed coat structure of three woody Roy DF. 1974. Cercis L., redbud. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of
legume species after chemical and physical treatments to increase seed woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC:
germination. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science USDA Forest Service: 305–308.
106(5): 691–694. Sampson AW, Jespersen BS. 1963. California range brushlands and browse
Mackay WA,Tipton JL,Thompson GA. 1995. Micropropagation of Mexican plants. Publ. 4010. Oakland: University of California, Division of
redbud, Cercis canadensis var. mexicana. Plant Cell,Tissue and Organ Agriculture and Natural Resources. 162 p.
Culture 43: 295–297. Sargent CS. 1933. Manual of the trees of North America (exclusive of
Magers AW. 1970. Honey plants of the Missouri Valley. American Bee Mexico). 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Riverside Press. 910 p.
Journal 110(1): 94. Smith N. 1986. Growing natives: more from the chaparral. Fremontia 14(3):
Maronek DM, Hendrix JW. 1978. Mycorrhizal fungi in relation to some 34–35.
aspects of plant propagation. Combined Proceedings of the International Sudworth GB. 1908. Forest trees of the Pacific slope. Washington, DC:
Plant Propagators’ Society 28: 506–514. USDA Forest Service. 441 p.
McMinn HE. 1939. An illustrated manual of California shrubs [1970 print- Tipton JL. 1990. Vegetative propagation of Mexican redbud, larchleaf gold-
ing]. Berkeley: University of California Press. 663 p. enweed, littleleaf ash, and evergreen sumac. HortScience 25(2):
McMinn HE, Maino E. 1937. An illustrated manual of Pacific Coast trees. 196–198.
Berkeley: University of California Press. 409 p. Tipton JL. 1992. Requirements for seed germination of Mexican redbud,
Mirov NT, Kraebel CJ. 1939. Collecting and handling seeds of wild plants. evergreen sumac, and mealy sage. Hortscience 27(4): 313–316.
Forestry Pub. 5. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service, Civilian Titus GR. 1940. So-called 2-year seeds germinated first year. American
Conservation Corps. 42 p. Nurseryman 72(11, Dec.1): 22.
Moore RP, ed. 1985. Handbook on tetrazolium testing. Zurich: International USDA FS [USDA Forest Service]. 1948. Woody-plant seed manual. Misc.
Seed Testing Association. 99 p. Pub. 654. Washington, DC: USDA FS. 416 p.
Munz PA, Keck DD. 1959. A California flora. Berkeley: University of USDA FS. 1996. Unpublished data. Dry Branch, GA: USDA Forest Service,
California Press. 1681 p. [with 1968 supplement, 224 p]. National Tree Seed Laboratory.
Owens SA, Ewers FW. 1991. The development of cauliflory in redbud, Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their ero-
Cercis canadensis (Fabaceae). Canadian Journal of Botany 69: 1956–1963. sion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC: USDA.
Profumo P, Gastaldo P, Martinucci R. 1979. On the inhibitory action of 362 p.
endosperm on germination of Cercis siliquastrum seeds. Experientia Vining D. 1986. Redbud. Horticulture 64(4): 26–29.
35(11): 1452–1453. Williams M. 1949. Germination of redbud seeds. Journal of the California
Rascio N, Mariani P, Dalla Vecchia F, La Roccha N, Profumo P, Gastaldo P. Horticultural Society 10(2): 70–72.
1998. Effects of seed chilling or GA3 supply on dormancy breaking Zins ME. 1978. A study of seed viability and imbibition in eastern redbud
and plantlet growth in Cercum siliquastrum L. Plant Growth Regulation (Cercis canadensis L.). Plant Propagator 24(2): 4–6.
25(1): 53-61.
Raulston JC. 1990. Redbud. American Nurseryman 171(5): 39–51.
Cercocarpus Kunth
mountain-mahogany
Stanley G. Kitchen
Mr. Kitchen is a botanist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The mountain- recovery following fire. Recovery of curlleaf mountain-
mahoganies—genus Cercocarpus—are 8 to 10 species of mahogany stands following fire is from seed only and can
moderately to intricately branched shrubs or small trees that be extremely slow. Because they are long-lived, produce an
are endemic to dry coastal and interior mountains of the extensive root system, and survive well on dry steep slopes,
western United States and Mexico (Stutz 1990). Leaves are mountain-mahogany plants play an important role in erosion
generally persistent and stems are unarmed. Two of the most control. Nitrogen fixation in root nodules has been described
widely distributed and utilized species are described here for both curlleaf (Lepper and Fleschner 1977) and true
(table 1). mountain-mahoganies (Hoeppel and Wollum 1971), suggest-
Curlleaf mountain-mahogany populations demonstrate ing a significant role by these species in improving fertility
considerable variability in height (Davis 1990; Stutz 1990). in otherwise infertile soils. The wood of curlleaf mountain-
In some areas, the species occurs as a medium-statured mahogany is extremely dense and heavy and has had limited
shrub of 1 to 2 m. More commonly, it is a small tree of 4 to use, primarily as fuel wood (Johnson 1970).
10 m at maturity. Trunk diameter of mature trees measures Geographic races and hybrids. Two distinct sub-
30 to 100 cm (Johnson 1970). Schultz and others (1990) species or varieties of curlleaf mountain-mahogany occur in
estimated the mean age of trees in central and western the western United States (Stutz 1990). Although consider-
Nevada stands to be 352 years. Mean plant age in Utah able overlap in distribution exists, C. ledifolius ssp. ledi-
stands (85 years) is less than that in Nevada stands but folius (formerly ssp. intercedens) has a more northeastern
greater than that in Oregon and Montana stands (Davis distribution, whereas the distribution of ssp. intermontanus
1990). is centered to the west of its sister taxon. In northern Idaho,
True mountain-mahogany is a deciduous shrub of 1 to northern Wyoming, and southern Montana, ssp. ledifolius is
5 m. Both species occur as components of mixed communi- the only mountain- mahogany taxon present (Stutz 1990).
ties and as dominants in extensive stands and are important The leaves of ssp. ledifolius plants differ from those of ssp.
cover and browse species for wildlife, especially big game intermontanus in being narrower, more strongly involute,
(Davis 1990). When burned, true mountain-mahogany and densely pubescent ventrally. The leaves of ssp. inter-
resprouts from the crown, resulting in relatively rapid stand montanus are broadly elliptic and glabrous. Habit of ssp.
Cercocarpus • 381
ledifolius is more shrubby (or less tree-like) than that of ssp. Figure 1—Cercocarpus, mountain-mahogany: achenes
C with feathery style; the size of the achene varies greatly
intermontanus, especially in its northern distribution.
within each species.
Although it is treated as a separate species, littleleaf moun-
tain-mahogany—C. intricatus Wats.—is taxonomically and
phenotypically close to curlleaf mountain-mahogany spp.
ledifolius. It is distinguished by its smaller leaves and
stature, fewer stamens, and shorter style on mature fruits
(Stutz 1990). The evolutionary processes that produced little-
leaf mountain-mahogany are still proceeding and intermedi-
ates between the 2 taxa are common.
As reflected in its taxonomy, true mountain-mahogany
is also quite variable across its range. C. montanus ssp. mon-
tanus has the most widespread distribution (Stutz 1990).
Separate taxa have been described for parts of the Pacific
Coast (ssp. betuloides Nutt.) and in the Southwest (ssp. pau- held hoppers using a beating stick. During harvest and han-
cidentatus S. Wats and argenteus Rydb). Cercocarpus mexi- dling, short hairs dislodge from the fruits. These hairs cause
canus Hendrickson, C. rzedowski Hendrickson, and C. considerable discomfort to eyes and skin, thus the cowboy
fothergilloides Kunth. are closely related Mexican species. epithet of “hell feathers” (Plummer and others 1968). Fruits
Inter-specific hybrids are common between curlleaf and may collect in harvestable depths on the ground during
true mountain-mahoganies (Stutz 1990). Fertility in hybrids years of superior production. However, collections from
of true mountain-mahogany and curlleaf mountain- ground accumulations are often of poor quality due to the
mahogany ssp. ledifolius is good in contrast to the low fertil- removal of viable seeds by rodents.
ity encountered in hybrids of true mountain-mahogany × Cleaning and storage. Highest purity values are
curlleaf mountain-mahogany spp. intermontanus (Stutz obtained by removing most broken branches from fruits dur-
1990). Hybrids between true and littleleaf mountain- ing collection. For large collections, empty fruits, styles, and
mahoganies are rare. fine hairs are best removed using a variable-speed debearder
Flowering and fruiting. Small perfect flowers bear- and a 9.5-mm (#2) screen fanning mill (figure 2).
ing no petals are borne individually or in small clusters. Hammermilling causes excessive breakage and should not
Flowering for these wind-pollinated shrubs occurs some be used. Minimum standards accepted by the Utah Division
time between late March and early July depending on lati- of Wildlife Resources for both species are purity values of
tude, elevation, and aspect. Fruits are cylindrical achenes 95%, and viability values of 85% (Jorgensen 1995).
bearing a single seed and are distinguished by a 3- to 10-cm Cleaned-fruit sizes differ by species, ecotype, and year
plumose style that facilitates wind dispersal (figure 1). of collection. In one study, average number of fruits per
Ripened fruits disperse from July through October. weight for curlleaf (8 collections) and true mountain-
Abundant fruit production occurs at 1- to 10-year intervals mahoganies (10 collections) was 106,000 and 88,000/kg
(Plummer and others 1968); however, a high percentage of (48,000 and 40,000/lb), respectively (Kitchen and others
nonviable (empty) fruits is not uncommon. Plants may reach 1989a&b). These fruit weights were either equivalent to or
reproductive maturity in 10 to 15 years (Deitschman and somewhat heavier than those previously reported
others 1974). (Deitschman 1974). Curlleaf and true mountain-mahogany
Fruit collection. Fruit maturation within a stand is fruits stored under warehouse conditions experienced no sig-
generally somewhat asynchronous. Because of this and nificant loss of viability during 15 and 7 years, respectively
because fruits will not dislodge before they are fully ripe, (Stevens and others 1981).
harvests are most productive when delayed until the fruits Germination. Reported germination responses to
on a majority of plants ripen. Optimal timing for harvest moist chilling for curlleaf mountain-mahogany range from
varies between July and September. Delays may result in no response after 12 weeks (Young and others 1978), to
diminished or lost harvests due to wind dispersal. Fruits of good germination with 4 weeks (Heit 1970). In most of
several plants must be examined for fill and insect damage these studies, interpretation of results is difficult because
before starting collection. Ripe, dry mountain-mahogany fruit fill percentage was not determined. Dealy (1975)
fruits are easily shaken from branches onto tarps or hand- reported 20% germination in response to 60 days of moist
Cercocarpus • 383
Nursery and field practice. Curlleaf and true moun- dard potting mix is recommended for container stock pro-
C
tain-mahoganies were first cultivated in 1879 and 1872, duction (Landis and Simonich 1984). With optimum rearing
respectively (Deitschman and others 1974). Bareroot and conditions a minimum of 4 to 6 months is required to devel-
container nursery stock are commercially available for both op an adequate root system. Figure 4 illustrates a seedling
species, generally as 1- or 2-year-old stock. Unless nondor- with well-developed secondary leaves. Direct seeding of
mant collections are used, cleaned fruits are either prechilled mountain-mahogany should be carried out in fall or early
or fall-sown. Seedbeds should be kept moist until seeds have winter in conjunction with seedbed preparations that mini-
germinated (Deitschman and others 1974). Deep-rooting mize competition to first-year seedlings (Plummer and
containers filled with a minimum of 0.2 liter (13 in3) stan- others 1968).
References
Davis JN. 1990. General ecology, wildlife use, and management of the Kitchen SG, Meyer SE. 1990. Seed dormancy in two species of mountain-
mountain mahoganies in the Intermountain West. In: Johnson KL, ed.The mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius and Cercocarpus montanus). In: Johnson
genus Cercocarpus. Proceedings, 5th Utah Shrub Ecology Workshop; KL, ed. The genus Cercocarpus. Proceedings, 5th Utah Shrub Ecology
1988 July 13–14; Logan, UT. Logan: Utah State University: 1–13. Workshop; 1988 July 13–14; Logan, UT. Logan: Utah State University:
Dealy JE. 1975. Ecology of curlleaf mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus ledi- 27–42.
folius Nutt.) in Oregon and adjacent areas [PhD dissertation]. Corvallis: Landis TD, Simonich EJ. 1984. Producing native plants as container seedlings.
Oregon State University. 162 p. In:The challenge of producing native plants for the Intermountain area.
Deitschman GH, Jorgensen KR, Plummer AP. 1974. Cercocarpus H. B. K., Proceedings, Intermountain Nurseryman’s Association Conference; 1983
cercocarpus (mountain-mahogany). In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. August 8–11; Las Vegas, NV. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-168. Ogden, UT: USDA
Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 16–25.
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 309–312. Lepper MG, Fleschner M. 1977. Nitrogen fixation by Cercocarpus ledifolius
Heit CE. 1970. Germination characteristics and optimum testing methods (Rosaceae) in pioneer habitats. Oecologia (Berl.) 27: 333–338.
for twelve western shrub species. Proceedings, Association of Official Plummer AP, Christensen DR, Monsen SB. 1968. Restoring big-game range
Seed Analysts 60: 197–205. in Utah. Pub. 68-3. Utah Division of Fish and Game. 183 p.
Hoeppel RE, Wollum AG II. 1971. Histological studies of ectomycorrhizae Schultz BW,Tueller PT,Tausch RJ. 1990. Ecology of curlleaf mahogany in
and root nodules from Cercocarpus montanus and Cercocarpus pauciden- western and central Nevada: community and population structure.
tatus. Canadian Journal of Botany 49: 1315–1318. Journal of Range Management 43: 13–20.
Johnson CM. 1970. Common native trees of Utah. Spec. Rep. 22. Logan: Stevens R, Jorgensen KR, Davis JN. 1981. Viability of seed from thirty-two
Utah State University, Cooperative Extension Service. 109 p. shrub and forb species through fifteen years of warehouse storage.
Jorgensen KR. 1995. Personal communication. Ephraim, UT: Utah Division Great Basin Naturalist 41: 274–277.
of Wildlife Resources. Stidham ND, Ahring RM, Powell J, Claypool PL. 1980. Chemical scarification,
Kitchen SG, Meyer SE, Wilson GR, Stevens R. 1989a. Addition of moist prechilling, and thiourea effects on germination of 18 shrub
Cercocarpus ledifolius—curlleaf mountain-mahogany—to the rules. species. Journal of Range Management 33: 115–118.
Association of Official Seed Analysts Newsletter 63: 26–28. Stutz HC. 1990. Taxonomy and evolution of Cercocarpus in the western
Kitchen SG, Meyer SE, Wilson GR, Stevens R. 1989b. Addition of United States. In: Johnson KL, ed.The genus Cercocarpus. Proceedings, 5th
Cercocarpus montanus—true mountain-mahogany—to the rules. Utah Shrub Ecology Workshop; 1988 July 13–14; Logan, UT. Logan: Utah
Association of Official Seed Analysts Newsletter 63: 28–30. State University: 15–25.
Young JA, Evans RA, Neal DL. 1978. Treatment of curlleaf cercocarpus
seeds to enhance germination. Journal of Wildlife Management 42:
614–620.
Dr. Magill retired from USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station;
Dr. Meyer is a research ecologist with the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah
Other common names. southern bearmat, mountain- Figure 1—Chamaebatia foliolosa, bearmat: achene (left)
misery, Sierra mountain-misery, San Diego mountain- and extracted seed (right).
misery, bearclover, tarweed, and running-oak.
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Two varieties of
this species—Chamaebatia foliolosa Benth.—are recog-
nized. The typical variety, bearmat, is an evergreen shrub, 15
to 60 cm tall, that grows between 600 and 2,100 m elevation
on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada in California. It
occurs in open ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex
Laws.) and in California red fir (Abies magnifica A. Murr.)
forests (Munz and Keck 1963). Southern bearmat—C. foli-
olosa var. australis Brandg.—grows to a height of nearly
2 m on dry slopes in the chaparral type from San Diego
County to Baja California.
The typical variety is normally regarded as a pest
because it inhibits the establishment and growth of trees
(Adams 1969; Dayton 1931). From an aesthetic viewpoint,
the plants can provide attractive ground cover, but their
glutinous leaves are highly aromatic (Bailey 1928; McMinn Figure 2—Chamaebatia foliolosa, bearmat: longitudinal
1959). It is useful for watershed stabilization and is a section through an achene.
potential landscape plant (Magill 1974).
Flowering, seed production, and seed use. Bearmat
produces perfect flowers throughout its range from May
through July; southern bearmat flowers from November
through May (McMinn 1959). The fruits are brown achenes
about 5 mm in length (figures 1 and 2). Seeds require from
1 to 3 months of moist stratification at temperatures ranging
from 1 to 5 °C before they will germinate (Emery 1964;
Magill 1974). In the nursery, seeds should be sown in spring
(Bailey 1928).
Chamaebatia • 385
C References
Adams RS. 1969. How to cure mountain misery. Sacramento: California McMinn HE. 1959. An illustrated manual of California shrubs. Berkeley:
Division of Forestry. 23 p. University of California Press. 663 p.
Bailey LH. 1928. The standard cyclopedia for horticulture. New York: Magill AW. 1974. Chamaebatia foliolosa Benth., bearmat. In: Schopmeyer CS,
Macmillan. 3639 p. tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk.
Dayton WA. 1931. Important western browse plants. Misc. Pub. 101. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 315.
Washington, DC: USDA. 214 p. Munz PA, Keck DD. 1963. A California flora. Berkeley: University of
Emery D. 1964. Seed propagation of native California plants. Santa California Press. 1681 p.
Barbara Botanical Garden Leaflet 1(10): 81–96.
Dr. Shaw is a research botanist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, Idaho;
Dr. Hurd retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station
Other common names. desert sweet, fern-bush, (Artemisia spp.), sagebrush, northern juniper, mountain
desert-sweet. brush, aspen, limber pine, ponderosa pine, spruce–fir, and
Synonyms. Spiraea millefolium Torr., Sorbaria mille- western bristlecone pine communities (Hickman 1993; Munz
folium Focke, Basilima millefolium Greene, Chamaebatiaria and Keck 1959; Welsh and others 1987).
glutinosa Rydb., and Spiraea glutinosa Fedde (Davis 1952; Fernbush is occasionally browsed by mule deer
Hitchcock and others 1961; Peck 1961; Young and Young (Odocoileus hemionus), sheep, and goats, but only rarely by
1986). cattle (Mozingo 1987; van Dersal 1938). Native Americans
Growth habit, occurence and use. Fernbush— used a tea made from its leaves for treatment of stomach
Chamaebatiaria millefolium (Torr.) Maxim.—the only aches (Mozingo 1987).
species in its genus, is endemic to the Great Basin, Colorado Unlike its namesake genus—Chamaebatia Benth., bear-
Plateau, and adjacent areas of the western United States. It is mat or mountain misery—fernbush is not nodulated by nitro-
an upright, generally multistemmed, sweetly aromatic shrub gen-fixing actinomycetes (McArthur and Sanderson 1985).
0.3 to 2 m tall. Bark of young branches is brown and Plants are cyanogenic (Fikenscher and others 1981). The
becomes smooth and gray with age. Leaves are leathery, species is a very rare host of juniper mistletoe—Phoraden-
alternate, simple, bipinnatisect, stipulate, and more or less dron juniperinum Engelm. (Hawksworth and Mathiasen
clustered near the ends of the branches. Foliage and young 1978).
branches are viscid and pubescent, with simple and stellate First cultivated in 1878 (Rehder 1940), fernbush has
hairs that are sharp-pointed or glandular-capitate. Southern long been recognized as an attractive ornamental because of
populations are more or less evergreen (Phillips 1949), its profuse and conspicuous inflorescences of white- to
whereas northern populations are largely deciduous, retain- cream-colored flowers, long flowering season, and aromatic,
ing a few leaves near the branch tips through winter and ini- fernlike foliage (Bailey 1902; Hitchcock and others 1961;
tiating leaf development in early spring (Hitchcock and oth- Phillips 1949; Young and Young 1986). It is used effectively
ers 1961; Kirkwood 1930). in mass plantings, xeriscapes, screens, and hedges when
Fernbush is distributed east of the Cascade and Sierra planted in full sun. Specimen plants provide color and tex-
Nevada Mountains from Deschutes Co., Oregon, to southern ture accents (Phillips 1949).
California and eastward across southern Oregon and Idaho, Genetic variation, hybridization, and origin.
Nevada, Utah, northern Arizona, and New Mexico (Hitch- McArthur (1984) and McArthur and others (1983) described
cock and others 1961; Phillips 1949; Welsh and others 1987; Chamaebatiaria and other monotypic western North
Young and Young 1992). Fernbush is often present as an American genera of the Rosaceae as showing little variation
early successional species on cinder cones and basalt lava compared to larger genera such as Rosa (rose) or
flows but is also found on soils derived from limestone and Cercocarpus (mountain-mahogany). Typical of shrubby
granite (Eggler 1941; Everett 1957; Merkle 1952). It occurs western North American members of subfamily
in cracks and fissures of rock outcrops and on well-drained Spiraeoideae, fernbush has x = n = 9 chromosomes
soils of dry, rocky, gravelly canyons and mountain slopes at (McArthur and Sanderson 1985). Hybridization of fernbush
elevations ranging from 900 to 3,400 m (Albee and others with other species has not been reported.
1988; Hickman 1993). Fernbush grows in isolated popula- Chamaebatiaria (subfamily Spiraeoideae) was named
tions or as an associated species in sagebrush scrub for its morphologic resemblance to Chamaebatia (subfamily
Chamaebatiaria • 387
Rosoideae). McArthur and Sanderson (1985) suggest that Figure 3—Chamaebatiaria millefolium, fernbush: longitudi-
C nal section through a seed.
shrubby Spiraeoideae and Rosoideae of western North
America may be rather closely related based on similarities
in morphologic and other characteristics of the 2 groups.
Wolfe and Schorn (1989) and Wolfe and Wehr (1988) dis-
cuss evidence from Paleogene montane floras of the Rocky
Mountains indicating the possible divergence of
Chamaebatiaria and Chamaebatia from a common Eocene
ancestor. They suggest both lines adapted to progressively
drier post-Eocene conditions than the mesic coniferous
forest environment inhabited by the ancestor.
Flowering and fruiting. The showy, white, insect-
pollinated flowers develop in profuse, terminal, leafy-
bracteate panicles up to 20 cm in length. Flowers are com-
plete, regular, and about 0.8 to 1.5 cm in diameter. The
calyx consists of 5 persistent green sepals. A glandular disk
lining the hypanthium bears 5 petals and numerous stamens.
Pistils are 5 (rarely 4), ovaries superior, and styles free. The
ovaries are more or less connate below in flower, but sepa-
rate in fruit. The pubescent, coriaceous, few-seeded follicles
dehisce along the ventral suture and upper half of the dorsal
suture (figure 1). Seeds are erect, yellowish to brownish, lin- the central portion of the seed (figure 3). Germination is
ear to narrowly fusiform, and somewhat flattened at each epigeal (Hickman 1993; Hitchcock and others 1961; Hurd
end (figure 2). The outer layer of the soft thin seedcoat is 1995; Kirkwood 1930; Welch and others 1987).
ridged, giving the body of the seed a Irrigated plants may begin flowering during the second
3-angled appearance; the inner layer is thin and translucent. growing season (Shaw 1995). Plants flower from June to
A fleshy endosperm layer adheres to the seedcoat. The September (Hitchcock and others 1961; Phillips 1949) with
embryo is linear-oblong with 2 flat cotyledons and occupies irrigation prolonging the flowering season (Shaw 1995).
Fruits ripen from August to October.
Collection of fruits, seed extraction, cleaning, and
Figure 1—Chamaebatiaria millefolium, fernbush: follicle.
storage. Fruits are harvested by clipping or stripping
inflorescences when they are dry and brown, but before fol-
licles open. Seeds can also be collected by briskly shaking
or beating the inflorescences once the follicles begin dehisc-
ing. Most follicles open during air-drying, releasing the
seeds. Debris may then be removed with screens or a seed
blower. Larger collections may be cleaned using air-screen
machines. For 2 Idaho seedlots produced with irrigation, the
number of seeds per seed weight averaged 3,700,000/kg
(1,700,000/lb) (Hurd 1995). Storage requirements and seed
Figure 2—Chamaebatiaria millefolium, fernbush: seeds.
longevity have not been determined, but the seeds are proba-
bly orthodox in storage behavior.
Pregermination treatments and germination and via-
bility tests. Fresh seeds are nondormant, whereas stored
seeds require 1 to 3 months of chilling to relieve dormancy
(McDorman 1994; Phillips 1949; Young and Young 1986,
1992). The optimum temperature range for germination of
southwestern populations is 18 to 26 °C (Phillips 1949).
References
Albee BJ, Schultz LM, Goodrich S. 1988. Atlas of the vascular plants of Fikenscher LH, Hegnauer R, Ruijgrok HWL. 1981. Distribution of hydro-
Utah. Occ. Pub. 7. Salt Lake City: Utah Museum of Natural History. cyanic-acid in Cormophyta: 15. New observations on cyanogenesis in
670 p. Rosaceae. Planta Medica 41: 313–327.
Bailey LH. 1902. Cyclopedia of American horticulture.Volume 4, R–Z. New Hawksworth FG, Mathiasen RL. 1978. Hosts of juniper mistletoe at
York: Macmillan: 1686 p. Walnut Canyon National Monument, Arizona, USA. Great Basin
Davis RJ. 1952. Flora of Idaho. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University Press. Naturalist 38: 89.
836 p. Hickman JC, ed. 1993. The Jepson manual higher plants of California.
Eggler WA. 1941. Primary succession on volcanic deposits in southern Berkeley: University of California Press. 1400 p.
Idaho. Ecological Monographs 3: 277–298. Hitchcock CL, Cronquist A, Ownbey M,Thompson JW. 1961. Vascular plants
Everett PC. 1957. A summary of the culture of California plants at the of the Pacific Northwest: 3. Saxifragaceae to Ericaceae. Seattle: University
Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden. Claremont, CA: Rancho Santa Ana of Washington Press. 614 p.
Botanic Garden. 223 p. Hurd EG. 1995. Unpublished data, 1994–1995. Boise, ID: USDA Forest
Service, Intermountain Research Station.
Chamaebatiaria • 389
Kirkwood JE. 1930. Northern Rocky Mountain trees and shrubs. Stanford, Peck ME. 1961. A manual of the higher plants of Oregon. 2d ed. Portland,
C CA: Stanford University Press. 340 p. OR: Binfords & Mort. 936 p.
Mackie F. 1995. Personal communication. Sun Valley, ID. Peters J. 2000. Tetrazolium testing handbook. Contrib. 29. Las Cruces, NM:
McArthur ED. 1984. Natural diversity of western range shrubs. In: Cooley Association of Official Seed Analysts. unpaged.
JL, Cooley JH, eds. Proceedings, Workshop on Natural Diversity in Phillips J. 1949. Southwestern landscaping with native plants. Santa Fe:
Forest Ecosystems; 1982 November 29–December 1; Athens, GA. Museum of New Mexico Press. 140 p.
Athens: University of Georgia, Institute of Ecology: 193–209. Rehder, A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. New York:
McArthur ED, Sanderson SC. 1985. A cytotaxonomic contribution to the Macmillan. 996 p.
western North American rosaceous flora. Madroño 32: 24–28. Shaw NL. 1995. Unpublished data, 1992–1995. Boise, ID: USDA Forest
McArthur ED, Stutz HC, Sanderson SC. 1983. Taxonomy, distribution, and Service, Intermountain Research Station.
cytogenetics of Purshia, Cowania, and Fallugia (Rosoideae, Rosaceae). In: Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their ero-
Tiedemann AR, Johnson KL, comps. Proceedings, Symposium on sion control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC: Civilian
Research and Management of Bitterbrush and Cliffrose in Western Conservation Corps. 362 p.
North America; 1982 April 13–15; Salt Lake City, UT. Gen.Tech. Rep. Welsh SL, Atwood ND, Higgins LC, Goodrich S, eds. 1987. A Utah flora.
INT-152. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Great Basin Naturalist Memoirs 9: 1–894.
Range Experiment Station: 4–24. Wolfe JA, Shorn HE. 1989. Paleoecologic, paleoclimatic, and evolutionary
McDorman W. 1994. Unpublished data. Ketchum, ID: High Altitude significance of the Oligocene Creede flora, Colorado. Paleobiology 15:
Gardens. 180–198.
Merkle J. 1952. An analysis of a pinyon–juniper community at Grand Wolfe JA, Wehr W. 1988. Rosaceous Chamaebatiaria-like foliage from the
Canyon, Arizona. Ecology 33: 375–384. Paleogene of western North America. Aliso 12: 177–200.
Mozingo HN. 1987. Shrubs of the Great Basin. Reno: University of Young JA,Young CG. 1986. Collecting, processing and germinating seeds of
Nevada Press. 342 p. wildland plants. Portland, OR:Timber Press. 236 p.
Munz PA, Keck DD. 1959. A California flora. Berkeley: University of Young JA,Young CG. 1992. Seeds of woody plants in North America.
California Press. 1681 p. Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press. 407 p.
Chamaecyparis Spach
white-cedar
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus Carolina to Maine (Little 1966). Great variation exists with-
Chamaecyparis occurs naturally on the Atlantic and Pacific in the genus, and numerous horticultural selections have
Coasts of North America and in Japan and Taiwan. Three been made of the 3 North America species as well as the
species are native to North America, 2 to Japan, and 1 to Asian ones (Dirr and Heuser 1987; Harris 1990; Little and
Taiwan (Sargent 1965). The North American species Garrett 1990; Zobel 1990a). Both interspecific and inter-
(table 1) are long-lived evergreens that attain large size. generic crosses have been successful with certain of the
Port-Orford-cedar, the largest, has reached diameters of cedars. Alaska-cedar and 2 of the Asian species have been
more than 1 m and heights of near 70 m in old-growth crossed (Yamamoto 1981), and Alaska-cedar has also been
stands (Zobel 1990a). Branching is distinctive, with many- crossed with several species of Cupressus (Harris 1990). The
branched twigs and small paired scalelike leaves arranged in most well-known of these crosses is with Monterey cypress
fernlike sprays. Another common name is “false cypress” (Cupressus macrocarpa Hartw. ex Gord.) to produce the
(Little 1979); they are not true cedars (Cedrus spp.). widely planted Leyland cypress (Cupressocyparis × ley-
Because of their somber beauty and variety of form, white- landii).
cedars are often used for ornamental plantings, hedges, and Flowering and fruiting. White-cedars are mono-
windbreaks (Rehder 1940). They produce valuable timber, ecious. Their tiny inconspicuous yellow or reddish male
the wood being sought for poles, posts, construction timbers, pollen-bearing flowers and greenish female flowers are
specialty items, and other uses where durability is desired. borne on the tips of branchlets (Harris 1974). Staminate
Atlantic white-cedar wood is especially popular for boats, flowers of Atlantic white-cedar, for example, are about
outdoor furniture, posts, and utility poles (Kuser and 3 mm long, and the pistillate flowers are approximately
Zimmerman 1995). 3 mm in diameter (Little and Garrett 1990). Pollination
Geographic races and hybrids. Two geographic occurs generally from March to May, and cones ripen in
races of Atlantic white-cedar have been proposed: var. September to October. Cones are slow to open fully, and
henryae (Li) Little in Georgia, Florida, Alabama, and seed dispersal occurs from fall into the following spring
Mississippi and var. thyoides in the area from South (table 2). Cones of Port-Orford-cedar and Atlantic white-
C. lawsoniana (A. Murr.) Parl. Port-Orford-cedar, false cypress, SW Oregon (Coos Bay) S to NW
Cupressus lawsoniana A. Murr. Lawson cypress, Oregon-cedar, California (Klamath River)
Port-Orford white-cedar
C. nootkatensis (D. Don.) Spach Alaska-cedar, yellow-cedar, Pacific Coast region from Prince William
Cupressus nootkatensis D. Don Alaska yellow-cedar, Nootka Sound, Alaska, SW to W British Columbia
yellow-cypress, Sitka cypress, & W Washington, & S in Cascade Mtns
yellow cypress to W & NW & SW British Columbia to
California; local in NE Oregon
C. thyoides (L.) B.S.P. Atlantic white-cedar, Narrow coastal belt from S Maine to N
Cupressus thyoides L white-cedar, swamp-cedar, Florida,W to S Mississippi
southern white-cedar
Chamaecyparis • 391
C Table 2—Chamaecyparis, white-cedar: phenology of flowering and fruiting
cedar mature the same year that they are pollinated, whereas Figure 1—Chamaecyparis nootkatensis, Alaska-cedar:
cones of Alaska-cedar, in most of the species’ range, take a mature cones.
second year to complete maturation (Harris 1974, 1990). In
the extreme southern portion of the range of Alaska-cedar,
cones may mature in only 1 year (Owens and Molder 1975).
This condition even occurs on trees from more northern ori-
gins or from higher elevations when established in seed
orchards in warm, southern, coastal sites (El-Kassaby and
others 1991). The seeds from these 1-year cones are of size
and germination quality equal to seeds from 2-year cones.
The white-cedars bear cones at an early age—5 to 20
years for Port-Orford-cedar (Zobel 1990a) and 3 to 5 years
for Atlantic white-cedar (Little and Garrett 1990). Sprays of
gibberellin (primarily GA3) will induce flowering in even
younger seedlings of Port-Orford-cedar and Alaska-cedar
(Owens and Molder 1977; Pharis and Kuo 1977). The use
of GA3 and supplemental pollination on container-grown
Port-Ordford-cedar trees 4 to 6 years from rooting or graft- Figure 2—Chamaecyparis thyoides, Atlantic white-cedar:
seeds.
ing has shown good potential to produce a large amount of
seeds in a short period (Elliott and Sniezko 2000). Mature
cones are 6 to 12 mm in diameter, spherical, and are borne
erect on branchlets (figure 1). Cones have from 6 to 12
scales, each bearing from 1 to 5 seeds with thin marginal
wings (figures 2 and 3) (Harris 1974). The average number
of seeds per cone is 7 for Alaska-cedar (Harris 1990) and 8
for Atlantic white-cedar, but less than a third of these seeds
may be filled. With controlled crosses in a seed orchard,
Port-Orford-cedar averaged as high as 8.6 filled seeds per
cone (Elliott and Sniezko 2000). Cone ripeness is normally
determined by their exterior color (table 3).
Seedcrops of both western white-cedars can be dam-
aged by larvae of the seedworm Laspeyresia cupressana
(Kearfott) feeding on seeds in the cones. Larvae of the
incense-cedar tip moth—Argyresthia libocedrella Busck—
mine the cones and seeds of Port-Orford-cedar and can
destroy practically the entire seedcrop (Hedlin and others with many species, cone production is usually less in dense
1980). stands, although local conditions cause much variation
Collection of cones. Cones may be collected by hand (Zobel 1979), and open stands should be favored in collec-
or raked from the branchlets of standing or felled trees. As tions from natural stands. In a North Carolina study,
Sources: Little (1950), Korstian and Brush (1931), Ouden (1965), Rehder (1940), Sargent (1965).
Figure 3—Chamaecyparis lawsoniana, Port-Orford cedar: Cleaning seeds of white-cedars to high purity values is
longitudinal section through a seed. difficult because the small, scalelike leaves are similar to the
seeds in size and weight. For seedlots of Atlantic white-
cedar, large trash can be removed with round-hole screens,
and small trash can be blown off with any number of pneu-
matic cleaners or seed blowers. These same blowers can be
used to upgrade Atlantic white-cedar seedlots by removing
many of the empty seeds that occur naturally in this species.
Separation is not absolute, of course, and many smaller
filled seeds will be lost. With care, however, purities above
90% and filled seed percentages close to 90% can be
obtained (Bonner and Summerville 1999). Similar data on
the other 2 species are not available. Numbers of cleaned
seeds per weight are listed in table 4.
Seeds of the white-cedars are orthodox in storage behav-
ior. They should be stored at or below freezing at a seed
8- to 10-year-old plantations of Atlantic white-cedar pro- moisture content of 10% or below (Allen 1957; Harris
duced good seedcrops that were easy to collect (Bonner and 1974). Seeds of Port-Orford-cedar from several origins
Summerville 1999). When collecting cones of Alaska-cedar stored at –15 °C lost no germination capacity over an 11-
in the northern part of the range, precautions are needed to year period (Zobel 1990b). There are no comparable storage
limit the collection to mature, second-year cones. The small- data for Alaska-cedar or Atlantic white-cedar, but the latter
er, greenish-blue, immature, first-year cones are often pres- species is known to survive at least 2 years of similar stor-
ent on the same branches with the yellow-brown mature age without loss of viability (Bonner and Summerville
cones (Harris 1974). 1999). Atlantic white-cedar seeds will also survive for at
Extraction, cleaning, and storage of seeds. Cones of least 2 growing seasons in natural seedbeds (Little 1950).
white-cedars may be dried by spreading them in the sun or Pregermination treatments and germination tests.
in a warm room, or they may be kiln-dried at temperatures Germination of white-cedar species is reported to be
below 43 °C (Harris 1974). Over 90% of the seeds can be extremely variable and usually low, but this is due primarily
recovered from cones of Atlantic white-cedar dried at 35 to to the naturally low percentages of filled seeds and the fail-
40 °C if 2 or 3 cycles of drying, interspersed with re-wetting ure of seed managers to remove these empty seeds from the
of the cones, are used (Bonner and Summerville 1999). seedlots. Port-Orford-cedar germinates readily in the labora-
Each time the cones are redried, they open a little more. tory without pretreatment, and cold stratification does not
Mature cones of all white-cedars open when dried properly, appear to even improve germination rate (Zobel 1990b).
and their seeds may be extracted by gentle shaking or tum- Alaska-cedar exhibits a dormancy that can be somewhat
bling. The thin-coated seeds of all species are easily injured overcome by warm incubation followed by cold stratifica-
and de-winging should not be attempted (Harris 1974). tion, but optimum schedules have not been determined
(Harris 1990). In laboratory testing of germination, stratifi-
Chamaecyparis • 393
C Table 4—Chamaecyparis, white-cedar: seed yield data
Cleaned seeds/weight
Seed wt/ Range Average
Species cone wt /kg /lb /kg /lb
cation of 21 days at 3 to 5 °C has been recommended (ISTA eries suggests covering the sown seeds with 3 to 6 mm (1/10
1993). In nursery sowing, however, environmental condi- to 1/4 in) of soil and calculating sowing rates to produce 320
tions are seldom as favorable as those in the laboratory, so to 530 seedlings/m2 (30 to 50/ft2). One kilogram (2.2 lb) of
longer pretreatments are usually beneficial. One promising Port-Orford-cedar seeds should produce about 284,000
pretreatment schedule is moist stratification for 30 days at plantable seedlings (Harris 1974). Shading the seedbeds
alternating temperatures of 20 and 30 °C, followed by 30 until midseason of the first year may also be beneficial. For
days at 5 °C (Harris 1974). The beneficial effect of warm field planting, 2+0 stock is commonly used in the western
incubation suggests that many of the seeds are not quite United States, although 2+1 transplants are favored for
fully matured, and the incubation period enhances matura- Port-Orford-cedar in England (Harris 1974). For Atlantic
tion in the same manner as warmer temperatures were white-cedar, 2+0 seedlings are used in New Jersey and 1+0
shown to speed up cone ripening (Owens and Molder seedlings in North Carlina (Kuser and Zimmerman 1995).
1975). All white-cedars can be propagated vegetatively and are
Atlantic white-cedar has a variable dormancy also, commonly produced this way for the ornamental market.
although probably not as deep as that of Alaska-cedar. Some Port-Orford-cedar cuttings should be taken between
lots will germinate completely in the laboratory without any September and April, treated with indole butyric acid (IBA)
pretreatment (table 5). Recent tests with samples from powder (3,000 to 8,000 ppm), and placed in peat or perlite
North Carolina indicate that maximum germination in 28 with mist and bottom heat (Dirr and Heuser 1987). Zobel
days at good rates requires 4 weeks of moist stratification at (1990a) suggests taking cuttings from tips of major branch-
3 °C. Official test prescriptions (ISTA 1993) call for 90 es from lower branches of young trees. Alaska-cedar cut-
days of stratification at 3 °C for germination within the tings need 8,000 or more ppm of IBA, and cuttings should
same time period. Extremely slow germination has been be taken in late winter to early spring (Dirr and Heuser
reported in nursery beds in New Jersey (Little 1950), so 1987). After 4 years, growth of outplanted rooted cuttings
some stratification would certainly be recommended. was equal to that of seedlings in British Columbia
Germination is epigeal. (Karlsson 1982). Atlantic white-cedar cuttings taken in mid-
Nursery practice. For all 3 species of North November and treated with auxins also root very well (Dirr
American white-cedars, spring-sowing of stratified seeds is and Heuser 1987). With auxins and bottom heat in mist-
recommended. Port-Orford-cedar has the least dormancy beds, 90% rooting can be expected. Early comparisons
and may only require 30 days of cold stratification. In show that growth of seedlings and stecklings (rooted cut-
England this species is normally not stratified at all (Aldous tings) to be about the same (Kuser and Zimmerman 1995).
1972). Alaska-cedar and Atlantic white-cedar have deeper
levels of dormancy, and more extended pretreatments are
necessary. Warm incubation at alternating temperatures,
followed by cold stratification (as described in the previous
section), has been recommended for both of these species
(Dirr and Heuser 1987). Seeds from the more southern
sources of Atlantic white-cedar seem to be not so dormant,
and 30 to 60 days of cold stratification alone may be suffi-
cient. Experience with Port-Orford-cedar in western nurs-
Test results
Test conditions Germ
Stratification (days) Temp (°C) Germ energy capacity Soundness
Species Warm* Cold† Day Night Days (%) Days (%) (%) Samples
C. lawsoniana 0 0 30 20 28 44 14 48 48 9
0 0 30 20 60 24 34 52 — 60
C. nootkatensis 58 30 30 20 22 10 11 12 51 1
0 30–90 30 20 41 0 — 0 57 3
0 0 30 20 28–55 0 — 0 54 8
C. thyoides 0 0 30 20 60 — — 84 — 11
0 90 30 20 28 — — — — —
Source: Harris (1974).
* At alternating temperatures of 30 and 20 °C.
† At 5 °C.
‡ Seeds were exposed to light during the warm period.
§ A constant temperature of 20 °C is also suitable (ISTA 1993).
References
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46(3): 78–85. Service: 88–96.
Little EL Jr. 1966. Varietal transfers in Cupressus and Chamaecyparis. Zobel DB. 1990b. Effects of low temperature, seed source, and seed age
Madroño 18(6): 161–167. on germination of Chamaecyparis lawsoniana. Canadian Journal of Forest
Research 20: 1053–1059.
Chamaecyparis • 395
C Bignoniaceae—Trumpet-creeper family
Dr. Magill retired from USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experimental Station; Ms. Miller was a
propagationist at the USDI National Park Service Joshua Tree National Park Center for Arid Lands Restoration and Native
Plant Nursery,Twentynine Palms, California; Ms. Rodgers, is a restoration ecologist at the Point Reyes National Seashore
Point Reyes Station, California
Synonyms. C. saligna D. Don, C. linearis var. origi- extraction simply requires that the pods be spread out, dried,
naria Fosberg, C. linearis var. glutinosa (Engelm.) Fosberg, beaten lightly, and shaken, and then the seeds screened out.
C. linearis var. arcuata Fosberg. Each 45 kg (100 lb) of dried pods should produce 14 to 23
Other common names. false-willow, jano, flowering- kg (30 to 50 lb) of clean seeds, which number from 88,200
willow, desert catalpa, catalpa-willow. to 282,240/kg (40,000 to 128,000/lb) and average
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Desert-willow 189,130/kg (86,000/lb) (Magill 1974). Commercial seedlots
grows along dry washes and streams in the desert between have averaged 92% in purity and 87% in soundness (Magill
450 and 1,500 m of elevation from southern California 1974). These seeds are orthodox in storage behavior, so
through southern Utah to western Texas and southward into cold, dry storage conditions are recommended for storage.
Mexico and Lower California. It is a deciduous shrub or Seeds have been successfully propagated after 4 years of
small tree that attains heights of 3 to 7.5 m or occasionally refrigerated storage at 7 °C (CALR 1993).
more. Growth can be rapid, up to 1 m annually (Munz Germination. Desert-willow seeds are not dormant,
1979). The plant is useful for wildlife cover, erosion control, but storage for several days in wet sand or between wet
restoration, stream stabilization, and ornamental plantings in blotter paper will speed germination. In germination tests
arid regions (McMinn 1959; Bainbridge and Virginia 1989; 1,000 seeds were placed in a sand or water medium for 21
Munz 1959). Seed pods and flowers are edible, but the to 60 days with a night temperature of 20 °C and a day tem-
major use for Native American people was the wood (for perature of 30 °C (Engstrom and Stoeckeler 1941; Magill
house frames, granaries, and bows) and the fibrous bark (for 1974). Germination averaged 14 to 60% in 9 to 30 days and
weaving nets, shirts, and breechclouts) (Bainbridge and germinative capacity ranged from 26 to 100% (Magill
Virginia 1989). 1974). Average germination using blotter paper is 80%
Flowering and fruiting. Desert-willow produces per- (CALR 1993).
fect flowers between April and August throughout its range
Figure 1—Chilopsis linearis, desert-willow: seed.
(Magill 1974; McMinn 1959). The fruit is a 2-celled capsule
about 6 mm in diameter and from 10 to 30 cm long. It
ripens from late summer to late fall (Afanasiev 1942) and
persists through winter (Little 1950). The numerous light-
brown oval seeds are about 8 mm long and have a fringe of
soft white hairs on each end (figures 1 and 2).
Collection, extraction, and storage. Seedpods can be
hand-picked after late September and through the winter
months. Care must be taken not to pick unripened fruits—
the fruits on a tree may mature unevenly because of their
long flowering period (Engstrom and Stoeckeler 1941). Seed
Chilopsis • 397
C
Pyrolaceae—Shinleaf family
Chimaphila Pursh
chimaphila
Don Minore
Dr. Minore retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Northwest Research Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Taxonomists by small scales and associated with single roots. The leaves
sometimes differ when classifying plants in the genus may persist as long as 7 years in pipsissewa and 8 years in
Chimaphila (Blake 1914; Camp 1939; Hitchcock and others little pipsissewa (Copeland 1947).
1959; Stapf 1930; Takahashi 1987; Traulau 1981; Wordsdell Chimaphila leaves are purported to have antibacterial
and Hill 1941), but there are at least 4 clearly defined properties. They contain taraxerol, beta-sitosterol, ursolic
species (table 1). All have a chromosome number (2n) of 28 acid, nonacosane, hentriacontane, isohomoarbutin, renifolin,
(Haber and Cruise 1974), and all occur in the Northern arbutin, avicularin, hyperoside, several flavonoids, and a
Hemisphere (table 1). Pipsissewa, the most widespread compound called chimaphilin (Lucia 1991; Sheth and others
species, has been divided into 5 geographically delimited 1967; Trubachev and Batyuk 1968; Walewska 1971).
subspecies: C. umbellata ssp. occidentalis (Rydb.) Hult. in Chimaphilin has a quinone structure similar to that of
western North America; ssp. acuta (Rydb.) Hult. in Arizona 1,4-naphthoquinone (DiModica and others 1953), and it may
and New Mexico; ssp. mexicana (DC) Hult. in Mexico; ssp. be responsible for the medicinal properties attributed to the
cisatlantica (Blake) Hult. in eastern North America; and ssp. chimaphilas. The boiled leaves are taken as a liver remedy
umbellata in Europe and Asia (Takahashi 1987). (Altschul 1973). The plants also have been used as diuretics
The chimaphilas are low, usually creeping, evergreen and to treat rheumatism and fever (Krüssmann 1984). Large
subshrubs (Krüssmann 1984) with alternate leaves that are quantities of pipsissewa are now being harvested for use as
crowded near the summit of each year’s annual growth, giv- flavoring in a popular beverage.
ing the appearance of being whorled on the short shoots Flowering and fruiting. Striped pipsissewa usually
(“pseudo-whorls”). Those shoots produce annual growth flowers in its third growing season, but flowering may be
rings (Copeland 1947) and are connected by elongate rhi- delayed in pipsissewa and little pipsissewa until 7 or 8 annu-
zomes that are as much as 2.5 m long. The rhizomes are al pseudo-whorls of leaves have been produced (Copeland
slender (not more than a few millimeters in diameter) and 1947). Flowers are choripetalous, pentacyclic, pentamerous,
yellow or brown. They bear distant buds that are subtended actinomorphic, and protogynous (Holm 1927; Pyykko
C. maculata (L.) Pursh striped pipsissewa, Maine & New Hampshire to Ontario, Michigan,
striped prince’s-pine, & Illinois S to Georgia, Alabama, & Tennessee
spotted wintergreen
C. menziesii (R. Br. ex D. Don) Spreng. little pipsissewa, British Columbia, Montana, & Washington
little prince’s-pine S through Oregon & California to Mexico
C. umbellata (L.) W. Bart. pipsissewa, North America from Alaska to Mexico & from
prince’s-pine Ontario & New Brunswick to Georgia; Europe
(incl. Scandinavia), Eurasia, Japan, & West Indies
Sources: Barrett and Helenurm (1987), Blake (1914), Camp (1939), Fernald (1950), Hill (1962), Nordal and Wischmann (1989), Ohwi (1965), Prain (1960),Traulau (1981).
Chimaphila • 399
zomes. Cultivation attempts often fail (Kruckeberg 1982), 1982). If they are, special practices that include an unknown
C
but division of the rhizome has been recommended as a suit- host may be needed to achieve successful large-scale
able method of propagation (Bailey and Bailey 1976). The nursery production.
chimaphilas may be partial root parasites (Kruckeberg
References
Altschul SVR. 1973. Drugs and foods from little-known plants. Notes in Minore D. 1994. Unpublished data. Corvallis, OR: Pacific Northwest
Harvard University Herbaria. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Research Station.
366 p. Nordal I, Wischmann F. 1989. Chimaphila umbellata in Norway. Blyttia
Barrett SCH, Helenurm K. 1987. The reproductive biology of forest herbs: 47(4): 183–188 [Biological Abstracts 89(10): AB-133, ref. 101003].
1. Breeding systems and pollination. Canadian Journal of Botany 65(10): Ohwi J. 1965. Flora of Japan. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.
2036–2046. 1067 p.
Blake SF. 1914. A new Chimaphila from San Domingo. Journal of Botany Prain D, ed. 1921. Index Kewensis plantarum phanerogamarum: supple-
(British and Foreign) 52: 169. mentum quintum. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 277 p.
Camp WH. 1939. Studies in the Ericales: 4. Notes on Chimaphila, Gaultheria Pryykko M. 1968. Embryological and anatomical studies on Finnish species
and Pernettya in Mexico and adjacent regions. Bulletin of the Torrey of the Pyrolaceae. Annales Botanica Fennica 5(3): 153–165.
Botanical Club 66: 7–28. Rose R, Chachulski CEC, Haase DL. 1996. Propagation of Pacific
Copeland HF. 1947. Observations on the structure and classification of the Northwest native plants: a manual.Volume 2, first ed. Corvallis: Oregon
Pyroleae. Madroño 9(3): 65–102. State University Nursery Technology Cooperative. 73 p.
DiModica G,Tira S, Borello E. 1953. Su sostanze estratte da Chimaphila Sheth K, Catalfomo P, Sciuchetti LA, French DH. 1967. Phytochemical inves-
corymbosa Pursh: struttura delia Chimafillina. Gazetta Chimica Italia tigation of the leaves of Chimaphila umbellata var. occidentalis. Lloydia
83(6): 393–401 [Biological Abstracts 28: 679, Ref. 6848]. 30(1): 78–83.
Fernald ML. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. 8th ed. New York: American Standley LA, Kim SS, Hjersted IM. 1988. Reproductive biology of two
Book Co. 1632 p. sympatric species of Chimaphila. Rhodora 90(863): 233–244.
Haber E, Cruise E. 1974. Generic limits in the Pyrolideae (Ericaceae). Stapf O. 1930. Index Londinensis,Volume I,The Royal Horticultural Society
Canadian Journal of Botany 52(4): 877–883. of London, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
Helenurm K, Barrett SCH. 1987. The reproductive biology of forest herbs: 547 p.
2. Phenology of flowering and fruiting. Canadian Journal of Botany Takahashi H. 1986. Pollen polyads and their variation in Chimaphila
65(10): 2047–2056. (Pyrolaceae). Grana 25(3): 161–169 [Biological Abstracts 83(11): AB-
Hill AW, ed. 1962. Index Kewensis plantarum phanerogamarum: supple- 112, ref. 104628].
mentum septimum. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 260 p. Takahashi H. 1987. On the infraspecific variation of Chimaphila umbellata
Hitchcock CL, Cronquist A, Ownbey M,Thompson JW. 1959. Vascular (L.) W. Barton (Pyrolaceae). Acta Phytotaxonomica et Geobotanica 38:
plants of the Pacific Northwest: 4. Ericaceae through Campanulaceae. 82–96 [Biological Abstracts 85(7): AB-122; ref. 65184].
Seattle: University of Washington Press. 510 p. Takahashi H. 1993. Seed morphology and its implications in Pyroloideae.
Holm T. 1927. The flower of Chimaphila. Rhodora 29(337): 1–6. International Journal of Plant Sciences 154(1): 175–186.
Knudsen JT, Olesen JM. 1993. Buzz-pollination and patterns in sexual traits Traulau H , ed. 1981. Index Holmiensis: a world index of plant distribution
in North European Pyrolaceae. American Journal of Botany 80(8): maps.Volume 5, Dicotyledonae. Berlings Arlöv: Swedish Natural Science
900–913. Council. 258 p.
Kruckeberg AR. 1982. Gardening with native plants of the Pacific Trubachev AA, Batyuk VS. 1968. Flavonoidy Chimaphila umbellata. Khimiya
Northwest: an illustrated guide. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Prirodnykh Soedinenii (Tashkent) 4(5): 320–321 [Biological Abstracts 51:
252 p. 2746, ref. 28428].
Krüssmann G. 1984. Manual of cultivated broad-leaved trees and shrubs. Walewska E. 1971. Glukozydy fenolowe w rodzinie Pyrolaceae: 1. Herba
Volume I, A–D. Beaverton, OR:Timber Press. 448 p. Polonica 17(3): 242–247 [Biological Abstracts 54(11): 6122, ref. 62908].
LHBH [Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium]. 1976. Hortus third: a concise dic- Wilson MG. 1994. Personal communication. Portland, OR.
tionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. Revised. Wordsdell WC, Hill AW. 1941. Index Londinensis, Supplement for the
New York: Macmillan. 1290 p. years 1921–35: 1. A–H,The Royal Horticultural Society of London, Royal
Lucia F. 1991. Prince’s pine medicinal action traced to specific chemical Botanic Gardens, Kew. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. 497 p
compounds. In Good Tilth 1991 (August): 6.
Chionanthus virginicus L.
white fringetree
John D. Gill, Franz L. Pogge, and Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Gill and Mr. Pogge retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Northeastern Forest Experiment Station;
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Forest Experiment Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Other common names. old-man’s-beard, flowering- Pogge 1974). The fruit is a dark blue to purple ovoid drupe
ash, grandfather-graybeard. about 2 cm long (figure 1). It is usually single-seeded (fig-
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. White fringe- ures 1 and 2); rarely 2- or 3-seeded. Fruits ripen and drop
tree—Chionanthus virginicus L.—occurs on rich, well- from the trees in July in eastern Texas and as late as October
drained soils of streambanks, coves, and lower slopes but is in the northern part of the range (Lay 1961; Van Dersal
most abundant in the understory of pine–hardwood forests, 1938). Seeds are dispersed beyond the immediate vicinity of
especially on moist, acid, sandy loam soils (Goodrum and the tree by birds and rodents. Plants first produce seeds at 5
Halls 1961). It develops best in semi-open situations but is to 8 years of age. In eastern Texas, they produced some fruit
moderately shade-tolerant, being found occasionally in each year; no seedcrop failure occurred (Lay 1961).
dense understories. Though widely distributed, it usually is a Collection, extraction, and storage. The fruits
minor part of the total vegetation. White fringetree is a rela- should be collected from the branches after they have turned
tively short-lived shrub or small tree and may attain 11 m purple and before birds remove them, which should be
in height (Rehder 1940). Its range is from southern Penn- August in the South and September and October in the
sylvania and Ohio south to central Florida and westward North (Dirr and Heuser 1987). The pulpy pericarp should be
through the Gulf Coast region to the Brazos River in Texas removed by maceration with either mechanical macerators
and to northern Arkansas (Brown and Kirkman 1990). for large lots or kitchen blenders for small lots, or by rub-
Fringetrees are planted as ornamentals throughout the bing the fruits over hardware cloth fine enough to retain the
South and elsewhere beyond their natural range. The bark is seeds. The pulp may then be washed away. The seeds con-
used as a tonic, diuretic, and astringent; it is also used to tain about 40% moisture when they are shed and must be
reduce fever. In Appalachia, a liquid of boiled root bark is dried to at least 22% if they are to be stored at low tempera-
applied to skin irritations (Krochmal and others 1969). tures (Carpenter and others 1992). There have been no long-
Twigs and foliage are preferred browse for deer (Odocoileus term storage tests of white fringetree seeds reported,
spp.) in the Gulf Coastal Plain but are less preferred in the
Piedmont and mountains. Browsing is least in winter. The
species is only moderately resistant to browsing, and plants Figure 1—Chionanthus virginicus, white fringetree: fruit
may die when more than a third of the annual growth is (drupe, left) and seed (right).
removed. The date-like fruits are eaten by many animals,
including deer, turkey (Meleagris gallopovo), and quail
(Callipepla spp.). Cattle may eat the foliage (Goodrum and
Halls 1961). The date of earliest known cultivation is 1736
(Rehder 1940).
Flowering and fruiting. White fringetree’s flowering
habit is polygamo-dioecious, although it is functionally
dioecious (Brown and Kirkman 1990; Gleason 1963). The
white, fragrant flowers are borne in pendant axillary pani-
cles 10 to 25 cm long that appear from March to June,
depending on latitude (Brown and Kirkman 1990; Gill and
Chionanthus • 401
Figure 2—Chionanthus virginicus, white fringetree: Nursery practice. Seeds may be sown in either fall or
C longitudinal section through a seed. spring. Seeds can be sown soon after they are cleaned, but
no later than mid-October in the northern part of the range
(Heit 1967). Drills should be set 20 to 30 cm (8 to 12 in)
apart and the seeds covered with 6 to 12 mm (1/4 to 1/2 in) of
firmed soil. Beds should be covered with burlap or mulched
with straw or leaf mulch until after the last frost the follow-
ing spring. If spring-sowing is desired, then seeds should be
given 3 months of warm storage, then 3 months of cold
stratification (Dirr and Heuser 1987). As an alternative for
the amateur gardener, seeds can be sown under glass, in
boxes with standard compost, during February–March
(Sheat 1948). Propagation by layering, grafting, or budding
onto ash seedlings is sometimes practiced, but the species is
almost impossible to root (Dirr and Heuser 1987).
Barton LV. 1961. Seed preservation and longevity. Plant Science Heit CE. 1955. The excised embryo method for testing germination quality
Monographs. London: Leonard Hill Ltd. 216 p. of dormant seeds. Proceedings of the Association of Official Seed
Brown CL, Kirkman LK. 1990. Trees of Georgia and adjacent states. Analysts 1955: 108–117.
Portland, OR:Timber Press. 292 p. Heit CE. 1967. Propagation from seed: 8. Fall planting of fruit and hard-
Carpenter WJ, Ostmark ER, Sheehan TJ. 1992. Recommendations for ger- wood seeds. American Nurseryman 126 (4): 12–13, 85–90.
minating fringetree Chionanthus virginicus L. seed. Proceedings of the Krochmal A, Walters RS, Doughty RM. 1969. A guide to medicinal plants of
Florida State Horticultural Society 104: 337–340 [Seed Abstracts 1995; Appalachia. Res. Pap. NE-138. Upper Darby, PA: USDA Forest Service.,
18(5): 1542]. Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 291 p.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant propa- Lay DW. 1961. Fruit production of some understory hardwoods.
gation: from seeds to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissions Proceedings
Flemion F. 1941. Further studies on the rapid determination of the germi- 15: 30–37.
native capacity of seeds. Contributions of the Boyce Thompson Institute Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. 2nd ed. New York:
11: 455–464. Macmillan. 996 p.
Gill JD, Pogge FL. 1974. Chionanthus virginicus L., fringetree. In: Schopmeyer Schumacher FW. 1962. How to grow seedlings of trees and shrubs. 2nd
CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. ed. Sandwich, MA: F. W. Schumacher. 14 p.
Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 323–325. Sheat WG. 1948. Propagation of trees, shrubs and conifers. London:
Gleason HA. 1963. The new Britton and Brown illustrated flora of the Macmillan. 479 p.
northeastern United States and adjacent Canada. 3 vol. New York: Swingle CF, comp. 1939. Seed propagation of trees, shrubs and forbs for
Hafner Publishing. conservation planting. SCS-TP-27. Washington, DC: USDA Soil
Goodrum PD, Halls LK. 1961. Fringetree. In: Halls LK, Ripley TH, eds. Deer Conservation Service. 187 p.
browse plants of southern forests. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their ero-
Southern and Southeastern Forest Experiment Stations: 10–11. sion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC: USDA.
362 p.
Chionanthus • 403
C Fagaceae—Beech family
Chrysolepis Hjelmqvist
chinquapin
Philip M. McDonald
Dr. McDonald is a research silviculturist at the USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Southwest Research Station,
Redding, California
Synonyms. The 2 species of Chrysolepis found in the western Siskiyou County, California, and in other places
United States are distinct from their Asian relatives in the where the ranges of the 2 shrub forms overlap, hybridiza-
genus Castanopsis and were placed by Hjelmqvist (1948) in tion probably occurs (Griffin and Critchfield 1972).
their current genus. This genus was accepted in Hickman’s Giant chinquapin is often found as a single tree or in
extensive and long-researched flora of California (1993). groves; it rarely occupies extensive areas. This shade-
These American species, which have a floral morphology tolerant tree is rarely found in a dominant position; it is
that is intermediate between Castanopsis and Lithocarpus, more often found in intermediate and codominant crown
represent the ancient condition of the family Fagaceae positions. Pure stands are uncommon and rarely exceed 10
(McKee 1990). The common name also has changed ha (McKee 1990). In the Klamath Mountains of northern
throughout the years. Early workers called the species “chin- California, giant chinquapin shows a distinct preference for
quapin.” Later, it became “chinkapin” but more recently it mesic conditions, with highest basal areas occurring on
was changed back to “chinquapin” (Hickman 1993; Keeler- north-facing slopes or in mesic canyon bottoms (Keeler-
Wolf 1988). Wolf 1988). In general, best growth is achieved in moist
Occurrence and growth habit. In North America, the environments with deep and infertile soils (Zobel and others
genus Chrysolepis consists of 2 species and 1 variety 1976). The shrub forms occupy a plethora of topographic/
(Hickman 1993), all located in the Pacific Coast region. edaphic sites over an elevational range that varies from 300
Giant chinquapin—Chrysolepis chrysophylla var. chryso- to 3,000 m. The shrub forms can be quite extensive and
phylla (Dougl. ex. Hook) Hjelmqvist —is a tree that ranges achieve greatest coverage in the extreme environments of
from southwestern Washington southward to San Luis xeric sites at higher elevations. Here they dominate, with
Obispo County in the Cascade, Klamath, and Coastal their area corresponding to the extent of past disturbance.
Mountains of California. A remnant stand also exists in El The amount of time that they dominate also can be lengthy,
Dorado County in the north central Sierra Nevada. This given a lack of seed source for inherently taller competitors.
species achieves its best form from Marin County, Over a long time span, however, disturbance is necessary
California, northward (Griffin and Critchfield 1972) to Lane for the continued presence of chinquapin. Because of its
County, Oregon. Giant chinquapin also has a shrub form— wide ecological amplitude, chinquapin is part of many asso-
C. chrysophylla var. minor (Benth.) Munz, often called ciations that include most of the forest-zone conifers and
“golden chinquapin”—that is found throughout the range of hardwoods on the Pacific Coast. A general pattern for all the
its taller brethren. species and varieties is that they are at their competitive best
The second species—C. sempervirens (Kellogg) on infertile soils (McKee 1990).
Hjelmqvist—which is always a shrub, has the common Chinquapins are vigorous sprouters and most trees orig-
name “bush chinquapin.” This species is found from the inate as root crown sprouts. The sprouts grow rapidly and
Cascade Mountains of southern Oregon westward in the outstrip natural conifer seedlings for several years. Mature
Siskiyou Mountains of northern California, and southward trees tend to have straight boles and narrow crowns. The
along the east-facing slopes of the north Coast Range and largest trees may reach over 33 m in height and 1 to 1.2 m
the west-facing slopes of the Sierra Nevada, San Jacinto, in girth (Sudworth 1908). For shrubs, var. minor tends to be
and San Bernardino Mountains (McMinn 1939). Through- stiff and upright in exposed areas and semiprostrate in shad-
out its range, the habitat is characterized as being of low ed environments. Bush chinquapin is stiff and upright in all
quality with shallow, rocky, and often droughty soils. In environments.
Chrysolepis • 405
Figure 3—Chrysolepsis, chinquapin: seedling at 1 month Altogether, this evidence suggests that for both natural
C after germination and artificial regeneration, best seedling care will be
achieved with covered seeds in partially shaded, moist con-
ditions. Seedling growth in this environment, however, is
unknown.
References
Chrysothamnus Nutt.
rabbitbrush
Susan E. Meyer
Dr. Meyer is a research ecologist at the USDA Forest Service’s Intermountain Research Station,
Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Members of the Species, subspecies, and populations of rabbitbrush also
rabbitbrush genus—Chrysothamnus spp.—are among the vary widely in their palatability to livestock and wildlife.
best-known of western shrubs (Johnson 1987; McArthur Certain unpalatable taxa such as threadleaf rubber rabbit-
and Welch 1986; McArthur and others 2004, 1979). The brush tend to increase on abused rangeland, and consider-
genus is endemic to western North America and is made up able energy has been invested in control methods
of 16 species (Anderson 1986; McArthur and Meyer 1987). (Whisenant 1987). A tendency to resprout after herbicide
It has recently been partially subsumed under the new spraying, chopping, or burning, combined with an ability to
genus Ericameria, formerly an infraspecific taxon within reestablish from seeds, can make rabbitbrush difficult to
the related genus Haplopappus (Anderson 1995; USDA eradicate (Young and Evans 1974).
NRCS 2001). Because the durability of this nomenclatural Basin and mountain whitestem rubber rabbitbrush races
change has yet to be demonstrated, the decision here is to are highly palatable as winter forage for deer (Odocoileus
follow the traditional nomenclature (table 1). spp.), sheep, and cattle, and have been included in seeding
Rabbitbrush commonly occurs on sites of natural or mixes for the rehabilitation of big game winter range for
human disturbances such as washes, drainage-ways, and over 30 years (Monsen and Stevens 1987). Other species
quarries; they may also occur as subdominants in later seral and subspecies also provide winter forage for wildlife and
vegetation. Their conspicuous golden flowers are a familiar livestock (McArthur and others 2004). Rabbitbrushes are
sight in autumn along roadsides throughout the West. Three extensively used for mined-land rehabilitation in the West
of the species—rubber rabbitbrush, Parry rabbitbrush, and (Romo and Eddleman 1988). Thousands of pounds of wild-
green rabbitbrush—are widespread, polymorphic taxa made land-collected seed are bought and sold annually (McArthur
up of multiple subspecies, whereas the remainder are taxo- and others 2004; Monsen and others 2004, 1987).
nomically simpler and more restricted in distribution. Rabbitbrushes may be seeded as pioneer species on harsh
Rubber rabbitbrush is made up of 22 subspecies, many of mine disturbances for erosion control and site amelioration
which are ecologically distinctive. Its more ecologically and often invade such sites on their own (Monsen and
specialized subspecies are restricted to dunes, rock out- Meyer 1990). They can act as nurse plants to facilitate estab-
crops, shale badlands, alkaline bottomlands, or montane lishment of later seral species, as they generally offer little
riparian communities. Most of the widely distributed sub- competition to perennial grasses or later seral shrubs
species are also broad in their ecological requirements but (Frischknecht 1963).
tend to be commonest on disturbed ground. Common gar- Rabbitbrushes have potential uses in landscape plant-
den studies have shown that marked ecotypic differentiation ings, especially with the recent emphasis on xeriscaping.
occurs within subspecies for such traits as growth form, Rubber rabbitbrush has also been examined as a commercial
growth rate, cold and drought hardiness, competitive ability, source of natural rubber and other plant secondary metabo-
flowering time, achene weight, and germination patterns lites such as resins (Weber and others 1987).
(McArthur and others 1979; Meyer 1997; Meyer and others Flowering and fruiting. The perfect yellow disk
1989). Such ecotypic variation is to be expected in other flowers of rabbitbrushes usually occur in groups of 5 in nar-
widely distributed species as well. It is therefore important rowly cylindrical heads subtended by elongate, often keeled
to consider ecotype as well as species and subspecies when bracts. The heads are numerous and are clustered in often
selecting seed sources for artificial seeding projects. flat-topped terminal or lateral inflorescences that can be
Chrysothamnus • 407
C Table 1—Chrysothamnus, rabbitbrush: ecology and distribution of some common species and subspecies
SECTION CHRYSOTHAMNUS
C. linifolius Greene spearleaf rabbitbrush, Colorado Plateau N Deep alkaline soils; low
Ericameria linifolia (Greene) L.C.Anders. alkali rabbitbrush to Montana to mid-elevation
C. viscidiflorus (Hook.) Nutt. green rabbitbrush Intermountain Wide amplitude
E. viscidiflora (Hook.) L.C.Anders.
C. v. ssp. lanceolatus (Nutt.) Hall & Clements Douglas rabbitbrush Intermountain Montane
E. viscidiflora spp. lanceolata (Nutt.) L.C.Anders.
C. v. ssp. viscidiflorus (Hook.) Nutt. low rabbitbrush Intermountain Low to mid-elevation
E. viscidiflora (Hook.) L.C.Anders.
SECTION NAUSEOSI*
C. nauseosus (Pallas ex Pursh) Britt. rubber rabbitbrush W North America Wide amplitude
E. nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) Nesom & Baird
C. n. ssp. albicaulis (Nutt.) Hall & Clements mountain whitestem Mostly Intermountain Mostly coarse soils;
rubber rabbitbrush Rocky Mtn mid-elevation
C. n. ssp. hololeucus (Gray) Hall & Clements basin whitestem rubber Mostly Great Basin Mostly coarse soils;
rabbitbrush low to mid-elevation
C. n. ssp. consimilis (Greene) Hall & Clements threadleaf rubber rabbitbrush Mostly Great Basin Mostly fine soils; low
E. nauseosa ssp. consilimus (Greene) Nesom & Baird to mid-elevation
C. n. ssp. graveolens (Nutt.) Piper green rubber rabbitbrush W Great Plains; Colorado Wide amplitude; low
Plateau to mid-elevation
C. n. ssp. salicifolius (Rydb.) Hall & Clements willowleaf rubber rabbitbrush N Utah Montane
C. parryi (Gray) Greene Parry rabbitbrush Scattered;W US Mostly montane
E. parryi (Gray) Nesom & Baird
SECTION PUNCTATI*
C. teretifolius (Dur. & Hilg.) Hall Mojave rabbitbrush, Mojave Desert Rocky washes;
E. teretifolia (Dur. & Hilg.) Jepson green rabbitbrush hot desert
Sources: Anderson (1995), Deitschman and others (1974), USDA NRCS (2001).
quite showy. Flowering occurs from late July through Seed collection, cleaning, and storage. Dry, calm
October, with higher elevation populations flowering earlier. conditions are best for the harvest of rabbitbrush seeds.
The fruits ripen in September in the mountains but may not Fully ripe fruits are fluffy and easily detachable, and they
be ripe until December in warm desert populations. There may be stripped or beaten into shoulder hoppers, bags, or
may be considerable variation in flowering and fruiting phe- boxes. Seed fill must average 30 to 50% in order to attain
nology within populations and even on individual plants purities high enough for commercially profitable harvest. On
(Meyer 1997). Each flower has the potential of producing a favorable upland sites, harvestable crops occur in 4 of 5
single narrowly cylindrical achene that is completely filled years (Monsen and Stevens 1987). The purity of the bulk-
by the elongate embryo (figures 1 and 2). The achene is harvested material is usually near 10%. Seeds are often
topped with a ring of pappus hairs that aid in dispersal by moist at harvest and must be dried before cleaning.
wind. The pappus may also be involved in orienting and Rabbitbrush seeds are difficult to clean. The elongate
anchoring the achene during seedling establishment (Stevens achenes are brittle and easily damaged in most mechanical
and others 1986). Fully ripened fruits are easily detached cleaning equipment. Using flail-type cleaners such as barley
from the plant by wind under dry conditions. Abundant debearders results in less damage than using hammermills.
flowering occurs most years, but fill is variable. Sometimes After initial cleaning, the material can be fanned and
there is considerable damage by noctuid moth larvae during screened in a fanning mill to achieve the desired purity.
seed development. The damaged fruits remain attached to Cleaning removes sticks and large debris, separates the ach-
the plant, creating the appearance of an abundant harvest enes from the inflorescences, detaches the pappus from the
after all the sound fruits have dispersed. achenes, and removes unfilled fruits and other fine debris.
Chrysothamnus • 409
C Table 2—Chrysothamnus, rabbitbrush: seed yield data
SECTION CHRYSOTHAMNUS
C. linifolius 1.8 0.8 — —
C. viscidiflorus 1.8 0.8 1.5–2.0 0.7–0.9
ssp. lanceolatus 1.8 0.8 1.1–2.2 0.5–1.0
1.8 0.8 — —
ssp. viscidiflorus 1.5 0.7 1.1–2.2 0.5–1.0
SECTION NAUSEOSI
C. nauseosus 1.7 0.8 1.5–2.0 0.7–0.9
ssp. albicaulis 1.1 0.5 0.9–1.4 0.4–0.6
1.5 0.7 — —
ssp. hololeucus 1.3 0.6 1.1–1.5 0.5–0.7
1.5 0.7 — —
ssp. consimilis 1.5 0.7 0.9–2.4 0.4–1.1
1.7 0.8 — —
ssp. graveolens 1.3 0.6 0.9–1.1 0.4–0.5
ssp. salicifolius 0.9 0.4 0-9–1.1 0.4–0.5
C. parryi 0.9 0.4 — —
SECTION PUNCTATI
C. teretifolius 1.3 0.6 — —
Sources: Belcher (1985), Deitschman and others (1974), Meyer (1995, 1997), McArthur and others (2004).
* 100% purity.
require more than 100 days to germinate to 50% at 3 °C, and winter temperatures were similar for the 2 species and
whereas warm desert collections may reach 50% germina- also for collections of Parry, spearleaf, and Mojave rabbit-
tion in as few as 5 days. These germination features act in brushes.
concert with seasonal patterns of temperature and precipita- Evaluation of the seed quality for rabbitbrush is not
tion in each habitat to ensure complete germination in mid without pitfalls. Reasonably repeatable purity values are
to late winter. Germination is often completed just before obtained when only filled achenes are included as pure seed
the snow melts, with little or no carryover of seed between (Meyer and others 1989). Germination tests for rubber rab-
years. The ecotypic variation in germination phenology bitbrush should be carried out at alternating temperatures of
results in reduced emergence and survival when seed-source 20 to 30 °C or a constant 25 °C for 28 days (Meyer and oth-
habitat is not matched to planting site habitat (Meyer 1990; ers 1989). This procedure is the only one listed in the offi-
Meyer and Monsen 1990). cial testing rules for this genus (AOSA 1993). Seedlots from
Preliminary data for Intermountain and Mojave Desert low and middle elevations should complete germination
populations of other species of rabbitbrush suggest that they within 14 days, whereas seedlots from high elevations may
share the same basic habitat-correlated germination patterns. still show some dormancy even after 28 days, making post-
Information on germination response to temperature for 6 test viability evaluation essential. Tests at 30 °C are not rec-
collections of green rabbitbrush indicates that it differs from ommended, even though relative germination percentage
rubber rabbitbrush in having 25 °C rather than 30 °C as an (that is, percentage of viable seeds germinating) may be
optimum germination temperature and in showing some dor- higher because there are indications that 30 °C is more
mancy even at this optimal temperature (table 3) (Meyer stressful to marginally viable seeds.
1997). Habitat-correlated germination responses at autumn
Table 3—Chrysothamnus, rabbitbrush: germination percentage (as percentage of total viable seeds) after 28 days at 15 °C
or at 25 °C, and days to 50% of total germination during 20 weeks at 3 °C for some common species and subspecies
Sources: Meyer (1997), Meyer and McArthur (1987), Meyer and others (1989).
Chrysothamnus • 411
C References
Anderson LC. 1986. An overview of the genus Chrysothamnus. In: Meyer SE, McArthur ED. 1987. Studies on the seed germination biology of
McArthur ED, Welsh BL, comp. Proceedings, Symposium on the Biology rubber rabbitbrush. In: Johnson KL, ed.The genus Chrysothamnus.
of Artemisia and Chrysothamnus. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-200. Ogden, UT: Proceedings, 4th Utah Shrub Ecology Workshop. Logan: Utah State
USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment University: 19–26.
Station: 29–45. Meyer SE, Monsen SB. 1990. Seed-source differences in initial establishment
Anderson LC. 1995. The Chrysothamnus–Ericameria connection. Great for big sagebrush and rubber rabbitbrush. In: McArthur ED, Romney EM,
Basin Naturalist 55: 84–88. Smith SD,Tueller PT, comps. Proceedings, Symposium on Cheatgrass
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds. Invasion, Shrub Die-off and Other Aspects of Shrub Biology and
Journal of Seed Technology 16(3): 1–113. Management. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-276. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service,
Belcher E. 1985. Handbook on seeds of browse-shrubs and forbs.Tech. Intermountain Research Station: 200–208.
Pub. R8-TP8. Atlanta: USDA Forest Service, Southern Region. 246 p. Meyer SE, McArthur ED, Jorgensen GL. 1989. Variation in germination
Deitschman GH, Jorgensen KR, Plummer AP. 1974. Chrysothamnus, rabbit- response to temperature in rubber rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseo-
brush. In: Schopmeyer CS, ed. Seeds of woody plants in the United sus: Asteraceae) and its ecological implications. American Journal of
States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington DC: USDA Forest Service: Botany 76: 981–991.
326–328. Meyer SE, Wilson GR, Stevens R. 1989. Proposed rule for Chrysothamnus
Frischknecht NC. 1963. Contrasting effect of big sagebrush and rabbit- nauseosus. Association of Official Seed Analysts Newsletter 63(1): 30–32.
brush on the production of crested wheatgrass. Journal of Range Monsen SB. 1996. Unpublished data on file. Provo. UT: USDA Forest
Management 16: 70–74. Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.
Johnson KL. 1987. The genus Chrysothamnus. In: Proceedings, 4th Utah Monsen SB, Meyer SE. 1990. Seeding equipment effects on establishment of
Shrub Ecology Workshop. Logan: Utah State University. 59 p. big sagebrush on mine disturbances. In: Munkshower F, ed. Fifth Billings
Khan MA, Sankhla N, Weber DJ, McArthur ED. 1987. Seed germination Symposium on Disturbed Land Rehabilitation.Volume 1. Pub. 9003.
characteristics of Chrysothamnus nauseosus ssp. viridulus (Astereae, Bozeman: Montana State University, Reclamation Research Unit:
Asteraceae). Great Basin Naturalist 47: 220–226. 192–199.
Long LE. 1986. Container nursery production of Artemisia and Monsen SB, Stevens R. 1987. Seed and seeding characteristics of rabbit-
Chrysothamnus species. In: McArthur ED, Welch BL, comps. Proceedings, brush. In: Johnson KL, ed.The genus Chrysothamnus. Proceedings, 4th
Symposium on the Biology of Artemisia and Chrysothamnus. Gen.Tech. Utah Shrub Ecology Workshop. Logan: Utah State University: 41–49 p.
Rep. INT-200. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest Romo JT, Eddleman LE. 1988. Germination of green and gray rabbitbrush
and Range Experiment Station: 395–396. and their establishment on coal mined land. Journal of Range
McArthur ED, Meyer SE. 1987. A review of the taxonomy and distribution Management 41: 491–494.
of Chrysothamnus. In: Johnson KL, ed. Proceedings, 4th Utah Shrub Stevens R, Jorgensen KR, Davis JN. 1981. Viability of seed from thirty-two
Ecology Workshop.The genus Chrysothamnus. Logan: Utah State shrub and forb species through fifteen years of warehouse storage.
University: 9–18. Great Basin Naturalist 41: 274–277.
McArthur ED, Stevens R, Shaw NL. 2004. Composite shrubs. In: Monsen Stevens R, Jorgensen KR, Davis JN, Monsen SB. 1986. Seed pappus and
SB, Stevens R, eds. Restoring western ranges and wildlands. Ogden, UT: placement influences on white rubber rabbitbrush establishment. In:
USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. McArthur ED, Welch BL, comps. Proceedings, Symposium on the Biology
McArthur ED, Welch BL, comps. 1986. Proceedings, Symposium on the of Artemisia and Chrysothamnus. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-200. Ogden, UT:
Biology of Artemisia and Chrysothamnus. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-200. Ogden, USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 353–357.
Station. 398 p. USDA NRCS [USDA National Resources Conservation Service]. 2001.
McArthur ED, Meyer SE, Weber DJ. 1987. Germination rate at low tem- The PLANTS database, version 3.1. Baton Rouge, LA: National Plant
perature: rubber rabbitbrush population differences. Journal of Range Data Center [http://plants.usda.gov].
Management 40: 530–533. Weber DJ, Hegerhorst DR, Davis TD, McArthur ED. 1987. Potential uses of
McArthur ED, Blauer AC, Plummer AP, Stevens R. 1979. Characteristics and rubber rabbitbrush. In: Johnson KL, ed.The genus Chrysothamnus.
hybridization of important Intermountain shrubs: 3. Sunflower family. Res. Proceedings, 4th Utah Shrub Ecology Workshop. Logan: Utah State
Pap. INT-220. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest University: 27–34.
and Range Experiment Station: 1–82. Whisenant S. 1987. Improving herbicidal control of rubber rabbitbrush. In:
Meyer SE. 1990. Seed source differences in germination under snowpack in Johnson KL, ed.The genus Chrysothamnus. Proceedings, 4th Utah Shrub
northern Utah. In: Munkshower F, ed. 5th Billings Symposium on Ecology Workshop. Logan: Utah State University: 35–40.
Disturbed Land Reclamation.Volume 1. Pub. 9003. Bozeman: Montana Young JA, Evans RA. 1974. Population dynamics of green rabbitbrush in
State University, Reclamation Research Unit: 184–191. disturbed big sagebrush communities.
Meyer SE. 1997. Ecological correlates of achene mass variation in
Chrysothamnus nauseosus (Asteraceae). American Journal of Botany 84:
471–477.
Drs. Olson and Barnes retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Southeastern Forest Experiment Station;
Ms. Barbour is a germination specialist at the USDA Forest Service’s National Tree Laboratory,
Dry Branch, Georgia
Synonym. Cladrastis lutea (Michx. f.) K. Koch be separated from the legume remnants with screens or air
Other common names. Kentucky yellowwood, separators.
virgilia, American yellowwood. Cleaned seeds average about 24,900 to 32,200/kg
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Yellowwood— (11,300 to 14,600/lb). Average purity and soundness of
Cladrastis kentukea (Dum.-Cours.) Rudd—is a small decid- seeds from commercial sources have been, respectively, 82
uous tree that attains a height of 12 to 18 m at maturity and 67% (Olson and Barnes 1974). Seeds of yellowwood
(Sargent 1965). The native range of yellowwood is restrict- are orthodox in storage behavior and may be stored dry in
ed; it extends from western North Carolina into eastern and sealed containers at 5 °C (Olson and Barnes 1974). For
central Tennessee, northern Alabama, Kentucky, southern overwinter storage, seeds may be stratified in sand or a mix-
Illinois, and Indiana; it also occurs in the glades country of ture of sand and peat (Olson and Barnes 1974), or they may
southwestern Missouri and in central and northern Arkansas. be dried and sown the following spring (Wyman 1953).
Locally, it grows on limestone cliffs in rich soils, and its Pregermination treatments. Natural germination of
greatest abundance is in Missouri and in the vicinity of yellowwood is epigeal (figure 3) and takes place in the
Nashville, Tennessee. The wood is hard, close-grained, and spring following seedfall. Dormancy is chiefly caused by an
bright yellow, turning to light brown on exposure to light; impermeable seedcoat and to a lesser degree by conditions
commercially, it is a substitute for walnut in gunstocks and a in the embryo (Burton 1947). Burton (1947) found that
source of clear yellow dye. Yellowwood is hardy as far north shaking yellowwood seeds for 20 minutes at 400 strokes per
as New England and is often planted for its ornamental minute made 82% of the seed permeable to water. A suc-
value. It was introduced into cultivation in 1812 (Olson and cessful dormancy-breaking treatment is sulfuric acid scarifi-
Barnes 1974). cation for 30 to 60 minutes (Heit 1967). Dormancy may be
Flowering and fruiting. The fragrant, perfect, white, overcome also by stratification in sand or sand and peat for
showy flowers bloom in June, usually in alternate years, and 90 days at 5 °C or by scarification and storage for 30 days
the fruit ripens in August or September of the same year (Olson and Barnes 1974).
(Bailey 1949; Radford and others 1964; Sargent 1965). The An early method of overcoming dormancy includes
fruit is a legume (pod), 7.5 to 10 cm long (figure 1) (Fernald soaking the seeds in water that is nearly at the boiling point
1950), that falls and splits open soon after maturing. The (Jenkins 1936). The water should be preheated to 71 to
seeds are dispersed by birds and rodents. Each legume con- 100 °C at the time the seeds are immersed; the heating ele-
tains 4 to 6 short, oblong, compressed seeds with thin, dark ment is then removed and the seeds are allowed to soak and
brown seedcoats and without endosperm (figure 2). Weights cool for 12 to 24 hours in water (Heit 1967).
of seeds in legumes containing 2 to 4 seeds decreased from Germination tests. There are no official test prescrip-
the base of the legume to the style (Harris 1917). Good tions for yellowwood. Germination has been tested on pre-
seedcrops are produced generally in alternate years. treated seeds in sand or sand and peat flats in 30 to 42 days
Collection of fruits. The legumes may be collected at 20 to 30 °C (Olson and Barnes 1974) and on moist filter
soon after maturity by handpicking them from trees or by paper medium for 24 days at 0, 25, and 50 °C (Rivera and
shaking or whipping them onto outspread canvas or plastic others 1937). Acid-treated seeds germinated from 51 to 67%
sheets. Legumes turn brown and split open easily at in 11 days; final germination ranged from 56 to 67% (Olson
maturity. and Barnes 1974). Acid treatment for 0, 30, 60, and 120
Extraction and storage of seeds. After the legumes minutes produced 5, 41, 92, and 96% germination, respec-
are allowed to dry, they can be opened by beating them in tively (Frett and Dirr 1979).
sacks or running them through a macerator. The seeds may
Cladastris • 413
Figure 1—Cladrastis kentukea, yellowwood: legumes. Applying hydrostatic pressure to yellowwood seeds
C increased their permeability in the region of the hilum and
greatly increased the speed of germination (Rivera and oth-
ers 1937). Pressures of 68,950 kN/m2 (10,000 lb/in2)
applied for 10 minutes at 0 °C, 1 minute at 25 °C, and 1
minute at 50 °C resulted in 100% germination within 24
days (Rivera and others 1937). At 206,850 kN/m2 (30,000
lb/in2) of pressure for 1 minute or 5 minutes at 25 °C, 100%
of the seeds germinated by the 12th day. However, a 20-
minute exposure to a pressure of 68,950 kN/m2 (10,000
lb/in2) at 50 °C proved injurious to the seeds, with 15.5% of
the seeds appearing soft and dead (Rivera and others 1937).
Nursery practice. Seeds may be sown in autumn or
spring. Beds should be well prepared and drilled with rows
20 to 30 cm (8 to 12 in) apart, and the seeds covered with
about 6 mm (1/4 in) of firmed soil. Untreated seeds may be
sown in autumn and the seedbeds should be mulched and
Figure 2—Cladrastis kentukea, yellowwood: longitudinal protected with bird or shade screens until after late frosts in
section (left) and exterior view of a seed (right). spring. Side boards simplify mulching and screening.
Stratified seeds or dry-stored seeds that have been treated to
break dormancy are used for spring-sowing. If seeds were
soaked in hot water at 49 °C for 24 to 36 hours until swollen
and then surface-dried and planted in the nursery, they ger-
minated readily in the spring (Dirr and Heuser 1987).
Shading of seedlings is unnecessary.
References
Bailey LH. 1949. Manual of cultivated plants most commonly grown in the
continental United States and Canada. Rev. ed. New York: Macmillan.
1116 p.
Barton LV. 1947. Special studies on seed coat impermeability. Contributions
of the Boyce Thompson Institute 14: 355–362.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop-
Figure 3—Cladrastis kentukea, yellowwood: seedling agation from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p.
development at 1, 6, 10, 16, and 20 days after germination. Fernald ML. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. 8th ed. New York: American
Book Co. 1632 p.
Frett JL, Dirr MA. 1979. Scarification and stratification requirements for
seeds of Cercis canadensis L. (redbud), Cladrastis lutea (Michx. f.) K. Koch
(yellowwood), and Gymnocladus dioicus (L.) K. Koch. (Kentucky coffee-
tree). Plant Propagator 25(2): 4–6.
Harris JA. 1917. The weight of seeds as related to their number and
position.Torreya 17: 180–182.
Heit CE. 1967. Propagation from seed: 6. Hard-seededness—a critical
factor. American Nurseryman 125(10): 10–12, 88–96.
Jenkins EM. 1936. Seed practices in nursery. American Nurseryman 63(11):
9–11.
Olson DF Jr, Barnes RL. 1974. Cladrastis lutea, yellowwood (Michx. f.) K.
Koch. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the
United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest
Service: 329–330.
Radford AE, Ahles HE, Bell CR. 1964. Guide to the vascular flora of the
Carolinas. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Book Exchange.
Rivera R, Popp HW, Dow RB. 1937. The effect of high hydrostatic pressure
upon seed germination. American Journal of Botany 24: 508–513.
Sargent CS. 1965. Manual of the trees of North America. 2nd ed.,
corrected and reprinted. New York: Dover. 934 p.
Wyman D. 1953. Seeds of woody plants. Arnoldia 13: 41–60.
Clematis L.
clematis
John C. Zasada and Paul O. Rudolf
Dr. Zasada retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Forest Research Station;
Dr. Rudolf (deceased) retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Forest Experiment Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus Geographic races. Two varieties of western virgin’s-
Clematis includes more than 200 species of climbing vines, bower—C. ligusticifolia var. californica Wats. and var. brev-
and erect or ascending perennial herbs (sometimes woody) ifolia Nutt.—are separated geographically within the
widely that are distributed through the temperate regions, species’ range (Vines 1960). These and a variety of eastern
chiefly in the Northern Hemisphere (Rehder 1940). Clematis virgin’s-bower—C. virginiana var. missouriensis (Rydb.)
is subdivided into 3 sections—Flammula (western and east- Palmer & Steyrm.—may be geographic races. Wild plants
ern virgin’s-bowers), Atragene (western blue clematis and C. intermediate between Drummond clematis and western vir-
occidentalis (C.L. Hitchc.) Pringle), and Viorna (traveler’s- gin’s-bower may be of hybrid origin (Vines 1960). Several
joy). The taxonomy and distribution of section Atragene are hybrids of Italian clematis are known (Rehder 1940).
described by Pringle (1971). Many horticultural varieties are Flowering and fruiting. There are both monoecious
grown for ornamental purposes (Dirr 1990; Lloyd 1977; and dioecious species. Eastern virgin’s-bower and western
Markham 1935). The 8 species included here (table 1) are virgin’s-bower (section Flammula) are dioecious, but their
also useful for erosion control, ground cover, and wildlife female flowers have non-functional stamens. Species in the
food (Bailey 1939; Dirr 1990; Fernald 1950; Rehder 1940; sections Atragene and Viorna are monoecious (Fernald
Van Dersal 1938). 1950). Flower size differs significantly among species, for
Species occupy different site types within their range. In example, eastern virgin’s-bower flowers occur in clusters
Wisconsin, for example, eastern virgin’s-bower was found in (panicles) containing several flowers, and their sepals are
13 community types but was most abundant in the wet alder about 0.5 cm in diameter, whereas rock clematis flowers are
thicket community. Rock clematis is present in 2 communi- borne singly, and their sepals are about 4 cm. Fruits are
ties and most abundant in northern dry mesic forests (Curtis borne in heads of 1-seeded achenes with persistent feathery
1959). Western species seem to be more common on drier styles. Achenes (figures 1 and 2) are produced annually
well-drained sites than species native east of the Mississippi (Rudolf 1974) and are dispersed by wind in late summer or
(table 1). fall. Some species have been shown to produce viable seeds
the first year after sowing (neoteny) (Beskaravainya 1977).
C. columbiana (Nutt.) Torr. & Gray rock clematis, mountain clematis, Quebec to Manitoba, S to New England,
C. verticillaris var. columbiana (Nutt.) Gray purple clematis West Virginia, Ohio,Wisconsin, &
C. drummondii Torr. & Gray Drummond clematis, Texas NW Iowa Central & E Texas, Arizona & in
virgin’s-bower, graybeard Mexico on dry, well-drained soils
C. flammula L. plume clematis Mediterranean region to Iran
C. pallasii J. F. Gmel.
C. ligusticifolia Nutt. western virgin’s-bower, British Columbia & North Dakota S
C. brevifolia Howell western clematis, traveler’s-joy to New Mexico & California
C. pauciflora Nutt. rope-vine California on dry, well-drained sites
C. virginiana L. eastern virgin’s-bower, Maine to Georgia to Louisiana to
C. catesbyana Pursh Virginia virgin’s-bower, eastern clematis Kansas in low woods & along streambanks
C. vitalba L. traveler’s-joy, old-man’s-beard S Europe, N Africa, & the Caucasus Mtns.
C. viticella L. Italian clematis, vine-bower S Europe & W Asia
Clematis • 415
Dates of flowering and fruiting are listed in table 2. Effects Figure 1—Clematis virginiana, eastern virgin’s-bower:
C of day length and temperature on flowering and flowerbud 1 achene with complete style (upper left) and 2 achenes
development were reported by Goi and others (1975). Other with styles removed (lower right).
characteristics of 8 common species are presented in table 3.
Collection of fruits and extraction and storage of
seeds. Fruits are brown when ripe and may be gathered
from the plants by hand, dried, and shaken to remove the
seeds from the heads. Other characteristics of ripeness are
when the styles have become feathery (figure 1) and the
achene appears shrunken and separates easily from the head
(Stribling 1986). Large quantities of fruits may be collected
by means of a vacuum seed harvester, run dry through a
hammermill to break up the heads, and fanned to remove
debris (Plummer and others 1968).
Numbers of cleaned seeds per unit weight are listed for
7 species in table 4. Limited data for eastern virgin’s-bower,
traveler’s-joy, and Italian clematis indicate that, in seeds not
freed from the styles, purity runs from 90 to 95% and
soundness about 85% (Rafn and Son 1928; Rudolf 1974).
For hammermilled seeds of western virgin’s-bower, a purity
of 20% is acceptable in Utah (Plummer and others 1968)
because separation of the broken styles from the seed is dif-
ficult and expensive. Viability of dry seeds of this species
has been maintained for 2 years without refrigeration
(Plummer and others 1968).
Germination. Clematis seeds have dormant or imma-
ture embryos (Dirr 1990; Dirr and Heuser 1987). Some
species and hybrids may germinate over a period of from
Figure 2—Clematis virginiana, eastern virgin’s-bower:
months to years (Lloyd 1977). Dirr (1990) and Dirr and longitudinal section through an achene.
Heuser (1987) also indicate that requirements for germina-
tion vary among the taxa.
Prechilling at 1 to 5 °C in moist sand, peat, or a mixture
of the two for 60 to 180 days has been used to promote ger-
mination in some species (Dirr and Heuser 1987; Fordham
1960; Hartmann and others 1990; Heit 1968). Field-sowing
responses of traveler’s-joy and Italian clematis (Blair 1959)
indicate that warm plus cold stratification may be needed.
The presence of an immature embryo in Italian clematis
suggests that the warm stratification allows the embryo to
mature, which allows germination to occur (Clark and others
1989). Germination of seeds of Clematis microphylla F.
Muell. ex Benth. was improved by removing the pericarp or
by exposing them to a cycle of wetting and drying (Lush
and others 1984). Germination of seeds of traveler’s-joy col-
lected and sown in November was lower and germination
rate lower than that of seeds collected and sown in February
(Czekalski 1987).
Germination tests can be run on pretreated seed in sand
flats or germinators for 40 to 60 days at 20 °C (night) to
30 °C (day) (Rudolf 1974). Test results available for 4 flowering that detracts from their value as ornamentals
species are shown in table 5. (Evison 1977; Lloyd 1977). The most appropriate sowing
Nursery practice. Only a few species are propagated schedule is based on species and winter conditions and will
from seeds because of unacceptable variation in form and vary with geographic location. General recommendations
Sources: Fernald (1950), Loiseau (1945), McMinn (1951), Mirov and Kraebel (1939), Radford and others (1964), Rehder (1940), Rosendahl (1955), Rydberg (1922),Van
Dersal (1938),Vines (1960).
Table 3—Clematis, clematis: size, year first cultivated, and flower color
Sources: Fernald (1950), McMinn (1951), Rehder (1940), Rosendahl (1955),Vines (1960).
Cleaned seeds/weight
Place Range Average
Species collected /kg /lb /kg /lb
Sources: Mirov and Kraebel (1939), Rafn & Son (1928), Rudolf (1974).
* Styles removed.
† Styles presumably removed.
are to sow untreated seeds in the fall soon after collection or (Blair 1959). Stribling (1986) recommends the following
to sow in the spring using seeds stratified over winter schedule for propagating Armand clematis—C. armandii
(Bailey 1939). Untreated fall-sown seeds of traveler’s-joy Franch—in central California: store seeds collected in late
and Italian clematis have germinated the following fall May in a refrigerator until September; soak in cold water for
Clematis • 417
24 hours and treat with a fungicide; stratify for up to 180
C Table 5—Clematis, clematis: germination test results
for stratified seeds days at 1 to 5 °C in sealed plastic trays; and sow in March
or April.
Test Germination Vegetative propagation is a common practice and used
Species duration (days) capacity (%) # Tests
exclusively to propagate most of the popular species and
C. drummondii 40 76 1 varieties. Procedures for vegetative propagation from cut-
C. ligusticifolia 200 11–84 8 tings, grafting, and division are discussed by Dirr and
C. pauciflora — 36 1
C. virginiana 60 32 1 Heuser (1987), Evison (1977), Lloyd (1977), and Markham
(1935).
Sources: Mirov and Kraebel (1939), Plummer and others (1968), Rudolf (1974),
References
Bailey LH. 1939. The standard cyclopedia of horticulture. New York: Matlack GR. 1987. Diaspore size, shape, and fall behavior in wind-dispersed
Macmillan. 3639 p. plant species. American Journal of Botany 74(8): 1175–1160.
Beskaravainya MA. 1977. Neoteny in some clematis species [abstract]. McMinn HE. 1951. An illustrated manual of California shrubs. Berkeley:
Byulleten Gosudarstvennogo Nikitskogo Botanicheskogo Sada 32: University of California Press. 663 p.
26–29. Mirov NT, Kraebel CJ. 1939. Collecting and handling seeds of wild plants.
Blair FM. 1959. Raising from seed large-flowered clematis. Garden Journal For. Pub. 5. Washington, DC: USDA Civilian Conservation Corps. 42 p.
9(1): 11, 14–15, 29. Plummer AP, Christensen DR, Monsen SB. 1968. Restoring big-game range
Clark WS, Beattie DJ, Arteca RN. 1989. A growth inhibitor in Clematis viti- in Utah. Pub. 68-3. Salt Lake City: Utah Division of Fish and Game.
cella L. seeds. Journal of Plant Physiology 134: 492–495. 182 p.
Curtis JT. 1959. The vegetation of Wisconsin. Madison: University of Pringle JS. 1971. Taxonomy and distribution of Clematis, sect. Atragene
Wisconsin Press, 657 pp. (Rannunculaceae), in North America. Brittonia 23: 361–393.
Czekalski M. 1987. Seed germination capacity and seedling morphology in Radford AE, Ahles HE, Bell CR. 1964. Guide to the vascular flora of the
Clematis vitalba [abstract]. Prace Komisji Naukowe Rolniczych i Komisji Carolinas. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Book Exchange.
Naukowe Lesnych [published 1991] 63:15–20. 383 p.
Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, orna- Rafn J, & Son. [circa 1928]. Skovfrökontoret’s Fröanalyser Gennem 40 Aar,
mental characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. Champaign, IL: 1887–1927. Copenhagen: Udfört paa Statsfrökontrollen i Köbenhavn.
Stipes Publishing. 1007 p. 5 p.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. America. New York: Macmillan. 996 p.
Evison RJ. 1977. Propagation of clematis. Proceedings of the International Rosendahl CO. 1955. Trees and shrubs of the upper Midwest. Minneapolis:
Plant Propagator’s Society 27: 436–440. University of Minnesota Press. 411 p.
Fernald ML. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. New York: American Book Co. Rudolf PO. 1974. Clematis L., clematis. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. Coord.
1632 p. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450.
Fordham A. 1960. Propagation of woody plants by seed. Arnoldia 20: Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 331–334.
33–40. Rydberg PA. 1922. Flora of the Rocky Mountains and adjacent plains,
Goi M, Senda Y, Ihara Y. 1975. Studies on flowering behavior in clematis: 1. Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, Montana, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and neigh-
The flowering behavior of Clematis jackii cv Comtesse de Bouchaud boring parts of Nebraska, South Dakota, and British Columbia. New
[abstract]. Kagawa Daigaku Nogakuba Gakujutsu Hokoku 26: 94–100. York: New York Botanical Garden. 1143 p.
Hartmann HT, Kester DE, Davies FT Jr. 1990. Plant propagation: principles Stribling IL. 1986. Clematis armandii propagation by seed. Plant Propagation
and practice. 5th ed. Edgewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 647 p. 32(2): 10–11.
Heit CE. 1968. Thirty-five years’ testing of tree and shrub seed. Journal of Swingle CF. 1939. Seed propagation of trees, shrubs, and forbs for conser-
Forestry 66(8): 632–634. vation planting. SCS-TP-27. Washington, DC: USDA Soil Conservation
Lloyd C. 1977. Clematis. London: Collins. 208 p. Service. 198 p.
Loiseau J. 1945. Les arbres et la forêt. Paris. 204 p. Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their ero-
Lush WM, Kaye PE, Grooves RH. 1984. Germination of Clematis microphylla sion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Publ. 303. Washington, DC: USDA.
seeds following weathering and other treatments. Australian Journal of 362 p.
Botany 32(2): 121–129. Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
Markham E. 1935. Clematis. New York: Charles Scribner. 116 p. University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
Clethra L.
sweet pepperbush, summersweet
Jason J. Griffin and Frank A. Blazich
Dr. Griffin is assistant professor at Kansas State University’s Department of Horticulture, Forestry, and
Recreation Resources, Manhattan, Kansas; Dr. Blazich is alumni: distinquished graduate professor of plant
propagation and tissue culture at North Carolina State University’s Department of Horticultural Science,
Raleigh, North Carolina
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. The genus Valued for fragrant, late summer blooms and exfoliating,
Clethra L. comprises about 30 species native to eastern cinnamon-colored bark, cinnamon-bark clethra can be useful
Asia, eastern North America, and Madeira (Huxley 1992; in the landscape as a specimen plant (Bir 1992b; Koller
LHBH 1976). Of those, cinnamon-bark clethra and sweet 1974) or as a hedge (Huxley 1992). Plants also fit nicely
pepperbush are native to eastern North America, occurring into shrub borders and are effective particularly along the
from southern Maine to Florida and west to Texas (LHBH edge of water (Dirr 1994). Adaptability to unfavorable envi-
1976). Some taxonomists consider woolly summersweet to ronments make summersweets ideal selections for adverse
be a separate species in this same range, but others consider planting sites. The species discussed herein perform well in
it to be a variety of sweet pepperbush (Huxley 1992; Kartesz both full sun and dense shade, while tolerating soil condi-
1994; Radford and others 1968). Japanese clethra, a native tions ranging from drought-prone (once established) to satu-
of Japan, is commonly cultivated in North America (Koller rated (Bir 1992b). Sweet pepperbush also has been cultivat-
1974). Specific geographic regions of occurrence differ ed successfully in coastal regions where it tolerates salt mist
among these species (table 1). (but not salt spray), which frequently damages other plants
North American species of Clethra are deciduous shrubs (Bir 1993).
or small trees with heights ranging from 3 to 10 m in their Geographic races and hybrids. Naturally occurring
natural settings (Krüssmann 1984). Species generally grow summersweets are quite variable. Although the exfoliating
as rounded, multi-stemmed plants that can be shaped easily bark of cinnamon-bark clethra is typically cinnamon-red in
into attractive small trees (Bir 1992b). color, variations of pink, chartreuse, gold, and mahogany
Table 1—Clethra, sweet pepperbush: nomenclature and occurrence of species cultivated in North America
Clethra • 419
have been observed (Bir 1992b). The majority of named Figure 1—Clethra, sweet pepperbush: fruits (capsules) of
C C. acuminata, cinnamon-bark clethra (top); C. alnifolia, sweet
selections have originated from sweet pepperbush.
Inflorescences of this species normally form erect racemes pepperbush (bottom).
(LHBH 1976). However, inflorescences occur occasionally
as branched panicles (Everett 1981), in which case the
plants are often classified as C. alnifolia var. paniculata
(Ait.) Rehd. or C. paniculata Ait. (Everett 1981; Huxley
1992; LHBH 1976). Dirr (1994) cited many cultivars in
detail. Some of the more outstanding selections include C.
alnifolia ‘Compacta’, a compact, 1.0- to 1.2-m-tall selection
with lustrous, dark green foliage; ‘Creel’s Calico’, the only
variegated selection; ‘Fern Valley Late Sweet’, a late-flower-
ing, almost columnar selection; and ‘Hummingbird’,
unquestionably the most popular selection, which grows to a
height of 0.8 to 1.0 m, with lustrous, dark green foliage that
is covered by fragrant white flowers in mid to late summer.
Of the pink-flowering forms, ‘Pink Spires’ and ‘Rosea’ are
most common (Dirr 1994). These cultivars frequently are
indistinguishable and may in fact be the same clone. ‘Ruby
Spice’ occurred as a bud sport on ‘Rosea’ and is distin-
guished by deeper pink flowers that do not fade in late sea-
son. Another pink selection, ‘Fern Valley Pink’, produces
inflorescences that can reach lengths of 20 to 25 cm for a
spectacular floral display.
Flowering and fruiting. Fragrant white flowers,
about 1 cm in diameter, are borne on upright or horizontally
Figure 2—Clethra, sweet pepperbush: seeds of C. acumi-
held terminal racemes or panicles, to 15 cm long (Huxley nata, cinnamon-bark clethra (top left); C. alnifolia, sweet
1992), arising from the axils of leaves (Everett 1981). pepperbush (top right); C. barbinervis, Japanese clethra
Flowering begins in July (with the exception of woolly sum- (bottom left); and C. tomentosa, woolly summersweet
mersweet, which flowers in August) and lasts to September (bottom right).
(Krüssmann 1984), making summersweets excellent selec-
tions for late summer color. Pollination of perfect flowers
most likely occurs by bees, which can be a nuisance if
plants are located near walks or sitting areas (Bir 1992b;
Dirr 1994; Koller 1974). Fruits are subglobose, 3-valved
capsules, ranging from 2.5 to 5.0 mm in length with a per-
sisting style and calyx (figure 1) (Huxley 1992). Upon matu-
ration, capsules split to release many seeds. Seeds are quite
small and irregularly angled, and dispersal is presumably by
wind (figures 2 and 3) (Sleumer 1967). Sweet pepperbush in
New Jersey averaged 6 to 17 seeds per capsule from 3 col-
lection sites, with total seed production per plant ranging
from 1,348 to 7,920 (Jordan and Hartman 1995).
Collection of fruits, seed extraction, cleaning, and
storage. It appears that seeds do not mature until long
after leaf abscission, November in North Carolina (Bir
1992a). Thus, collecting and sowing seeds before maturation
may result in poor or no germination. Once seeds have
matured, capsules can be collected before they open and
Clethra • 421
C Rosaceae—Rose family
Dr. Pendleton is a research plant ecologist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Albuquerque, New Mexico
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Blackbrush— individual plants lasting some 7 to 10 days. Flowering is
Coleogyne ramosissima Torr.—grows in the transition zone induced by fall and winter rains, and the timing and degree
between warm and cold deserts of southern California, of flowering varies significantly from year to year (Beatley
southern Nevada, southern Utah, northern Arizona, and 1974). Ripe achenes are reddish brown in color (figure 1).
southwestern Colorado. It is found at elevations of 760 to The fruit is an ovate glabrous achene, somewhat curved in
1,980 m. Ranging from 0.3 to 1.2 m in height, blackbrush shape, and 4 to 8 mm long (figure 2). Blackbrush is wind-
forms almost monotypic stands in the lower Mojave–Great pollinated (Pendleton and Pendleton 1998).
Basin ecotone, bounded by creosote bush (Larrea tridentata Blackbrush is mast-fruiting: the size of the seedcrop is
(Sesse & Moc.) ex DC. Coville.) communities at low eleva- related to plant resource reserves. The mast crop comprises
tions and by juniper–big sagebrush (Artemesia tridentata almost all of the seed production at low-elevation sites,
Nutt.) communities at higher elevations. In the eastern part whereas some seeds are produced in the more mesic higher-
of its range, blackbrush is bordered by Sonoran communi- elevation sites in all but the driest intermast years. Periods
ties on the south and by big sagebrush, juniper, and mixed between mast seedcrops often exceed 5 years. Late frosts
shrub communities of the Colorado Plateau in the north. can reduce or eliminate flowering and fruit production.
Distribution of blackbrush is limited by soil depth, tempera- Seed collection, cleaning, and storage. The ripe
ture extremes, and moisture availability. seeds readily separate from the floral cup. Natural seed-fall
Blackbrush occurs as a landscape dominant over much is correlated with rain showers, which dislodge the achenes
of its range and forms a major vegetational component of from the floral cup. The fruit ripens between late May and
national and state parks in Utah, Nevada, and California. the third week of July, depending upon elevation and year-
Blackbrush provides significant year-round forage for desert to-year variation. Harvesting is accomplished by beating the
bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) and is eaten by mule deer branches with a stick or board. Fruits can be collected onto a
(Odocoileus hemionus) in winter. Foliage may be grazed by tarp spread under the shrub or into a basket or hopper (Nord
domestic goats and sheep in spring, but receives minimal
use by cattle. Blackbrush provides habitat to many small
Figure 1—Coleogyne ramosissima, blackbrush: fruits with
mammals, and its seeds are eaten by both rodents and birds. and without pubescence.
Blackbrush, although a monotypic genus, occurs over a
wide geographic and elevational range. Differences in plant
size and germination characteristics suggest ecotypic vari-
ability. Use of locally adapted seed collection sites should
improve chances for successful propagation and establish-
ment.
Flowering and fruiting. Flowers are perfect,
apetalous, with yellow sepals 4.5 to 6.5 mm in length; how-
ever, rare individuals with 1 to 4 yellow petals can be found
in most populations (Welsh and others 1987). Flowering
occurs from late March through early May, each population
flowering for 2 to 3 weeks (Bowns and West 1976), with
Percent germination†
Seed age Range Mean Collections
Fresh
Stratified 5–32 17.6 10
Nonstratified 84–98 91.8 10
1 year
Stratified 0–13 6.5 10
Nonstratified 85–95 92.0 10
5 years
Nonstratified 82–96 90 6
Coleogyne • 423
Figure 3—Coleogyne ramosissima, blackbrush: germination A limited number of attempts to establish blackbrush
C and seedling development (courtesy of Dr. Emerencia Hurd, through seeding have been reported. In general, these
retired, USDA Forest Service, Boise, ID).
attempts have had poor success (Monsen 2004). Factors that
may have been responsible include low moisture levels dur-
ing the germination season, lack of sufficient seeds, seeding
at a less than optimal time, weed competition, herbivory,
and seed theft by rodents. Seed availability is a major limit-
ing factor in blackbrush reestablishment. Mast crops of
seeds occur infrequently (5- to 10-year periods) and should
be collected and stored for future use. Blackbrush seeds
maintain good viability when stored for these time periods.
Insufficient work has been done to firmly determine the
seeding rates and seedbed conditions necessary to establish
blackbrush stands from seeds, but experimental work and
reported successful seedings do offer some guidelines.
Rodent-cached seeds are found at depths of 1 to 3 cm (0.4 to
1.2 in), suggesting that conventional seeders should be set to
this planting depth. Because blackbrush does exhibit ecotyp-
ic variation, locally collected seeds should be used. Seeding
should be done in the late summer or fall. Germination and
emergence occurs as early as November (Graham 1991)
and, more typically, January to March (Bowns and West
1976; Meyer and Pendleton 2002).
Spring seedings have also been attempted. Blackbrush
was included in seed mixes used in experimental restoration
plantings at the Nevada Test Site in southern Nevada. The
seedings were conducted during March 1993. Although no
blackbrush seedlings emerged that spring, some seedlings
were observed during subsequent springs (USDoE 1994).
An experimental spring-seeding conducted in southeastern
Utah in March 1992 included stratified and unstratified
1996). Addition of mycorrhizal inoculum to the planting
seeds from 4 populations. Of the stratified seedlots, 12.5%
medium should be considered. Optimal growing temperature
emerged during spring 1992; of the unstratified seedlots,
for seedling growth is about 20 °C (Wallace and others
<1%. During spring 1993, an additional 16% of the strati-
1970; Wallace and Romney 1972). Warmer conditions result
fied and 62% of the unstratified seedlots emerged. Lots of
in slow growth and plants that enter dormancy. Greenhouse-
stratified seeds produced half as many seedlings as unstrati-
grown plants are susceptible to aphid infestation, but black-
fied seeds from March 1992 through May 1993 (Pendleton
brush is tolerant of standard control methods.
and Meyer 2002). Blackbrush will form a short-term seed-
When seeds are not available, plants can be produced
bank during drought conditions, but most, if not all, seeds
from stem cuttings. About half of the cuttings taken from
will germinate when moisture is adequate for winter germi-
current-year growth (June or September) and treated with
nation.
0.8% indole butyric acid (IBA) or commercial rooting hor-
As with all dryland and desert species, successful estab-
mone produced roots (Hughes and Weglinski 1991).
lishment from seeds depends on the availability of moisture
Outplanted container stock, whether produced from
during the germination and establishment periods. Spring
seeds or cuttings, should be protected from herbivory by tree
and early summer precipitation is not the norm for Mojave
tubes or diamond netting. Container stock has successfully
and Sonoran blackbrush communities, a fact that makes
been outplanted at Joshua Tree National Monument in
blackbrush seeding establishment in these areas difficult,
California (Holden 1994) and on a natural-gas pipeline
especially in lower-elevation sites.
right-of-way in Arches National Park in Utah.
Beatley JC. 1974. Phenological events and their environmental triggers in Pendleton BK, Meyer SE, Pendleton RL. 1995. Blackbrush biology: insights
Mojave desert ecosystems. Ecology 55: 856–863. after three years of a long-term study. In: Roundy BA, McArthur ED,
Bowns JE, West NE. 1976. Blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima Torr.) on Haley JS, Mann DK, comps. Proceedings, Wildland Shrub and Arid Land
southwestern Utah rangelands. Res. Rep. 27. Logan: Utah Agricultural Restoration Symposium. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-315. Ogden, UT: USDA
Experiment Station. Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station:
Graham T. 1991. Unpublished data. Moab, UT: USDI Geological Survey, 223–227.
Forest and Range Ecosystem Science Center. Pendleton BK, Pendleton RL. 1998. Pollination biology of Coleogyne ramo-
Holden MK. 1994. Mojave plant information. Newsletter of the Mojave sissima (Rosaceae). Southwestern Naturalist 43: 376–380.
Native Growers Association (Summer): 2–5. Pendleton RL, Warren SD. 1996. The effects of cryptobiotic soil crusts and
Hughes H, Weglinski E. 1991. Blackbrush, Coleogyne ramosissima, propaga- VA mycorrhizal inoculation on growth and nutrient content of five
tion and revegetation of disturbed sites. In: Plumb GE, ed. 15th annual rangeland plant species. In: West NE, ed. Rangelands in a Sustainable
report, University of Wyoming, National Park Service Research Center: Biosphere: Proceedings, 5th International Rangeland Congress. Denver:
67–74. Society for Range Management: 436–437.
Meyer SE, Pendleton BK. 2002. Regeneration biology of blackbrush USDoE [United States Department of Energy]. 1994. Unpublished data.
(Coleogyne ramosissima: Rosaceae): 2. Field germination and establish- Las Vegas, NV.
ment experiments [in review]. Wallace A, Romney EM. 1972. Radioecology and ecophysiology of desert
Monsen SB. 2004. Coleogyne ramosissima. In: Monsen SB, Stevens R, eds. plants at the Nevada test site. Oak Ridge,TN: US Atomic Energy
Restoring western ranges and wildlands. Gen.Tech. Rep. RM-136. Shaw Commission,Technical Information Service.
NL. Fort Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Wallace A, Romney EM, Ashcroft RT. 1970. Soil temperature effects on
Station. growth of seedlings of some shrub species which grow in the transition-
Nord EC. 1962. Bitterbrush seed harvesting: when, where, and how. al area between the Mojave and Great Basin deserts. BioScience 20:
Journal of Range Management 16: 258–260. 1158–1159.
Pendleton BK, Meyer SE. 2002. Unpublished data. Provo, UT: USDA Forest Welsh SK, Atwood ND, Goodrich S, Higgins LC, eds. 1993. A Utah flora.
Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 2nd ed. Great Basin Naturalist Memoirs 9. Provo, UT: Brigham Young
Pendleton BK, Meyer SE. 2002. Regeneration biology of blackbrush University. 986 p.
(Coleogyne ramosissima: Rosaceae): 1. Habitat-correlated variation in
seed germination responses [in review].
Coleogyne • 425
C Fabaceae—Pea family
Colutea L.
bladder-senna
Paula M. Pijut
Dr. Pijut is a research plant physiologist at the USDA Forest Service, North Central Research Station’s
Hardwood Tree Improvement and Regeneration Center,West Lafayette, Indiana
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus Krüssmann 1984). Colutea × media is a recognized as a
Colutea—the bladder-sennas—includes about 26 species of hybrid (C. arborescens × C. orientalis), with bluish green
deciduous shrubs or small trees, with a distribution ranging foliage, that originated before 1790 (Dirr 1990; Krüssmann
from the Mediterranean region and southeastern Europe to 1984).
northwest Africa and the western Himalayas (Browicz 1963, Flowering and fruiting. The papillionaceous flowers
1967; Hillier 1991; Krüssmann 1984; LHBH 1976). The 3 are about 2 cm in length, bloom from May to July (with
taxa of interest in the United States are common bladder- scattered blossoms into September), and occur in axillary,
senna (C. arborescens L.), C. orientalis Mill., and C. × long-stalked racemes (Dirr 1990; Krüssmann 1984; LHBH
media Willd. (table 1). Bladder-senna species are cultivated 1976). The pea-shaped flowers of common bladder-senna
in temperate climates primarily for ornamental purposes but are yellow, the standard petal having red markings; the flow-
may also be used for erosion control (Krüssmann 1984). In ers of C. orientalis are a reddish brown or copper color; and
Spain, the potential use of common bladder-senna as a for- those of C. media range in color from the typical yellow to
age crop has been investigated because of its ligneous nature those which blend through markings or tints of copper, pink,
and summer utility (Allue Andrade 1983a). Antifungal com- or reddish brown (Krüssmann 1984; LHBH 1976). The fruit
pounds have been isolated from root bark of common blad- is a inflated, bladder-like legume, 6 to 7.6 cm long and 2.5
der-senna (Grosvenor and Gray 1998). The bladder-sennas to 3.8 cm wide, that varies in color from lime green to tints
are very distinct shrubs, and the common name is derived of pink or bronze and is very ornamental (Dirr 1990;
from their large, inflated legumes (pods). Krüssmann 1984). Fruits mature from July to September
Common bladder-senna is a vigorous shrub of bushy (Dirr 1990) and each legume contains several small seeds
habit, with medium to fast growth. It prefers a sunny loca- (figure 1) (Rudolf 1974). The legumes of C. orientalis
tion (Dirr 1990) but is easily grown in almost any soil type dehisce at the tip.
(except waterlogged). The cultivar ‘Bullata’ is a dwarf form Collection of fruits; extraction, cleaning, and storage
with dense habit (about 1/3 to 1/2 the size of the species at of seeds. Ripe legumes can be harvested from the shrubs
maturity) whose 5 to 7 leaflets are small, rounded, and in late summer or fall and then spread in a shed (with good
somewhat bullate (Dirr 1990; Krüssmann 1984). The culti- air circulation) to dry (Rudolf 1974). The legumes are
var ‘Crisp’ is a low-growing form with leaflets that are sinu- threshed to remove the seeds and the debris is fanned out
ate (Dirr 1990; Krüssmann 1984). Colutea orientalis is a (Rudolf 1974). Bladder-sennas average 74,956 seeds/kg
rounded shrub with attractive glaucous leaflets (Hillier 1991; (34,000/lb) (Allen 1995). Dry seeds stored at 5 °C in glass
Table 1—Colutea, bladder-senna: morphological characteristics, height at maturity, and date first cultivated
References
Allen DH. 1995. Personal communication. Sandwich, MA: F.W. Schumacher Dirr MA, Heuser CW. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant propa-
Co. gation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p.
Allue Andrade JL. 1983a. Aspectos ecologicos, fenologicos y biometricos de Gonzalez-Benito ME, Caze-Filho J, Perez C. 1994. Cryopreservation of
Colutea arborescens L. [in Spanish, with English summary: Ecological, phe- seeds of several legume species. Plant Varieties and Seeds 7: 23–27.
nological, and biometric aspects of Colutea arborescens L.]. Anales del Grosvenor PW, Gray DO. 1998. Coluteol and colutequinone B, more
Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias Seria Forestal 7: 111–127. antifungal isolavonoids from Colutea arborescens. Journal of Natural
Allue Andrade JL. 1983b. Morfoligia, clases, atributos, dificultades y Products 61(1): 99–101.
tratamientos en la produccion y germinacion de las semillas de Colutea Hillier Nurseries (Winchester) Ltd. 1991. The Hillier manual of trees and
arborescens L. [in Spanish, English summary: Morphology, types, attributes, shrubs. Melksham, Wiltshire, UK: Redwood Press. 704 p.
difficulties and treatments in production and germination of seeds of Iriondo JM, Perez C, Perez-Garcia F. 1992. Effect of seed storage in liquid
Colutea arborescens L.]. Anales del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones nitrogen on germination of several crop and wild species. Seed Science
Agrarias Seria Forestal 7: 129–154 and Technology 20: 165–171.
Browicz K. 1963. The genus Colutea L.: a monograph. Monographiae Krüssmann G. 1984. Manual of cultivated broad-leaved trees and shrubs.
Botanicae 14: 1–136. Volume 1, A–D. Beaverton, OR:Timber Press. 448 p.
Browicz K. 1967. A supplement to the mongraph of the genus Colutea L. LHBH [Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium]. 1976. Hortus third: a concise dic-
Arboretum Kornickie 12: 33–43. tionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York:
Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, orna- Macmillan. 1290 p.
mental characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. Champaign, IL: Rudolf PO. 1974. Colutea arborescens L., bladder-senna. In: Schopmeyer CS,
Stipes Publishing Company. 1007 p. tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk.
450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 335.
Colutea • 427
C Cornaceae—Dogwood family
Cornus L.
dogwood
Kenneth A. Brinkman and Victor Vankus
Dr. Brinkman retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Experiment Station;
Mr. Vankus is a botanist at the USDA Forest Service’s, National Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, Georgia
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. About 40 Figure 1—Cornus, dogwood: cleaned seeds of C. alternifo-
species of dogwood—Cornus L.—are native to the temper- lia, alternate-leaf dogwood (top left); C. amomum, silky
dogwood (top center); C. sericea ssp. orientalis, California
ate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, and 1 is found in
dogwood (top right); C. drummondii, roughleaf dogwood
Peru. Most species are deciduous trees or shrubs (2 are
(middle left); C. florida, flowering dogwood (middle
herbs) useful chiefly for their ornamental qualities—flowers,
center); C. nuttallii, Pacific dogwood (middle right); and
fruit, foliage, or color of twigs. Many varieties have been
C. racemosa, gray dogwood (bottom).
developed for a number of the species for their landscape or
horticultural value. The wood of flowering dogwood, the
most commercially important species in the United States, is
hard and heavy and was used extensively by the textile
industry earlier in the 20th century for shuttle blocks. Today
the species is widely known due to its popular use as an
ornamental landscape tree. Some species produce edible
fruits (Edminster 1950; Edminster and May 1951), and the
bark of others contains a substitute for quinine. Roots and
bark of several species have long been known to have
medicinal properties that can be used to fight fevers.
Distribution data and chief uses of 17 species of present or
potential importance in the United States are listed in
table 1.
Flowering and fruiting. The small, perfect flowers—
white, greenish white, or yellow in color—are borne in
terminal clusters in the spring. In flowering and Pacific dog-
woods, the clusters are surrounded by a conspicuous
Figure 2—Cornus sericea, red-osier dogwood: longitudi-
enlarged involucre of 4 to 6 white or pinkish petal-like, nal section through an embryo of a stone (left); transverse
enlarged bracts. Fruits are globular or ovoid drupes 3 to 6 section of a stone containing 2 embryos (right top) and
mm in diameter, with a thin succulent or mealy flesh con- transverse section of a stone containing 1 embryo (right
taining a single 2-celled and a 2-seeded bony stone (figures bottom).
1 and 2). However, in many stones, only 1 seed is fully
developed, but larger stones generally have 2 developed
seeds. The fruits ripen in the late summer or fall (table 2).
Data on minimum seed-bearing age and fruiting frequency
are limited (table 3). Stones are dispersed largely by birds
and animals.
Collection of fruits. Dogwood fruits should be col-
lected when the fruit can be squeezed and the stone will pop
out. To reduce losses to birds, fruits should be collected as
soon as they are ripe by stripping or shaking them from the
branches. Short ladders may be useful for collecting fruits
from the taller species, but ordinarily this can be done from
the ground. Fruits of flowering dogwood should not be col-
lected from isolated trees because these seem to be self-ster-
ile, and a high percentage of the stones will be empty nature of seeds of this genus. Brinkman (1974) wrote that
(Mugford 1969). dogwood stones could be sown without extracting them
Extraction and storage of seeds. The stones can be from the fruit and that stones were cleaned when storage
readily extracted by macerating the fruits in water and was required and that commercial seedlots may or may not
allowing the pulp and empty stones to float away (see chap- have the dried fruit attached. Presently, however, all com-
ter 3 on seed processing) (Brinkman 1974; Mugford 1969). mercial lots of dogwood seeds now are cleaned (table 4)
Stone yields and weights are summarized in table 4. If the and some nursery managers report that if the stones are not
fruits cannot be extracted immediately after fruits are col- cleaned, the fruits may inhibit germination (Brock 1997).
lected, they should be spread out in shallow layers to pre- After the fruits are collected and cleaned, the stones may be
vent excessive heating; however, slight fermentation facili- sown immediately or stratified for spring-planting.
tates removal of the fruit pulp (Brinkman 1974; NBV 1946). Pregermination treatments. Natural germination of
Clean air-dried stones may be stored in sealed containers at most species occurs in the spring following seedfall, but
3 to 5 °C (Heit 1967; Mugford 1969; Sus 1925; Swingle some seeds do not germinate until the second spring.
1939). Stones of flowering dogwood have been successfully Germination is epigeal (figure 3). Seeds of all species show
stored at 4% moisture content at –7 °C for 7 years by the delayed germination due to dormant embryos; in most
Georgia Forestry Commission with only a 1% decrease in species, hard pericarps also are present. Where both types of
viability (Brock 1997), thus demonstrating the orthodox dormancy exist warm stratification for at least 60 days in a
Cornus • 429
C
Table 2—Cornus, dogwood: phenology of flowering and fruiting
Sources: Asakawa, (1969), Billington (1943), Brinkman (1974), Dirr (1990), Fernald (1950), Forbes (1956), Holweg (1964), Gordon and Rowe (1982), Lakela (1965),
McMinn (1951), Ohwi (1965), Rehder (1940), Rosendahl (195), Rydberg (1932), Steyermark (1963),Van Dersal (1938),Vimmerstedt (1965),Weaver (1976),Wyman (1947).
Table 3—Cornus, dogwood: height, seed-bearing age, seedcrop frequency, and fruit ripeness criteria
Height at Min seed- Years between
maturity Year first bearing age large
Species (m) cultivated (yrs) seedcrops Ripe fruit color
Sources: Dirr (1990), Fernald (1950), Gordon and Rowe (1982), McMinn (1951), Rehder (1940),Weaver (1976).
moist environment followed by a longer period at a much woods (Litvinenko 1959). In species having only embryo
lower temperature is required (table 5). A more complicated dormancy, this can be broken by low-temperature stratification.
procedure has been recommended for cornelian-cherry by Germination tests. Official testing rules for dog-
Tylkowski (1992). The warm phase of treatment is at alter- woods call for germination tests for some species, but rapid
nating temperatures (15/25 °C) on 24-hour cycles for 18 tests, such as tetrazolium (TZ) staining or excised embryos,
weeks, then a cold phase at 3 °C for 15 to 18 weeks or until are also recommended (AOSA 1993; ISTA 1993). Flowering
the first germination is observed. Immersion in concentrated and western dogwoods can be tested on the top of moist
sulfuric acid for 1 to 4 hours or mechanical scarification can blotters or creped paper for 28 days at alternating tempera-
be used in place of warm stratification for most species. tures of 30 °C (day) and 20 °C (night). Excised embryo test-
Soaking stones in gibberellic acid for 24 hours also has been ing is an alternate method for flowering dogwood, and TZ is
successful for roughleaf (Furuta 1960) and flowering dog- an alternate method for western dogwood (AOSA 1993). TZ
Cleaned stones/weight
Stones/fruit wt Range Average
Species kg/100 kg lbs/100 lb /kg /lb /kg /lb Samples
Sources: Asakawa (1969), Brinkman (1974), Edminster (1947), Forbes (1956), Gordon and Rowe (1982), Gorshenin (1941), Heit (1969), Mirov and Kraebel (1939),
Mugford (1969), NBV (1946), Stevenson (1969), Swingle (1930).
* 0.036 cubic meters (1 bu) of fruit clusters weighed 15 kg (33 lb) and yielded 2 kg (4 lb) of stones (Brinkman 1974).
Cornus • 431
and sow them in the spring (Goodwin 1948; Shumilina 1968b; Mugford 1969; NBV 1946; Stevenson 1969). Seeds
C 1949; Sus 1925). Seeds in nurserybeds should be covered sown in the fall should be mulched during the winter with
with 6 to 13 mm (1/4 to 1/2 in) of soil (Brinkman 1974; Heit 13 to 25 mm (1/2 to 1 inch) of sawdust (Heit 1968a;
Mugford 1969; Stevenson 1969).
C. alba — — — 5 90–120
C. alternifolia Sand, peat, or mix 30–20 60 5 60
C. amomum* “Moist” — — 3–5 21–28
Sand, peat, or moss — — 5 90–120
C. canadensis† — — — — 60–90
Sand, peat, or mix 25 30–60 1 120–150
C. controversa — — 60–90 — 60–90
C. drummondii‡ Sand 21–27 1 5 30
— 30–60 — 30–60
C. florida Sand — — 5 120
C. kousa Sand, peat, or vermiculite — — 1–5 40–120
C. macrophylla — — 90–150 — 90
C. mas Soil or vermiculite 20–30 120 1–13 30–120
C. nuttallii§ Peat — — 3 90
C. officinalis — 15–22 120–150 — 90
C. racemosa Sand 20–30 60 5 60, 120
C. rugosa Soil — — Outdoors Overwinter
C. sanguinea — — 60 — 60–90
C. sericea // Sand — — 2–5 60–90
Sand — — 5 60-90
Sources: Billington (1943), Brinkman (1974), Dirr and Heuser (1987), Emery (1988), Guan and others (1989), Goodwin (1948), Gordon and Rowe (1982), Heit (1967,
1968b), Jack (1969), Nichols (1934), Ohwi (1965), Pammel and King (1921), Peterson (1953), Soljanik (1961), Swingle (1939),
* Seeds were soaked for 3 hours in water at room temperature before stratification (Heit 1968b).
† Seeds were soaked for 1 hour in sulfuric acid before stratification (Dirr and Heuser 1987).
‡ Seeds were mechanically scarified before stratification (Brinkman 1974).
§ Seeds were soaked for 4 hours in sulfuric acid before stratification (Emery 1988).
// Seeds were soaked for 1 hour in sulfuric acid before stratification (Brinkman 1974).
C. alba — — — — — — —
C. alternifolia 8 60 8 50 10 2 63
C. amomum 8–24 14–28 86† 11 70 6 91
C. canadensis — 60–90 6 26 16 5 90
C. drummondii 8 50 14 34 25 3 89
C. florida 8 60 14–45 15–20 35 7 97
C. kousa — 30 — — 85 2 —
C. macrophylla — — — — — — —
C. mas — — — — 57 6 95
C. nuttallii 8–24 47 57 16 81 2 100
C. racemosa 8 60 22–30 14 20 8 83
C. rugosa 8 60+ 8 15 46 4 95
C. sericea — 60–90 35 13–18 57 18 99
Sources: Adams (1927), Asakawa (1969), Brinkman (1974), Heit (1968a&b, 1969), McKeever (1938), Nichols (1934), Peterson (1953), Soljanik (1961), Swingle (1939),Titus
(1940).
*Temperatures were 30 °C for 8 hours and 20 °C for 16 hours each day. Sand was the medium used on all listed species. Additional tests were made on wet paper in
germinators with seeds of C. amomum, C. kousa, and C. nuttallii (Brinkman 1974; Heit 1969).
†One test.
Adams J. 1927. The germination of the seeds of some plants with fleshy Jack RA. 1969. Personal communication. Silverton, OR: Silver Falls Nursery.
fruits. American Journal of Botany 14: 415–428. Lakela O. 1965. A flora of northeastern Minnesota. Minneapolis: University
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1993. Rules for testing of Minnesota Press. 541 p.
seeds. Journal of Seed Technology 16(3): 1–113. Litvinenko SN. 1959. The Ukrainian gibberellin, an effective growth stimu-
Asakawa S. 1969. Correspondence, June 17 and November 27, 1969. lant. Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR Seriya Biologiya 126: 1368–1370.
Tokyo: Japanese Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. McKeever DG. 1938. The effect of various methods of treatment on germi-
Billington C. 1943. Shrubs of Michigan. Cranbrook Institute of Science nation of seeds of some plants valuable for game and erosion purposes
Bulletin 20: 1–249. [unpublished MS thesis]. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho.132 p.
Brinkman KA. 1974. Cornus. L. dogwood. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. McMinn HE. 1951. An illustrative manual of California shrubs. Berkeley:
Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. University of Califfornia Press. 663 p.
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 503–504. Mirov NT, Kraebel CJ. 1939. Collecting and handling seeds of wild plants.
Brock S. 1997. Personal communication. Macon: Georgia Forestry For. Pub. 5. Washington, DC: USDA Civilian Conservation Corps. 42 p.
Commission. Mugford D. 1969. Personal communication. Licking, MO: Missouri
Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, orna- Conservation Department, George White Nursery.
mental characteristics, culture propagation and uses. Champaign, IL: Murphy K. 1997. Personal communication. Planis, MT: Lawyer Nursery.
Stipes Publishing Co. NBV [Nederlandsche Boschbouw Vereeniging]. 1946. Boomzaden:
Dirr MA, Heuser CW. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant propa- Handleiding inzake het oogsten, behandelen, bewaren en uitzaaien van
gation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. boomzaden. Wageningen,The Netherlands: Ponsen and Looijen. 171 p.
Edminster FC. 1947. The ruffed grouse: its life story, ecology and Nichols GE. 1934. The influence of exposure to winter temperatures upon
management. New York: Macmillan. 385 p. seed germination in various native American plants. Ecology 15:
Edminster FC. 1950. Use of shrubs in developing farm wildlife habitat. 364–373.
North American Wildlife Conference Transactions 15: 519–550. Ohwi J. 1965. Flora of Japan. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.
Edminster FC, May RM. 1951. Shrub plantings for soil conservation and 1067 p.
wildlife cover in the Northeast. Circ. 887. Washington, DC: USDA. 68 p. Pammel LH, King CM. 1921. Studies in the germination of some woody
Emery D. 1988. Seed propagation of native California plants. Santa Barbara, plants. Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Science 28: 273–282.
CA: Santa Barbara Botanic Garden. 115 p. Peterson RA. 1953. Comparative effect of seed treatments upon seedling
Fernald ML. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. 8th ed. New York: American emergence in seven browse species. Ecology 34: 778–785.
Book Co. 1632 p. Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North
Flemion F. 1948. Reliability of the excised embryo method as a rapid test America. New York: Macmillan. 996 p.
for determining the germinative capacity of dormant seeds. Rosendahl CO. 1955. Trees and shrubs of the Upper Midwest. Minneapolis:
Contributions of the Boyce Thompson Institute 15(4): 229–242. University of Minnesota Press. 411 p.
Forbes RD, ed. 1956. Forestry handbook, Sect. 9. New York: Ronald Press: Rydberg PA. 1932. Flora of the prairies and plains of Central North
28–31. America. New York: New York Botanical Garden. 969 p.
Furuta T. 1960. Alabama study evaluates production methods, polyethylene Shumilina ZK. 1949. Podgotovka posevu semyan drevesnykh i kus-
packing. Florist Exchange 135(1): 22–24, 26–27, 29–30, 32. tarnikovykh porod.Vses. Nauchnoissled. Inst. Agrolesomelior.,
Goodwin RH. 1948. How to grow dogwood from seed. Plants and Goslesbumizdat, Moskva-Leningrad [Preparation of tree and shrub seed
Gardens 4(4): 236–238. for sowing.Transl.TT 67-51300. 1967. Springfield,VA: USDC CFSTI. 36
Gordon AG, Rowe DCF. 1982. Seed manual for trees and shrubs. For. p.].
Comm. Bull. 59. London: United Kingdom Forestry Commission. 132 p. Soljanik I. 1961. Proizvodnja sadnica od nedozrelog sumskog semena [in
Gorshenin NM. 1941. Agrolesomelioratsiya [in Russian: Agro-forest Croation]. 11 p. Savez. Inz.Teh. Sum. Drvne Ind. Sad. Beograd [English
melioration]. 392 p. transl. for USDA, 1968: Producing seedlings from unripe forest seed.].
Guan KL, Fan X, Zhen G. 1989. [in Chinese: Causes of seed dormancy of Stevenson H. 1969. Personal communication. Elsberry, MO: Forrest Keeling
Cornus officinalis and conditions for germination]. Plant Physiology Nursery.
Communications 5: 24–27 [Seed Abstracts 1992; 15(12): 3972]. Steyermark JA. 1963. Flora of Missouri. Ames: Iowa State University Press.
Heit CE. 1955. The excised embryo method for testing germination quality 1728 p.
of dormant seed. Proceedings of the Association of Official Seed Sus NI. 1925. Pitomnik [in Russian:The forest nursery]. 227 p.
Analysts 45: 108–117. Swingle CF, comp. 1939. Seed propagation of trees, shrubs, and forbs for
Heit CE. 1967. Propagation from seed: 11. Storage of deciduous tree and conservation planting. SCS-TP27. Washington, DC: USDA Soil
shrub seeds. American Nurseryman 126(10): 12–13, 86–94. Conservation Service. 198 p.
Heit CE. 1968a. Propagation from seed: 15. Fall planting of shrub seeds for Titus GR. 1940. So-called 2-year seeds germinated first year. American
successful seedling production. American Nurseryman 128(4): 8–10, Nurseryman 72(11): 22.
70–80. Tylkowski T. 1992. Thermal conditions for the after-ripening and germination
Heit CE. 1968b. Thirty-five years’ testing of tree and shrub seed. Journal of of Cornelian cherry (Cornus mas L.) seeds. Arboretum Kornickie 36:
Forestry 66: 632–634. 165–172.
Heit CE. 1969. Correspondence, Feb. 14. Geneva, NY: Cornell University, Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their ero-
New York State Agricultural Experiment Station Department of Seed sion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC: USDA.
Investigations. 362 p.
Holweg AW. 1964. Some shrubs and vines for wildlife food and cover. New Vimmerstedt JP. 1965. Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida L.). In: Silvics of
York Conservation 19(2): 22–27. forest trees of the United States. Agric. Handbk. 271. Washington, DC:
ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds: USDA Forest Service: 162–166.
rules 1993. Seed Science and Technology 21 (Suppl.): 1–259. Weaver RE. 1976. The cornelian cherries. Arnoldia 36(2): 50–56.
Wyman D. 1947. Seed collecting dates of woody plants. Arnoldia 7(9):
53–56.
Cornus • 433
C Betulaceae—Birch family
Corylus L.
hazel
Jill Barbour and Kenneth A. Brinkman
Ms. Barbour is a germination specialist at USDA Forest Service’s National Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch,
Georgia; Dr. Brinkman retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Forest Experiment Station
Other common names. Filbert, hazelnut. “nuts”, each containing one embryo that is enclosed in a
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The hazels— pericarp, or shell. These nuts are enclosed in an involucre
Corylus L.—include about 15 species of large, deciduous (or husk) which consists of 2 more-or-less united hairy
shrubs (rarely small trees) that occur in the temperate parts bracts (figures 1 and 2). The seeds are naturally dispersed by
of North America, Europe, and Asia. Some species are animals or birds. Large seedcrops are produced at irregular
grown for their nuts or for ornament, and most species pro- intervals, usually every 2 or 3 years (NBV 1946; Vines
vide food for wildlife. In this country, 4 species have present 1960).
or potential value for wildlife, shelterbelt, or environmental Collection of fruits. Hazelnuts may be eaten by
plantings (table 1). For many years, European hazel has rodents, larger animals, or some birds even before they are
been cultivated for the commercial production of its edible fully mature. To reduce such losses, fruits should be picked
nutmeats, known as hazelnuts or filberts, mostly in Europe as soon as the edges of the husks begin to turn brown, which
but to some extent in the United States, especially in the may be as early as mid-August.
Willamette Valley of Oregon. Years of first cultivation for Extraction and storage of seeds. The fruits should be
other species are as follows: American hazel (1798), beaked spread out in thin layers on wire-mesh screens to dry in a
hazel (1745), and California hazel (1910). room with high humidity for about 1 month. A macerator
Flowering and fruiting. Male and female flowers are can be used to separate the nut from the husk. The machine
borne separately on 1-year-old lateral twigs of the same is operated without water, and the nuts and husks pour out
plant. They are formed late in the summer and open the fol- of the spout (Horvath 1999). An aspirator or screen cleaning
lowing spring before the leaves appear (table 2). The male machine is then needed to separate the husk debris from the
flowers are borne in clusters of 2 to 5 pendulous catkins, nut. Alternatively, a brush machine can be used to dehisce
consisting only of stamens. The female flower is budlike, the nut in a square-wire cylinder and a vacuum to suck out
each flower has a single ovary with 2 styles that are striking- the dust, with the seeds flowing out the opening in the door
ly red at pollination (Hora 1981). By late summer or early (Maloney 1999). Yields and number of seeds per weight
fall, the fertilized female flowers develop into fruits. These vary even within the species (table 3).
are round or egg-shaped, brown or dark-tan, hard-shelled
Sources: Fernald (1950), Loiseau (1945), Munz and Keck (1959), NBV (1946), Rosendahl (1955), Sus (1925),Van Dersal (1938),Vines (1960),Wappes (1932), Zarger
Figure 1—Corylus cornuta var. californica, California hazel: Figure 2—Corylus cornuta var. californica, California hazel:
mature fruit including husk. longitudinal section through a fruit.
Because some dormancy is apparently induced by dry- unsealed containers at room temperature. Most of the viabil-
ing the nuts, seeds of hazel species were once thought to be ity of American hazelnut and some of beaked hazelnuts
recalcitrant and intolerant of any drying (Hong and Ellis (Brinkman 1974) will be retained if seeds are stored in
1996). Recommendations usually were to keep the hazelnuts sealed containers at 5 °C. There are no long-term storage
moist after collection and store them moist over winter data for hazelnuts.
(stratification) before planting in the spring (Heit 1967; Pregermination treatments. Newly harvested hazel-
NBV 1946). Seeds of hazel species are now considered as nuts are not dormant, but inhibitors present in the testa and
orthodox in storage behavior, even though moist storage will pericarp are carried to the cotyledons and subsequently
prevent deep embryo dormancy for at least several months. through the cotyledonary petioles into the embryonic axis
Seeds of this genus will also remain viable for a year in (Bradbeer 1978; Jarvis 1975). Numerous studies have been
Corylus • 435
carried out on the nature of dormancy in European hazel, Germination tests. Germination is hypogeal (figure
C with most of them concerning the balance of gibberellins 3). The seeds have a dormant embryo and germinate slowly
and inhibitors and starch synthesis (Arias and others 1976; without pretreatment. In one experiment, unstratified seeds
Bradbeer and Pinnfield 1966; Jarvis 1975; Jarvis and Wilson of American hazel germinated throughout a year (Brinkman
1978; Jeavons and Jarvis 1984; Li and Ross 1990). 1974). Giberillic acid (10-4 M) applied to European hazel
Stratification remains the method used to overcome dorman- seeds increased the germination from 64% for the control to
cy, however. Hazel seeds require 2 to 6 months of 86% at 20 °C (Arias and others 1976). Seedlots of this
prechilling before germination will occur (Heit 1968a&b). species soaked in ethanol and then 0.1% (w/v) mercuric
Three months of cold stratification has proven effective chloride, when put in a lighted chamber germinated 70%
(Dirr and Heuser 1987). Stratification removes the block to compared to seedlots germinated in total darkness, which
gibberellin biosynthesis which begins when the seed is germinated at only 9% (Jeavons and Jarvis 1996). Results of
transferred to higher temperatures (Bradbeer and others limited tests are listed in table 4.
1978). In nurseries this can be accomplished by fall-sowing Viability testing by staining the seeds with tetrazolium
or by stratifying outdoors over winter before planting. Seeds chloride (TZ) is the preferred method of ascertaining the
may benefit from alternations of warm and cold stratifica- seed’s quality (ISTA 1993). Seeds should be cracked and
tion. Freshly harvested seeds of European hazel that were soaked in water for 18 hours. After 1 to 2 mm of the cotyle-
warm stratified for 3 weeks followed by 3 weeks at 4 °C dons is cut off at the distal ends and the seeds are split lon-
germinated best (Dirr and Heuser 1987). gitudinally, the embryos should be incubated for 12 to 15
hours in 1% TZ, or 18 to 24 hours in a 0.5% solution. Some
unstained tissue is allowed in viable seeds, but interpretation
is difficult. Standard germination tests can also be per-
Figure 3—Corylus cornuta var. californica, California hazel: formed once the pericarp is removed and the seeds are
seedling development 30 days after germination. prechilled for 2 months at 3 to 5 °C (ISTA 1993).
Nursery practice. Although spring-sowing of strati-
fied seeds is feasible, most nurseries plant hazel seeds in the
fall (Sus 1925). In Holland, seeds of European hazel are
mixed with moist sand for several months before sowing in
the fall (NBV 1946). In Tennessee, good results with this
species were obtained by storing fresh seed dry at 3 °C until
planting in October; average tree percent was 98 based on
80% viability (Zarger 1968). Two seedlots of American
hazel planted in November and December gave tree percents
of 63 and 48, based on 70 and 60% viability. Seeds of both
species were sown 2.5 cm (1 in) deep in drills and covered
with 2.5 to 3.75 cm (1 to 1.5 in) of sawdust. In this report,
the seedbeds had been fumigated with methyl bromide;
other fumigants are now recommended. If seedling densities
are kept low, from 43 to 65/m2 (4 to 6/ft2), hazel can be out-
planted when 1 year old. European hazel and horticultural
varieties are frequently propagated by cuttings, grafting, and
tissue culture (Dirr and Heuser 1987).
Hazels are attacked by several fungi. The powdery
mildew of hardwoods—Phyllactinia guttata (Wallr.:Fr.) Lév.
(synonym Phyllactinia corylea (Pers.) P. Karst.)—will defo-
liate the plant. More serious attacks by the fungal parasite
Nematospora coryli Peglion cause malformation of the nuts
(Hora 1981). Hazelnuts are also attacked by the brown rot of
pome and stone fruits—Monilinia fructigena Honey in
Whetzel (synonym Sclerotinia fructigena Aderhold. ex
Sacc.)—which enters through punctures caused by
Balaninus nuceum, the nut weevil (Hora 1981).
C. americana Sand 30 20 60 10 30 13 2 96
C. avellana Sand or 30 20 60 — — 69 13 95
germinator
C. cornuta Sand 30 20 60 1 26 1 1 99
var. californica Sand 30 20 90 — — 20 1 62
Sources: Brinkman (1974), NBV (1946), Rafn (1928), Shumilina (1949).
References
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Bradbeer JW, Pinfield NJ. 1966. Studies in seed dormancy: 3.The effects of of Corylus avellana. Annals of Botany 66: 507–512.
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Forestry 66: 632–634. Sus NI. 1925. Pitomnik [in Russian:The forest nursery]. 27 p.
Hong TD, Ellis RH. 1996. A protocol to determine seed storage behavior. Swingle CF, comp. 1939. Seed propagation of trees, shrubs, and forbs for
Tech. Bull. 1. Rome: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute. 62 p. conservation planting.TP-27. Washington, DC: USDA Soil Conservation
Hora B. 1981. The Oxford encyclopedia of trees of the world. Oxford, UK: Service. 198 p.
Oxford University Press. 288 p. Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their
Horvath D. 1999. Personal communication.Topeka, IL: Mason State erosion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC:
Nursery. USDA. 362 p.
ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. International rules for Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
seed testing. Seed Science and Technology 21 (suppl.): 1–288. University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
Jarvis BC. 1975. The role of seed parts in the induction of dormancy of Wappes L. 1932. Wald und Holz ein Nachschlagebuch für die Praxis der
hazel (Corylus avellana L.). New Phytologist 75: 491–494. Forstwirte, Holzhändler und Holzindustriellen.Volume 1. Berlin: J.
Jarvis BC, Wilson DA. 1978. Factors influencing growth of embryonic axes Neumann. 872 p.
from dormant seeds of hazel (Corylus avellana L.). Planta 138: 189–191. Zarger TG. 1968. Personal communication.Tennessee Valley Authority,
Division of Forests & Development.
Corylus • 437
C Anacardiaceae—Sumac family
Cotinus P. Mill.
smoketree or smokebush
Paula M. Pijut
Dr. Pijut is a research plant physiologist at the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Research Station,
Hardwood Tree Improvement and Regeneration Center,West Lafayette, Indiana
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus var accumulates anthocyanin pigments in response to ultra-
Cotinus P. Mill—smoketree— includes 3 or 4 species of violet light of wavelengths between 300 and 400 nm and
deciduous, polygamous or dioecious, small trees or shrubs, low temperatures (Oren-Shamir and Levi-Nissim 1997).
widely distributed through central and southern Europe to American smoketree is a large, upright shrub or small,
the Himalayas, southwest China, and the southeastern round-headed tree with bluish to dark green leaves that turn
United States (Hillier 1991; Krüssmann 1984). The smoke- a brilliant yellow, orange, red, and reddish purple color in
trees are cultivated primarily for ornamental purposes. The the fall (Dirr 1990). The bark of the American smoketree is
durable wood of American smoketree has been used for a beautiful gray to gray-brown, and scaly mature trunks (that
fence posts (Koller and Shadow 1991; LHBH 1976) and it is, with a fishlike scale effect), providing pattern and detail
also yields a yellow dye that was widely used during the in the winter landscape (Dirr 1990; Koller and Shadow
Civil War (Vines 1960). Common smoketree is used in 1991). For a review of Cotinus and discussion of selected
Bulgarian medicine for its anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, cultivars, see Tripp (1994).
and wound-healing properties (Tsankova and others 1993). Flowering and fruiting. The small, usually infertile,
The 2 species of interest are described in table 1. yellowish flowers, which bloom in June to July (April to
Common smoketree is an upright, spreading, multi- May for American smoketree), are borne in large, terminal
stemmed shrub that is grown because of its many ornamen- panicles (Krüssmann 1984). The pedicels and peduncles
tal landscape qualities and its adaptability to widely diver- lengthen after flowering and are clad with fine hairs, creat-
gent soils and pH ranges (Dirr 1990). Several cultivars pro- ing the smokelike effect that gives the plant its common
duce a long period of midsummer floral and fruit ornamen- name (LHBH 1976). The plumelike inflorescences often
tation, showy plumose inflorescences, and vivid autumn persist through September (Dirr 1990). The fruit (figures 1
foliage color (Dirr 1990; Hillier 1991; Koller and Shadow and 2) is a dry, reticulate drupe about 3 to 6 mm in length,
1991; Krüssmann 1984). Of special note are ‘Nordine Red’, light red-brown in color (ripening to near black), containing
the hardiest of the purple-leaf smokebushes, and ‘Royal a thick, bony stone (Rudolf 1974). Seedcrops are produced
Purple’, a cultivar with rich maroon-red foliage and purplish annually but are often poor. The kidney-shaped drupe ripens
red inflorescences (Dirr 1990). The foliage of this last culti- in the fall, which is usually August to October for common
Table 1—Cotinus, smoketree: nomenclature, occurrence, growth habit, height at maturity, and date first cultivated
C. coggygria Scop. common smoketree, Central & S Europe, Shrub 2.5–4.6 1656
C. americanus Nutt. smokebush, European Himalayas & to SW China
C. cotinoides (Nutt. smoketree,Venetian sumac
ex Chapm.) Britt.
C. obovatus Raf. American smoketree, Tennessee, S to Alabama Tree 6.1–9.1 1882
yellowwood & Missouri,W to Texas
Cotinus • 439
C Table 2—Cotinus, smoketree: seed pregermination treatments
Sources: Dirr and Heuser (1987), Gonderman and O’Rourke (1961), Heit (1968) cited by Rudolf (1974), Stilinovic and Grbic (1988).
Table 3—Cotinus, smoketree: germination test conditions and results with pretreated seed
C. coggygria Germinator 20 20 30 — — 80 2 70
Sphagnum 21 21 21 — — 93 2 —
C. obovatus Kimpak in 30* 20 46 37 11 39 3 60†
germinator
Foret 1977; Macdonald 1986; Siftar 1981). Rooted cuttings carbon dioxide levels, and gibberellic acid treatments.
must be overwintered without disturbance and transplanted Howard (1996) reported that rooting of ‘Royal Purple” cut-
in the spring. Spellerberg (1985, 1986) reported improved tings was confined to the period of active shoot growth (late
shoot growth and higher rooting percentages of common May to early August), and a small benefit was noted with
smoke tree cv. ‘Royal Purple’ cuttings when they were taken severe stock plant pruning. Common smoketree can also be
in April from mother plants forced under glass than cuttings successfully propagated by French or continuous layering
taken in June from outdoor-grown plants. After rooting, (Macdonald 1986).
shoot growth was promoted by longer photoperiods, higher
References
Allen DH. 1994. Personal communication. Sandwich, MA: FW Schumacher Gonderman RL, O’Rourke FLS. 1961. Factors affecting the germination of
Co., Inc. Koelreuteria seed. Combined Proceedings of the International Plant
Blakesley D, Weston GD, Elliott MC. 1991. Endogenous levels of indole-3- Propagators Society 11: 98–109.
acetic acid and abscisic acid during the rooting of Cotinus coggygria cut- Hartmann HT, Kester DE, Davies FT. 1990. Plant propagation: principles and
tings taken at different times of the year. Plant Growth Regulation 10(1): practices. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 647 p.
1–12. Heit CE. 1967. Propagation from seed: 11. Storage of deciduous tree and
Blakesley D, Weston GD, Elliot MC. 1992. Increased rooting and survival of shrub seeds. American Nurseryman 126 (10): 12–13, 86–94.
Cotinus coggygria cuttings from etiolated stock plants. Journal of Hillier Nurseries (Winchester) Ltd. 1991. The Hillier manual of trees and
Horticultural Science 67(1): 33–37. shrubs. Melksham, Wiltshire, UK: Redwood Press. 704 p.
Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, orna- Howard BH. 1996. Relationships between shoot growth and rooting of
mental characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. Champaign, IL: cuttings in three contrasting species of ornamental shrub. Journal of
Stipes Publishing Company. 1007 p. Horticultural Science 71(4): 591–605.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant Kelley JD, Foret JE. 1977. Effect of timing and wood maturity on rooting of
propagation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA.:Varsity Press. cuttings of Cotinus coggygria ‘Royal Purple’. Combined Proceedings of the
239 p. International Plant Propagators Society 27: 445–449.
Enescv V. 1991. The tetrazolium test of viability. In: Gordon, AG, Gosling P, Koller GL, Shadow DO. 1991. In praise of the American smoke tree.
Wang BSP, eds.Tree and shrub seed handbook. Zurich: International Seed Arnoldia 51(4): 55–58.
Testing Association: 9, 1–19. Krüssmann G. 1984. Manual of cultivated broad-leaved trees and shrubs.
Volume A–D. Beaverton, OR:Timber Press. 448 p.
Cotinus • 441
C Rosaceae—Rose family
Cotoneaster Medik.
cotoneaster
Paul E. Slabaugh and Nancy L. Shaw
Dr. Slabaugh (deceased) retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station; Dr. Shaw is a research botanist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research
Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Boise, Idaho
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus others 2004; Slabaugh 1974). They require little mainte-
Cotoneaster includes about 50 species of shrubs and small nance and provide ground cover, soil stabilization, snow
trees native to the temperate regions of Europe, northern entrapment, and aesthetic values. Peking cotoneaster pro-
Africa, and Asia (excepting Japan) (Cumming 1960). vides food and cover for wildlife (Johnson and Anderson
Growth habits range from nearly prostrate to upright. Cold- 1980; Kufeld and others 1973; Leach 1956; Miller and oth-
hardy types are more or less deciduous, whereas those ers 1948). Six species used in conservation plantings are
native to warmer regions are evergreen (Heriteau 1990). described in table 1 (Hoag 1965; Nonnecke 1954; Plummer
Cotoneasters are valued as ornamentals for their glossy and others 1977; Rheder 1940; USDA SCS 1988; Zucker
green foliage, attractive fruits, and interesting growth habits. 1966). Use of cotoneasters in some areas may be limited due
Fall foliage color is often a showy blend of orange and red. to their susceptibility to fire blight (infection with the bac-
Cotoneasters are adapted to sunny locations with moderate- terium Erwinia amylovora), borers (Chrysobothris femorata
ly deep and moderately well-drained silty to sandy soils. (Olivier)), lace bugs (Corythucha cydonia (Fitch)), and red
Several hardy species are commonly used in mass plantings, spiders (Oligonychus platani (McGregor)(Griffiths 1994;
hedges, shelterbelts, wildlife plantings, windbreaks, recre- Krüssmann 1986; Wyman 1986).
ational areas, and along transportation corridors on the Cotoneasters are apomictic and will, therefore, propa-
northern Great Plains, the southern portions of adjoining gate true from seed (Wyman 1986). However, because of the
Canadian provinces, and occasionally in the Intermountain apomictic habit, many variants occur within each species
region and other areas (Plummer and others 1968; Shaw and (Everett 1982). This variability has been exploited in cultivar
C. acutifolius Turcz. Peking cotoneaster North China; introduced from North Dakota
C. acutifolia Turcz. to Nebraska & upper mid-West, S Canadian
C. pekinensis Zab. prairie provinces
C. apiculatus Rehd. & Wilson cranberry cotoneaster W China; introduced from North Dakota to
C. apiculata Rehd. & Wilson Nebraska & upper mid-West
C. horizontalis Dcne. rock cotoneaster, rockspray W China; introduced from North Dakota to
C. davidiana Hort. cotoneaster, quinceberry Nebraska & upper mid-West, S central Washington
C. integerrimus Medic. European cotoneaster Europe,W Asia, Siberia
C. vulgaris Lindl.
C. lucidus Schltdl. hedge cotoneaster Altai Mtns & Lake Baikal region of Asia
C. acutifolia Lindl., not Turcz.
C. sinensis Hort.
C. niger (Thunb.) Fries black cotoneaster, Europe to NE & central Asia, introduced from
C. melanocarpus Lodd. darkseed cotoneaster North Dakota to Nebraska
Source: Krüssmann (1986), LHBH (1976), Slabaugh (1974).
Cotoneaster • 443
C Table 2—Cotoneaster, cotoneaster: phenology of flowering and fruiting
Species Location Flowering Fruit ripening Seed dispersal
Table 3—Cotoneaster, cotoneaster: height, year first cultivated, and color of flowers and ripe fruit
Height at Year first
Species maturity (m) cultivated Flower color Color of ripe fruit
Sources: Griffiths (1994), Hoag (1958, 1965), LHBH (1976), Leslie (1954), Krüssmann (1986), Rehder (1940), Rosendahl (1955), USDA SCS (1988).
Cleaned seeds/weight
Range Average
Species /kg /lb /kg /lb
Sources: Cumming (1960), McDermand (1969), Plummer and others (1968), Slabaugh (1974), Uhlinger (1968, 1970), USDA SCS (1988).
Sources: Dirr and Heuser (1987), Fordham (1962), Leslie (1954), McDermand (1969), Slabaugh (1974), Smith (1951), Uhlinger (1968, 1970), USDA SCS (1988).
* Wet prechilling was preceded by 90 days of warm incubation at 21 °C.
Cotoneaster • 445
(Shaw and others 2004). Germination is erratic and above the root collar (USDA SCS 1988). Seedlings should
C
seedlings grow slowly, particularly if the site is not kept be planted in fallowed ground at 1.2- to 1.5-m (4- to 5-ft)
weed-free. spacings immediately after the soil thaws in spring. At least
Bareroot plantings of European cotoneaster Centennial 5 years of weed control are often required. Average survival
may be established using 1+0 or 2+0 bareroot seedlings ranges from 70 to 95% (USDA SCS 1988). Fruit-producing
with stem diameters of 0.5 to 1.3 cm (1/5 to 1/3 in) just stands are obtained in 3 to 4 years.
References
Cullum FG, Gordon AG. 1994. Dormancy release of tree and shrub seeds McDermand J. 1969. Personal communication. Bismarck, ND: USDA Soil
using a compost activator pretreatment. Combined Proceedings of the Conservation Service, Bismarck Plant Materials Center.
International Plant Propagators’ Society 43: 125–130. Macdonald B. 1993. Practical woody plant propagation for nursery
Cumming WA. 1960. Germination studies with Cotoneaster lucida being growers.Volume 1. Portland, OR:Timber Press. 669 p.
conducted at the Canada Experimental Farm, Morden, Manitoba. Meyer MM Jr. 1988. Rest and postdormancy of seeds of Cotoneaster
Western Canadian Society of Horticulture Report Proceedings 16: species. HortScience 23: 1046–1047.
43–44. Miller HW, Ball CC, Knott NP. 1948. The comparative value of woody
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant plants as food for upland game birds. Biol. Bull. 8. Olympia: Washington
propagation. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. State Game Department and USDA Soil Conservation Service. 39 p.
Everett TH, ed. 1982. The New York Botanical Garden illustrated encyclo- Nonnecke IL. 1954. A study of climatological influence on plant growth in
pedia of horticulture.Volume 10. New York: Garland Publishing: 893–897. the Lethbridge area. Western Canadian Horticultural Society Report
Fordham AJ. 1962. Methods of treating seeds at the Arnold Arboretum. Proceedings 10:109–113.
Plant Propagators’ Society Proceedings 1962: 157–163. Plummer AP, Christensen DR, Monsen SB. 1968. Restoring big-game range
Griffiths M. 1994. Index of garden plants. Portland, OR:Timber Press. in Utah. Pub. 68-3. Salt Lake City: Utah Division of Fish and Game. 183 p.
1234 p. Plummer AP, Monsen SB, Stevens R. 1977. Intermountain range plant
Heriteau J. 1990. The National Arboretum book of outstanding garden names and symbols. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-38. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest
plants. New York: Simon and Schuster. 292 p. Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 82 p.
Hinds LW. 1969. Personal communication. Bismarck, ND: Lincoln-Oakes Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. 2nd ed. New York:
Nurseries. Macmillan. 996 p.
Hoag DG. 1958. Hardy cotoneasters for North Dakota. Bulletin of the Rosendahl CO. 1955. Trees and shrubs of the upper Midwest. Minneapolis:
North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station 20: 30–33. University of Minnesota Press. 411 p.
Hoag DG. 1965. Trees and shrubs for the northern plains. Minneapolis: Shaw NL, Monsen SB, Stevens R. 2004. Rosaceous shrubs. In: Monsen SB,
Lund Press. 376 p. Stevens R, Shaw NL, eds. Restoring western ranges and wildlands. Gen.
Huxley A, ed. 1994. The new Royal Horticultural Society dictionary of gar- Tech. Rep. RM–136. Provo, UT: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain
dening. London: Macmillan. 1298 p. Research Station.
ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds: Slabaugh PE. 1974. Cotoneaster B. Ehrh., cotoneaster. In: Shopmeyer CS,
rules 1993. Seed Science and Technology 21 (Suppl.): 1–259. tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk.
Johnson TK, Anderson ES. 1980. Conservation planting handbook for 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 349–352.
Wyoming and Colorado. Laramie: University of Wyoming, Agriculture Smith BC. 1951. An investigation of the rest period in the seed of the
Extension Service. 123 p. genus Cotoneaster. American Society of Horticulture Science
Jorgensen K. 1996. Personal communication. Ephraim, UT: Utah Division of Proceedings 57: 396–400.
Wildlife Resources. Uhlinger RD. 1968 & 1970. Personal communication. North Platte:
Krüssman G. 1986. Manual of cultivated broad-leaved trees & shrubs. University of Nebraska, North Platte Experiment Station.
Volume 3, PRU–Z. Portland, OR:Timber Press. 510 p. USDA SCS [USDA Soil Conservation Service]. 1988. ‘Centennial’
Kufeld RC, Wallmo OC, Feddema C. 1973. Foods of the Rocky Mountain cotoneaster. Prog. Aid 1406. [Bismarck, ND]: USDA Soil Conservation
mule deer. Res. Pap. RM-111. Fort Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Service, Bismarck Plant Materials Center. 6 p.
Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 31 p. Wyman D. 1949. Shrubs and vines for American gardens. New York:
Leach HR. 1956. Food habits of the Great Basin deer herds in California. Macmillan. 442 p.
California Fish and Game 42: 243–308. Wyman D. 1986. Wyman’s gardening encyclopedia. New York: Macmillan.
Leslie WR. 1954. Propagation of cotoneaster. Western Canadian Society of 1221 p.
Horticulture Report Proceedings 10: 88. Zucker I. 1966. Flowering shrubs. Princeton, NJ:Van Nostrand. 380 p.
LHBH [Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium]. 1976. Hortus third. New York:
Macmillan. 1290 p.
Crataegus L.
hawthorn, haw, thorn, thorn-apple
F. Todd Lasseigne and Frank A. Blazich
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. The genus Crataegus belongs to the subfamily Maloideae in the
Crataegus L. is a complex group of trees and shrubs native Rosaceae, a natural group of complex genera with the ability
to northern temperate zones (Mabberley 1997), mostly to interbreed freely (or hybridize), as they all possess the
between latitudes 30° and 50°N (Phipps 1983). Although basal chromosome number of 17 (Phipps and others 1991;
most species can attain tree-sized proportions, hawthorns in Robertson 1974; Robertson and others 1991). Authors have
general do not form large trees or exist as canopy dominants long regarded hybridization and apomixis as potential
in forests (Little 1980a&b). Some species are decidedly explanatory factors for the speciation phenomenon existing
shrubby, whereas others can grow to heights of 12 m (table in hawthorns (Phipps 1988; Radford and others 1968; Vines
1). There are about 250 currently recognized species, with 1960). Robertson (1974) related empirically derived data
most native to the New World (about 200 species), and the that implicated apomixis and hybridization as causes of the
remainder (about 50 species) native to the Old World variation found within the genus. Specifically, he cited (1)
(Christensen 1992; Phipps and others 1990). Species native widespread occurrence of pollen sterility; (2) cytological
to the United States, as well as those that have been intro- proof of triploidy or polyploidy in > 75% of plants
duced and naturalized and some of those grown horticultur- observed; (3) similarity between offspring produced from
ally, are included herein (table 1). triploid or pollen-sterile plants and parental plants; and (4)
Historically, the taxonomy of the hawthorn genus has the ability of flowers that have stigmas removed at anthesis
been rife with disagreement and confusion. The circumscrip- to set fruit.
tions of species have varied widely, and authors of various Many authors allude to the existence of putative hybrids
floristic treatments have misidentified species that occur in in New World hawthorns (Elias 1987; Harlow and others
regions treated in their works (Phipps 1998c). The genus has 1996; Jacobson 1996; Kartesz 1994a&b; Knees and
vexed so many authors that early experts on the group Warwick 1995; LHBH 1976; Little 1980a&b; Phipps 1984;
termed the situation “the Crataegus problem” (Eggleston Vines 1960). However, despite widespread documentation of
1910; Palmer 1932). Nearly 1,500 “species” were described hybrid species complexes existing in Eurasia (Christensen
in North America alone, mostly by W. W. Ashe, C. D. 1992), few scientifically verified examples of hybrid species
Beadle, and C. S. Sargent, from the 1890s through the 1910s in North American hawthorns are known (Phipps 1998a).
(Christensen 1992; Phipps 1988; Phipps and others 1990; Several recent studies now demonstrate unequivocal proof
Robertson 1974). Palmer later reduced the number of that both apomixis and polyploidy are implicated in the
species of hawthorns, such that only 20 to 100 were recog- complex variation seen in this genus in North America
nized, a range followed by subsequent authors (Phipps (Dickinson 1985; Muniyamma and Phipps 1979a&b, 1984,
1988). Recently, taxonomists have taken a middle approach, 1985; Phipps 1984). Apomixis and hybridization are also
recognizing 100 to 200 species in North America (Kartesz known in other Rosaceous genera, including Alchemilla L.
1994a&b; Phipps and others 1990), a larger number than (lady’s-mantle), Cotoneaster Medik. (cotoneaster), Potentilla
that accepted in treatments of 20 to 30 years ago. Two pri- L. (cinquefoil), and Rubus L. (blackberries and raspberries)
mary references—Kartesz (1994a) and Phipps and others (Mabberley 1997).
(1990)—offer the most complete survey of North American Around the world, hawthorns are used for a wide range
hawthorns (excluding Mexico). of purposes. Many hawthorn species are grown for their
Crataegus • 447
Table 1—Crataegus, hawthorn: nomenclature, occurrence, and heights at maturity
C
Height at
Scientific name & synonym(s) Common name(s) Occurrence maturity
(m)
C. aestivalis (Walt.) Torr. & Gray eastern mayhaw, shining, N Florida & SE Alabama, 3–12
C. cerasoides Sarg. may, or apple hawthorn N to E North Carolina
C. luculenta Sarg.; C. maloides Sarg.
C. x anomala Sarg. (pro sp.) Arnold hawthorn, Quebec & New England, 5–10
C. arnoldiana Sarg. anomalous hawthorn S to New York
C. berberifolia Torr. & Gray barberry hawthorn, Virginia to Kansas, S to 5–11
bigtree hawthorn Georgia & Texas
C. brachyacantha Sarg. & blueberry hawthorn, Arkansas to Oklahoma, S to 6–15
Engelm. blue haw, pomette bleu Mississippi & Texas; Georgia also
C. brainerdii Sarg. Brainerd hawthorn Quebec to Michigan, S to New 2–7
England, North Carolina & Ohio
C. calpodendron (Ehrh.) Medik. pear hawthorn, sugar or Ontario to Minnesota & Kansas, 4–6
C. calpodendron var. hispidula black hawthorn S to Georgia & Texas
(Sarg.) Palmer
C. fontanesiana (Spach) Steud.
C. hispidula Sarg.; C. tomentosa L.
C. chrysocarpa Ashe var. chrysocarpa fireberry hawthorn, Newfoundland to British Columbia, 5–10
C. brunetiana Sarg. roundleaf or golden-fruit S to North Carolina & New Mexico
C. doddsii Ramalay; C. faxonii Sarg. hawthorn
C. praecoqua Sarg.; C. praecox Sarg.
C. rotundifolia Moench; C. sheridana A. Nelson
C. coccinoides Ashe Kansas hawthorn, Indiana to Kansas, S to 4–7
Eggert thorn Arkansas & Oklahoma
C. crus-galli L. cockspur hawthorn, Quebec to Michigan & 5–10
C. acutifolia Sarg.; C. bushii Sarg. Newcastle thorn, Kansas, S to Florida & Texas
C. canbyi Sarg.; C. cherokeensis Sarg. hog-apple
C. mohrii Beadle; C.operata Ashe; C.palmeri Sarg.
C. regalis Beadle; C. sabineana Ashe
C. salicifolia Medik. C. signata Beadle
C. subpilosa Sarg.; C. vallicola Sarg.
C. warneri Sarg.
C. dilatata Sarg. broadleaf hawthorn, Quebec to Michigan, S to 4–8
C. conspecta Sarg. apple-leaf hawthorn New York, Kentucky, & Missouri
C. locuples Sarg.
C. douglasii Lindl. black hawthorn, Douglas Alaska to S California, 7–12
C. columbiana Howell or western black hawthorn, Ontario to Dakotas, S to
black thornberry Michigan & Nevada
C. erythropoda Ashe cerro, chocolate hawthorn Wyoming to Washington, 2–6
C. cerronis A. Nelson S to New Mexico & Arizona
C. flabellata (Spach) Kirchn. fanleaf hawthorn Maine to Quebec to Michigan, 4–6
C. densiflora Sarg.; C. grayana Egglest. S to Florida & Louisiana
C. flava Ait. yellow hawthorn Maryland & West Virginia, 5–8
summer haw S to Florida & Mississippi
C. cullasagensis Ashe
C. greggiana Egglest. Gregg hawthorn Texas & NE Mexico 3–6
C. harbisonii Beadle Harbison hawthorn Tennessee, S to Georgia & Alabama 3–8
C. intricata Lange thicket hawthorn, entangled New England to Michigan to 1–7
or Allegheny hawthorn Missouri, S to Florida & Alabama
C. lacrimata Small Pensacola hawthorn, Florida 3–6
weeping or sandhill hawthorn
C. laevigata (Poir.) DC. English hawthorn, English Central & W Europe 2–4
C. oxyacantha L., in part midland or English woodland
C. oxycanthoides Thuill. hawthorn
C. marshallii Egglest. parsley hawthorn, parsley Virginia to Illinois, S to 2–8
C. apiifolia (Marshs.) Michaux haw Florida & Texas
C. mollis (Torr. & Gray) Scheele downy hawthorn, summer Ontario to the Dakotas, 6–12
C. albicans Ashe hawthorn S to Alabama & Texas
C. arkansana Sarg. red haw, turkey-apple
C. brachyphylla Beadle
C. cibaria Beadle
C. coccinea var. mollis Torr. & Gray
C. invisa Sarg.;
C. lacera Sarg.;
C. limaria Sarg.
C. monogyna Jac. oneseed hawthorn, Europe, N Africa, & W Asia 5–12
C. oxyacantha L. ssp. monogyna single-seed or common
(Jacq.) Rouy & Camus hawthorn, may, quickthorn
C. nitida (Engelm.) Sarg. shining hawthorn, glossy Ohio to Illinois, S to Arkansas 7–12
C. viridis var. nitida Engelm. hawthorn, & shining thorn
C. opaca Hook. & Arn. western mayhaw, apple haw, W Florida to Texas, N to 6–10
C. nudiflora Nutt. ex Torr. & Gray may, or riverflat hawthorn Arkansas
C. pedicellata Sarg. var. pedicellata scarlet hawthorn, Maine to Michigan, S to 4–8
C. aulica Sarg.; C. caesa Ashe Ontario hawthorn Virginia & Illinois; South
C. coccinea L. in part Carolina & Florida also
C. persimilis Sarg. plumleaf hawthorn New York to Ontario, S to 7–10
C. laetifica Sarg.; C. prunifolia Pers. Pennsylvania & Ohio
C. phaenopyrum (L. f.) Medik. Washington hawthorn, New Jersey to Missouri, 4–10
C. cordata (Mill.) Ait. Virginia hawthorn, S to Florida, Mississippi &
C. populifolia Walt. Washington thorn, hedge Louisiana
C. youngii Sarg. thorn, red haw
C. piperi Britt. Columbia hawthorn, British Columbia, S to 4–6
C. chrysocarpa Ashe var. piperi (Britt.) Krushke
C. columbiana auct. Piper hawthorn Idaho & Oregon
C. columbiana var. columbiana T.J. Howell
C. columbiana Howell var. piperi (Britt.) Egglest.
C. pruinosa (Wendl. f.) K. Koch frosted hawthorn, Newfoundland to Wisconsin, 2–8
C. formosa Sarg. C. georgiana Sarg. waxy-fruited hawthorn S to West Virginia & Oklahoma
C. lecta Sarg.; C. mackenzii Sarg.
C. leiophylla Sarg.; C. porteri Britt.
C. rugosa (Ashe) Kruschke; C. virella Ashe
C. pulcherrima Ashe beautiful hawthorn Florida to Mississippi 4–8
C. flava Ait., not auctt.
C. opima Beadle; C. robur Beadle
C. punctata Jacq. dotted hawthorn, flat-topped, Quebec to Minnesota & 5–10
C. fastosa Sarg. thicket, or large-fruited Iowa, S to Georgia & Arkansas
C. punctata var. aurea Ait. hawthorn
C. verruculosa Sarg.
C. reverchonii Sarg. Reverchon hawthorn Missouri to Kansas, S to 1–8
Arkansas & Texas
C. rufula Sarg. rufous mayhaw N Florida, SW Georgia, & 3–9
SE Alabama
C. saligna Greene willow hawthorn Colorado 4–6
C. sanguinea Pall. Siberian hawthorn E Russia & Siberia, S to 5–8
Mongolia & China
C. spathulata Michx. littlehip hawthorn, small- Virginia to Missouri, S to 5–8
C. microcarpa Lindl. fruited or pasture hawthorn Florida to Texas
C. succulenta Schrad. ex Link fleshy hawthorn, longspine or Nova Scotia to Montana, S to 5–8
C. florifera Sarg.; C. laxiflora Sarg. succulent hawthorn North Carolina & Utah
C. tracyi Ashe ex Egglest. Tracy hawthorn, mountain Texas & NE Mexico 3–5
C. montivaga Sarg. hawthorn
C. triflora Chapman three-flower hawthorn Tennessee, S to Georgia 4–6
& Louisiana
C. uniflora Münchh. dwarf haw, one-flowered New York to Missouri, 1/ –4
2
C. bisculcata Ashe; C. choriophylla Sarg. hawthorn, & dwarf thorn S to Florida & NE Mexico
C. dawsoniana Sarg.; C. gregalis Beadle
C. viridis L. green hawthorn, southern or Pennsylvania to Kansas, 5–12
C. amicalis Sarg. tall hawthorn, green haw, S to Florida & Texas
C. ingens Beadle green or southern thorn
Sources: Beadle (1913), Brinkman (1974), Dirr (1998), Flint (1997), Foote and Jones (1989), Griffiths (1994), Jacobson (1996), Little (1980a&b), Palmer (1950, 1952),
Phipps (1988, 1995, 1998a&b), Phipps and O’Kennon (1998), Phipps and others (1990), Sargent (1933), Strausbaugh and Core (1978),Tidestrom (1933),Vines (1960),
Wasson (2001),Weakley (2002).
Crataegus • 449
edible fruits in Asia, Central America, and various (Bir 1992; Elias 1987; Foote and Jones 1989; Morgenson
C
Mediterranean countries (Everett 1981; Guo and Jiao 1995; 1999; Petrides 1988).
Mabberley 1997; Usher 1974). The fruits of some species Flowering and fruiting. Flowers always appear after
contain higher concentrations of vitamin C than do oranges leaf emergence and are borne either in flat-topped inflores-
(Citrus L. spp.) (Morton 1981). cences termed corymbs or in globular inflorescences termed
In recent years, cultivation of mayhaws native to the umbels (Phipps 1988). Flower color is usually white, but
southeastern United States—including eastern, western, and rarely, pink-flowered variants are found in horticultural
rufous mayhaws—has increased (Bush and others 1991; selections. From 1 to 25 flowers can be produced per inflo-
Payne and Krewer 1990; Payne and others 1990). Mayhaws rescence (Christensen 1992; Phipps 1988). Flowers usually
are atypical among the hawthorns in their early flowering contain 5 petals and 5 to 20 stamens and have a fetid odor in
period (from late February through mid-March) and their many species.
early fruit ripening dates (May) (table 2) (Payne and Krewer Hawthorn fruits are known as pomes, although the seeds
1990). At least 12 cultivars have been selected for improved and their bony endocarps are termed pyrenes, or nutlets (fig-
fruit size, yield, and ease of harvest, and these are grown for ures 1 and 2). Between 1 and 5 pyrenes are produced in each
production of jellies, juices, preserves, and wine. Vitamin pome. Although most species produce flowers in spring and
contents are comparable to those found in manzanilla fruits in fall, mayhaws are notable for their early flowering
(Crataegus mexicana Moc. & Sesse ex DC.) (Payne and oth- and fruit ripening period. Some species drop fruits in
ers 1990), a species used for medicinal purposes in Central autumn, and others have fruits that persist through winter.
America (Morton 1981). However, until propagation, pro- Timing of these events is important to horticulturists and
duction, and harvest techniques are improved, limited sup- wildlife and game managers (table 2).
plies of fruits derived from orchard-grown plants will neces- Collection of fruits, seed extraction, cleaning, and
sitate further collection of fruit from native stands (Bush and storage. Mature fruits of most hawthorn species are col-
others 1991). Other North American Crataegus species cul- lected readily from the ground in autumn, whereas fruits of
tivated for fruit production are black, yellow, and downy species that tend to hold their fruits through the winter must
hawthorns (Mabberley 1997; Usher 1974). be hand-picked from the trees (Brinkman 1974). Harvested
Many hawthorn taxa are grown in North America and fruits can be macerated to separate the seeds from the fleshy
Europe solely as ornamental plants because of their small pericarp (Munson 1986). The macerated pericarp material
stature, brilliant flowers in spring, and brightly colored fruits can be removed by water flotation, and the seeds should then
in fall (Bean 1970; Christensen 1992; Dirr 1998; Everett be air-dried. Seed yield data are available for only a few
1981; Flint 1997; Griffiths 1994; Jacobson 1996; Knees and species, and there is considerable variability among them
Warwick 1995; Krüssmann 1984; Mabberley 1997). In the (table 3).
United States, the most commonly encountered hawthorn As an alternative to macerating the fruits and subse-
taxa in cultivation include Washington,‘Winter King’, cock- quently storing the seeds, fermenting freshly collected,
spur, plumleaf, and Lavalle hawthorns (C. × lavallei Henriq. undried fruits of western mayhaw for 4 or 8 days yielded
ex Lav.) (Bir 1992; Dirr 1998; Everett 1981; Flint 1997). 93% germination. However, fermentation periods > 8 days
One caution, however, is necessary with regard to cultivated adversely affected seed germination (Baker 1991). Most
hawthorns. Because only a partial understanding of the tax- other reports stated that acid scarification and/or cold strati-
onomy of native populations of hawthorns now exists, espe- fication are obligatory to enhance seed germination.
cially in North America, it is likely that identities of many Fermentation treatments may prove extremely beneficial in
cultivated hawthorns may be either incorrect or imprecisely reducing the time required to produce seedlings of
defined. hawthorns. However, further research on a wide range of
Hawthorns are important for wildlife. They offer good hawthorns is needed before making general conclusions
nesting sites for birds because of their dense branching and about the usefulness of such treatments.
their thorns, which deter predators (Martin and others 1961). After extracting, cleaning, and drying, the seeds should
Fruits of many species are consumed by songbirds, game be stored under refrigerated conditions (Dirr and Heuser
birds, small mammals, and ungulates (Shrauder 1977). 1987; Hartmann and others 2002). All indications are that
Hawthorns are recommended commonly by professionals as hawthorn seeds are orthodox in storage behavior, but reports
landscaping and shelterbelt plants that can attract wildlife on long-term seed viability during storage do not all agree.
Sources: Beadle (1913), Brinkman (1974), Dirr (1998), Everett (1981), Flint (1997), Foote and Jones (1989), Jacobson (1996), Little (1980a&b), Palmer (1950, 1952), Phipps
(1988, 1998a), Phipps and O’Kennon (1998), Sargent (1933),Vines (1960).
* Color of ripe fruit is highly arbitrary and varies in interpretation amoung authors due to lack of standardization. Accurate determinations of fruit color cannot be
ascertained from herbarium specimens.
† Plants growing in Boston, Massachusetts, not in native habitat.
Dirr and Heuser (1987) stated that seeds of hawthorns, in Pregermination treatments and germination tests.
general, can remain viable for 2 to 3 years in cold storage. Seeds of many hawthorns exhibit double dormancy
St. John (1982), however, noted decreased seed viability in (Hartmann and others 2002). Therefore, pregermination
oneseed, cockspur, plumleaf, and scarlet hawthorns after treatments usually consist of acid scarification followed by a
storage for 2 years and recommended that seeds be stored period of cold stratification (Brinkman 1974; Hartmann and
for no more than 1 year. Bir (1992) found decreases in seed others 2002). Many authors also recommend periods of
viability of Washington hawthorn after cold storage for warm stratification for selected species (Brinkman 1974;
1 year. However, Christensen (1992) observed that under Dirr and Heuser 1987; Morgenson 1999; St. John 1982;
natural conditions, seeds of Eurasian species may require Young and Young 1992). Brinkman (1974) stated that “all”
from 2 to 6 years to germinate. seeds of hawthorns exhibit embryo dormancy, therefore
Crataegus • 451
Figure 1—Crataegus, hawthorn: cleaned pyrenes (nutlets) Figure 2—Crataegus, hawthorn: longitudinal section of a
C of C. crus-galli, cockspur hawthorn (top), C. douglasii, black pyrene (nutlet).
hawthorn (second), C. mollis, downy hawthorn (third),
C. phaenopyrum,Washington hawthorn (fourth), C. punctata,
dotted hawthorn (fifth), C. succulenta, fleshy hawthorn
(bottom).
although 2 hours of acid scarification did not enhance seed Official seed testing prescriptions are in place for only 2
germination of Arnold and downy hawthorns, some benefi- species. AOSA (1993) recommends 2 hours of soaking in
cial effects on seed germination in fireberry hawthorn were concentrated sulfuric acid, followed by 90 days of incuba-
noted, especially in combination with warm and cold strati- tion at room temperature and then 120 days of moist-
fication pretreatments. Germination of both Arnold and prechilling for downy hawthorn. Germination should then be
downy hawthorn seeds was optimized under a 60-day warm tested on moist blotters or creped paper at 20/30 °C for 14
and 120-day (or more) cold stratification regime, with 37 days. For oneseed hawthorn, ISTA (1993) prescribes 90
and 51% germination occurring, respectively. For fireberry days of incubation at 25 °C, followed by 9 months of moist-
hawthorns, 90 to 120 days of warm stratification, followed prechilling at 3 to 5 °C. Germination is to be tested in sand
by 120 to 180 days of cold stratification resulted in 18 to at 20/30 °C for 28 days. Both organizations also allow tetra-
27% germination. In all 3 species tested, extreme radicle zolium staining to determine viability as an alternative to
elongation was observed in some treatments, for example, in actual tests. For all hawthorn species, ISTA (1996) recom-
all 120-day cold stratification combination treatments for mends cutting transversely one-third from the distal end of
fireberry hawthorns, and in some 60 and 120-day cold strati- the seeds, then incubating for 20 to 24 hours in a 1% solu-
fication combination treatments for Arnold and downy tion at 30 °C. The embryos must be excised for evaluation.
hawthorns. Maximum unstained tissue is one-third the distal end and
In C. azarolus L., cold stratification treatments reduced the radicle tip. Some germination test results are summa-
abscisic acid (ABA) content in seeds, especially during the rized in table 5.
first 20 days, but only yielded 24% germination (Qrunfleh Because hawthorns produce apomictic seeds, reports
1991). Work in England with oneseed, cockspur, plumleaf, have appeared on clonal production of plants by seed propa-
and scarlet hawthorns resulted in as much as 80% germina- gation (Hartmann and others 2002). In western mayhaw, this
tion (see table 4 for pregermination treatments) (St. John phenomenon occurs widely because of the production of
1982). Using alternating 3-month periods of warm stratifica- nucellar embryos and may be exploitable for production of
tion at 21°C and cold stratification at 4 °C, seeds of oneseed superior clones (Payne and Krewer 1990; Payne and others
hawthorn exhibited 31% germination after a warm-cold 1990). Further study of apomixis in Crataegus is needed.
cycle and 55% after a cold-warm-cold-warm-cold cycle Nursery practice. Hawthorns are produced in nurs-
(Deno 1993). Utilizing these alternating cold-warm regimes eries utilizing both sexual and asexual propagation tech-
with Washington hawthorn, 50% germination was attained niques. In horticulture, sexual propagation of hawthorns (via
with a warm-cold scheme, and 51% germination occurred seeds) is important for production of large numbers of root-
with cold stratification only (Deno 1993). This latter result stocks, to which superior, clonal scions (often cultivars) are
for Washington hawthorn agreed with data reported by budded (Bush and others 1991; Dirr and Heuser 1987). In
Brinkman (1974). Studying seeds of downy hawthorn sown particular, this is necessary for rapid build-up of clonal
into old-field vegetation patches, Burton and Bazzaz (1991) orchards of desirable species of hawthorns (such as those
noted a negative correlation between germination percentage with potential pomological interest), for which there are lim-
and the quantity of plant litter on the soil surface. This sug- ited scion material and little knowledge of vegetative propa-
gested that seed germination in downy hawthorn may be gation by stem cuttings. Western mayhaw is a good example
inhibited by the presence of organic acids or allelochemicals of such a species (Bush and others 1991). Brinkman (1974)
released by decaying organic matter.
Crataegus • 453
recommended that if controlled seed pretreatment regimes warm temperate climates) that will germinate either in short-
C
(such as stored refrigerated conditions) are not used by nurs- er time periods without the cumbersome waiting periods
eries, seeds should be sown in early fall (versus spring) to involved in cold stratification or through innovative seed pre-
satisfy any potential requirements for cold stratification. treatment techniques such as fermentation.
This may be an adequate generalization for many Research on vegetative propagation of hawthorns by
hawthorns, although it is important to note the aforemen- stem cuttings is limited. Dirr and Heuser (1987) reported
tioned exceptions for those species (for example, those from previous efforts as being “rarely successful,” whereas Dirr
Sources: Brinkman (1974), Felipe Isaac and others (1989), Qrunfleh (1991), St John (1982),Tipton and Pedroza (1986),Young and Young (1992).
* Immersion time in sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
† Outdoor winter temperatures.
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Dr.Walters retired from the USDA Forest Service; Dr. Francis retired from the
USDA Forest Service’s International Institute of Tropical Forestry
Synonyms. C. fortunei Hooibrenk, C. mairei sprayed with gibberellic acid produced 1,082 kg/ha of seeds
(Leveille) Nakai, C. kawaii Hayata, Cupressus japonica L. (967 lb/ac) 11 months later; 46% of the seeds were sound
f., Cupressus mairei Leveille. and 45% germinated (Itoo and Katsuta 1986).
Other common names. Japanese cryptomeria, Collection, cleaning, and storage. When the cones
Japanese-cedar, goddess-of-mercy-fir, peacock-pine. turn from grayish brown to reddish brown, they are ripe and
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Cryptomeria is should be picked. Cones should be immediately spread out
a monotypic genus native of Japan and China (Streets to finish ripening. As the cones dry, seeds fall into trays; agi-
1956). Sugi—Cryptomeria japonica [L. f.] D. Don—has tation aids in seed extraction. Seeds can be separated from
been cultivated there since about 1300 A.D. for timber, shel- chaff by winnowing. The number of seeds per weight ranges
terbelts, and environmental forestry. It was introduced to from 700,000 to 1,200,000/kg (320,000 to 550,000/lb)
Hawaii for the same purposes about 1870 by Japanese (Walters 1974; Ohmasa 1956). The optimal moisture content
immigrants (Carlson and Bryan 1959). An evergreen tree, it for storage is 10% (Shi 1985). After drying, the seeds should
reaches heights of 36 to 46 m (Carlson and Bryan 1959; be stored in sealed polyethylene bags at 2 to 5 °C (Walters
Dallimore and Jackson 1967; Troup 1921). Its wood is soft 1974). A drying agent placed in the bag aids storage
and fragrant; the red heartwood is strong and durable (Ohmasa 1956).
(Dallimore and Jackson 1967). It is used for boxes, poles, Germination. Sugi seed germination is considered
and general construction (Tsutsumi and others 1982). This poor to very poor (Parry 1956). In Japan, the standard of
species is also used for Christmas trees (Carlson and Bryan sowing—30 g/m2 (0.1 oz/ft2)—is based on 30% germination
1959; Dallimore and Jackson 1967). (Ohmasa 1956). Sugi seeds should be soaked in cold water
Flowering and fruiting. Sugi is a monoecious (0 °C) for about half a day, then put moist into plastic bags,
species, with the male and female strobili located on differ- and stored at 1 °C for 60 to 90 days before sowing (Walters
ent parts of the same branch. The female strobili are formed 1974). Bags should be left open for adequate aeration. A
in fall and are fertilized when pollen is shed the following mild fungicide can be added (Ohmasa 1956). Constant
spring (Dallimore and Jackson 1967). Seed weight and per- day/night temperature, whether high or low, adversely
centage filled seeds are higher and seedling growth rate is affects germination (RFC 1973). Germination is better in
greater when flowers are wind-pollinated (outcrossed) rather
than selfed (Tabachi and Furukoshi 1983). In the native Figure 1—Cryptomeria japonica, sugi: seed.
range in Japan, female cones begin to open between late
January and mid-February and flower for 54 to 57 days. The
male strobili begin to open about 25 days after the female
strobili (Hashizume 1973). The solitary cones are globular
and measure 13 to 19 mm in diameter. In Hawaii, cones
ripen from July to September.
Seeds are shed during the same periods (Walters 1974).
The seeds are dark brown and triangular, measuring 4 to 6
mm long and about 3 mm wide (Dallimore and Jackson
1967) (figures 1 and 2). Trees generally begin to produce
seeds when 15 to 20 years old (Carlson and Bryan 1959). A
3-year-old orchard of rooted cuttings in Japan that was
Cryptomeria • 457
Figure 2—Cryptomeria japonica, sugi: longitudinal seeds kept in the light than seeds kept in the dark (Chettri
C and others 1987). Official test prescriptions for sugi call for
section through a seed.
germination on top of moist blotters at alternating tempera-
tures of 20 and 30 °C for 28 days; no pretreatment is neces-
sary (ISTA 1993).
Nursery and field practice. Sugi seeds are sown in
Hawaii from November to March. Sowing is by the broad-
cast method or by using a planter that has been adjusted to
the proper seed size. The planter places seeds in rows about
15 to 20 cm (6 to 7 in) apart. Seeds are covered with 3 to 6
mm (1 to 21/2 in) of soil (Ohmasa 1956; Walters 1974). No
mulch is used in Hawaii (Walters 1974), but a single layer
of straw is used in Japan (Ohmasa 1956). The seedbeds are
given about 75% shade for about 2 months (Walters 1974).
Seedling density in the beds is about 220 to 330
seedlings/m2 (20 to 30/ft2). Frost damage to seedlings in
early winter can be avoided by shading or shortening the
daily period of exposure to solar radiation (Horiuchi and
Sakai 1978). Seedlings are outplanted as 1+0 stock in
Hawaii (Walters 1974). Sugi can be started from cuttings
(Carlson 1959). In an experiment in which the trees were
measured after more than 26 years, there was no significant
difference in any measure of growth between trees started
from seeds and those started from cuttings (Yang and Wang
1984).
References
Carlson NK, Bryan LP. 1959. Hawaiian timber for the coming generations. RFC [Rhodesia Forestry Commission]. 1973. High temperatures inhibit the
Honolulu:Trustees of the Bernice Bishop Estate. 112 p. germination of conifer seed. Research Newsletter of the Rhodesia
Chettri R, Rai B, Basu PK. 1987. Ecological distribution of species in plant Forestry Commission 7: 5–6.
communities of the Sukhia Pokhari Forest, Darjeeling District. Shi ZL. 1985. A study on the critical moisture content in stored seeds of
Environment and Ecology 5(3): 590–594. Cunninghamia lanceolata and other tree species. Scientia Silvae Sinicae
Dallimore W, Jackson A. 1967. A handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae. 21(4): 241–425.
4th ed., rev. New York: St. Martin’s Press. 729 p. Streets RJ. 1962. Exotic trees in the British Commonwealth. Oxford, UK:
Hashizume H. 1973. Fundamental studies on mating in forest trees: 5. Clarendon Press. 765 p.
Flowering and pollination in Cryptomeria japonica. Bulletin of the Faculty Tabachi K, Furukoshi T. 1983. On seedling variants derived from self-polli-
of Agriculture,Tottori University 25: 81–96. nation of seeds of sugi, Cryptomeria japonica D. Don. Annual Report of
Horiuchi T, Sakai A. 1978. Deep supercooling may be important in frost the Kanto Forest Tree Breeding Institute (Japan) 1980/1981 (15):
avoidance mechanisms of 16 native species. In: Li PH, Sakai A. Plant cold 195–214.
hardiness and freezing stress: mechanisms and crop implications. St. Paul: Troup RS. 1921. The silviculture of Indian trees.Volume 3. Oxford, UK:
University of Minnesota, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Clarendon Press. 1195 p.
Architecture. 416 p. Tsutsumi J, Matsumoto T, Kitahara R, Mio S. 1982. Specific gravity, tracheid
ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. International rules for length, and microfibril angle of sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don): seed-
seed testing. Rules 1993. Seed Science and Technology 21 (Suppl.): grown trees compared with grafts. Kyushu University Forests (Japan) 52:
1–259. 115–120.
Itoo S, Katsuta M. 1986. Seed productivity in the miniature seed orchard of Walters GA. 1974. Cryptomeria japonica, cryptomeria. In: Schopmeyer CS,
Cryptomeria japonica D. Don. Journal of the Japanese Forestry Society tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk.
68(7): 284–288. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 361–362.
Ohmasa M. 1956. Tree planting practices in temperate Asia: Japan. For. Dev. Yang YC, Wang SY. 1984. Studies on the growth of seed plant and vegeta-
Pap. 10. Rome: FAO. 156 p. tive plant Cryptomeria in Taiwan. Forest Products Industries (Taiwan)
Parry MS. 1956. Tree planting practices in tropical Africa. For. Dev. Pap. 8. 3(2): 161–169.
Rome: FAO. 302 p.
Cupressus L.
cypress
LeRoy C. Johnson and Robert P. Karrfalt
Mr. Johnson retired from the Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station; Mr. Karrfalt is director
of the USDA Forest Service’s National Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, Georgia
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The true Cercospora sequoiae Ellis & Everh. (Hepting 1971) has
cypresses—genus Cupressus L.—are evergreen trees or eroded this interest.
shrubs native to the warm temperate areas of the Northern In Africa and New Zealand, Mexican and Monterey
Hemisphere. The genus comprises about 15 species distrib- cypresses are planted for lumber and pulp production
uted throughout the western United States, Mexico, northern (Bannister 1962; Bannister and Orman 1960; Paterson
Central America, the Mediterranean region, northern Africa, 1963). Mexican cypress has become commercially important
and from southern Asia to Japan (Bailey 1923; Dallimore in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania (Bergsten and Sundberg
and Jackson 1967; Little 1966, 1979; Raizada and Sahni 1990). Himalayan cypress is planted for timber, fuelwood,
1960; Wolf and Wagener 1948). The species native to North windbreaks, and animal fodder in Asia (Von Carlowitz
America are referred to as New World cypresses and those 1986).
native to Europe, Africa, and Asia, as Old World cypresses Italian cypress is the most widely planted of all the
(Gauseen 1968; Wolf and Wagener 1948). cypresses. It has been cultivated since ancient times (Bailey
Most New World cypresses are restricted in their occur- 1923; Bolotin 1964a); its columnar form and dark green
rence (table 1). McNab and Sargent cypresses are often foliage make it a popular tree for planting in formal gardens,
associated with serpentine soils (Griffin and Stone 1967; along roads, and in cemeteries. This variety is propagated by
Hardham 1962). Arizona cypress and its subspecies are seeds or cuttings. Seeds collected from pure stands or isolat-
found in large stands confined mainly to north slopes, coves, ed columnar form varieties will breed true (Bolotin 1964b).
benches, and canyon bottoms (Sudworth 1915). All reach The unusually narrow crown results from the ascending
their maximum sizes in moist, sheltered canyon bottoms. Of branches, which almost parallel the main trunk (table 2).
the 10 species, subspecies, and varieties native to California, Monterey cypress is also extensively used in landscap-
none grow in large pure stands. ing in spite of its high susceptibility to cypress canker dis-
In the United States, cypresses are commercially propa- ease. The rapid growth, lush green foliage, and dense crown
gated mainly for landscaping, Christmas trees, erosion con- make it ideally suited for planting around buildings, in
trol, windbreaks, and to a minor extent for lumber, fence- windbreaks, and along roadsides.
posts, fuelwood, and railroad ties. A factor limiting the Flowering and fruiting. Cypresses are monoecious.
widespread planting of cypresses in some parts of the Staminate and ovulate strobili are produced on the ends of
United States is the cypress canker—Seiridium cardinale short twigs or branchlets. The staminate strobili are 3 to 7
(W. Wegener) Sutton & I. Gibson—which attacks most mm long, cylindrical or oblong, and light green or rarely
species of cypress (Wolf and Wagener 1948). In California, red. They become yellow as pollen-shedding time nears.
this disease has eliminated some plantations of Monterey Ovulate strobili at time of pollination are less than 6 mm
cypress. Only resistant species or strains of cypress should long, subglobose to cylindrical, erect, greenish, and have 6
be planted where the cypress canker disease exists. In the to 12 (rarely 14) distichously arranged scales. At maturity
South, Arizona cypress was at one time seriously considered they may be 15 to 25 mm long.
for Christmas tree production (Goggans and Posey 1968; Pollen is shed in late fall, winter, and spring. Planted
Grigsby 1969; Linnartz 1964; Posey and Goggans 1967), trees of Arizona and Guadeloupe cypresses growing in the
but its susceptibility to a foliage blight caused by Eddy Arboretum, Placerville, California, shed their pollen in
Cupressus • 459
C Table 1—Cupressus, cypress: nomenclature and occurrence
C. abramsiana C.B.Wolf Santa Cruz cypress California: Santa Cruz & San Mateo Co.
C. goveniana var. abramsiana (C.B.Wolf) Little
C. arizonica Greene Arizona cypress Small, scattered areas in mtns of Arizona, New
Mexico, S Texas, & N Mexico at 915–2,450 m
C. arizonica ssp. arizonica Greene Arizona smooth Mtn areas of central Arizona
C. arizonica var. glabra (Sudsworth) Little cypress
C. glabra Sudsworth
C. arizonica ssp. nevadensis Piute cypress California: Kern Co., Piute Mtns
(Abrams) E. Murray
C. arizonica var. nevadensis (Abrams) Little
C. macnabiana var. nevadensis (Abrams) Abrams
C. nevadendsis Abrams
C. arizonica ssp. stephensonii Cuyamaca cypress California: San Diego Co., Cuyamaca Mtns
(C.B.Wolf) Beauchamp
C. arizonica var. stephensonii (C.B.Wolf) Little
C. stephensonii C. B.Wolf
C. bakeri Jepson Modoc cypress, Baker cypress, California & Oregon in Siskiyou Mtns &
C. bakeri ssp. matthewsii C.B.Wolf Siskiyou cypress NE California
C. forbesii Jepson tecate cypress San Diego Co., California, & Baja
C. guadalupensis var. forbesii (Jepson) Little California, Mexico
C. quadalupensis ssp. forbesii (Jepson) Beauchamp
C. goveniana Gord. Gowen cypress California coast from Mendocino Co. to
San Diego Co.
C. goveniana ssp. pygmaea Mendocino cypress, California coast in Mendocino Co.
(Lemmon) Bartel pygmy cypress
C. goveniana var. pygmaea Lemmon
C. pygmaea (Lemmon) Sarg.
C. guadalupensis S.Wats. Guadalupe cypress Mexico, Guadalupe Island
C. lusitanica Mill. Mexican cypress, Central Mexico, S to Guatemala & Costa Rica
cedar-of-Gog,
Portuguese-cedar
C. macnabiana A. Murr. MacNab cypress N California: Sierra Nevada foothills & interior
coastal range from Siskiyou to Napa Co.
C. macrocarpa Hartw. ex Gord. Monterey cypress Central California coast in Monterey Co.
between Monterey & Carmel Bays;
scattered on inland ridges
C. sargentii Jepson Sargent cypress California, in the coastal range in scattered
stands from Mendocino Co. S to Santa Barbara Co.
C. sempervirens L. Italian cypress, Mediterranean area
C. sempervirens var. stricta Aiton Mediterranean cypress
C. sempervirens var. horizontalis spreading Italian cypress Mediterranean area
(Mill.) Gord.
Cupressus torulosa D.Don Himalayan cypress, Temperate China to tropical India &
C. torulosa var. corneyana Carr. surai Queensland, Australia
October and November (Johnson 1974). Native trees of Precocious cone production characterizes this genus.
Sargent cypress at Bonnie Doon, California, pollinate in Male cones have developed on 1- and 2-year-old seedlings
December, and Monterey cypress at Point Cypress, of Gowen and Mendocino cypresses, respectively
California, pollinate in March (Johnson 1974). (McMillan 1952). Female cone production often begins on
The ovulate cones and their seeds ripen the second year, trees younger than 10 years (Magini and Tulstrup 1955;
some 15 to 18 months after pollination. Mature cones (fig- McMillan 1952), but collectable quantities are usually not
ure 1) are up to 30 mm in diameter, woody or leathery, and produced at such an early age. Treatment of seedlings of
the peltate scales usually have a central mucro. Each cone some species with various gibberellins can stimulate preco-
produces 12 to 150 seeds (table 3). cious flowering to a great degree. Mendocino, Mexican, and
C. arizonica Straight central leader 15–21 1882 Dull gray to brown, Medium to dark brown
sometimes purple or deep purplish brown
ssp. arizonica Straight trunk with or without 8–15 ca. 1909 Glaucous bloom Medium tan to brown
turned up side branches over rich dark brown or red brown
ssp. nevadensi Erect tree with pyramidal crown 6–15 1930 Glaucous or silver gray Rich light tan
ssp. stephensonii Erect tree with 9–15 1900 Dull gray or brown Very dark brown
straight central leader
C. bakeri Single stem, narrow crown 9–15 1917 Grayish to dull brown Light tan
C. forbesii Erect, irregularly 4.5–9 1927 Dull brown or gray Rich dark brown
branched tree
C. goveniana Shrublike to small 6–18 1846 Brown to gray brown Dull dark brown
tree with single stem to nearly black
ssp. pygmaea Shrublike to 9–46 — Weathered gray Jet black to brownish
medium-sized tree
C. guadalupensis Broad crown, trunk forking 12–20 ca. 1879 — Dark brown & glaucous
C. lusitanica Erect straight trunk 30 ca. 1670 Dull brown Rich light tan
with drooping branches
C. macnabiana Brown crown lacking 6–12 1854 Brownish gray Medium brown to
main trunk glaucous brown
C. macrocarpa Single trunk; symmetrical in 8–27 1838 Brown Dark brown
sheltered areas
C. sargentii Single stem, slender 9–23 1908 Dull brown or gray Dark brown
or bushy tree often glaucous
C. sempervirens Columnar with branches 46 B.C. Shiny brown or grayish —
parallel to main trunk
var. horizontalis Single stem with spreading crown 46 B.C. Shiny brown or grayish —
Sources: Dallimore and Jackson (1967), Raizada and Sahni (1960), Sargent (1965), Sudworth (1915),Wolf and Wagener (1948).
Arizona cypresses produced staminate strobili on seedlings Walsingham (Hedlin and others 1980). Over a dozen
7 to 9 months old after foliar applications of gibberellin microorganisms have been identified in association with
(GA3), whereas the latter 2 species produced ovulate strobili cypress seeds (Mittal and others 1990), but their effects on
at ages less than 24 months (Pharis and Morf 1967). Most seed production, if any, are not known.
native and planted cypresses produce an abundance of Cypress seeds vary widely in shape and size (figures 2
female cones. Guadelupe cypress rarely produces female and 3). Length with wings attached ranges from 2 to 8 mm;
cones under cultivation (Wolf and Wagener 1948), but the width dimensions are slightly less. Seeds are flattened or
close relative, tecate cypress from Baja California, does lense shaped, and the wings are tegumentary extensions of
(Johnson 1974). Occasional trees appear sterile, but this the seedcoat. Seed length within a cone of Sargent cypress
phenomenon is usually correlated with extremely heavy ranged from 2 to 5 mm (Johnson 1974). X-ray examination
male cone production (Johnson 1974). Most cypresses have of bulk collections of several species showed that the small-
serotinous cones. Arizona and Italian cypresses open and est seeds were hollow (Johnson 1974). This phenomenon is
shed their seeds when the cones ripen (Wolf and Wagener most likely caused by lack of pollination or abortion after
1948). Cones on some trees within a stand will open and pollination (Johnson 1974).
shed their seeds in July (Posey and Goggans 1967). Seed color is an important criterion for determining
There is little information on the cone and seed insects ripeness and an aid in differentiating species (table 2). Some
that damage seed production in cypress. Larvae of the species and geographic sources within a species can be dis-
cypress bark moth—Laspeyresia cupressana Kearfott—are tinguished by seed color. Seeds of Mendocino cypress from
known to feed on maturing seeds of Gowen and Monterey the central coast of Mendocino Co., California, have shiny
cypresses and have earned the common name of “seed- jet-black seedcoats; seeds of the Anchor Bay strain from
worm.” Similar damage has been recorded on Monterey southern Mendocino Co. have brownish black seedcoats.
cypress from larvae of the moth Henricus macrocarpana Seeds of Guadalupe and tecate cypresses have the same
Cupressus • 461
C Table 3—Cupressus, cypress: seed yield data
Seeds (x1,000)/weight*
Range Average
Species /kg /lb /kg /lb Samples Scales/cone Seeds/cone
Sources: Goggans and Posey (1968), Rafn (1915), Raizada and Sahni (1960),Toumey and Stevens (1928),Von Carlowitz (1986),Wolf and Wagener (1948).
* Figures are for samples that have foreign matter (twigs, leaves, cone scales, etc.) removed but no attempt was made to separate sound from hollow and other nonviable
seeds.
Figure 1—Cupressus goveniana, Gowen cypress: cones. Figure 2—Cupressus, cypress: seeds of C. arizonica,
Arizona cypress (upper left); C. bakeri; Modoc cypress
(upper center); C. goveniana, Gowen cypress (upper
right); C. goveniana ssp. pygmaea; Mendocino cypress (mid-
dle left); C. forbesii, tecate cypress (middle center); C. lusi-
tanica, Mexican cypress (middle right); C. macnabiana,
MacNab cypress (bottom left); C. macrocarpa, Monterey
cypress (bottom center); and C. sargentii, Sargent cypress
(bottom right).
Cupressus • 463
C Table 4—Cupressus, cypress: germination test results on stratified seeds
Germination Soundness
Average Average
Species Days (%) Samples (%) Samples
C. arizonica 20 26 9 30 4
ssp. nevadensis 6 6 1 38 1
C. bakeri 30 12 2 36 2
C. forbesii 30 12 2 54 1
C. goveniana 30 22 2 93 2
ssp. pygmaea 30 31 2 — —
C. macnabiana 30 1 1 5 1
— — 15 2 —
C. macrocarpa 30 24 4 82 4
30 14 37 — —
C. sargentii 30 13 2 41 2
C. sempervirens — — — 27 9
Because of variable dormancy, AOSA (1998) also recom- 1948), but spring-sowing of stratified seeds is preferred.
mends paired tests for Arizona cypress, using unstratified Germination of cypress is epigeal. Seeds should be sprinkled
and stratified (21 days) samples for each lot. Official test on the nurserybed and covered with a 4 to 5 mm (0.15 to
prescriptions have not been developed for the other cypress 0.20 in) layer of soil and a light mulch. A density of 320 to
species, but similar conditions should be sufficient. For 640/m2 (30 to 60/ft2 ) is recommended. Zeide (1977) was
unstratified Himalayan cypress seeds (Rao 1988), the use of successful in direct seeding Italian cypress in Israel—annual
the alternating germination temperatures of 21 °C daytime precipitation, 447 mm (18 in)—in plots that were “mulched”
and 9 °C night time gave 60% germination compared to with light colored stones of 2 to 5 cm (3/4 to 2 in) diameters.
33% germination at constant 25 °C. Although light appears The seedlings grew out from under the stones.
to be important, prechilling and alternating temperatures are Newly germinated cypress seedlings are particularly
the more significant promoters of germination. Light did not susceptible to damping-off fungus. When possible, nursery
appear necessary for seeds of Arizona cypress (Goggans soil should be fumigated. As an added precaution, a fungi-
1974). The seeds can be watered throughout the test with a cide should be used immediately after sowing and until the
mild solution of fungicide (the same formulation used seedling stems become woody, which takes about 1 month’s
above) with no phytotoxicity. Germination test results (table time. Cypresses can be outplanted as 1- or 2-year-old
4) have been low primarily because of the low percentages seedlings. A well-defined taproot and numerous lateral roots
of sound seed that are common among seed lots of cypress. are formed in the first year. One-year-old seedlings of most
Good estimates of germination can be made with x-ray species have only juvenile foliage.
analysis of fresh seeds of Italian, Mexican, and Arizona Some species can be propagated vegetatively. Monterey
cypresses (Bergsten and Sundberg 1990; Chavagnat and cypress cuttings treated with indole-butyric acid (IBA) root
Bastien 1991). well, whereas Italian cypress cuttings root well without
Nursery practice. Fall-sowing of cypress seeds has treatment (Dirr and Heuser 1987).
been recommended (Johnson 1974; Wolf and Wagener
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1998. Rules for testing seeds. Johnson LC. 1974. Cupressus, cypress. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech coord. Seeds
Lincoln, NE: Association of Official Seed Analysts. 123 p. of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington,
Bailey LH. 1923. The cultivated evergreens. 434 p. New York: Macmillan. DC: USDA Forest Service: 363–369.
Bannister MH. 1962. Prospects for selection in the cypresses. New Zealand Linnartz NE. 1964. Arizona cypress for Christmas tree production in
Journal of Forestry 8: 545–559. Louisiana. For. Note 56. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University. 4 p.
Bannister MH, Orman HR. 1960. Cupressus lusitanica as a potential timber Little EL Jr. 1966. Varietal transfers in Cupressus and Chamaecyparis.
tree for New Zealand. New Zealand Journal Forestry 8: 203–217. Madroño 18: 161–192.
Bergsten U, Sundberg M. 1990. IDS-sedimentation of Cupressus lusitanica Little EL Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized).
seeds. In: Turnbull JW, ed.Tropical tree seed research: Proceedings, Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p.
International Workshop; 1989 August 21–24; Gympie, Queensland, McMillan C. 1952. An experimental inquiry into the edaphic restrictions of
Australia. Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural certain members of the California flora [thesis]. Berkkeley: University of
Research: 99–102. California.
Bolotin M. 1964a. Contributions to the arboreal flora of Israel: Cupressus Magini E,Tulstrup NP. 1955. Tree seed notes. For. Dev. Pap. 5. Rome: FAO.
sempervirens L. La-Yaaran 14(4): 1–7. 354 p.
Bolotin M. 1964b. Segregation in progenies of Cupressus sempervirens L. La- Mittal RK, Anderson RL, Mathur SB. 1990. Microorganisms associated with
Yaaran 14(2): 46–48. tree seeds: world checklist 1990. Info. Rep. PI-X-96E/F. Ottawa: Canadian
Ceccherini L, Raddi S, Andreoli C. 1998. The effect of seed stratification on Forestry Service, Petawawa National Forestry Institute. 57 p.
germination of 14 Cupressus species. Seed Science and Technology 26: Paterson DN. 1963.The production of sawn timber from small cypress
159–168. thinnings in Kenya. Commonwealth Forestry Review 42: 211-216.
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Goggans J F, Posey CE. 1968. Variation in seeds and ovulate cones of some growth in Quercus floribunda and Cupressus torulosa, tree species of cen-
species and varieties of Cupressus. Circ. 160. Auburn University, AL: tral Himalaya. Annals of Botany 61: 531–540.
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Goggans JF, Jones L, Lynch KD. 1974. Germination rate of Arizona cypress Mexico). 2nd corrected ed. New York: Dover. 910 p.
improved by better cone collection techniques and seed germination Schubert GH. 1954. Viability of various coniferous seeds after cold storage.
treatments.Tree Planters’ Notes 25(1): 3–4. Journal of Forestry 52: 446–447.
Griffin JR, Stone CO. 1967. MacNab cypress in northern California: a Shehaghilo IM. 1987. Some studies on the collection and extraction of
geographic review. Madroño 19: 19–27. Cupressus lusitanica seed at Lushoto,Tanzania. In: Kamra SK, Ayling RD,
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Cone and seed insects of North American conifers. Ottawa: Canadian and changes in nomenclature. New York: Dover. 455 p.
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Cupressus • 465
C
Fabaceae—Pea family
Dr. Meyer is a research ecologist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. The genus indigenous species. The result is that seed production may
Cytisus comprises about 80 species native to Eurasia and be severely pollinator-limited (Parker 1997). In spite of this,
North Africa. Many are cultivated as ornamentals, and sever- the plants may produce a prodigious number of seeds; the
al of these have become more or less naturalized in the estimated mean annual production per plant was about
United States, especially in California (Munz and Keck 10,000 seeds in 2 California populations (Bossard and
1959). Scotch broom—C. scoparius (L.) Link—was planted Rejmanek 1994). Host-specific pre-dispersal seed predators
extensively for erosion control during the first half of the from Europe (a seed weevil and a bruchid beetle) have been
century (Gill and Pogge 1974) but is now considered a seri- introduced for biocontrol of Scotch broom in the Northwest,
ous invasive weed throughout the range of its introduction in but so far these introductions have been largely ineffective,
North America, Australia, and New Zealand (Bossard 1991). possibly because of asynchrony in the phenology of host
It has become the dominant species on several hundred and seed predator (Bravo 1980).
thousand hectares of coastal and cis-montane vegetation, Plants reach reproductive maturity at about 4 years of
from Santa Barbara, California, north to British Columbia. It age (Gill and Pogge 1974). The 5- or 6-seeded legumes
is a drought-deciduous shrub with angled, photosynthetic (pods) ripen in August, and seeds are dispersed in
stems that is able to root-sprout following fire (Bossard and September. The legumes open abruptly with a springing
Rejmanek 1994; Gonzales-Andres and Ortiz 1997). It is motion, vaulting the seeds some distance from the plant
largely useless as a browse-plant because of its toxic foliage, (Bossard 1991; Bossard and Rejmanek 1994). The seeds
a feature that may permit it to increase at the expense of possess a strophiole or elaiosome at the hilar end (figure 1)
more palatable species (Bossard and Rejmanek 1994; Gill and are secondarily dispersed by ants (Bossard 1991; Weiss
and Pogge 1974). It increases in response to disturbance of 1909). At 2 California study sites, seeds were taken by mice
native vegetation and is also a serious weed problem in pine and by ground-feeding birds, but these organisms were
plantations in California and New Zealand. strictly seed predators and did not function as dispersers
However, because of its beauty and exceptional summer (Bossard 1991).
drought-hardiness, Scotch broom is considered valuable as Seeds of Scotch broom have the capacity to form a per-
an ornamental shrub for low-maintenance landscapes. The sistent seed bank. Bossard (1993) found in seed retrieval
species is very showy in flower and its evergreen stems add experiments that 65% germinated the first year after disper-
interest to winter landscapes. There are over 60 named vari- sal, 20% germinated the second year, and 10% germinated
eties (Wyman 1986). the third year. About 5% of the seed population carried over
Flowering and fruiting. The perfect flowers are of for more than 3 years.
typical pea-family form and appear on the plants in great Seed collection, cleaning, and storage. After the
profusion in May and June. Each flower must be “tripped” fruits ripen but before they disperse, the legumes may be
by an appropriate pollinator for fertilization to take place, so hand-stripped or picked up from beneath plants. They
the mutualistic relationship with honey bees (Apis mellifera should be spread to dry, threshed, and screened to separate
L.) and native bumble bees is essentially obligatory (Parker the seeds (Gill and Pogge 1974). Reported seed weights
1997). Other native North American insects seem to ignore have averaged 125 seeds/g (57,500/lb) in 9 samples, and
its fragrant blossoms, preferring to work the flowers of viability averaged 80% in 5 samples (Gill and Pogge 1974).
References
Abdullah MM, Jones RA, El-Beltagy AS. 1989. A method to overcome dor-
mancy in Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius). Environmental and
Experimental Botany 29: 499–505.
Bossard CC. 1991. The role of habitat disturbance, seed predation, and ant
disperal on the establishment of the exotic shrub Cytisus scoparius.
American Midland Naturalist 126: 1–13.
Bossard CC. 1993. Seed germination in the exotic shrub Cytisus scoparius
(Scotch broom) in California. Madroño 40: 47–61.
Bossard CC, Rejmanek M. 1994. Herbivory, growth, seed production, and
resprouting of an exotic invasive shrub Cytisus scoparius. Biological
Conservation 67: 193–200.
Bravo L. 1980. We are losing the war against broom. Fremontia 15: 27–29.
No long-term storage data are available, but the seeds are Gill JD, Pogge FL. 1974. Cytisus scoparius (L.) Lk., Scotch broom. In:
orthodox and remain viable for many years in storage. Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United
States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
Germination and seed testing. Scotch broom seeds 370–371.
Gonzales-Andres F, Ortiz M. 1997. Phenology of species belonging to the
have water-impermeable (hard) seedcoats and require pre- genus Cytisus and allies (Genisteae: Leguminosae). Israel Journal of Plant
treatment in order to germinate. Once the seedcoats have Science 45: 59–69.
ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds:
been made permeable, the seeds germinate well over a wide rules 1993. Seed Science and Technology 21 (Suppl.): 1–259.
Munz PA, Keck DD. 1959. A California flora. Berkeley: University of
range of temperatures and do not require any further pre- California Press. 1681 p.
treatment (Bossard 1993). Mechanical and acid scarification Parker IB. 1997. Pollinator limitation of Cytisus scoparius (Scotch broom),
an invasive exotic shrub. Ecology 78: 1457–1470.
have been used to remove hard-seededness in this species, Tarrega R, Calvo L,Trabaud L. 1992. Effect of high temperature on seed
germination of two woody Leguminosae.Vegetatio 102: 139–147.
and the official seed-testing rules call for cutting or nicking Weiss FE. 1909. The dispersal of the seeds of the gorse and the broom by
the seedcoat at the cotyledon end, then soaking in water for ants. New Phytologist 8: 81–90.
Wyman D. 1986. Wyman’s gardening encyclopedia. Expanded 2nd ed.
3 hours (ISTA 1993). Tests should be carried out on the tops New York: Macmillan. 1221 p
of moist paper blotters for 28 days at 20/30 °C. More recent-
ly, the effect of heat on hard-seededness in Scotch broom
Cytisus • 467
D Fabaceae—Pea family
Dr. Vozzo retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station
Other common names. royal poinciana, flametree. during leaf emergence so that the crown appears feathery
Occurrence and growth habit. A popular ornamental green while the colorful flowers are dominant. The hard
throughout the tropics, flamboyan—Delonix regia (Bojer ex legumes are 35 to 50 cm long, 6 cm wide, and 5 mm thick,
Hook.) Raf.—is a small to medium-sized tree, typically 7 to and they hang tenuously on trees year-round. When mature,
16 m high and up to 60 cm in diameter (Little and the legumes split into 2 parts lengthwise and are dark brown
Wadsworth 1964). The champion Puerto Rican flamboyan, to black (Little and Wadsworth 1964); seeds (figures 1 and
however, is 32 m high and 105 cm in diameter (Francis 2) are shed at that time. There are about 4,500 seeds/kg
1994). It grows well in moist soil derived from limestone, (2,040/lb) from Puerto Rican sources (Marrero 1949),
where it is common and reproduces well, but it is also toler- whereas Colombian sources report only 2,000 to 3,000
ant of well-drained and somewhat droughty conditions seeds/kg (900 to 1,360/lb) (Navarette nd).
(Francis and Liogier 1991). The species is briefly deciduous. Collection, extraction, and storage. Pruning poles
Flamboyan has prominent buttresses and a broad, flat crown should be used to collect dark brown to black legumes.
when grown in full sun. Its shallow but spreading root sys- Legumes open naturally on trees after about 6 months. If
tem limits the sites where it may be planted. The tree is sus- unopened legumes are collected, they should be dried in the
ceptible to termites, shoot borers, and heart rot (Webb and sun for 1 month; then the woody legumes should be forced
others 1984). Although the genus is reported to have 3 open and the seeds removed. Seeds are relatively loosely
species, flamboyan is the most cosmopolitan. A native of attached in lateral grooves inside the legume. Dry seeds
Madagascar, it has been planted in nearly every country in store very well in either open or closed containers and do
frost-free areas and is perhaps the most important flowering not require refrigerated storage (Francis 1994). Seeds stored
ornamental tropical tree of the world (Meninger 1962). for 12 months at 26 °C germinated at 60% (Marrero 1949).
Use. This is a beautiful tree in form, shade, and Webb and others (1984) reported viability after 4 years stor-
flower. The flowers are predominantly red, although yellow age but do not give germination rate or percentage germina-
and orange forms are cultivated; they are relatively short- tion.
lived as cut flowers. Trees remain in flower for several
weeks, however. They are often seen planted along roadsides
Figure 1—Delonix regia, flamboyan: mature seed.
as living fence posts or as shade trees on both sides of the
road that arch over the entire road. The wood is yellow-
brown, weak, brittle, and soft, with a specific gravity of
about 0.3. Although the species is not a good timber source,
the wood is widely used as firewood. The legume (pod) is
edible (Little and Wadsworth 1964; Menninger 1962; Webb
and others 1984).
Flowering and fruiting. Showy flowers follow a dry
season when the tree is almost leafless. The 5-pointed calyx
is hairy and borne on racemes 15 to 25 cm long. Flowers are
commonly red but may be white, yellow, orange, or yellow
and vary from 8 to 25 cm across. Although flowers form
after the dry season and during the wet season, they persist
References
Duarte O. 1974. Improving royal poinciana seed germination. Plant Millat-E-Mustafa M. 1989. Effect of hot water treatment on the germination
Propagator 20(1): 15–16. of seed of Albizzia lebbeck and Delonix regia. Bano-Biggyan-Patrika
Francis JK. 1994. Personal communication. Rìo Piedras, PR: USDA Forest 18(1/2): 63–64.
Service, International Institute of Tropical Forestry. Navarette EJ. [no date]. Informacion basica y tratamientos pregerminativos
Francis JK, Liogier HA. 1991. Naturalized exotic tree species in Puerto Rico. en semillas forestales. Colombia: Ministerio de Agricultura, Estacion
Gen.Tech. Rep. SO-82. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forestal la Florida. 28 p.
Forest Experiment Station. 12 p. Sandiford M. 1988. Burnt offerings: an evaluation of the hot-wire seed
Little EL Jr, Wadsworth FH. 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the scarifier. Commonwealth Forestry Review 67(3): 285–292.
Virgin Islands. Agric. Handbk. 249. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Webb DB, Wood PJ, Smith JP, Henman GS. 1984. A guide to species selec-
Service: 176–177. tion for tropical and sub-tropical plantations.Trop. For. Pap. 15, 2nd ed.
Marrero J. 1949. Tree seed data from Puerto Rico. Caribbean Forester 10: Oxford, UK: University of Oxford, Commonwealth Forestry Institute:
11–30. 256 p.
Menninger EA. 1962. Flowering trees of the world. New York: Hearthside
Press. 336 p.
Delonix • 469
D Papaveraceae—Poppy family
Dendromecon Benth.
bushpoppy
W. Gary Johnson and Donald L. Neal
Mr. Johnson retired from the USDA Forest Service’s National Seed Laboratory; Dr. Neal retired from the
USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Bushpoppies few flowers throughout the year. Fruits are linear, grooved
(also known as treepoppies) are openly branched, evergreen capsules measuring 5 to 10 cm long, with 2 valves that sepa-
shrubs from 0.6 to 2.5 m high, sometimes to 6 m. They have rate incompletely at maturity. Ripe fruits (those that explode
a woody base with gray or white shreddy-barked stems. The when grasped) may be collected in May, June, and July
2.5- to 10-cm-long leaves are mostly lanceolate, 3 to 8 times (Neal 1974). Fruits are dehiscence, scattering the seeds (fig-
longer than wide (LHBH 1976). Environmental factors and ure 1) up to several meters from the shrub, and ants disperse
shoot growth pattern affect leaf size (Bullock 1989). The the seeds, some below and others above the ground.
2 species considered here grow on dry chaparral slopes, Concentrations of seeds can be found around the entrances
ridges, and washes below 1,830 m. One species is found in of harvester ant—Pogonomyrmex and Veromessor spp.—
California’s Channel Islands and the other in the coastal nests (Bullock 1989).
range, from Sonoma County to the Sierra San Pedro Martir, Collection, cleaning, and storage. The black seeds
Baja California, Mexico, and in the west foothills of the are almost spherical, 2 to 4 mm in diameter, with a slightly
Sierra Nevada, from Shasta County to Tulare County (table
1). Bush-poppies rely on seed production to propagate. No Figure 1—Dendromecon harfordii, island bushpoppy: seeds.
lignotuber is formed on sprouts that appear after burning, so
regrowth after fire is rare (Bullock 1989). The genus is use-
ful for watershed protection (Sampson and Jespersen 1963)
and for forage. Goats are especially fond of bushpoppies,
and deer (Odocoileus spp.) and sheep eat the sprouts after
fire.
Flowering and fruiting. Flowers are bisexual, yellow,
showy, and solitary on stalks. At several locations, the
shrubs first flowered in their second spring (Bullock 1989).
Flowers appear in April through June and sometimes into
August (Munz and Keck 1959). Bullock (1989) reports that
the shrubs flower profusely from February through April in
the Santa Monica Mountains. Several populations produce a
Dendromecon • 471
D Ebenaceae—Ebony family
Diospyros L.
persimmon
David F. Olson, Jr., R. L. Barnes, and W. Gary Johnson
Drs. Olson and Barnes retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Southeastern Forest Experiment Station;
Mr. Johnson retired from the USDA Forest Service’s National Seed Laboratory
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Nearly 200 ing hard, smooth-wearing wood (Olson and Barnes 1974).
species of persimmons—Diospyros L.—are widely distrib- At present, such uses have diminished because of the use of
uted, mostly in tropical regions. Only 2 persimmons—com- laminates and other substitute materials.
mon persimmon and Texas persimmon—are native to the 48 The fruits are exceedingly astringent when green, but
contiguous states. Two others are grown in mild regions: delicious when thoroughly ripe (Harlow and Harrar1958);
Japanese persimmon for fruit and date-plum for root stock they are eaten by humans, animals, and birds. The common
(table 1). Other persimmons are native to the tropical persimmon is a valuable honey plant and has been cultivated
regions of the United States—Diospyros hillebrandii for its handsome foliage and fruit since 1629. Several vari-
(Seem.) Fosberg and D. sandwicensis (A. DC.) Fosberg in eties have been developed for fruit production (Harlow and
Hawaii (Little and Skolman 1989) and D. revoluta Poir. and Harrar 1958).
D. sintenisii (Krug & Urban) Standl. in Puerto Rico (Little Texas persimmon is a shrub or small tree of south Texas
and others 1974). and northeast Mexico, usually 1.8 to 3 m tall but sometimes
Common persimmon is a small to medium-sized decidu- reaching 12 m, with 4-cm-long leaves (Everitt 1984; LHBH
ous tree, normally attaining a height of 9 to 18 m at maturity 1976). The fruits are important wildlife food, but the shrub
(Sargent 1965). It occurs in open woods and as an invader of is considered as undesirable in rangelands of the Southwest
old fields from Connecticut west through southern Ohio to (Everitt 1984).
eastern Kansas, and south to Florida and Texas (Sargent Japanese persimmon (kaki) and date-plum are small per-
1965). Common persimmon develops best in the rich bottom simmons from Asia grown commercially in the milder
lands along the Mississippi River and its tributaries and in regions of the United States. Japanese persimmon grows to
coastal river valleys. In these optimum habitats, common 14 m, with 18-cm-long leaves and large delicious fruit;
persimmon trees often attain heights of 21 to 24 m and many varieties are listed. Date-plum grows to 14 m, with
diameters of 51 to 61 cm (Morris 1965). leaves 13 cm long; it is often used as a rootstock for
In past years, persimmon wood was used extensively for Japanese persimmon (LHBH 1976).
weaver’s shuttles, golf club heads, and other products requir-
Diospyros • 473
screen cleaner to remove trash and twigs. Use of a gravity increased to 10 weeks (Oh and others 1988). No pretreat-
D table with high air may also be necessary (Myatt and others ment is needed to germinate Texas persimmon seeds (Vora
1988). The seeds can then be safely stored in sealed dry 1989).
containers at 5 °C (Engstrom and Stoeckler 1941). Germination tests. Germination of stratified common
One hundred kilograms (220 pounds) of fruit of the persimmon seeds was tested in sand or peat flats at diurnally
common persimmon will yield 10 to 30 kg (22 to 66 lbs) of alternating temperatures of 20 to 30 °C. Germinative ener-
cleaned seeds (Olson and Barnes 1974); the number of seeds gies ranging from 54 to 94% were obtained in 20 to 34
per weight ranges from 1,460 to 3,880/kg (665 to 1,764/lb), days; and germinative capacities at 60 days varied from 62
with an average of 2,640 seeds/kg (1,200/lb) (table 2) to 100% (Olson and Barnes 1974). Payne achieved 90% uni-
(Aroeira 1962; Engstrom and Stoeckler 1941; Olson and form germination on common persimmon and date-plum by
Barnes 1974). Seedlots of 96% purity and 90% soundness stratifying the seeds for 60 to 90 days in wet vermiculite
have been obtained (Olson and Barnes 1974). after lightly dusting them with a fungicide. Scratching the
Japanese persimmon has about 3,400 seeds/kg seedcoat can shorten the stratification period (Payne 1996).
(1,550/lb). Seeds stored at 0 °C at 45% moisture content Fresh Japanese persimmon seeds taken from ripe fruits
retained the greatest viability after 18 months. Viability and sown immediately germinate best. Germination ranged
decreased rapidly as the seeds were dried, regardless of the from 20 to 77% in a study of 18 cultivars with fresh seeds
speed of drying, with almost no germination at moisture sown immediately (Dirr and Heuser 1987). Date-plum seeds
contents below 10% (Kotobuki 1978). Date-plum has about germinated best without light at alternating 18 to 30 °C with
8,910 seeds/kg (4,040/lb). 10 weeks stratification at 5 °C. Germination of seeds strati-
Pregermination treatments. Natural germination of fied for 2 weeks was increased by treating them with 500
common persimmon usually occurs in April or May, but 2- ppm gibberellin (GA3) (Oh and others 1988). Fresh Texas
to 3-year delays have been observed (Blomquist 1922; persimmon seeds sown immediately after extraction germi-
Olson and Barnes 1974). The main cause of the delay is the nated 33%. Germination was reduced with all other treat-
seed covering, which caps the radical, restricts the embryo, ments (Dirr and Heuser 1987).
and causes a decrease in water absorption (Blomquist 1922). The tetrazolium chloride staining test is often used to
After removal of this cap, 100% germination was secured estimate the viability of common persimmon and date-plum
with mature seeds collected in the autumn (Blomquist seeds due to the long stratification period needed to over-
1922). Seed dormancy also can be broken by stratification in come dormancy. Clipping the radicle end of a seed with toe-
sand or peat for 60 to 90 days at 3 to 10 °C (Aroeira 1962; nail clippers and soaking the seed for several days in water
Crocker 1930; Olson and Barnes 1974; Thornhill 1968). or 500 ppm GA3 will soften it. Then it should be cut length-
Sulfuric acid scarification for 2 hours proved to be less wise to expose the embryo and storage tissue for staining.
effective in breaking dormancy than did stratification Nursery practice. Common persimmon seeds may be
(Aroeira 1962). fall-sown or stratified and sown in the spring. In Missouri,
Japanese persimmon does not have strong dormancy. Oh fall-sowing at a depth of 5 cm (2 in) is the normal practice,
and others (1988) have shown that, although stratification and seedbeds are mulched. Steavenson (Olson and Barnes
was not essential, it improved germination. Rate of germina- 1974) reported a tree percent of 50%; an average tree per-
tion of date-plum seeds increased as the stratification length cent of 25 to 33% is easily attainable. Seedlings of this
Cleaned seeds/weight
Range Average
Species /kg /lb /kg /lb Samples
References
Diospyros • 475
D Thymelaeaceae—Mezereum family
Dirca palustris L.
eastern leatherwood
John C. Zasada, David S. Buckley, Elizabeth Ann Nauertz, and Colleen F. Matula
Dr. Zasada retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Research Station; Dr. Buckley is an
ecologist and Ms. Nauertz is a biological technician at the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Research
Station, Grand Rapids, Minnesota; Ms. Matula is a botanist at the USDA Forest Service’s Ottawa National
Forest, Bessemer Ranger District, Bessemer, Michigan
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Eastern leather- become established in some areas. The information present-
wood—Dirca palustris L.—is also known as moosewood, ed here is for eastern leatherwood; some of it may also
rope-bark, and wicopy. Its natural distribution extends from apply to western leatherwood.
New Brunswick to Ontario in the north and from northern In its natural habitat, eastern leatherwood reaches a
Florida to Louisiana in the south (Fernald 1950). Within this height of 3 to 4 m and basal diameters of 5 to 10 cm. Crown
range, the distribution is restricted to very specific site con- width and depth of larger plants can be as much as 2 to 3 m;
ditions. It is found almost exclusively in mesic, relatively the largest crown volumes that we have measured are in the
rich hardwood forests or mixed conifer–hardwood forests range of 15 to 25 m3. Crown architecture can be fairly com-
(Alban and others 1991; Curtis 1959; Fernald 1950; Ferrari plex, with frequent branching and numerous apical growing
1993; Jones 2000; Kotar and others 1988; Meeker and oth- points (figure 1). The largest individuals that we have
ers 1993; Neveling 1962; Rooney 1996; Soper and observed are in old-growth northern hardwood forests where
Heimberger 1982; Voss 1985; Weir-Koetter 1996). In aspen logging is prohibited and in older hardwood stands managed
ecosystems across the upper Great Lakes region, leather- under a single-tree selection system. The maximum age
wood is present in stands with a relatively high aspen site attained by leatherwood is not known, but 30- to 50-year-
index and a significant northern hardwood component old plants occur in older hardwood forests.
(Alban and others 1991). In Ontario, the northern limit of
distribution is similar to that of beech (Fagus grandifolia Figure 1—Dirca palustris, eastern leatherwood: mature
forest-grown plant in full flower, with plant about 1.3 m tall.
Ehrh.) and sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.)(Soper and
Heimberger 1982). The distribution of plants on a particular
site can vary from apparently random to aggregated (Jones
2000). Forests in which leatherwood is common are charac-
terized by a dense overstory that permits relatively little
light to reach the forest floor during the growing season. It
is often the only true understory shrub in these stands; the
other woody understory species are tolerant to mid-tolerant
trees—for example, sugar maple, ironwood (Ostrya virgini-
ana (Mill.) K. Koch.), white ash (Fraxinus americana L.),
eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.), and balsam
fir (Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.)—having the capacity to grow
into the overstory (Alban and others 1991; Buckley 1996;
Ferrari 1993; Jones 2000).
Western leatherwood—D. occidentalis Gray—is very
similar to eastern leatherwood (Neveling 1962). Its distribu-
tion is limited to the wooded hills of the San Francisco Bay
region (Vogelman 1953). Flower descriptions and morpho-
logical comparisons of the 2 species are provided by
Vogelman (1953). A related species in the Thymelaeaceae—
Daphne mezereum L.—is an introduced species that has
Dirca • 477
anthers still contained pollen in early June. Flower parts Figure 4—Dirca palustris, eastern leatherwood: ripe fruits
D drop quickly if pollination/fertilization is not successful but collected shortly after dispersal.
remain attached to developing fruits for a longer period (fig-
ure 3). Fruits ripen in June and July, with one report of
ripening as late as September–October (Vogelman 1953).
About 1 month (mid-June) after the first flowers appear in
northern Wisconsin–Michigan, 75% of seeds contained
embryos that filled 80% or more of the seed; 5% of the
seeds were less than 50% filled. When fully ripe, the
endosperm is a minor component of the seed (figure 4)
(Neveling 1962; Zasada and others 1996). The outermost
fleshy portion of the fruit cannot be separated easily from
the seed coat until mid-late June.
Immature fruits are green and change to a very light
green; some fruits are almost white when they fall from the
plant. There are some reports that fruits turn reddish when
mature (McVaugh 1941; Meeker and others 1993; Neveling
1962). However, McVaugh (1941) summarized the literature
and concluded that although the reddish fruit color can be
observed in dried herbarium specimens, his own and other’s ers produce fruits. Fruits with 2 seeds were observed, but
observations led to the conclusion that mature fruits are light they were very rare. Clusters with 1 to 3 fruits were most
to yellowish green. We found no evidence in the 8 stands common, as many flowers do not produce fruits. Clusters of
studied in Wisconsin and Michigan that fruits were reddish more than 4 fruits are uncommon or rare. Number of flow-
in color when mature. The fleshy outer fruit wall (figure 5) ers, fruit set, and number of fruits per cluster varies annually
of naturally dispersed fruits turns black within about 24 and among stands in the same year (table 1).
hours in some fruits, but in others it remains light green for The fruit (figure 3) is a drupe and described as “bilater-
several days. ally symmetrical, somewhat spindle-shaped....circular in
Each flower has the potential to produce 1 single-seeded cross-section at the widest point...and (having) a narrow,
fruit, and hence fruits can be in clusters of 3 to 7 if all flow- slightly elevated ridge...from the base of the style down the
whole length of the fruit” (McVaugh 1941). Fruits are
reported as 9 to 12 mm long for Ontario populations (Soper
Figure 3—Dirca palustris, eastern leatherwood: fully
developed but immature fruits. Flower parts are still and Heimberger 1982), 12 to 15 mm long by 7 mm wide
attached to some fruits. Fruit length varies from 6.5 to (Vogelman 1953) for Michigan and Indiana populations, and
15 mm in the northern Wisconsin–Michigan area where 12.5 to 15 mm long (McVaugh 1941) for New York popula-
fruits were collected. tions. Average dimensions for fruits from 6 northern
Wisconsin–Michigan populations were 8.5 to 9.5 mm long
by 5.5 to 6.5 mm wide. Range in length was from 6.5 to
15.0 mm and width 4.5 to 7.5 mm for these latter popula-
tions (Zasada and others 1996). The fresh weight of individ-
ual fruits containing fully developed seeds varied from 0.08
to 0.23 g. Moisture content of whole fruits was 100 to 175%
(dry weight basis) for dispersed fruits and those about to be
dispersed.
Individual seeds, with their fleshy coats removed
(figure 4), were 5.5 to 8.5 mm long and 3.5 to 5.0 mm wide
for northern Wisconsin–Michigan populations. Fresh seed
weight varied from 0.04 to 0.08 g and percentage moisture
content was 40 to 55% (dry weight basis; seeds dried to a
constant weight at 65 °C) for seeds collected from the
ground shortly after dispersal; individual seeds on plants
Hardwood forest
1995 153 5–515 23 22 48 30 40 0–386
1995 198 21–695 — — — — 194 13–840
1996 — — 55 20 41 19 —
Pine forest
1995 59 0–255 2 0 77 23 3 0–45
1995 85 0–325 — 14 57 29 —
1996 — — 23 — — — 36 0–260
Note: fpc = fruits per cluster; these populations did not have 4-flower or 4-fruit clusters in the 2 years of observation.
* Based on 15 randomly selected shrubs in each stand.
† To obtain total number of flowers, multiply by 3.
Figure 5—Dirca palustris, eastern leatherwood: seeds the seeds (Zasada and others 1996).
with fleshy outer fruit wall removed. All seeds have a light- The general anatomical features of a seed are illustrated
colored area along which the ovular trace is located; the 2 in figure 6. The ovular trace and the pore through which it
seeds in the center are positioned to show this area.
passes are an interesting feature of the seed (Neveling
1962). The pore appears filled with a fibrous material in
seeds that have fallen from the plant. The black, stony seed-
coat does not appear to completely seal the pore, even at
maturity.
Collection of fruits; extraction and storage of seeds.
Fruits ripen in June and July. McVaugh (1941) observed that
dispersal for plants in New York was completed by the fol-
lowing dates during a 3-year period—June 20, July 1–3, and
later than July 7. In northern Wisconsin–Michigan popula-
tions, fruits have been observed on plants as late as July 16,
but as observed by McVaugh (1941), dispersal was complet-
ed by July 1 in some years. The seeds disappear fairly
quickly once they are fully mature but are fairly obvious on
the soil surface for several days after dispersal (Dirr and
Heuser 1987; McVaugh 1941; Nevling 1962; Soper and
Heimberger 1982). During windy periods, deposition rates
were as high as 27 fruits/m2/hr under 1 shrub. Timing of
from which seeds were being dispersed but still firmly fruit abscission and fruit drop vary among plants in a stand,
attached to the peduncle had moisture contents of 100 to among branches within a plant and among fruits in a cluster
125% (Zasada and others 1996). Mature seeds are dark (Zasada and others 1996). In an area where dispersal was
brown-black with a well-developed lighter longitudinal strip followed on a daily basis, seeds from the entire population
(figure 5). The strip is the point of attachment of the seed to were dispersed over about a 2-week period; some plants
the fruit wall in the area of the elevated ridge, which is a shed all of their seeds in 2 to 3 days, whereas others dis-
noticeable aspect of the shape of the fruit; the ovular trace is persed seeds over a 6- to 8-day period.
attached to the seed in this strip (figures 3 to 6) (McVaugh Birds do not seem to be a critical factor in seed removal,
1941; Neveling 1962). but they do consume some seeds and may be more impor-
Embryo length varied from 4 to 6 mm and from 2 to 4 tant than our observations suggest. They may remove entire
mm in width in the Wisconsin–Michigan populations. At fruits, but, in some cases, they remove only the seed, leaving
maturity, the embryo fills 95% or more of the seed; a small the fleshy fruit coat attached to the plant. Although the level
cavity develops at both poles of the seed (figure 6). Multiple of fruit use by rodents after dispersal is not known, it seems
embryos, all poorly developed, occurred in less than 0.5% of that this might be an important way in which seeds are
Dirca • 479
Figure 6—Dirca palustris, eastern leatherwood: general- wall, develops between the fleshy fruit wall and the hard
D ized longitudinal section of mature seed, based on Neveling inner seed coat, making it fairly easy to hand-clean small
(1962) and Buckley (1996).
quantities of seeds. The stony seedcoat is easily broken with
the pressure of a fingernail and the seed can be squashed by
squeezing between the thumb and forefinger with moderate
pressure. Consequently, any type of mechanical cleaning
must be done with care.
No information was found on the best ways to handle
fruits or store seeds. Seeds remain viable in the forest floor
from the time of dispersal until they germinate in the spring
(del Tredici 1984), suggesting that storage for at least 8 to
10 months is possible. Seeds are exposed to a fairly wide
range of temperature and moisture conditions between dis-
persal and germination.
Germination. Detailed information on the effects of
environmental conditions on germination was not found. del
Tredici (1984) used a number of standard methods to stimu-
late gemination, but untreated seeds planted in a nursery bed
soon after they were collected were the only ones that pro-
duced seedlings (67% germination). Dirr and Heuser (1987)
reported that both cleaned and uncleaned (fleshy fruit wall
removed) seeds produced seedlings. In controlled environ-
ment studies, a seedlot was observed to produce germinants
over at least a 3-year period (Zasada and others 1996).
Nursery. Based on the limited information available,
we recommend planting seeds soon after collection with and
without the fleshy fruit wall in order to provide the range of
removed from the seed pool. Remnants of the black, stony conditions under which seeds appear to germinate naturally;
seedcoat are fairly common under plants about 1 month seeds sown this way will germinate the next spring (del
after dispersal. Tredici 1984; Dirr and Heuser 1987). Dirr and Heuser
If seeds are needed, we recommend keeping a close (1987) reported finding a number of young plants under a
watch on shrubs with fruits and collecting the fruits soon as mature plant growing in a landscaped area, indicating that it
they are ripe. Once some fruits fall naturally, all fruits have might be possible to obtain some small seedlings from these
fully developed seeds. Embryo development is easily situations. The growth rate of seedlings under open condi-
checked by cutting seeds longitudinally; those that are fully tions is not documented. In its natural habitat, seedlings
developed will appear as in figure 6. grow to a height of 20 to 30 cm in 5 to 10 years.
Fruits can be picked by hand from the plant. However, There has been little or no success in stimulating rooting
when fully ripened, they readily fall when the plant is shak- in stem cuttings (Dirr and Heuser 1987). Layering occurs
en and could be collected from the ground. Because each under natural conditions, suggesting that air-layering is a
fruit contains only 1 seed, the number of seedlings desired potential option for propagating leatherwood. However,
(plus additional seeds as insurance against poor germina- Hendricks (1985) reported that air-layered stems did not
tion) will determine the number of fruits required. Based on produce roots or callus during an 8-week period. Our obser-
cutting tests, 90 to 100% of developed fruits contained seeds vations of layering of branches and the main stem under nat-
with apparently viable embryos. ural conditions suggest that it might take longer than 8
The pulp can be removed by hand or mechanically. weeks for rooting to occur.
When the seeds are fully mature, a cavity, with the excep-
tion of the attachment between the ovular trace and fruit
Alban DH, Perala DA, Jurgensen MF, Ostry ME, Probst JR. 1991. Aspen Holm T. 1921. Dirca palustris L.: a morphological study. American Journal of
ecosystems properties in the upper Great Lakes. Res. Pap. NC-300. St. Science 2: 177–182.
Paul: USDA Forest Service, North Central Forest and Range Experiment Jones C. 2000. Growth and establishment of eastern leatherwood (Dirca
Station. 47 p. palustris) in relation to forest management history [MS thesis].
Alden HA. 1995. Hardwoods of North America. Gen.Tech. Rep. FPL-83. Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University. 75 p.
Madison, WI: USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 136 p. Kotar J, Kovach JA, Locey CT. 1988. Field guide to forest habitat types of
Curtis JT. 1959. The vegetation of Wisconsin. Madison: University of northern Wisconsin. Madison: University of Wisconsin, Department of
Wisconsin Press. 657 p. Natural Resources.
Buckley DS. 1996. Unpublished data. Rhinelander, WI: USDA Forest McVaugh R. 1941. The fruit of eastern leatherwood. Castanea 6: 83–86.
Service, North Central Research, Forestry Sciences Laboratory. Meeker JE, Elias JE, Heim JA. 1993. Plants used by the Great Lakes Ojibway.
del Tredici P. 1991. Propagating leatherwood: a lesson in humility. Arnoldia Odanah, WI: Great Lakes Indian and Wildlife Commission. 440 p.
51 (4): 62–66. Neveling LI. 1962. The Thymelae[a]ceae in the southeastern United States.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 43: 428–434.
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. Ramsewak RS, Nair MG, DeWitt DL, Mattson WG, Zasada JC. 1999.
Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, orna- Phenolic glycosides from Dirca palustris. Journal of Natural Products 62:
mental characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. Champaign, IL: 1558–1561.
Stipes Publishing. 1007 p. Rooney SC. 1996. Personal communication. Houlton, ME: Consulting
Esson JG. 1949. Leatherwood for early spring bloom. Journal of the New botanist.
York Botanical Gardens 50: 57–59. Soper JH, Heimberger ML. 1982. Shrubs of Ontario.Toronto: Royal
Fernald ML. 1943. The fruit of Dirca palustris. Rhodora 45: 117–119. Ontario Museum. 495 p.
Fernald ML. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. 8th ed. New York: American Vogelman H. 1953. A comparison of Dirca palustris and Dirca occidentalis
Book Co. 1632 p. (Thymelaeaceae). Asa Gray Bulletin 2(1): 77–82.
Ferrari JB. 1993. Spatial patterns of litterfall, nitrogen cycling, and understory Voss EG. 1985. Michigan flora. Part 2, Dicots. Bull. 59. Ann Arbor: University
vegetation in a hemlock–hardwood forest [PhD thesis]. St. Paul: of Michigan, Cranbrook Institute of Science. 724 p.
University of Minnesota. 180 p. Weir-Koetter C. 1996. Of moosewood and blue beech. Better Forests
Hendricks DR. 1985. Air layering native woody plants. Proceedings of the (Winter 1996): 20–21.
International Plant Propagators’ Society 34: 528–531. Zasada JC, Buckley D, Nauertz E. 1996. Unpublished data. Rhinelander, WI:
USDA Forest Service, North Central Research Experiment Station,
Forestry Sciences Laboratory
Dirca • 481
E Fabaceae—Pea family
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
References
Alaniz MA, Everitt JH. 1978. Germination of Texas ebony seeds. Journal of Vora RS, Schumacher RW, Labus Z. 1988. Planting seeds of four south
the Rio Grande Valley Horticultural Society 32: 95–100. [Horticultural Texas native species under mulch cover.Texas Journal of Science 40:
Abstracts 49(12): 9556; 1979]. 456–458.
Little EL, Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). Walters GA, Bonner FT, Petteys EQP. 1974. Pithecellobium Mart., blackbead.
Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p. In: Schopmeyer CS,Tech. Cord. Seeds of woody plants in the United
Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin: States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
University of Texas Press. 1104 p. 639–640.
Vora RS. 1989. Seed germination characteristics of selected native plants of
the lower Rio Grande Valley,Texas. Journal of Range Management 42:
36–40.
Ebenopsis • 483
E Elaeagnaceae—Oleaster family
Elaeagnus L.
elaeagnus
David F. Olson, Jr., and Jill R. Barbour
Dr. Olson retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Southeastern Forest Experiment Station; Ms. Barbour is a
germination specialist at the USDA Forest Service’s National Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, Georgia
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus distributed by birds following consumption of the ripe
Elaeagnus includes about 40 species of shrubs and trees, fruits (Turcek 1961).
but there are only 3 species that are valuable for planting Collection of fruits; extraction and storage of seeds.
and for which reliable information is available (table 1). Ripe fruits are collected by picking them from the plants by
Although these deciduous trees and shrubs are grown often hand or by beating or stripping them from the branches
as ornamentals, they also produce edible fruits and serve as onto canvas or plastic sheets, usually from September to
a source of wildlife food and as honey plants. Russian-olive December (Olson 1974). Fruits may be spread out to dry or
is grown widely and has escaped from cultivation in many run through a macerator with water and the pulp floated off
river lowland areas, particularly in the Great Plains, where or screened out (Heit 1968; Olson 1974). Accordingly,
it was extensively planted for shelterbelts (Olson 1974). In commercial seedlots may consist of either dried fruits or
many areas, it has become invasive. cleaned stones. Dried fruits or cleaned stones at a moisture
Flowering and fruiting. The fragrant, small, perfect content from 6 to 14% can be stored successfully in sealed
flowers are borne in late spring (table 2) and are pollinated containers at 1 to 10 °C (Heit 1967; Mickelson 1968; Olson
by insects (Mowry 1971). The fruit is a dry and indehiscent 1974; Peaslee 1969). Under ordinary storage conditions,
achene that is enveloped by a persistent fleshy perianth and seeds of silverberry remain viable for 1 to 2 years and those
hence is drupaceous (Jack 1969) (figures 1–3). The color of of Russian-olive up to 3 years (Olson 1974). The number of
ripe fruit varies with the species (table 3). Seeds are often cleaned seeds (stones) per weight and other important yield
Sources: Fernald (1950), Harrington (1954), Olson (1974), Rehder (1940), Small (1933).
Species Location Flowering Fruit ripening Seed dispersal Seed size (mm)
Source: Borell (1962), Dietz (1969), Hora (1981), McDermand (1969), Radford and others (1964), Rehder (1940).
Elaeagnus • 485
Table 3—Elaeagnus, elaeagnus: height; seed-bearing age, seedcrop frequency, and fruit ripeness criteria
E
Minimum Years
Height at Year first seed-bearing between large Fruit ripeness criteria
Species maturity (m) cultivated age (yr) seedcrops Preripe color Ripe color
Sources: Belcher and Washburn (1965), Carroll (1971), Harrington (1954), Heit (1970), Hinds (1967), McDermand (1969), Mickelson (1968), Molberg (1969), Mowry
(1971), Olson (1974), Schumacher (1968), Zarger (1968).
1962). After intact seeds were stratified at 5 °C for periods both ends to open the embryo cavity. After 48 hours of soak-
of 40 to 110 days, the germination ranged from 23 to 75%, ing in 1% tetrazolium chloride, the seeds should be cut lon-
respectively (Corns and Schraa 1962). Supplemental treat- gitudinally to expose the embryos. The radicle tips and as
ments such as hot water soaks, gibberillic acid, and potassi- much as one-third of the distal cotyledons can be unstained,
um nitrate (KNO3) soaks did not affect the germination of and the seeds still considered viable. A secondary procedure
silverberry (Corns and Schraa 1962). calls for longitudinal cuts at the beginning.
Germination tests. Some germination test results on Nursery practice. Seeds may be sown 13 to 25 mm
stratified seeds are listed in table 5. Germination is epigeal. (1/2 to 1 in) deep in the late summer or fall without stratifi-
Silverberry had the best total germination (95 to 96%) and cation, or in the spring after 10 to 90 days of cold stratifica-
speed of germination after 60 to 90 days of stratification at tion (Baker 1969; Growl 1968; Hinds 1967; Jack 1969;
4 °C (Morgenson 1990). Seeds of silverberry used for strip McDermand 1969; Mickelson 1968; Molberg 1969; Olson
mine reclamation yielded the highest germination (80%) 1974; Zarger 1968). July seeding after 90 days of stratifica-
after a 2-day warm (50 °C) water soak (Fung 1984). Results tion gave excellent germination of Russian-olive in southeast
for autumn-olive seeds indicated that the optimum germina- Saskatchewan (Cram and Elliott 1966). In Michigan,
tion was achieved with cold stratification at 5 °C for 16 autumn-olive is seeded by broadcasting 1.7 kg of fresh fruit/
weeks and a night/day temperature of 10/20 °C (Fowler and 10 m2 of bed area (1 lb/25 ft2) (Carroll 1971). At the Los
Fowler 1987). Tests on excised embryos of Russian-olive Lunas Plant Material Center, Russian-olive is sown at a rate
have been completed in a very short time (Heit 1955). of 200 seeds, or 40 g (1.4 oz) of clean seeds/m, which yields
Belcher and Karrfalt (1979) found that it took 1 hour to 150 usable plants. In areas with a large population of mice,
completely excise the embryo from the seed and it resulted the pulp should be removed and cleaned seeds used for sow-
in 100% germination after 3 days incubation at 20 to 30 °C. ing (Carroll 1971). Russian-olive seedlings are susceptible
Viability testing with 2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride to damage from rabbits and must be protected if these
stain yielded 86% viable seeds for Russian-olive and 68 % rodents are a problem.
viable seeds for autumn-olive (Olson 1974). Rules of the Soil splash, which coats the pubescent leaves of newly
International Seed Testing Association (ISTA 1993) call for emerged seedlings, is an important cause of mortality, and
the use of tetrazolium staining for elaeagnus. Seeds should consequently, nursery beds should be mulched to cover the
be soaked in water for 18 hours, then cut transversely at soil and prevent rain spattering (Carroll 1971; Growl 1968;
Sources: Belcher and Washburn (1965), Heit (1968), Molberg (1969), Olson (1974).
* Seeds were stratified for 10 to 90 days at 1.1 to 10 ºC.
Hinds 1967; Mickelson 1968; Molberg 1969; Olson 1974; Heit CE.1967. Propagation from seed: 6. Hard-seededness—a critical factor.
American Nurseryman 125(10): 10–12, 88–96.
Zarger 1968). A seedling density of 130 to 320/m2 (12 to Heit CE.1968. Propagation from seed: 15. Fall planting of shrub seeds for
30/ft2) is desirable (Baker 1969; Molberg 1969; Zarger successful seedling production. American Nurseryman 128 (4): 8–10,
70–80.
1968). Stock usually is field planted as 1+0 or 2+0 Heit CE. 1970. Personal communication. Geneva, NY: Cornell University,
seedlings, and grows well in most soils, including limestone New York State Agricultural Experiment Station.
Hinds LW. 1967. Personal communication. Bismarck, ND: Lincoln-Oakes
or alkaline soils (Stoeckeler 1946). Nurseries.
Hogue EJ, LaCroix LJ. 1970. Seed dormancy of Russian olive (Eleagnus
angustifolia L.). Journal of the American Society of Horticultural Science
95(4): 449–452.
References Hora B.1981. The Oxford encyclopedia of trees of the world. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. 288 p.
ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds:
Allan PF, Steiner WF. 1965. Autumn olive for wildlife and other rules 1993. Seed Science and Technology 21 (Suppl.): 1–259.
conservation uses. Leaflet 458. Washington, DC: USDA. Jack RA. 1969. Personal communication. Silverton, OR: Silver Falls Nursery.
Baker LA. 1969. Correspondence. Elkton, OR: Dwight L. Phipps Forest Lawrence GHM.1951. Taxonomy of vascular plants. New York: Macmillan.
Nursery. 823 p.
Belcher EW, Karrfalt RP. 1979. Improved methods for testing the viability of Lindquist CH,Cram WH.1967. Propagation and disease investigations:
Russian olive seed. Journal of Seed Technology 4(1): 57–64. summary report for the tree nursery. Indian Head, SK: Canadian
Borell AE. 1962. Russian-olive for wildlife and other conservation uses. Leafl. Department of Agriculture, Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration.
517. Washsington, DC: USDA. 8 p. 42 p.
Carroll DA. 1971. Personal communication. East Lansing, MI: USDA Soil McDermand J. 1969. Personal communication. Bismarck, ND: USDA Soil
Conservation Service, Rose Lake Plant Materials Center. Conservation Service, Bismarck Plant Materials Center.
Corns WG, Schraa RJ. 1962. Dormancy and germination of seeds of silver- Mickelson AS. 1968. Personal communication. Jonesboro, IL: Union State
berry (Eleagnus commutata Bernh). Canadian Journal of Botany 40: Tree Nursery.
1051–1055. Molberg JM. 1969. Personal communication. Bottineau, ND: North Dakota
Cram WH,Thompson AC, Elliott T. 1966. Nursery cultural investigations: School of Forestry.
1966 summary report for the tree nursery. Indian Head, SK: Canada Morgenson G. 1990. Pregermination treatment and stratification of
Department of Agriculture, Prairie Farms Rehabilitation Administration. silverberry seed.Tree Planters’ Notes 41(1): 24–25.
35 p. Mowry CE. 1971. Personal communication. Elsberry, MO: USDA Soil
Crowl JM. 1968. Personal communication. Earlington, KY: Kentucky Conservation Service.
Reclamation Association. Müller H. 1883. The fertilization of flowers.Thompson DW, transl. & ed.
Fernald ML. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. 8th ed. New York: American London: Macmillan.
Book Co. 1632 p. Olson DF Jr. 1974. Elaeagnus L., elaeagnus. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord.
Fowler LJ, Fowler DK. 1987. Stratification and temperature requirements Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450.
for germination of autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata) seed.Tree Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 376–379.
Planters’ Notes 38(1): 14–17. Peaslee AR. 1969. Personal communication. Lakin, WV: Clements State
Fung MYP. 1984. Silverberry seed pretreatment and germination Tree Nursery.
techniques.Tree Planters’ Notes 35(3): 32–33. Radford AE, Ahles HE,Bell CR. 1964. Guide to the vascular flora of the
Hamilton DF, Carpenter PL. 1976. Regulation of seed dormancy in Eleagnus Carolinas. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Book Exchange.
angustifolia by endogenous growth substances. Canadian Journal of 383 p.
Botany 54: 1068–1073. Rehder A.1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. 2nd ed. New York:
Hamilton DF, Carpenter PL. 1976. Factors influencing low-temperature Macmillan. 996 p.
after-ripening in seed of Eleagnus umbellata Thunb. Journal of the Schumacher FW. 1968. Personal communication. Sandwich, MA.
American Society of Horticultural Science 10(2): 171–175. Small JK. 1933. Manual of the southeastern flora. New York: J.K. Small.
Harrington HD. 1954. Manual of the plants of Colorado. Denver: Saga 1554 p.
Books. 666 p. Stoeckeler JH. 1946. Alkali tolerance of drought-hardy trees and shrubs in
Heit CE. 1955. The excised embryo method of testing germination quality the seed and seedling stage. Minnesota Academy of Science Proceedings
of dormant seed. Proceedings of the Association of Official Seed 14: 79–83.
Analysts 45: 108–117. Turcek FJ. 1961. Ökologische Beziehungen der Vögel und Gehölze.
Heit CE.1967. Propagation from seed: 8. Fall planting of fruit and hardwood Bratislava:Verlag der Slowakische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
seeds. American Nurseryman 126(4): 12–13, 85–90. Zarger TG. 1968. Personal communication. Norris,TN:Tennessee Valley
Heit CE.1967. Propagation from seed: 11. Storage of deciduous tree and Authority.
shrub seeds. American Nurseryman 126(10): 12–13, 86–94.
Heit CE. 1968. Personal communication. Geneva, NY: New York State
Agricultural Experiment Station.
Elaeagnus • 487
E Asteraceae—Aster family
Encelia Adans.
encelia
Jane E. Rodgers and Carol Miller
Ms. Rodgers is at the USDI Point Reyes National Seashore, Point Reyes, California; Ms. Miller was a
vegetation specialist at the USDI Joshua Tree National Park’s Center for
Arid Lands Restoration and Native Plants Nursery,Twentynine Palms, California
Other common names. brittlebush, bush-sunflower. the plant after maturity (Kay and others 1977). Seeds may
Growth habit, occurrence and uses. The brittlebush be hand-harvested and stored successfully for several years.
genus—Encelia—includes 14 species of low branching Cleaning is difficult, for seeds are often mixed with dry
shrubs native to western America. The plants are suffrutes- flower and plant parts of similar size and weight. Studies on
cent, often with a pungent odor (Benson and Darrow 1954). long-term storage of seeds of rayless encelia and Acton brit-
Ray flowers (sometimes absent) are yellow, usually conspic- tlebush showed good germination after 4 and 14 years,
uous when present, and produce neither pollen or fertile respectively (Kay and others 1988). Seeds of both species
seeds. Disk flowers are yellow or purple (Benson and that were stored under 4 conditions (–15 °C, 4 °C, room
Darrow 1954). Species frequently hybridize, especially in temperature, and warehouse temperatures) also showed sig-
disturbed areas. Species commonly found in the southwest- nificantly poorer germination rates in the warehouse after
ern United States are listed in table 1. 3 years. Storage conditions studied by Padgett and others
The brittle wood secretes a clear resin used by Native (1999) showed that seedlots stored for 6 months in a stan-
Americans as a glue. In some parts of Mexico, the resin has
been burned as incense for religious ceremonies (Benson
Figure 1—Encelia farinosa, brittlebush: achenes.
and Darrow 1954). The Cahuilla of the southwestern United
States have used gum from this plant as a medicine; the gum
was heated and applied to the chest to relieve pain (Bean
and Saubel 1972).
Flowering and fruiting. Flowering can begin in
February and continue through July, weather conditions per-
mitting. Most encelia flowerheads are yellow or a brown- or
yellow-purple. The achenes are densely compressed, obo-
vate or wedge-shaped, with edges that are long-ciliate and
faces that are glabrous or short-hairy (figures 1 and 2)
(Jepson 1993).
Collection, extraction, and storage. Timing of seed
collection is critical, as the achenes are easily blown from
Temperature (°C) 2 5 10 15 20 25 30 40
Germination (%) 0 1 47 65 55 5 7 0
Encelia • 489
E
Fabaceae—Pea family
Dr. Francis retired from the USDA Forest Service’s International Institute of Tropical Forestry
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. At maturity, the Collection, cleaning, and storage. Seeds can be col-
fast-growing guanacaste is a huge, spreading tree with lected in quantity by picking up the legumes after they have
feathery, bipinnately compound leaves. The trunks of open- fallen to the ground. They can be separated by macerating
grown trees are short and thick, tipped with an inverse cone- the legumes and then washing them to remove the sticky
shaped crown; trunks of trees growing in closed stands have syrup or by picking the seeds from the tough legumes with
much longer boles. Guanacaste grows in both acid and alka- the point of a knife (Francis 1988). One thousand to a few
line soils (Bauer 1982) in forests and savannas from central thousand seeds are produced per tree. The 1.3- to 1.9-cm
Mexico (23°N) through Central America to about the (1/2- to 3/4-in) seeds (figure 2) number 1,100/kg (500/lb)
Equator in northern Brazil (Little and others 1974; (Janzen 1983; Neal 1965). The seeds store well according to
Pennington and Sarukhan 1968). However, the species has Bauer (1982).
been widely planted in tropical and subtropical areas, Germination. Without scarification, a moderate per-
including Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Florida, and centage of the seeds germinate over a span of several
Hawaii (Francis 1988). Guanacaste is recommended for
planting in areas that receive from 750 to 2,000 mm of mean Figure 1—Enterolobium cyclocarpum, guanacaste: seeds
annual precipitation (Bauer 1982; Fournier and Herrera and legume.
1977). Dry seasons of 1 to 6 months are normal in the native
range (Bauer 1982; Janzen 1983). Guanacaste is principally
used as an ornamental and shade tree in parks, estates, and
broad avenues. It is also valued as a pasture shade tree,
especially in Central America. Cattle, horses, and goats feed
heavily on its sweet legumes (pods). The heartwood has a
rich brown color and is in demand for cabinetry, furniture,
crafts, and construction (Chudnoff 1984; Guridi 1980).
Flowering and fruiting. Small white flowers are
borne in clusters or heads at the base of leaves (Little and
others 1974; Pennington and Sarukhan 1968). Flowering
takes place in March and April during the regrowth of new
leaves after the leafless dry season (Hughes and Styles 1984;
Janzen 1983). There is no indication in the literature as to
the age at which flowers first appear; however, trees in a 26-
year-old plantation in Puerto Rico had not yet flowered. The
fruits are shiny, dark brown legumes that curve around one
edge, giving them a shape that resembles a human ear (fig-
ure 1). Legumes are 7 to 12 cm in diameter and contain 8 to
18 seeds (Holdridge and Poveda 1975; Janzen 1983;
Pennington and Sarukhan 1968); they mature the year they
are formed and fall in March and April.
References
Bauer J. 1982. Especies con potential para la reforestación en Honduras, Holdridge, LR, Poveda LR. 1975. Arboles de Costa Rica.Volume 1. San José,
resumenes.Tegucigalpa, Honduras: Corporación Hondureña de Costa Rica: Centro Científico Tropical. 546 p.
Desarrollo Forestal. 42 p. Hughes CE, Styles BT. 1984. Exploration and seed collection of multiple-
Bertoni VR, Juarez VM. 1980. Comportamento de nueve especies forestales purpose dry zone trees in Central America. International Tree Crops
tropicales plantadas en 1971 en el campo experimental “El Tormento”. Journal 3: 1–31.
Revista Ciencia Forestal 25(5): 4–39. Janzen DH. 1983. Costa Rican natural history. Chicago: University of
Chudnoff M. 1984. Tropical timbers of the world. Agric. Handbk. 607. Chicago Press. 816 p.
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 466 p. Little EL Jr, Woodbury RO, Wadsworth FH. 1974. Trees of Puerto Rico and
Fournier LA, Herrera de Fournier ME. 1977. La sucesción ecologica como the Virgin Islands,Volume 2. Agric. Handbk. 449. Washington, DC: USDA
un metodo eficaz para la recuparación del bosque de Costa Rica. Forest Service. 1024 p.
Agronomía Costarricense 1(1): 23–29. Neal MC. 1965. In gardens of Hawaii. Spec. Pub. 50. Honolulu: Bernice P.
Francis JK. 1988. Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Jacq.) Griseb., guanacaste, ear- Bishop Museum. 924 p.
pod tree. Res. Note SO-ITF-SM-15. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Pennington TD, Sarukhan J. 1968. Manual para la identificatión de campo de
Southern Forest Experiment Station. 4 p. los principales árboles tropicales de Mexico. Distrito Federal, México:
Francis JK, Rodríguez A. 1993. Seeds of Puerto Rican trees and shrubs: sec- Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales. 413 p.
ond installment. Res. Note SO-374. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Salazar R. 1985. Tícnicas de producción de leña en fincas pequeñas.
Southern Forest Experiment Station. 5 p. Turrialba, Costa Rica: Centro Agronómico de Investigaciones y
Guridi LI. 1980. La madera en las artisanías del estado de Michoacana. Enseñanza. 459 p.
Boletín Divulgativo 50. Distrito Federal, México: Instituto Nacional de
Investigaciones Forestales. 128 p.
Enterolobium • 491
E Ephedraceae—Ephedra family
Ephedra L.
ephedra or Mormon-tea
Susan E. Meyer
Dr. Meyer is a research ecologist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo Utah
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. The genus attractive and interesting plants, with considerable potential
Ephedra—known in much of North America as Mormon- for landscape use, and green Mormon-tea can now be readi-
tea—comprises about 40 shrubby species that are found ly obtained from commercial nurseries.
throughout the arid and semiarid regions of the Northern Flowering and fruiting. Ephedras are dioecious, with
Hemisphere. Ephedras are gymnosperms that are character- male and female cones occurring on separate plants. The
ized by their greatly reduced, bractlike leaves and their ever- cones are borne singly or in pairs or whorls at the branch
green, broomlike photosynthetic stems. They are common nodes. The seeds are borne singly or in pairs in the axils of
plants in the semiarid region of western North America the female cone scales. The inner cone scales are modified
(table 1) and are often locally codominant with creosotebush to enclose the seed and form integuments that mimic the
(Larrea tridentata (Sessé & Moc. ex DC.) Coville), black- angiosperm pericarp. Flowering usually takes place in
brush (Coleogyne ramosissima Torr.), shadscale saltbush March through May, and seeds ripen from June through
(Atriplex confertifolia (Torr. & Frem.) S. Wats.), and various September, depending on elevation and species. The plants
species of sagebrush (Artemisia spp.). Species of ephedra are wind-pollinated. Ephedra plants do not flower every
are often the dominant vegetation on sand hills at middle year; their reproductive pattern could be described as mast
elevations, where they perform an important role as sand- fruiting, where most individuals in the population flower
binders. They provide a significant source of browse for synchronously in a year with ample rainfall, and large quan-
domestic livestock, especially sheep, and for wild ungulates tities of seeds are produced. The population does not flower
such as mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and pronghorn again for several years, whether or not a high-rainfall year
antelope (Antilocapra americana). The seeds provide food occurs. The seedcrop may be damaged by late frosts, late
for rodents and birds. The twigs, especially those of green spring drought, or infestations of pentatomid bugs.
Mormon-tea, are used to make a reputedly refreshing tea, The distribution of male and female ephedra plants is
although ephedrine, the pharmaceutically active compound not random; individuals on dry slopes are overrepresented
found in the Old World species E. sinica Stapf., has not by males, whereas those growing on run-on surfaces are 4
been detected in any North American species. Ephedras are times as likely to be females as males (Freeman and others
Table 1—Ephedra, ephedra: habit, habitat, and geographic distribution of some species used in revegetation
Seed weight
Range Mean % viability
Species /g /oz /g /oz Range Mean
Sources: Belcher (1985), Kay and others (1977), Meyer (1995), Meyer and others (1995), Monsen (1995).
Ephedra • 493
Figure 2—Ephedra viridis,Torrey Mormon-tea: seeds more dormant lots (AOSA 1993; Meyer and others 1988).
E (outer) and cone (center) with single seed. Ungerminated seeds should be scored for viability using
tetrazolium staining, which is also an acceptable substitute
for a germination test. Seeds should be allowed to imbibe
water, then clipped or slit on the cotyledon end and
immersed in 1% tetrazolium solution for 8 hours. Seeds are
then bisected longitudinally for evaluation.
Nursery and field practice. Large-seeded species of
ephedra have been successfully established from direct seed-
ing using drilling or with a seed dribbler or thimble seeder.
If seeds are distributed aerially, a method for covering them
with soil must be provided, as the seeds must be planted for
successful establishment. Seedlings emerge and establish
quickly and can withstand considerable drought once estab-
lished. Emergence is best from depths of 1 to 2 cm (4/10 to
8/10 in) (Kay and others 1977). Emergence in green
Mormon-tea is epigeal and the seedlings resemble those of
Figure 3—Ephedra nevadensis, Nevada Mormon-tea: long- conifers, whereas emergence in Nevada Mormon-tea is
itudinal section through a seed. reported to be hypogeal (Kay and others 1977). Late-fall-
seedings have been successful in the northern part of the
range, where most effective precipitation comes in winter;
whereas early-summer-seedings are recommended in the
southern part of the range, where rainfall comes in the sum-
mer.
Ephedra planting stock may be produced either in bare-
root or container culture. Plants do best in a coarse well-
drained medium. Roots are fragile, so stock must be handled
very carefully to avoid damage. The root systems of contain-
er stock are often too small to bind the root plug together,
and those of bareroot stock are also usually poorly devel-
oped, resulting in low root–shoot ratios. Outplanting success
rates are generally quite low (<50%).
References
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds.
Journal of Seed Technology 16(3): 11–13.
Belcher E, ed. 1985. Handbook on seeds of browse shrubs and forbs.Tech.
Pub. R8-TP8. Atlanta: USDA Forest Service, Southern Region. 246 p.
otherwise nondormant seeds from precocious summer ger- Freeman DC, Klikoff LG, Harper KT. 1976. Differential resource utilization
by the sexes of dioecious plants. Science 193: 597–599.
mination. Ephedra seeds germinate readily during prolonged Kay BL, Ross CM, Graves WL, Brown CR. 1977. Gray ephedra and green
chilling. Kay and others (1977) reported 76% germination ephedra. Mojave Reveg. Notes 19. Davis: University of California,
Department of Agronomy and Range Science. 8 p.
during a 30-day stratification at 2 °C for a Mojave desert Meyer SE. 1995. Unpublished data. Provo, UT: USDA Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station.
collection of Nevada Mormon-tea. In chilling experiments Meyer SE, Kitchen SG, Wilson GR, Stevens R. 1988. Proposed rule: Ephedra
with the 6 seedlots mentioned above, weeks to 50% germi- viridis green mormon tea. Association of Official Seed Analysts
Newsletter 62(1): 18–19.
nation at 1 °C varied from 6 to 7 weeks for the Torrey Monsen SB. 1995. Unpublished data. Provo, UT: USDA Forest Service,
Mormon-tea collections and from 8 to 9 weeks for collec- Rocky Mountain Research Station.
Stevens R, Jorgensen KR, Davis JN. 1981. Viability of seed from thirty-two
tions of the other 2 species. All viable seeds germinated dur- shrub and forb species through fifteen years of warehouse storage.
Great Basin Naturalist 41: 274–277.
ing chilling within 12 weeks. Welsh SL, Atwood ND, Higgins LC, Goodrich S. 1987. A Utah flora. Great
Official rules for testing green Mormon-tea call for a 4- Basin Naturalist Memoirs: 1–894.
Young JA, Evans RA, Kay BL. 1977. Ephedra seed germination. Agronomy
week test at 15 °C, with the option of a 4-week prechill for Journal 61: 209–211.
Epigaea repens L.
trailing-arbutus
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Other common names. mayflower, ground-laurel, the sutures begin splitting, ants will commonly enter the
gravel weed, mountain-pink, winter-pink, crocus, gravel fruits and rapidly remove all seeds (Clay 1983).
plant. Collection of fruits; extraction and storage of seeds.
Growth habit, distribution, and use. Trailing-arbu- Capsules should be collected after they are mature and
tus is an evergreen, prostrate, creeping shrub that grows in before they eject their seeds. Small collections of capsules
patches up to 60 cm in diameter (Bailey 1949). It is found can be air-dried in open containers until seeds are ejected.
growing in woodlands on acid, sandy soils from Florida to The empty capsules can be separated by screening. One
Mississippi, north to New England, southeast to New York, sample of cleaned seeds contained 22,700 seeds/g
Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio. The variety glabrifo- (643,750/oz) (Blum and Krochmal 1974). Storing seeds for
lia Fern. ranges north from the higher parts of the more than 1 year is not recommended, but short-term stor-
Appalachian Mountains to Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and age at room temperature or in a refrigerator is satisfactory
Labrador and west to Saskatchewan (Fernald 1950). (Barrows 1936).
Although it is difficult to grow, trailing-arbutus has been
planted as an ornamental since 1736 (Barrows 1936;
Lemmon 1935). In some parts of its range it has become Figure 1— Epigea repens, trailing-arbutus: seeds (top)
and longitudinal section through a seed (bottom).
locally rare (Clay 1983). The blossoms are quite fragrant,
and the fruits are sometimes eaten by small game. An infu-
sion of the above-ground parts was used by the Cherokees to
treat diarrhea in children (Jacobs and Burlage 1958).
Flowering and fruiting. The flowers are spicy
smelling, pink to white in color, and bloom from March to
May, although specimens have been known to bloom as
early as January at low elevations in the southern part of its
range (Stupka 1964). Flowering usually begins when plants
are 3 years old (Steffek 1963). Flowering is normally dioe-
cious, but perfect flowers may occasionally be found
(Bailey 1949; Barrows 1936; Fernald 1950). Double-flow-
ered forms and fall-blooming forms have been reported
(Fernald 1950). The fruit is a 5-lobed, hairy, dehiscent cap-
sule about 6 mm in diameter (Bailey 1949; Fernald 1950;
Steffek 1963). The seeds are embedded in a sticky, white,
fleshy pulp within the capsule (Barrows 1936; Clay 1983;
Steffek 1963). A sample of 155 wild fruits contained an
average of 241 (range: 29 to 415) tiny, shiny, brown, hard
seeds per capsule (figures 1 and 2). In June and July, as the
capsules ripen, the sutures split open and many of the seeds
are ejected with some force (Blum and Krochmal 1974). As
Epigaea • 495
Germination tests. Germination is epigeal and has When the seedlings have 3 to 5 leaves above the cotyle-
E been reported to require no pretreatment (Blum and dons, they may be transplanted to individual pots. High
Krochmal 1974). To secure complete germination on moist humidity should be maintained until the plants are well
filter paper in petri dishes; however, Lincoln (1980) found it established (Barrows 1936). In 1 year, the plants develop
necessary to stratify seeds for 30 days at 5 to 8 °C and then into rosettes about 10 cm (4 in) in diameter (Blum and
germinate them at alternating temperatures of 15 to 25 °C Krochmal 1974). Plants will tolerate a fairly wide range of
or 20 to 30 °C with light at the higher temperature. This acidity. Wild plants in Connecticut grew on soils ranging in
procedure yielded germination values of 92 and 90%, pH from 7.67 to 4.65, but the larger plants occurred on the
respectively. more acid soils (Barrows 1936; Coville 1911; Lemmon
Nursery and field practice. The seeds of trailing- 1935; Steffek 1963).
arbutus are so small that sowing in small pots or trays filled Trailing-arbutus thrives best in association with mycor-
with acid soil, sand, and peat moss or leaf mold mixtures is rhizal fungi. Including soil that was collected near healthy
recommended (Blum and Krochmal 1974). The seeds should wild plants in soil mixtures will introduce the necessary fun-
be scattered on top of the mixture, and the container should gus (Barrows 1936; Coville 1911, 1915). The mycorrhizal
be covered with a glass plate or plastic bag to maintain a fungus also appears to be essential for propagation from cut-
high humidity. With this method, germination takes place tings (Barrows 1936). Stem cuttings taken in August have
over a period of 22 to 66 days, with most germination given 94% rooting in a sand–peat mixture without any treat-
occurring in 30 days (Barrows 1936). There are other ment (Dirr and Heuser 1987).
reports of good germination within 3 to 5 weeks of time
(Dirr and Heuser 1987).
References
Bailey LH. 1949. Manual of cultivated plants. New York: Macmillan. 851 p. Fernald ML. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. 8th ed. New York: American
Barrows FL. 1936. Propagation of Epigaea repens L.: 1. Cuttings and seeds. Book Co. 1632 p.
Contributions of the Boyce Thompson Institute 8: 81–97. Jacobs ML, Burlage HM. 1958. Index of plants of North Carolina with
Blum BM, Krochmal A. 1974. Epigaea repens L., trailing-arbutus. In: reputed medicinal uses. Chapel Hill, NC. 322 p.
Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United Lemmon RS. 1935. The trailing arbutus in home gardens. Horticulture 13:
States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 101–102.
380–381. Lincoln WC Jr. 1980. Laboratory germination of Epigaea repens, mayflower
Clay K. 1983. Myrmecochory in the trailing arbutus (Epigaea repens L.). or trailing arbutus. AOSA Newsletter 54(1): 72–73.
Torrey Botanical Club Bulletin 110: 166–169. Steffek EF. 1963. Wild flowers and how to grow them. 5th ed. New York:
Coville FV. 1911. The use of acid soil for raising seedlings of the mayflower, Crown. 192 p.
Epigaea repens. Science 33(853): 711–712. Stupka A. 1964. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Great Smoky
Coville FV. 1915. The cultivation of the mayflower. National Geographic Mountains National Park. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.
Magazine 27: 518–519. 186 p.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop-
agation. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p.
Dr. Ratliff retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station;
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the Southern Research Station, Mississippi State, Mississippi
Synonyms. Haplopappus parishii (Greene) Blake, Figure 1—Ericameria parishii, Parish goldenweed: achene
Aplopappus parishii (Greene) Blake, Bigelovia parishii with pappus removed.
Greene, Chrysoma parishii Greene.
Other common names. Parish goldenrod, Parish
goldenbush, Parish heathgoldenrod.
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. An erect shrub,
Parish goldenweed has a mature height of 1 to 2.5 m
(Jepson 1951). Plants 15 years old have attained heights of 2
m and crown spreads of 1.2 m (Everett 1957). Parish gold-
enweed occurs in the lower parts of the chaparral belt
between 460 and 2,130 m of elevation in the mountains of
southern California and Baja California (Munz and Keck
1959). Frequently, it is found on outwash fans and exposed Figure 2—Ericameria parishii, Parish goldenweed: longi-
hillsides. The primarily value of this species is for erosion tudinal section through an achene.
control on dry slopes (Ratliff 1974). Since the final writing
of this manual, several sections of the genus Chrysothamnus
(see table 1) have been transferred to the genus Ericameria.
Flowering and fruiting. Parish goldenweed will
flower and bear seeds at 2 years of age and produce seeds
each year thereafter (Everett 1957). Flowering takes place
from July to October (Munz and Keck 1959), and ripe seeds
may be collected in October and November (Mirov and
Kraebel 1937). The fruit of Parish goldenweed is a single-
seeded achene (figure 1) that is handled as a seed. The ach-
enes are about 2 mm long (figure 2), and there are about
3,600 cleaned achenes/g (101,900/oz) (Mirov and Kraebel
1937).
Collection, cleaning, and storage. Achenes are usual-
ly collected by hand and separated from their bristles by
rubbing and blowing (Ratliff 1974). There are no known
studies of storage, but the seeds are probably orthodox and
can be easily stored at low temperatures and moisture
contents.
Ericameria • 497
Germination. Parish goldenweed seeds are not dor-
E mant, and no pretreatments are required to stimulate germi-
References
nation (Emery 1964). Seeds sown on sand began germinat- Emery D. 1964. Seed propagation of native California plants. Santa Barbara
Botanical Garden Leaflet 1(10): 81–96.
ing in 4 days, and a maximum of 95% was obtained (Mirov Everett PC. 1957. A summary of the culture of California plants at the
and Kraebel 1937). Germination is, however, usually much Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden 1927–1950. Claremont, CA: Rancho
Santa Ana Botanic Garden. 223 p.
lower (about 20%) because of a high percentage of defective Jepson WL. 1951. A manual of the flowering plants of California. Berkeley:
University of California Press. 1025 p.
seeds (Ratliff 1974). Parish goldenweed may also be propa- Mirov NT, Kraebel CJ. 1937. Collecting and propagating the seeds of
gated by cuttings (Jepson 1951). California wild plants. Res. Note 18. Berkeley, CA: USDA Forest Service,
California Forest and Range Experiment Station. 27 p.
Munz PA, Keck DD. 1959. A California flora. Berkeley: University of
California Press. 1681 p.
Ratliff RD. 1974. Haplopappus parishii, Parish goldenweed. In: Schopmeyer
CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric.
Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 445.
Eriogonum Michx.
wild-buckwheat, buckwheatbrush
Susan E. Meyer
Dr. Meyer is a research ecologist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. The North long-lasting flowers make them excellent candidates for
American genus Eriogonum—wild-buckwheat, also buck- home xeriscapes. Named varieties that have been released
wheatbrush—is made up of about 200 species of annual and are ‘Sierra’ sulfurflower wild-buckwheat (Stevens and others
perennial herbs and shrubs, most of which are found in the 1996) and ‘Umatilla’ snow wild-buckwheat (Tiedemann and
West. About half are woody, at least at the base. The habit others 1997).
of the woody species may be either (a) truly shrubby, (b) Flowering and fruiting. The small, usually perfect
subshrubby, with annual renewal of upper shoots, or (c) pul- flowers of wild-buckwheat are borne in clusters within cup-
vinate (mat-forming), with the woody shoots condensed into like or cylindrical involucres that are variously solitary or
an above-ground caudex. The usually evergreen leaves are arrayed in capitate, cymose, or paniculate inflorescences.
borne alternately and may be predominantly basal or borne Each flower consists of a perianth with 9 stamens inserted at
along the stems. There may be whorls of leaves on the flow- its base and a superior 1-celled and 1-seeded ovary. The
ering stalks. The leaves are usually tomentose, at least perianth is made up of 6 fused segments in 2 whorls of 3.
below, and the stem nodes are often tomentose as well. The The ovary ripens in fruit into a usually 3-angled achene (fig-
often-flat-topped inflorescences are usually borne above the ures 1 and 2). This achene is held more or less tightly within
leafy part of the plant and are conspicuous and characteris- the perianth, depending on the species. For example, in
tic even after seed dispersal. snow wild-buckwheat the achenes fall free of the perianth at
Most plant communities in the West contain at least 1 dispersal, whereas in Shockley wild-buckwheat the woolly
species of woody wild-buckwheat (table 1). Some species perianth with the achene enclosed is the dispersal unit. The
are widely distributed and of wide ecological amplitude (for ovule within the seed is anatropous, so that the radicle end is
example, sulfurflower buckwheat brush), whereas others are pointing outward and upward. This makes it possible for
narrowly restricted geographically and often edaphically as germination and emergence to take place with the perianth
well (for example, pretty buckwheat brush). Wild-buck- still attached.
wheat species are often important pioneer plants after natu- Wild-buckwheat species may flower at any time from
ral disturbance, and their presence may facilitate the estab- early spring to fall, depending on species and habitat. Within
lishment of later-successional species. This makes them use- a given habitat, species may bloom in succession. For exam-
ful for erosion control and for revegetation of anthropogeni- ple, at mid-elevation in central Utah, cushion wild-buck-
cally disturbed sites such as mined land and highway rights- wheat blooms in spring, followed by James wild-buckwheat
of-way (Ratliff 1974; Zamora 1994). Some species are in early to midsummer, and finally by lace buckwheatbrush
important as browse plants for wild ungulates, particularly in late summer and fall. The bloom time for any species
in the early spring when their evergreen habit makes them usually lasts well over a month, and the plants are almost
more highly nutritive than many other spring browse species as showy in fruit as in flower. The flowers are insect-
(Tiedemann and Driver 1983; Tiedemann and others 1997). pollinated.
Some wild-buckwheat species are important bee plants. In Seed collection, cleaning, and storage. The window of
California, Mojave buckwheatbrush has been rated third in opportunity for seed collection of wild-buckwheats is often
importance for honey production, exceeded only by 2 native rather wide, as the fruits usually persist on the plant for 2 to
Salvia species (Kay and others 1977). Many wild-buck- 3 weeks after maturity (Stevens and others 1996). When
wheat species also have tremendous potential as easily achenes are mature, the perianths dry and often change
grown, drought-tolerant ornamentals. Their interesting color, turning brown or rusty. At this point, the achenes can
forms and leaf textures combined with masses of showy, be harvested by hand-stripping or by beating them into hop-
Erigonum • 499
E
500
•
Table 1— Eriogonum, wild-buckwheat: habit, habitat, and geographic range
Eriogonum • 501
E Table 2—Eriogonum, wild-buckwheat: achene weights and typical viability percentages
Achenes/weight Viability
Species /g /lb % Test
SHRUBS
E. corymbosum 900 410,000 93 Post-chilling cut test
2,000 900,000 — —
E. fasciculatum 1,330 600,000 4–34 Germination %, no pretreatment
520–1,085 236,000–490,000 20–46 Germination %, no pretreatment
E. heermannii 660 300,000 95 Post-chilling cut test
SUBSHRUBS
E. brevicaule 700 320,000 84 Post-chilling cut test
E. heracleoides 350 160,000 95 Post-chilling cut test
310 141,000 87 Post-chilling cut test
E. jamesii 350 160,000 — —
E. niveum 1,290–1,360 585,000–620,000 52–72 Germination %; no pretreatment
E. umbellatum 470 213,000 86 Post-chilling cut test
265 120,000 — —
PULVINATE/MAT-FORMING
E. bicolor 960 436,000 47 Post-chilling cut test
E. ovalifolium 990 450,000 95 Post-chilling cut test
E. shockleyi 750 340,000 86 Post-chilling cut test
Sources: Belcher (1985), Kay and others (1977), Meyer and Paulsen (2000), Stevens and others (1996),Tiedemann and Driver (1983).
* Post-chilling cut tests (AOSA 1996) are considered accurate for recently harvested seedlots; however, tetrazolium staining (TZ) is required for seedlots stored for more
than 2 years.
E. brevicaule 2 3 28 65 86 96
E. corymbosum 3 28 79 100 100 100
E. heracleoides 3 4 11 30 55 77
E. jamesii 2 54 79 91 94 100
E. ovalifolium 2 22 74 98 98 100
E. umbellatum 4 7 30 74 99 100
northern rainfall regions and midsummer in southern rainfall lifted carefully. Other woody wild-buckwheats could proba-
regions. Most wild-buckwheats are early seral and do not bly be produced as bareroot stock, but no published infor-
compete well with heavy stands of perennial grasses. Wild- mation is available. Wild-buckwheats may also be produced
buckwheats planted for field seed production are reported to as container stock; book planters or tube containers such as
reach 30 to 50% of maximum production, 200 to 400 kg/ha those used for producing conifer seedlings are most appro-
(180 to 360 lb/ac), the second year after planting (Stevens priate. Nondormant lots may be direct-sown, whereas seed-
and others 1996). lots requiring chilling may be sown as chilled seed or as
Most species of wild-buckwheat are also easily propa- young germlings (Landis and Simonich 1984). Seedlings of
gated in a nursery setting. Shaw (1984) reported that Wyeth many species grow rapidly and should not be held in small
wild-buckwheat may be successfully produced as 1+0 bare- containers for more than a few months. Many species flower
root stock. Because of the taprooted habit, plants must be the first year and may even form flowering stalks while still
in small tube containers.
Eriogonum • 503
E Myrtaceae—Myrtle family
Eucalyptus L’Her.
eucalyptus
Stanley L. Krugman and Craig D.Whitesell
Dr. Krugman retired from the World Bank and from the USDA Forest Service’s Washington Office;
Dr.Whitesell retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Southwest Research Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus most promising as a source of wood fiber (Geary and others
Eucalyptus comprises more than 523 species and 138 vari- 1983; Uhr 1976). In Hawaii, several species, including
eties, and new species and varieties are still being described rosegum, robust, red-ironbark, saligna, and bluegum euca-
(Blakely 1955; Johnston and Marryatt 1965; Penford and lyptuses, have been planted as windbreaks and for watershed
Willis 1961). Some are very tall trees, whereas others are protection, as well as for timber and biofuel production
woody shrubs (Jacobs 1979). Eucalypts are mainly native (LeBarron 1962; Whitesell and others 1992). There are
to Australia, but a few species are also native to the numerous other species that hold promise for future fiber
Philippines, New Guinea, and Timor (Hall and others 1963). production, windbreaks, and for environmental forestry pur-
Eucalypts are among the most widely cultivated forest trees poses (Fujii 1976; King and Krugman 1980) (table 1).
in the world for ornamental use, shade, soil and site protec- Geographic races and hybrids. Many eucalypts have
tion, wood production, and pulp making (Chippendale and an extensive natural distribution, and members of the same
others 1969). They are planted in southern Europe, the species often grow under very different environmental con-
Middle East, Africa, India, Pakistan, China, North and South ditions (Boden 1964; Eldridge 1978; Hall and others 1963;
America—especially in Brazil, Uruguay, Chile, and Jacobs 1979). Although detailed scientific information as to
Argentina (Jacobs 1979; Penford and Willis 1961). the development of geographic races is lacking for most
This genus was first introduced into the United States species, there is considerable genetic variation in those
with plantings in California and the Hawaiian Islands about species with wide natural distribution and it can be assumed
1853 (LeBarron 1962; Penford and Willis 1961). Eucalypts that numerous races do exist (Jacobs 1979; Miles 1990). For
have also been planted, but to a limited extent, in Arizona, planting eucalypts in the United States, geographic origin
Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, and Texas (Geary and others must be considered in selecting a suitable seed source from
1983; Hunt and Zobel 1978; Metcalf 1961). About 250 species wtih extensive natural ranges, such as the widely
species have been introduced into the United States and grown river redgum eucalyptus (Eldridge 1975; Karschon
most of them are grown in California and Hawaii as orna- 1967; Pryor and Byrne 1969). As a general rule, seed source
mentals because of their decorative flowers and pleasing selection should at least be based on a knowledge of the
shapes (Jacobs 1979). Bluegum eucalyptus has been the absolute minimal and maximal temperatures under which
most extensively planted eucalyptus in the United States, the species grows in its native range (Zon and Briscoe
mainly in California, for the last 100 years (Metcalf 1961). 1911). Differential low temperature tolerance has been
It was initially grown for timber production but now is demonstrated for different sources of broadleaf sallee (E.
rarely used for this purpose. However, it is still widely used camphora R.T. Baker) and brown-barrel, lemon-gum, and
for fuel, shelterbelts, windbreaks, and has promise as a low- manna eucalyptuses (Boden 1964; Hunt and Zobel 1978).
cost source of hardwood fiber (Krugman 1970). Among the Precipitation appears to be of less importance, but must also
other species that are promising for California conditions are be considered in selecting the proper seed source.
river redgum, manna, mountain-gum, shining, and rosegum Under natural conditions, hybridization between species
eucalyptuses (Ledig 1989). A number of other species are of the same subgeneric group will take place. It is relatively
still being tested in California for their general landscape common in some cases, for example, brown-barrel × narrow
value (Hamilton 1979). In Florida, rosegum, robust, and peppermint eucalyptus (E. fastigata × radiata Seibert ex
river redgum eucalyptuses have been widely tested and are DC.) and robusta × rosegum eucalyptuses (Boden 1964;
Sources: Chippendale and others (1969), Johnston and Marryat (1965), Krugman (1974).
Jacobs 1979; Penford and Willis 1961; Pryor 1979). A num- or paniculate clusters (Blakely 1955). In a few cases, the
ber of hybrids have been described, but their value for plant- flowers develop singly as with bluegum eucalyptus, but
ing in the United States must still be demonstrated. When most often they are in 5- to 10-flowered axillary umbels as
grown under plantation conditions outside their natural habi- with river redgum and manna eucalyptuses (Blakely 1955).
tat, species hybridization will occur more often, and seed Sepals and petals are united to form a cap in the bud, which
collections from small plantations of closely related species drops off at anthesis. The stigma is receptive within a few
should be discouraged if hybrid seeds are not desired days after the cap drops (Barnard 1967) and pollination is
(Boden 1964). mainly carried out by insects. The ovary has 3 to 6 locules
Flowering and fruiting. The flower clusters develop with many ovules. There is a wide range in flowering times
enclosed within an envelope formed by 2 bracteoles—small for the eucalypts (King and Krugman 1980). In California,
leafy structures. These bracteoles split and are shed during some species such as manna eucalyptus may flower all year;
development, revealing the flower buds (Boland and others other species, such as river redgum and gray ironbark euca-
1980; Penford and Willis 1961). The perfect flowers are lyptuses, flower in the spring; tingiringy-gum and mountain-
white, yellow, or red, often in axillary umbels, corymbose, gum eucalyptus in the summer; rosegum eucalyptus in the
Eucalyptus • 505
fall; and tallowwood eucalyptus in winter (table 2) (King more than 1 seed ripens in a locule, the seeds are variously
E and Krugman 1980; Krugman 1970, 1974). shaped and angular (figure 1). When solitary, the seed will
The fruit is a hemispherical, conical, oblong, or ovoid be ovate or orbicular-compressed (Blakely 1955). The seed-
hard woody capsule 6 to 25 mm in diameter, that is loculici- coat is most often thin and smooth, but it can be ribbed, pit-
dally dehiscent at the apex by 3 to 6 valves (Blakely 1955; ted, or sculptured in various ways (Blakely 1955; Penford
Boland and others 1980). The seeds are numerous and and Willis 1961). Usually the seedcoat is black or dark
extremely small in most species (table 3; figure 1). The size brown in color as in manna eucalyptus or pale brown as
of fertile seeds within a given seed collection varies widely. with alpine-ash eucalyptus (table 3).
Usually only a few seeds are fertile in a single capsule, and The embryo consists of bipartite or 2-lobed cotyledons
capsule size may influence seed size (Blakely 1955). When that are folded or twisted over the straight radicle (Blakely
Table 2—Eucalyptus, eucalyptus: height at maturity and phenology of flowering and fruiting of trees grown in
California
Height at
Species maturity (m) Flowering Fruit ripening Seed dispersal
E. camaldulensis 18–36 Feb–Apr July–Oct Begins 8–9 months after flowering
E. citriodora 24–39 Nov–Jan May–Aug —
E. dalrympleana 18–36 June–Aug Aug–Oct Oct–Nov
E. delegatensis 30–83 Apr–June Apr–July May–July
E. fastigata 18–60 Apr–May July–Aug —
E. glaucescens 4–12 July–Aug May–Sept Nov–Feb
E. globulus 45–54 Nov–Apr Oct–Mar Oct–Mar
E. grandis 42–54 Sept–Nov — —
E. microcorys 30–45 Dec–Feb — —
E. nitens 30–90 Apr–July May–June May–June
E. obliqua 15–75 Apr–July May–Aug —
E. paniculata 24–42 Feb–May — —
E. pilularis 36–60 Dec–Mar Jan–April All year
E. regnans 52–105 Apr–July June–Sept —
E. robusta 24–27 Jan–Mar — —
E. rudis 9–15 Jan–Mar — —
E. saligna 15–45 Apr–June Oct–Dec —
E. sideroxylon 12–30 June–Sept — —
E. viminalis 15–45 All year 12 months after flowering 20–22 months after flowering
Source: Krugman (1970).
Eucalyptus • 507
E Table 4—Eucalyptus, eucalyptus: fruit drying schedules
Air-drying Kiln-drying
Temp Time Temp Time
Species (°C) (days) (°C) (hrs)
E. camaldulensis 32 1 59 3
E. delegatensis 32 3 59 6
E. globulus 21 5 — —
E. obliqua 32 3 59 5
E. regnans 32 3 59 6
E. sideroxylon 21 4 — —
E. viminalis 21 6 — —
most species cannot be separated by the usual methods, 1958b). A few species—such as tingiringy-gum and alpine-
commercial seed suppliers sell chaff along with the fertile ash, brown-barrel, shining, and mountain-ash eucalyp-
seeds. The proportion by weight of chaff to viable seeds is tuses—are normally dormant at the time of collection and
in the range of 5:1 to 30:1 (Grose and Zimmer 1958b). For will require pretreatment. Stratification of moist seeds stored
some species, such as mountain-ash eucalyptus, the seeds in a plastic bag at temperatures of 3 to 5 °C for a period of 3
and chaff are identical in size and color; for others, such as weeks will break the dormancy of these 5 species, except for
river red-gum eucalyptus, the seeds and chaff are similar in alpine-ash eucalyptus, which should be stratified for 4
color but different in size (table 3). For most species, there weeks (Boland and others 1980; Grose 1969). Longer strati-
are some differences in color and size, so that viable seeds fication periods of 6 to 8 weeks are often recommended.
can be separated from chaff to some extent if necessary. Dormancy between different seedlots of the same
Because of their very small size, seeds of eucalyptus species species can vary considerably. In addition, different methods
are normally sold by weight with the chaff. The average of extraction and storage can induce dormancy in nondor-
number of viable seeds plus chaff per weight ranges from mant seed or strengthen primary dormancy in normally dor-
770/g (21,900/oz) for river redgum eucalyptus to 35/g for mant seeds (Krugman 1970). If the seeds fail to germinate
blackbutt eucalyptus (1,000/oz) (table 5). There may be as after the recommended shorter stratification periods, then a
many as 2,100 seeds/g (59,500/oz) for river redgum euca- longer period should be tried before the seeds are considered
lyptus or as few as 7 seeds/g (200/oz) for blackbutt eucalyp- nonviable. Because most seeds are stored before they are
tus. used, stratification for 3 to 4 weeks at a temperature of 3 to
Storage. Eucalyptus seeds are orthodox in storage 5 °C is recommended for all eucalyptus seeds to ensure
behavior. They should be stored in air-tight containers that faster and more uniform germination (Hinkle 1968;
are as completely filled as possible to reduce the amount of Krugman 1970).
air (Boland and others 1980). Prior to storage, the seeds In a few cases, chemicals have been employed to over-
should be treated to kill insect pests, by either fumigation or come seed dormancy. The germination of unstratified and
placing paradichlorbenzene crystals in the container (Boland dormant seeds of alpine-ash, brown-barrel, and mountain-
and others 1980). ash eucalyptuses was improved by germinating the seeds in
Eucalypts seeds have germinated after 30 years of stor- a solution of gibberellic acid (Bachelord 1967). However,
age at room temperature, but the germination was very low not all seedlots of the same species responded to gibberellic
(Penford and Willis 1961). Most seeds can be successfully acid (Krugman 1970).
stored for periods up to 10 years in air-tight containers at Germination tests. Standard methods for testing ger-
moisture contents of 4 to 6% and temperatures of 0 to 5 °C mination in other seeds are not used for eucalyptus seeds
(Boland and others 1980; Grose 1969; Grose and Zimmer because of their small size and the presence of so much
1958b). It should be possible to store these seeds successful- chaff, which can exceed the weight of viable seeds. Instead,
ly for even longer at temperatures below 0 °C (Krugman samples for germination are of equal weight, not number
1970). (Boland and others 1980; Grose and Zimmer 1958b; ISTA
Pregermination treatments. Most eucalyptus seeds 1993; Turnbull and Doran 1987). Such methods as the
need no pretreatment to ensure adequate germination if fresh excised-embryo and tetrazolium tests are impractical
seeds are used (Boland and others 1980; Grose and Zimmer (Boland and others 1980; Grose and Zimmer 1958b). The
Eucalyptus • 509
E Table 7—Eucalyptus, eucalyptus: germination test Table 8—Eucalyptus, eucalyptus: seedlings produced
results per weight of seeds
References
Bachelord EP. 1967. Effects of gibberellic acid, kinetin, and light on the ger- Eldridge KG. 1975. An annotated bibliography of genetic variation in
mination of dormant seeds of some eucalypt species. Australian Journal Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Trop. For. Pap. 8. Oxford, UK: Oxford
of Botany 15: 393–401. University, Department of Forestry. 59 p.
Barnard RC. 1967. Some garden eucalypts. Australian Plants 4(30): 69–70, Eldridge KG. 1978. Genetic improvement of eucalypts. Silvae Genetica
71–72. 27(5): 205–209.
Blakely WF. 1955. A key to the eucalypts. 2nd ed. Canberra: Forest and Floyd AG. 1964. Germination test methods for tree seeds.Tech. Pap. 7.
Timber Bureau. 359 p. Sydney, Australia: Commonwealth Forestry. 15 p.
Blomstedt C, Cameron J, Whiteman P, Chandler SF. 1991. Micropropagation Fujii DM. 1976. The Nuuanu eucalyptus planting: growth, survival, stand
of juvenile Eucalyptus regnans (mountain ash). Australian Journal of development after 64 years. Res. Note PSW-318. Berkeley, CA: USDA
Botany 39(2): 179–186. Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station.
Boden RW. 1964. Hybridization in eucalyptus. Indian Forester 90(9): 5 p.
581–586. Ganguli BN. 1966. Application of Czabator’s approach to germination
Boland DJ, Brooker MIH,Turnbull JW. 1980. Eucalyptus seed. Sydney, studies of Eucalyptus. Science and Culture 32(9): 466–468.
Australia: Hogbin Poole Pty. Ltd. 191p. Geary TF, Millier WF. 1982. Pelleting small volumes of eucalyptus seeds for
Chippendale GM, Johnston, RD, Kelly S. 1969. Eucalypts. Melbourne, precision sowing. South African Forestry Journal 121: 79–83.
Australia: Thomas Nelson (Australia), Ltd. 82 p.
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Geary TF, Meskimen GF, Franklin EC. 1983. Growing eucalypts in Florida for Krugman SL. 1974. Eucalyptus, eucalyptus. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord.
E industrial wood production. Gen.Tech. Rep. SE-23. USDA Forest Service, Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450.
Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 43 p. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 384–392.
Grose RJ. 1969. Personal communication. Melbourne, Australia: Larsen E. 1965. Germination of Eucalyptus seed. Leafl. 94. Canberra,
Commonwealth Forestry. Australia: Forestry and Timber Bureau. 16 p.
Grose RJ, Zimmer WJ. 1958a. A description of the seeds of 70 Victorian LeBarron RK. 1962. Eucalypts in Hawaii: a survey of practices and research
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Grose RJ, Zimmer WJ. 1958b. The collection and testing of seed from some Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 24 p.
Victorian eucalypts with results of viability tests. Bull. 10. Melbourne, Ledig FT. 1989. Improvement of eucalypts for fuel and fiber in California. In:
Australia: Commonwealth Forestry. 14 p. Pereira JS, Landsberg JJ, eds. Biomass production by fast growing trees.
Hall N, Johnston RD, Marryatt R. 1963. The natural occurrence of the euca- Proceedings, NATO Advanced Research Workshop, Series E. Dordrecht,
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1971–1978. Journal of Arboriculture 5(9): 210–216. Metcalf W. 1961. Progress with eucalypts in North America [unpublished
Hinkle EH. 1968. Eucalyptus in Taiwan. Quarterly Journal of Chinese office report]. Section A, United States mainland. National Report, 2nd
Forestry 1(2): 87–98. World Eucalyptus Conference, Brazil: 1–18.
Holmes DA, Floyd AG. 1969. Nursery techniques for raising eucalypts in Miles M. 1990. Principles of species and clonal selection for farm forestry.
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31(1): 52–106. lensis. Silvae Genetica 18(3): 64–71.
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35–53. rotation management of eucalyptus: guidelines for plantations in Hawaii.
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California. Res. Pap. PSW-152. Berkeley, CA: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 30 p.
Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: 6 p. Willan, RL. 1985. A guide to forest seed handling. For. Pap. 20/2. Rome:
Krugman SL. 1970. Observations recorded 1965–1970. Berkeley, CA: FAO. 379 p.
USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Zon R, Briscoe JM. 1911. Eucalypts in Florida. Bull. 87. Washington, DC:
Station. 11 p. USDA Forest Service. 47 p.
Euonymus L.
euonymus, spindletree
John C. Zasada and Paul O. Rudolf
Dr. Zasada retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Forest Research Station;
Dr. Rudolf (deceased) retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Forest Experiment Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus by horticulturists. At least one of these introduced species—
Euonymus includes about 170 species of deciduous or ever- European spindletree—has become naturalized and is con-
green shrubs and small trees, sometimes creeping or climb- sidered invasive in the Northeast; other species do not
ing, native to North and Central America, Europe, Asia, appear to be as aggressive (Dirr 1990; Fernald 1950;
Madagascar, and Australia (Krüssmann 1960; Rehder 1940). Gleason and Cronquist 1963; Voss 1985). The deciduous
The majority of species are native to east Asia from 52°N and evergreen euonymus used as ornamentals in Britain
latitude to the Tropics (Nikolaeva 1967). Because of their have been described by Lancaster (1981). They also have
attractive fruits and foliage, the euonymus species are plant- value for wildlife food, shelterbelts, and minor wood prod-
ed widely for ornamental purposes. Winged spindletree, ucts; at least 1 species is a source of gutta (Nikolaeva 1967).
described by Dirr (1990) as “one of the finest landscape Eight species that have been used for conservation plantings
plants for American gardens,” has brilliant red foliage in the are described in tables 1 and 2.
fall (it is commonly known as burning-bush) and prominent The 3 native species (table 1) described by Fernald
corky wings on the stem that add variety to the winter land- (1950) occur in sites generally described as “rich” and with
scape. Euonymus species show a large amount of variability: a mesic to wet soil water regime. In Wisconsin, eastern
for example, Dirr (1990) listed about 70 cultivars recognized wahoo is most common in southern wet forests that are
E. alata (Thunb.) Sieb. winged spindletree, winged euonymus, Central China, Manchuria, E Siberia,
Celastris alatus Thunb. corkbush, burning-bush Korea, Japan, & Sakhalin
E. americana L. American strawberry-bush, New York to Illinois to Texas to Florida
bursting-heart, hearts-a-bustin,
brook euonymus
E. atropurpurea Jacq. eastern wahoo, W New York to S Ontario, central Michigan
burning-bush, wahoo & Minnesota, SE North Dakota, S to NW
Nebraska, central Kansas, & E Texas,
E to Arkansas,Tennessee, & N Alabama
E. bungeana Maxim. winterberry euonymus N China, Manchuria, & Korea
E. europaea L. European spindletree, Europe to W Asia (to 900 m in mtns)
European euonymus
E. hamiltoniana spp. Maack euonymus N China & Korea
maackii (Rupr.) Komarov
E. obovata Nutt. running strawberry-bush, W New York & S Ontario to central Michigan,
running euonymus Illinois, S to West Virginia, Kentucky, & Missouri
E. verrucosa Scop. warty-bark euonymus, S Europe & W Asia
warty spindletree
Euonymus • 513
Figure 1—Euonymus, euonymus: top views of open cap-
E Table 2— Euonymus, euonymus: height and year sules of E. americana, American strawberry-bush (left) and
first cultivated
E. atropurpurea, eastern wahoo (right).
Height at Year first
Species maturity (m) cultivated
E. alata 0.9–3.1 1860
E. americana 0.9–1.8 1697
E. atropurpurea 1.8–6.2 1756
E. bungeana 4.0–6.2 1883
E. europaea 3.1–7.1 Long ago
E. hamiltoniana ssp. maackii 1.5–5.2 1880
E. obovata 0.3–0.6 1820
E. verrucosa 0.9–2.2 1763
Sources: Fernald (1950), Lancaster (1981), Radford and others (1964), Rehder (1940), Sus (1925), Snow and Snow (1988),Voss (1985),Wappes (1932),Wyman (1947).
Table 4—Euonymus, euonymus: fruit form and color of flowers, fruits, and seeds
Color
Species Fruit form Flower Ripe fruit Seed Aril
Sources: Bailey (1939), Dirr (1990), Fernald (1950), Rehder (1940), Snow and Snow (1988).
* Black, in one variety.
† Whitish, in one variety.
‡ Seed not wholly covered by aril.
winnowing. The pulpy arils can be removed (figure 3) by Seed weights can vary significantly within a population.
rubbing the seeds through coarse-mesh wire cloth after they Nielsen and Iroquoian (1988) reported that the variation in
have dried several weeks, but this is difficult to do without the dry weight of 1,000 seeds ranged from about 28 to 40 g
breaking the relatively thin seedcoats (Lee and others 1991) among 8 individual European spindletree plants. Mature
and injuring the seeds. If the arils (which are sometimes seeds from different positions in the plant varied significant-
oily) are not removed, the seeds may not store as well. As a ly in seed weight; seeds from the top and shaded parts of the
result, commercial seeds are treated rather gently in extrac- crown were 5% greater and 7% less than mean seed weight,
tion and seedlots usually contain seeds with parts of the arils respectively (Nielsen and Iroquoian 1988).
still attached, along with completely clean seeds (figure 4). Seeds of European spindletree and warty-bark euony-
The numbers of seeds per weight cleaned to this vari- mus can be kept satisfactorily for 2 years in ordinary dry
able degree are shown in table 5. Forty-five kilograms (100 storage (Gorshenin 1941; Sus 1925), or in dry cold storage
lb) of ripe fruits will yield about 4.5 to 9.1 kg (10 to 20 lb) in sealed containers at 1 to 2 °C (Heit 1967). However, more
and an average of 7.1 kg (16 lb) of cleaned seeds, based recent Russian reports have shown high viability maintained
upon data for American strawberry-bush, eastern wahoo, for at least 7 years under moist conditions at constant tem-
European spindletree, and warty-bark euonymus (Gorshenin peratures, either warm (15 to 20 °C) or cold (Nikolaeva
1941; Rudolf 1974; Swingle 1939). 1967). Any drying in storage reduced viability (Nikolaeva
Euonymus • 515
Figure 3—Euonymus, euonymus: seeds with arils Pregermination treatments. Seeds of most euony-
E removed of E. americana, american strawberry-bush (top); mus species have dormant embryos. Cold stratification is
E. atropurpurea, eastern wahoo (middle); and E. obovata, adequate to break dormancy for some species, but warm
running euonymus (bottom).
stratification followed by a cold period is needed for maxi-
mum germination for other species (table 7) (Dirr 1990; Dirr
and Heuser 1987; Nikolaeva 1967; Singh 1985; Yu and oth-
ers 1976). The length of the warm period should be adjust-
ed, depending on the temperature used for cold stratifica-
tion. For example, Nikolaeva (1967) suggests a 2- to 3-
month period of warm stratification if cold stratification is at
0 to 3 °C. Table 7 provides the range of temperatures for
warm and cold stratification that have been effective for
breaking dormancy. Nikolaeva (1967) provides a thorough
discussion of the effects of temperature, water availability,
seed maturation, and storage alone and in combination on
germination. There may also be some variation in germina-
tion among European spindletree seeds formed under differ-
ent climatic conditions (Dawidowicz-Grezgorzewska and
Beranger-Novat 1989).
1967). Moist cold storage may be the most practical and Variation in dormancy can be significantly different
effective way of retaining high viability of euonymus seeds among plants. Nielsen (1988), for example, reported that
for extended periods (table 6). germination of European spindletree seeds collected from 10
different plants varied from 0 to 30% following stratification
Cleaned seeds/weight
Range Average
Species Place collected /kg /lb /kg /lb Samples
Sources: Barnes (1969), Gorshenin (1941), Heit (1968a), NBV (1946), Nielsen and Eriksen (1988), Rudolf (1974), Sus (1925), Swingle (1939).
Sources: Gorshenin (1941), Heit (1967), NBV (1946), Nikolaeva (1967), Rudolf (1974), Sus (1925), Swingle (1939).
* Seed stored in closed containers.
Sources: Heit (1968a), Nikolaeva (1967), Rudolf (1974), Shumailina (1949), Swingle (1939).
Figure 4—Euonymus europaea, European spindletree: European spindletree germinated mainly in the second year
longitudinal section through a seed. after sowing (Lee and others 1991), suggesting that the
alternation of warm and cold stratification also regulates
germination under field conditions. Although birds are
important in the dispersal of European spindletree seeds, the
seeds may (which can cause some degree of scarification) or
may not pass through the digestive tract of birds, depending
on the species taking the seeds (Snow and Snow 1988).
Germination tests. Germination is epigeal (figure 5).
Germination tests on stratified seeds can be run in sand flats,
germinators, or petri dishes. ISTA (1993) recommends 45
days of stratification at 3 to 5°C, then a 28-day test at
20/30 °C for European spindletree. Viability can also be
estimated by the embryo excision method (Heit 1966) or
tetrazolium staining (ISTA 1993). Germination test condi-
tions are summarized in table 8.
X-radiography has been used to assess viability in fresh
European spindletree seeds. However, stored seeds should
be stained with tetrazolium to determine viability (Smirnova
and Tikhomirova (1980).
Nursery practice. Seedlings can be grown in contain-
ers or nurserybeds. For best results, cleaned euonymus seeds
at 4 to 6 °C. This variation may have been significantly dif-
should be sown in the fall soon after collection, before the
ferent if seeds had been subjected to warm stratification
before cold stratification (table 7) (Nikolaeva 1967). seeds have dried out (Heit 1968a&b; NBV 1946). If sowing
The morphological changes that occur during pretreat- after seeds have been collected is not feasible, stratified
ment are important indicators of the adequacy of the seeds can be planted (table 6) early the next spring or the
pregermination treatment. An increase in seed volume, next fall (NBV 1946). Details for most species are lacking,
cracking of the seedcoat, and protrusion of the tip of the but for European spindletree, recommendations are to sow
hypocotyl occur during warm stratification or warm stratifi- the seeds 6 mm (1/4 in) deep at a density to produce 422
cation hastens these changes when seeds are moved to cold seedlings/m2 (40/ft2) of nurserybed (NBV 1946). The beds
stratification. Completeness of germination depends on these should be mulched with pine straw (NBV 1946). Tree per-
changes in seed morphology (Nikolaeva 1967). centages range from about 10% for winterberry euonymus
There seems to be little information on the natural ger- to 20% for eastern wahoo and 25% for European spindletree
mination pattern of euonymus seeds. Untreated seeds of (Swingle 1939).
Euonymus • 517
E Table 8—Euonymus, euonymus: germination test conditions and results on stratified seeds
Euonymus • 519
F Fagaceae—Beech family
Fagus L.
beech
Franklin T. Bonner and William B. Leak
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station, Mississippi State
Mississippi; Dr. Leak is a silviculturist at the USDA Forest Service’s Northeastern Research Station
Durham, New Hampshire
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The beeches— Flowering and fruiting. Beech flowers are monoe-
the genus Fagus—includes 10 species of medium-sized, cious. The minute male and female flowers appear in the
deciduous trees native to the temperate regions of the spring when the leaves are about one-third grown (table 2).
Northern Hemisphere (Rehder 1940). Only 1 species, The staminate flowers occur in densely clustered, drooping
American beech, is native to North America, although heads 8 mm wide, whereas the pistillate flowers are general-
another, the European beech, has been widely planted as an ly paired on stout stalks about 2.5 cm long (Brown and
ornamental in the Northeast (table 1). Some authorities have Kirkman 1990). Flowers of European beech are quite vul-
argued that there are separate northern and southern species nerable to late spring frosts (Matthews 1955). The fruit is a
of American beech, but this view is not widely supported prickly bur approximately 2 cm long, which opens soon
(Tubbs and Houston 1990). Beeches that grow in northeast- after maturity in the fall (figure 1).
ern Mexico are now classified as a variety of American Each fruit contains 2 or 3 yellowish-brown or chestnut-
beech—F. grandifolia var. mexicana (Martinez) (Little brown, unevenly triangular nuts, 1 to 1.5 cm long (figures 2
1965). There is some evidence of geographic races of and 3). Times of flowering, fruiting, and seed dispersal for
European beech in that species’ native range (Rudolf and the 2 species are listed in table 2. Natural seed dispersal is
Leak 1974). Beech wood is used for flooring, furniture, chiefly by gravity and by animals such as rodents and blue
veneer, plywood, ties, charcoal, and many specialty prod- jays (Cyanocitta cristata) (Johnson and Adkisson 1985;
ucts. The trees are highly valued for ornamental plantings, Tubbs and Houston 1990). Information on height at maturi-
and the mast is widely utilized by numerous birds and ani- ty, minimum seed-bearing age, and interval between good
mals (Tubbs and Houston 1990). seedcrops is shown in table 3.
F. grandifolia Ehrh. American beech, beech Nova Scotia to S Ontario & N Michigan, S to N Florida & E Texas
F. sylvatica L. European beech Europe; planted in NE US
Sources: Brown and Kirkman (1990), Rudolf and Leak (1974),Tubbs and Houston (1990).
* Dates are similar for western Europe and the northeastern United States.
Fagus • 521
F Table 3—Fagus, beech: height, seed-bearing age, and seedcrop frequency
Cleaned seeds/weight
Fruit wt/vol Seed wt/fruit vol Range Average
Species kg/hl lb/bu kg/hl lb/bu /kg /lb /kg /lb Samples
Bonnet-Masimbert 1982; Suszka 1974). Poulsen (1993) rec- adjusted to a moisture content of 28 to 30% and prechilled
ommends that drying should be done at temperatures below in plastic containers (without media) at 4 °C for this amount
20 °C. This behavior would seem to put beeches into the of time, plus 2 more weeks. At this level of moisture, dor-
orthodox class of storage behavior, although there is evi- mancy is overcome, but germination does not begin (Muller
dence that beeches fit somewhere between the orthodox and and Bonnet-Masimbert 1983). The seeds are then brought to
recalcitrant classes (Gosling 1991) or in the sub-orthodox room temperature, or no higher than 20 °C (Poulsen 1993),
class (Bonner 1990). The high lipid content of 40.7% report- without heating, dried to a moisture content of 8%, and
ed for kernels of European beech (Prasad and Gulz 1989) stored in sealed containers at –5 °C (Muller and Bonnet-
would seem to support the sub-orthodox classification. The Masimbert 1989). The effect of stratification is retained, and
seeds are basically orthodox, however, and 5 years of stor- germination is prompt when the seeds are sown. Moisture
age is long enough for operational storage. There are no level is the key to successful stratification. Treatment with-
comparable data for American beech, but there are no rea- out media can lead to excessive seed moisture; it should not
sons to suspect that this species cannot be treated in the exceed 30% (Muller and Bonnet-Masimbert 1983).
same way. Beech seeds require cold stratification Long-term storage of beech seeds for germplasm con-
(prechilling) for prompt germination, and current practices servation may be possible with cryopreservation techniques.
with European beech have combined stratification and stor- Intact seeds may not survive the temperatures of liquid
age into a coordinated procedure. The first step is to deter- nitrogen (–196 °C) (Ahuja 1986), but excised embryos have
mine how much stratification is needed to overcome dor- survived the same conditions for at least 24 hours
mancy (Suszka and Zieta 1977). Samples of fresh seeds are (Jorgensen 1990).
brought to maximum moisture content or mixed with moist Germination testing. The prescribed testing method
sand and stored at 3 °C until about 10% of the seeds have for European beech is to germinate stratified seeds on the
started germination (radicles are visible). This period is top of moist blotters at 3 to 5 °C. Test duration varies
assumed to be the amount of time required to overcome dor- according to degree of dormancy (see above) but may run
mancy in that particular lot. The remainder of the seeds are up to 24 weeks, which includes 140 days of stratification at
Fagus • 523
F References
Ahuja MR. 1986. Short note: storage of forest tree germplasm in liquid Little EL, Jr. 1965. Mexican beech, a variety of Fagus grandifolia. Castanea 30:
nitrogen (–196 °C). Silvae Genetica 35: 249–251. 167–170.
Aldhous JR. 1972. Nursery practice. Bull. 43. London: Forestry Commission. Little EL, Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized).
184 p. Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p.
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds. Matthews JD. 1955. The influence of weather on the frequency of beech
Journal of Seed Technology 16(3): 1–113. mast years in England. Forestry 28: 107–116.
Bonner FT. 1990. Storage of seeds: potential and limitations for germplasm Muller C, Bonnet-Masimbert M. 1982. Long term storage of beechnuts:
conservation. Forest Ecology and Management 35: 35–43. results of large scale trials. In: Wang BSP, Pitel JA, eds. Proceedings,
Brown CL, Kirkman LK. 1990. Trees of Georgia and adjacent states. International Symposium on Forest Seed Storage; 1980 September
Portland, OR: Timber Press. 292 p. 23–27; Chalk River, ON. Ottawa: Environment Canada, Canadian
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- Forestry Service,: 178–183.
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. Muller C, Bonnet-Masimbert M. 1983. Amélioration de la germination des
Dubbel V. 1989. Die Bedeutung des Bodenkontaktes für die Qualität des faines (Fagus sylvatica) par prétraitement en présence de polyéthylène
Buchensaatgutes. Forst und Holz 44(19): 512–516 [Seed Abstracts 15(4): glycol. Annales des Sciences Forestieres 40: 157–164.
1261; 1992]. Muller C, Bonnet-Masimbert M. 1989. Breaking dormancy before storage:
Fuhrer E Jr, Pall M. 1984. Aspekte der Auswahl von Buchensaatgut- an improvement to processing of beechnuts (Fagus sylvatica L.). Seed
bestanden: Möglichkeiten der Erhöhung des Samenertrages durch Science & Technology 17: 15–26.
Düngung. Zentralblatt für das Gesamte Forstwesen 101:33–48 [Seed Nilsson SG, Wastljung U. 1987. Seed predation and cross-pollination in
Abstracts 7: 1923; 1984]. mast-seeding beech (Fagus sylvatica) patches. Ecology 68: 260–265.
Gosling PG. 1991. Beechnut storage: a review and practical interpretation Poulsen KM. 1993. Predicting the storage life of beech nuts. Seed Science
of the scientific literature. Forestry 64: 51–59. and Technology 21: 327–337.
Gottfriedsen D. 1991. Bucheckernernte mit SilvaSat. Forst und Holz 46(9): Prasad RBN, Gulz PG. 1989. Composition of lipids of beech (Fagus sylvati-
256–257 [Seed Abstracts 17(3): 942; 1994]. ca L.) seed oil. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung [Section C, Biosciences]
Grisez TJ. 1975. Flowering and seed production in seven hardwood species. 44: 735–738.
Res. Pap. NE-315. Upper Darby, PA: USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North
Forest Experiment Station. 8 p. America. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan. 996 p.
Gruber RE, Leak WB. 1992. Seed fall in an old-growth northern hardwood Rudolf PO, Leak WB. 1974. Fagus L., beech. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech.
forest. Res. Pap. NE-663. Upper Darby, PA: USDA Forest Service, coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450.
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 11 p. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 401–405.
Gysel LW. 1971. A 10-year analysis of beechnut production and use in Sain RE, Blum KE, 1981. Seedling production in the high-elevation beech
Michigan. Journal of Wildlife Management 35: 516–519. (Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.) forests of the Great Smoky Mountains National
Harmer R. 1994. Natural regeneration of broadleaved trees in Britain: 2. Park. Castanea 46: 217–224.
Seed production and predation. Forestry 67: 275–286. Stalter R. 1982. Production of viable seed by the American beech (Fagus
ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. International rules for grandifolia). Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 109: 542–544.
seed testing. Rules 1993. Seed Science & Technology 21 (Suppl.): 1–259. Suszka B. 1974. Storage of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) seeds for up to 5 win-
Johnson WC, Adkisson CS. 1985. Dispersal of beech nuts by blue jays in ters. Arboretum Kornickie 19: 105–128.
fragmented landscapes. American Midland Naturalist 113(2): 319–324. Suszka B. 1975. Cold storage of already after-ripened beech (Fagus sylvati-
Jorgensen J. 1990. Conservation of valuable gene resources by cryopreser- ca L.). Arboretum Kornickie 20: 299–315.
vation in some forest tree species. Journal of Plant Physiology 136: Suszka B. 1991. The indigo carmine test. In: Gordon AG, Gosling P, Wang
373–376. BSP, eds.Tree and shrub seed handbook. Zurich: ISTA: 10,1–10,9.
Leak WB, Gruber RE. 1993. Six-year beechnut productiion in New Suszka B, Zieta L. 1977. A new presowing treatment for cold-stored beech
Hampshire. Res. Pap. NE-677. Upper Darby, PA: USDA Forest Service, (Fagus silvatica L.) seed. Arboretum Kornickie 22: 237–255.
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 6 p. Tubbs CH, Houston DR. 1990. Fagus grandifolia Ehrh., American beech. In:
Burns RM, Honkala BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 2,
Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
325–332.
Dr. Meyer is a research ecologist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus Apache-plume flowers mostly in late spring to early
Fallugia contains a single species—Apache-plume, F. para- summer, and flowers are usually not damaged by late frosts
doxa (D. Don) Endl. ex Torr.—found throughout the south- (Shaw and Monsen 1983). Summer rains may extend the
western United States and northern Mexico. It occurs mostly season of flowering. The flowers are insect-pollinated and
on coarse soils on benches and especially along washes and attract a wide variety of colorful insects (Blauer and others
canyons in both warm and cool desert shrub communities 1975). The single-seeded achenes (figures 1–3) ripen in
and up into the pinyon–juniper vegetation type. It is a midsummer and are detached and dispersed by wind. Good
sprawling, much-branched shrub from 1 to 2.5 m in height seedcrops are generally produced every 2 to 3 years
that can root-sprout to produce extensive patches (Shaw and (Deitschman and others 1974).
Monsen 1983). It has white to straw-colored, flaking or Seed collection, cleaning, and storage. The window
scaly bark and fascicles of small wedge-shaped leaves that of opportunity for harvest of Apache-plume is generally
are deeply divided into 3 to 7 lobes and are rusty-tomentose quite short because ripe fruits do not persist on the plants.
on the undersides. Apache-plume is reported to be evergreen When the achenes turn from greenish to reddish and the
in the warmer portions of its range (Shaw and Monsen pink color of the styles starts to fade, the fruits may be col-
1983). It can be an important browse plant for both domestic lected by stripping or beating them into a hopper or other
and wild ungulates on some ranges and is also valuable for container or with a vacuum-harvester. Achenes comprise
erosion control (Deitschman and others 1974). It is some- only 15 to 20% of collected material by weight. Unless the
what fire-tolerant, with the ability to resprout after burning plumes are removed by chopping or rubbing or with a bar-
(Shaw and Monsen 1983). Because of its handsome habit ley de-bearder or similar device, the collected material
and showy flowers and fruits, it is used extensively for land- remains in a thick, entangled mass that cannot be handled
scape plantings in the Southwest. It is hardy in areas far or seeded. Once the styles are broken up, the material can
north of its natural range (Deitschman and others 1974; be cleaned in a conventional fanning mill.
Shaw and Monsen 1983) and has potential for use in revege- The seeds are held tightly within the achene and cannot
tation or as an ornamental over a wide geographic area. be threshed out, so the achene is considered to be the seed
Flowering and fruiting. Apache-plume has large,
Figure 1—Fallugia paradoxa, Apache-plume: achene with
white, 5-petaled, roselike flowers borne singly or in small style (tip broken).
groups on elongate peduncles. In spite of the typical rose
appearance, most plants of Apache-plume have been found
to be functionally dioecious or sometimes monoecious
(Blauer and others 1975). Each flower has a set of both sta-
mens and pistils, but one or the other fails to develop com-
pletely, resulting in functionally unisexual flowers. The male
flowers have numerous stamens, whereas the female flowers
have 20 to 30 separate pistils borne on a hypanthium. These
develop into hairy achenes with long, plumose styles. The
clusters of styles are shining-pink and very showy in fruit,
giving the plant its name.
Fagus • 525
Figure 2—Fallugia paradoxa, Apache-plume: achene with Germination and seed testing. Most workers report
F style removed. that seeds of Apache-plume germinate readily without pre-
treatment, at least when freshly harvested (Belcher 1985;
Deitschman and others 1974; Link 1993; Veit and Van
Auken 1993). Veit and Van Auken (1993) reported better
germination for a seedlot from west Texas at lower light lev-
els and with the styles removed, the latter possibly because
of better seed–substrate contact. They also found that germi-
nation was better at higher incubation temperatures (85% at
20 to 25 °C vs. 51% at 5 to 10 °C after 60 days), in contrast
to the results of Deitschman and others (1974), who reported
that seeds of 2 lots from central Utah germinated to 60 and
73% (that is, to maximum viability) during 60 days at 0 to
Figure 3—Fallugia paradoxa, Apache-plume: longitudinal 3 °C. These differences may represent ecotypic differentia-
section through an achene. tion between northern populations that emerge in response
to winter precipitation and southern populations that emerge
in response to summer rains. Chilling-responsive secondary
dormancy that is induced during dry storage (Link 1993)
may also represent an adaptive response, in that seeds that
do not germinate in response to summer rains may develop a
short chilling requirement that prevents them from germinat-
ing too late in the fall.
Belcher (1985) recommends 14 days of testing at 20 or
22 °C for evaluating the viability of Apache-plume seeds
and states that 30 days of chilling at 3 to 5 °C may be help-
ful for some lots. Viability may also be evaluated using
tetrazolium (TZ) staining. Achenes are soaked overnight in
water, clipped at the cotyledon end, immersed for several
hours in 1% TZ solution, and bisected longitudinally for
evaluation (Belcher 1985).
Field seeding and nursery practice. Although
Apache-plume has been successfully established via direct-
seeding in the fall or spring in the northern part of its range
and during summer rains in the southern part (Deitschman
and others 1974), it is somewhat difficult to establish this
way. Despite of their small size, the seeds must be covered
in order for seedlings to establish, but planting them too
unit. Reported weights are 925 to 1,280 achenes/g (420,000 deep can also prevent establishment. Veit and van Auken
to 580,000/lb) (Deitschman and others 1974; Belcher 1985; (1993) reported maximum emergence from seeds planted
Link 1993). Fill is sometimes quite low—for example, Link 1 to 2 mm (3/64 to 5/64 in) deep in greenhouse trials, where-
(1993) reported 30 to 40%—and unfilled fruits cannot be as planting depths of 3 to 6 mm (1/8 to 1/4 in) have been rec-
detected or removed in cleaning; it is therefore a good prac- ommended for seeding into nursery beds (Deitshman and
tice to check fill in the field before harvest. Seeds of others 1974). The seedlings are quite drought hardy but do
Apache-plume apparently are orthodox in storage behavior, not survive in competition with an understory of annual
but they have a more limited shelf life in warehouse storage grass weeds or perennial grasses. Young seedlings are
than those of related genera. Serious loss of viability com- depicted in figure 4.
mences after as little as 3 years, even if seeds are held at Apache-plume plants can be readily produced from
optimum moisture content (7 to 12%) (Belcher 1985; seeds in either bareroot or container systems. They grow
Deitschman and others 1974; Link 1993). rapidly with irrigation, often flowering their first growing
Fallugia • 527
F Rutaceae—Rue family
Flindersia brayleyana F. Muell.
Queensland-maple
Herbert L.Wick and John A. Parrotta
Dr.Wick retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station;
Dr. Parrotta is a research leader at the USDA Forest Service’s Research and
Development National Office, Arlington,Virginia
Synonym. Flindersia chatawaiana F.M. Bailey. 1974). A tree usually starts bearing seeds at 8 years of age
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Queensland- and produces an abundant crop annually (Wick 1974).
maple (Flindersia brayleyana F. Muell.)—also known as Collection, extraction, and storage. When the cap-
Brayley flindersia, maple-silkwood, red-beech, and silk- sules turn from green to brown, they are ripe and should be
wood—is a native of Queensland, Australia, that was intro- picked. In Hawaii, the capsules are picked from felled or
duced to Hawaii in 1935 (Francis 1951; Wick 1974). It is a standing trees. The fruits are spread on trays for air-drying
broadleaf, tropical hardwood tree that attains a height of 20 or are oven-dried. As the capsules dry, they open, releasing
to 30 m at maturity. Queensland-maple ranks with the seeds. In Hawaii, there are between 9,800 and 11,700
mahogany, walnut, cedar, and blackwood as one of the best seeds/kg (4,400 to 5,300 seeds/lb), or an average of about
cabinet timbers of the world and is one of the most valuable 10,500 seeds/kg (4,800 seeds/lb) (Wick 1974). In
species on the Australian market. The sapwood is pink and Queensland, Swain (1928) reported a range of 6,600 to
the heartwood a lustrous pale brown, often with interlocked 11,000 seeds/kg (3,000 to 5,000 seeds/lb). In Hawaii, the
and wavy grain (Little and Skolmen 1989). The heartwood seeds are stored in airtight containers at 2 °C. The seeds do
is also used for veneer, plywood, and laminated panels and not store well and lose their viability within a year. Because
doors (Boas 1947). It is a medium-dense wood with an seeds are easily damaged, they must be handled gently. The
average specific gravity of 450 to 540 kg/m3. Plantings in seeds are also very sensitive to chemicals used in storage or
Hawaii have not, as yet, been commercially harvested. fumigation (Wick 1974).
Flowering and fruiting. Queensland-maple has small
(3 mm long), white, fragrant, 5-petaled bisexual flowers that Figure 2—Flindersia brayleyana, Queensland-maple:
generally form large panicles from August to September. longitudinal section through two planes of a seed.
The fruit is a cylindrical, hard-shelled, warty, 5-valved
dehiscent capsule, about 6 cm long and 2.5 cm in diameter
(Little and Skolmen 1989). In Hawaii, it generally ripens
from June to July and releases its several flat, winged seeds
(measuring 5 by 1 cm) from July through September (fig-
ures 1 and 2) (Little and Skolmen 1989; Neal 1965; Wick
Flindersia • 529
F
Rhamnaceae—Buckthorn family
Frangula P. Mill.
buckthorn
Andrew Youngblood
Dr.Youngblood is a research forester at the USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Northwest Research Station
La Grande, Oregon
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The buckthorn Within North America, the largest assemblage of
genus—Frangula—and the closely related genus Rhamnus Frangula species in the genus is in the West, especially
have until recently been treated as a single genus (Rhamnus) California and northern Mexico. Six subspecies of
consisting of more than 125 species of evergreen or decidu- California buckthorn are recognized (Kartesz and Gandhi
ous shrubs and trees with alternate branches and simple 1994), yet the extent to which published seed handling char-
leaves with prominent pinnate veins (Hickman 1993). acteristics apply equally within this complex is unknown.
Kartesz and Gandhi (1994), however, used floral morpholo- California buckthorn is an evergreen shrub that reaches
gy and leaf venation, as well as anatomical features of maximum heights of 2 to 6 m. The fruits were gathered his-
xylem vessels, to support segregation of Frangula. Under torically by Native Americans for culinary as well as medic-
their treatment, Frangula species lack winter bud scales, the inal purposes and are a preferred food of birds and bears
pinnate leaf nerves are almost straight rather than arcuate, (Conrad 1987). California buckthorn var. californica, which
and thorns are absent. Both Rhamnus and Frangula are was introduced on Mauna Kea on the island of Hawaii in
native to the temperate region of North America, Europe, 1940 to provide food for introduced game birds, is now well
and Asia and also occur in the Neotropics and southern established and shows signs of becoming an invasive pest
Africa as shrubs and trees up to 1.5 m dbh and over 60 m (Conrad 1996). Regeneration of California buckthorn is pri-
tall (Johnston and Johnston 1978; Krüssmann 1985). The marily by stump-sprouting after fire (Keeley 1981; Martin
common name, buckthorn, is probably misapplied and is 1982; Conrad 1987).
based on European species of Rhamnus that are thorny Carolina buckthorn, native to eastern North American, is
(Mozingo 1987; USDA 1937). At least 16 species and sub- a deciduous shrub or small tree with maximum height of
species are distributed within the United States (table 1) about 10 m. It often occurs over basic rock in moist decidu-
(USDA NRCS 2001). ous woods (Radford and others 1968).
Glossy buckthorn, which is native to Europe, North Cascara, or Pursh buckthorn, native to the coniferous
Africa, and western Europe, also is naturalized in northeast- forest zone in northwestern United States and British
ern and central United States and southern Canada, where it Columbia, is a deciduous tall shrub or tree that grows to a
grows to a height of 6 m and is often used for hedges. The height of 12 m. The bark of cascara is harvested for its
fruits are eaten by American robins (Turdus migratorius), cathartic properties. According to Heiser (1993), cascara is
Bohemian waxwings (Bombycilla garrulus), cedar northern North America’s principal wild plant in terms of
waxwings (B. cedrorum), rose-breasted grosbeaks the number of drug products and the cascara derivative is
(Phencticus ludovicianus), and starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). considered the world’s most widely used cathartic. The
Dispersal of seeds by birds and subsequent germination and Spanish common name cascara sagrada means “holy bark”
establishment represents a rapidly increasing problem; for and may be derived from its use by Franciscan missionaries
example, this non-native invasive shrub has replaced natural in California (Arno and Hammerly 1977). The low-growing
open and semi-open wetland communities in southern and spreading variety arbuscula occurs on serpentine slopes
Ontario (Catling and Porebski 1994). in the Wenatchee Mountains of Washington and may tolerate
Beechleaf buckthorn is a low-growing shrub with dark open and dry sites (Kruckeberg 1982). Cascara regenerates
green leaves found in rock crevices, hanging gardens, and primarily by stump-sprouting after fire (Leege 1979). It is an
desert shrub communities in the Southwest (Welsh and oth- alternate host for crown rust—Puccinia coronata Corda—
ers 1990). which causes yellow leaf spot in the aecial stage; economic
damage by crown rust is confined to heavy damage in fields lacking. There are 5 stamens. The ovary has 2 or 3 cells.
of oats grown in close proximity to plant communities con- When Orme and Leege (1980) followed phenological
taining cascara (Ziller 1974). changes in cascara in northern Idaho for 3 years, they found
Red buckthorn is a low-growing deciduous shrub with that flowering occurred in late May to mid-June and that
reddish branchlets found on dry open slopes in chaparral fruits began developing 1 week later.
and montane zones of California and Nevada. Fruits are drupaceous, the berrylike pulpy mesocarp
The earliest know cultivation of species native to North embedding 2 or 3 smooth-sided stones (Johnston and
America includes 1727 for Carolina buckthorn and the mid- Johnston 1978; Kartesz and Gandhi 1994) (figure 1). Fruits,
1800s for California buckthorn and cascara (Krüssmann which are generally black or reddish black, average 5 mm in
1985). diameter for Carolina buckthorn, 10 mm for cascara, 12 mm
Flowering and fruiting. The inconspicuous perfect for red buckthorn, and up to 15 mm for California buck-
flowers are either borne in small umbels or fascicles or are thorn. Dispersal is mostly by birds. Cascara begins to pro-
solitary. The flowers are bisexual and mostly 5-merous. duce fruit when it is 5 to 7 years old (Hubbard 1974); com-
White to greenish white petals (brown in beechleaf buck- parable information for other species is lacking. Good seed-
thorn) are equal to the sepals in number and alternating, or crops for all species are likely to occur in most years.
Frangula • 531
F Table 1—Frangula, buckthorn: nomenclature and occurrence (continued)
Figure 1—Frangula purshiana, cascara: fruit. Figure 2—Frangula, buckthorn: seeds of F. alnus, glossy
buckthorn (top); F. californica, California buckthorn (left);
and F. purshiana, cascara (right).
Frangula • 533
F References
Arno SF, Hammerly RP. 1977. Northwest trees. Seattle, WA:The Keeley JE. 1987. Role of fire in seed germination of woody taxa in
Mountaineers. 222 p. California chaparral. Ecology 68: 434–443.
Catling PM, Porebski ZS. 1994. The history of invasion and current status of Kruckeberg AR. 1982. Gardening with native plants of the Pacific
glossy buckthorn, Rhamnus frangula, in southern Ontario. Canadian Field- Northwest. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 252 p.
Naturalist 108: 305–310. Krüssmann G. 1985. Manual of cultivated broad-leaved trees and shrubs.
Conrad CE. 1987. Common shrubs of chaparral and associated ecosystems Volume III. Portland, OR:Timber Press. 510 p.
of southern California. Gen.Tech. Rep. PSW-99. Berkeley, CA: USDA, Leege TA. 1979. Effects of repeated prescribed burns on northern Idaho
Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. elk browse. Northwest Science 53: 107–113.
86 p. Martin BD. 1982. Vegetation responses to prescribed burning in Cuyamaca
Conrad CE. 1996. Personal communication. Honolulu: Institute of Pacific Rancho State Park, California. In: Conrad CE, Oechel WC, tech. coords.
Islands Forestry. Proceedings, Symposium on Dynamics and Management of
Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, orna- Mediterranean-type Ecosystems; 1981 June 22–26; San Diego, CA. Gen.
mental characteristics, culture, propagation and use. Champaign, IL: Stipes Tech. Rep. PSW-58. Berkeley, CA: USDA Forest Service, Pacific
Publishing Co. 1007 p. Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: 617.
Enescu V. 1991. The tetrazolium test of viability. In: Gordon AG, Gosling P, Mozingo H. 1987. Shrubs of the Great Basin: a natural history. Reno:
Wang BSP, eds.Tree and shrub seed handbook. Zurich: International University of Nevada Press. 342 p.
Seed Testing Association: 9.1–9.19. Orme ML, Leege TA. 1980. Phenology of shrubs on a north Idaho elk
Heiser CB, Jr. 1993. Ethnobotany and economic botany. In: Flora of North range. Northwest Science 54: 187–198.
America north of Mexico.Volume 1, Introduction. New York: Oxford Piper JK. 1986. Seasonality of fruit characters and seed removal by birds.
University Press: 199–206. Oikos 46: 303–310.
Hickman JC, ed. 1993. The Jepson manual: higher plants of California. Radford AE, Ahles HE, Bell CR. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the
Berkeley: University of California Press. 1400 p. Carolinas. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 1183 p.
Hubbard RL. 1974. Rhamnus, buckthorn. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Radwan MA. 1976. Germination of cascara seed.Tree Planters’ Notes 27:
Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. 20–23.
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 704–708. USDA FS [USDA Forest Service]. 1937. Range plant handbook.
Johnston MC, Johnston LA. 1978. Flora Neotropica. Monograph 20. New Washington, D.C.
York: New York Botanical Garden. 96 p. USDA NRCS [USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service]. 2001. The
Kartesz, JT, Gandhi, KN. 1994. Nomenclatural notes for the North PLANTS Database,Version 3.1 [available at http://plants.usda.gov]. Baton
American Flora. XIII. Phytologia 76: 441–457. Rouge, LA: USDA NRCS, National Plant Data Center.
Keeley JE. 1981. Reproductive cycles and fire regimes. In: Mooney HA, Welsh SL, Atwood ND, Goodrich S, Higgins LC, eds. 1993. A Utah flora.
Bonnicksen TM, Christensen NL [and others], tech. coords.: Proceedings, Provo, UT: Brigham Young University Press. 986 p.
Fire Regimes and Ecosystem Properties Conference; 1978 December Ziller WG. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Pub. 1329. Victoria, BC:
11–15; Honolulu, HI. Gen.Tech. Rep. WO-26. Washington, DC: USDA Department of the Environment, Canadian Forestry Service. 272 p.
Forest Service: 231–277.
Dr. Griffin is assistant professor at Kansas State University’s Department of Horticulture, Forestry, and
Recreation Resources, Manhattan, Kansas; Dr. Blazich is alumni distinguished graduate professor of plant prop-
agation and tissue culture at the North Carolina State University’s Department of Horticultural Science,
Raleigh, North Carolina
Synonyms. Gordonia alatamaha (Bartr. ex Marsh.) Figure 1—Franklinia alatamaha, Franklin tree: capsules
Sarg.; Gordonia pubescens L’Hér. after seed release.
Other common names. franklinia, lost camellia, lost
gordonia.
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. Franklin tree—
Franklinia alatamaha Bartr. ex Marsh.—was discovered by
Bartram in 1765 on 0.8 to 1.2 ha of sandhill bogs near the
mouth of the Altamaha River in Georgia, but the species has
not been found in a native setting since 1803. Currently, it
exists only in cultivation in USDA Hardiness Zones 5–9
(Everett 1981; Jacobson 1996; Wildman 1996). Franklin tree development (figures 2 and 3) (Sargent 1949; Small 1933).
is a deciduous small tree or large multi-stemmed shrub Collection of fruits, seed extraction, cleaning, and
reaching a height of 9 m (LHBH 1976). Upright spreading storage. Capsules should be collected in October to
branches with leaves clustered at the tips give the plant a November, before they split, and then allowed to dry and
tightly rounded exterior appearance and its open interior open indoors. Seeds can then be shaken from the capsules
reveals striated bark that adds year-round interest (Elias and sown immediately (Dirr and Heuser 1987). Currently,
1989; Wildman 1996). no information regarding long-term storage of seeds of
Valued for ornamental characteristics, Franklin tree pro- Franklin tree has been published.
duces large, showy white flowers appearing from July to the Pregermination treatments. Seeds that are collected
first frost of autumn (Elias 1989; Schneider 1988; Wildman when the capsules split and sown immediately will germi-
1996). Lustrous dark green leaves turn “a blazing red in nate without any pretreatment (Dirr and Heuser 1987). Best
fall” before abscising to reveal an attractive smooth gray germination, however, occurs after stratification (moist-
bark that is broken by lighter colored fissures (Wildman prechilling) for 1 to 2 months (Dirr and Heuser 1987;
1996). These attributes clearly make the species a superb Farmer and Chase 1977). If seeds are stored and allowed to
specimen tree or small flowering tree in a mixed planting. dry, stratification becomes necessary (Hartmann and others
Flowering and fruiting. Perfect flowers, 7 to 9 cm in 1997).
diameter, appear in July and are borne solitary in the axils of Germination tests. Farmer and Chase (1977) studied
the leaves. Each flower consists of a 1.3-cm-diameter center, the influence of stratification, temperature, and light on seed
filled with golden yellow stamens, surrounded by 5 white germination of Franklin tree. Seeds were stratified at 3 °C
petals (1 remains cupped). Flowering persists until the first for 0, 4, 8, or 12 weeks followed by germination at 14-hour
frost (Elias 1989). Seeds are produced in 1.3- to 2.0-cm- day/10-hour night thermoperiods of 16/7 °C, 24/16 °C, or
diameter, 5-valved, subglobose, dehiscing, woody capsules 29/24 °C. At each thermoperiod, seeds were maintained in
that split alternately from above and below (figure 1) darkness or subjected daily, during the high temperature por-
(LHBH 1976). Capsules persist through the winter, provid- tion of the cycle, to a 14-hour photoperiod of 2.2 klux pro-
ing an excellent feature for identification (Wildman 1996). vided by incandescent and fluorescent light sources. Results
Each cell of a capsule contains 6 to 8 wingless seeds, 12- to indicated the seeds have an obligate light requirement.
14-mm-long, that are angled due to mutual pressure during
Franklinia • 535
Figure 2—Franklinia alatamaha, Franklin tree: seeds. Nursery practice. For field production, seeds sown in
F
late winter to early spring will result in seedlings that grow
quite vigorously, attaining heights of about 30 cm (12 in) by
fall (Judd 1930). If container production is desired, Farmer
and Chase (1977) recommend 8 to 16 weeks of stratifica-
tion, after which seeds are sown to a 5-mm (0.2-in) depth in
flats containing a medium of peat and perlite. Shoot emer-
gence occurs in about 2 weeks at day/night germination
temperatures of 27/21 °C. Seedlings should remain in flats
until they reach a height of 3 to 5 cm (1 to 2 in), when they
should be transplanted to 10-cm (4-in) pots containing a
medium of finely ground peat moss. Plants are maintained
in these pots under natural photoperiods for a period of 4 to
Figure 3—Franklinia alatamaha, Franklin tree: longitudinal 8 weeks and fertilized monthly with a complete soluble fer-
section of a seed. tilizer. At this point, seedlings will have attained a height of
15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in) and are ready for sale. Like many
native ornamentals, Franklin tree prefers a moist, acidic soil
(pH 5.5 to 6.5) that must be well drained (Schneider 1988).
Although Franklin tree is relatively pest free, seedlings will
often suffer from a root rot caused by Phytophthora cin-
namomi Rands if soil conditions are too wet (Wildman
1996).
The species can also be propagated easily by stem cut-
tings taken from June to August. Treatment of cuttings with
a solution of 1,000 ppm (0.1%) indolebutyric acid (IBA)
will result in 90% rooting (Dirr and Heuser 1987). Although
sexual propagation is possible as mentioned previously,
seeds are usually quite expensive, making propagation by
cuttings more economical (Schneider 1988).
References
Regardless of temperature, germination in the dark was neg- Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop-
ligible for nonstratified seeds. However, in the presence of agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p.
Elias TS. 1989. Field guide to North American trees. Danbury, CT: Grolier
light, cumulative germination at 16/7 °C, 24/16 °C, or Book Clubs. 948 p.
29/24 °C was 2, 75, and 61%, respectively. Stratification Everett TH. 1981. The New York Botanical Garden illustrated encyclopedia
of horticulture. New York: Garland Publishing. 3601 p.
enhanced germination by accelerating the rate of germina- Farmer Jr. RE. Chase SB. 1977. Germination and container production of
Franklinia. HortScience 12(1): 43.
tion and reducing sensitivity of the seeds to light. After 4 Hartmann HT, Kester DE, Davies Jr FT, Geneve RL. 1997. Plant propagation:
weeks of stratification, total germination in the presence of principles and practices. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
770 p.
light at 16/7 °C, 24/16 °C, and 29/24 °C was 5, 87, and Jacobson AL. 1996. North American landscape trees. Berkeley:Ten Speed
Press. 722 p.
91%, respectively, in comparison to 2, 31, and 85%, respec- Judd WH. 1930. The fruiting of Franklinia. Horticulture 8(5): 103.
tively, for seeds in darkness. Germination following stratifi- LHBH [Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium]. 1976. Hortus third: a concise dic-
tionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. 3rd ed.
cation for 8 weeks was similar to that of 4 weeks of stratifi- New York: Macmillan. 1290 p.
Sargent CS. 1949. Manual of the trees of North America. New York: Dover
cation. Additional stratification for 12 weeks resulted in an Publications. 910 p.
increase in dark germination at 24/16 °C to 53% and a large Schneider R. 1988. Franklinia alatamaha. American Nurseryman 167(2):
146.
increase in germination at 16/7 °C with dark and light ger- Small JK. 1933. Manual of the southeasern flora. Chapel Hill: University of
North Carolina Press. 1554 p.
mination of 32 and 52%, respectively. Wildman A. 1996. Franklinia alatamaha: Franklin tree. Arbor Age 16(6): 20.
Fraxinus L.
ash
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. The genus Geographic races and hybrids. Both green and
Fraxinus—the ashes—is a large genus of deciduous trees white ashes exhibit ecotypic variation, but no patterns have
whose members are valued for many reasons. In addition to been consistent enough to firmly establish geographic races
the 9 native ash species, 2 European species that have been (Kennedy 1990; Schlesinger 1990). White ash and Texas
widely planted as ornamentals in North America (European ash—F. texensis (Gray) Sarg.—intergrade in Texas
and flowering ashes) are included in this manual (table 1). (Schlesinger 1990). Oregon ash becomes very similar to
Practically all ashes have been planted to some extent for velvet ash south of the Kern River in California (Owston
landscaping and in parks. Ashes make excellent shade trees 1990), which suggests intergrading of these 2 species. There
in residential areas, and numerous selections of European is also some evidence that pumpkin ash is a true-breeding
and flowering ashes are in cultivation today (Dirr and natural hybrid of white ash and green ash (Kennedy 1990).
Heuser 1987). Native favorites for landscaping are white and Several large provenance tests are underway with white ash
green ashes for the eastern and central United States and (Clausen 1984; Clausen and others 1981) and green ash
velvet ash for arid situations in the Southwest. (Hendrix and Lowe 1990; Steiner and others 1988; Van
Scientific name
& synonym(s) Common name(s) Occurrence
F. americana L. white ash, Biltmore white Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia,W to
ash, Biltmore ash SE Minnesota, & S to Texas & Florida
F. caroliniana P. Mill. Carolina ash, swamp ash, NE Virginia S to S Florida,W to
water ash, pop ash Texas & Arkansas
F. dipetala Hook. & Arn. two-petal ash, flowering ash, SW Utah,W to Nevada, California, & Mexico
F. trifoliolata (Torr.) Lewis & Epling foothill ash
F. excelsior L. European ash Europe & Asia Minor; widely planted in US
F. latifolia Benth. Oregon ash Puget Sound in Washington to S California
F. nigra Marsh. black ash, basket ash, brown ash, Newfoundland to SE Manitoba
hoop ash, swamp ash, water ash S to Iowa & Delaware
F. ornus L. flowering ash S Europe & W Asia; widely planted in US
F. pennsylvanica Marsh. green ash, red ash, Cape Breton Island to Alberta,
F. pennsylvanica var. lanceolata Darlington ash, white ash, S to Texas & NW Florida
(Borkh.) Sarg. swamp ash, water ash
F. profunda (Bush) Bush pumpkin ash, red ash S Maryland & Illinois, S to Louisiana & N Florida
F. quadrangulata Michx. blue ash S Ontario and Wisconsin, S to NE Oklahoma
& NW Georgia
F. uhdei (Wenzig) Lingelsh. Shamel ash, tropical ash, W-central Mexico through Guatemala;
fresno planted in Hawaii & Puerto Rico
F. velutina Torr. velvet ash, desert ash, Utah & Nevada, S to S California & SW Texas
leatherleaf ash, smooth ash,
Modesto ash, Arizona ash,Toumey ash
Fraxinus • 537
Deusen and Cunningham 1982), and their results should moisture content (Cram and Lindquist 1982); and maximum
F
provide more information about the variation in these samara dry weight (Bonner 1973). There are several good
species. chemical indices of maturity in green ash as well (Bonner
Flowering and fruiting. The small, usually incon- 1973), but these are not practical for collection operations.
spicuous flowers of most ash species appear in the spring Clusters of samaras can be picked by hand or with
(table 2) with or just before the leaves in terminal or axillary pruners and seed hooks. Fully dried samaras may be shaken
panicles (compound racemes). The flowers may be greenish or whipped from limbs of standing trees onto sheets spread
yellow, greenish purple, or even greenish red (white ash) on the ground. Samaras can also be swept up from paved
(Brown and Kirkman 1990; Vines 1960). Flowering ash is streets or other hard surfaces after they fall (Bonner 1974).
an exception, with showy, white flowers appearing after the Local seedcrops of white and green ashes are often seri-
leaves (Dirr and Heuser 1987). Flowering habit varies by ously damaged by ash seed weevils—Thysanocnemis
species and may be dioecious, perfect, or polygamous (table bischoffi Blatchley, T. helvola Leconte, and T. horridulus
2). Ash fruits are elongated, winged, single-seeded samaras (Casey) (Barger and Davidson 1967; Solomon and others
that are borne in clusters (figures 1–3). Samara length 1993). The greatest reported losses have been in the
ranges from 2.5 to 7.5 cm, depending on species. In white Northeast and the Great Plains, with smaller amounts of
ash, fruit size increases as latitude increases (Winstead and damage in the South. The female deposits 1 egg per seed,
others 1977). Fruits mature by late summer or fall and are and mature larvae exit the seeds from fall until the following
dispersed by wind shortly afterward (table 2). Samaras of spring. Direct control measures are rarely justified (Solomon
pumpkin ash, which is found in swamps and river bottoms, and others 1993).
are reported to remain viable in water for several months
(Harms 1990). Samaras of black and blue ashes have a char- Figure 1—Fraxinus americana, white ash: cluster of
acteristic spicy odor. Fruiting data are summarized in samaras.
table 3.
Collection of fruits. Ash fruits are usually collected
in the fall when their color has faded from green to yellow
or brown (Bonner 1974; Vines 1960). Soljanik (1961) rec-
ommended collecting the fruits of European and flowering
ashes in Europe when the samaras are still slightly green
and sowing can be done immediately. The aim of this strate-
gy is to avoid the deep dormancy that is common in these
species when they are fully mature. Other good indices of
maturity are a firm, crisp, white, fully elongated seed within
the samara (Bonner 1974; Soljanik 1961); minimum samara
Table 2—Fraxinus, ash: flowering habit and phenology of flowering and fruiting
Sources: Bonner (1974), Francis (1990), Harms (1990), Kennedy (1990), Owston (1990), Rehder (1940), Schlesinger (1990),Vines (1960),Wright and Rauscher (1990).
Minimum Years
Height at Year first seed-bearing between large
Species maturity (m) cultivated age (yr) seedcrops
Extraction and storage of seeds. Samaras should be but they must be completely dry for the process to be suc-
spread in shallow layers for complete drying, especially cessful. Smaller seedlots, such as those used for research or
when collected early. Dried clusters may be broken apart by testing, can be de-winged in laboratory blenders operated at
hand, by flailing sacks of clusters, or by running the clusters low speeds about half-full of water. Seed yield data for
through macerators or brush machines dry (Bonner 1974). ashes are summarized in table 4.
Stems and trash can then be removed by fanning or with air- Long-term storage studies with seeds of the ashes are
screen cleaners. Screen openings of 1 by 1 cm are good for few, but these seeds are definitely orthodox in their storage
white and green ash. De-winging of samaras is not neces- characteristics. Studies by Barton (1945) showed no loss in
sary for storage or sowing, but many nurseries prefer to do viability for 7 years for green and European ash seeds stored
so. Large amounts of samaras can be de-winged by dry mac- in sealed containers at 5 °C with seed moisture contents of 7
eration in a macerator or in brush machines (Karrfalt 1992), to 10%. Similar conditions have proved successful for flow-
ering ash (Heit 1967) and Shamel ash (Bonner 1974).
Fraxinus • 539
Pregermination treatments. Most species of ash
F
exhibit a complex dormancy that is due to both seedcoat and
moisture (%)
—
7–8
—
—
—
—
—
—
13
—
Seed
9
7
2
51
—
5
2+
10
6
1
17,260
—
5,900
—
3,200
—
16,500
20,600
5,744
8,100
Tzou and others 1973). European and black ashes also have
Average
38,850
7,050
13,660
—
13,000
—
—
36,380
45,420
17,860
Cleaned seeds/weight
/kg
11,000–24,000
—
5,000–8,800
4,750–7,000
4,000–7,000
10,000–14,060
3,000–3,300
5,900–7,000
15,500–17,500
13,000–28,000
6,100–9,500
24,250–54,250
—
11,025–19,400
10,470–15,430
8,800–15,430
22,000–31,000
6,830–7,270
13,450–20,950
13,000–15,430
34,200–38,600
28,850–61,740
7.2
12.4
12.5
—
—
—
14
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
18
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
9†
Mississippi
Mississippi
fall, or seeds may lie dormant in the litter for several years
California
Arkansas
Midwest
Europe
Hawaii
before germinating.
USA
—
F. profunda
F. excelsior
F. dipetala
F. velutina
F. latifolia
F. uhdei
F. nigra
Sources: Bonner (1974), Bonner (1975), Francis (1990), Mirov and Kraebel (1939), Soljanik (1961), Steinbauer (1937),Vanstone and LaCroix (1975),Walle (1987).
* Naked stratification in plastic bags.
† In outdoor pits.
‡ Exact temperatures not given.
§ For seeds from southern sources, 2 or 3 months is enough, but for seeds from northern sources, 5 months is needed.The warm period is helpful but not essential for
southern sources (Bonner 1974; Eliason 1965).
Fraxinus • 541
F
Table 6—Fraxinus, ash: germination test conditions and results for stratified seed
Germination test conditions
Daily Germination Germination
light rate percentage
period Temp (°C) Amt Avg
Species (hrs) Medium Day Night Days (%) Days (%) Samples
Sources: Bonner (1974), Bonner (1975), Cram (1984), Mirov and Kraebel (1939), Soljanik (1961),Tinus (1982).
NDL = Natural daylength in a greenhouse.
Recommendations for Shamel ash are 215 to 320 Shamel ash coppices readily, and shoot tip cuttings from
seedlings/m2 (20 to 30/ft2) (Bonner 1974). Seeds should be these sprouts can be rooted (Francis 1990). Cuttings of
covered with 6 to 19 mm (1/4 to 3/4 in) of soil, and shading green ash from 1+0 seedlings or 1-year-old coppice shoots
of the beds for a short time after germination may be desir- root easily, but older material is extremely difficult to propa-
able. Some ash species are subject to severe defoliation by a gate (Kennedy 1990). Air-layering of green ash limbs on
fungus—Marssonina gloeodes (H.C. Greene) H.C. 5-year-old trees in Mississippi was 22% successful (Bonner
Greene—especially in northern nurseries, and control meas- 1963). Other ash species are not easily rooted, but ornamen-
ures may be necessary. The normal outplanting age for tal selections are commonly propagated by budding and
North American ashes is 1+0, or in some cases 2+0. grafting (Dirr and Heuser 1987).
European ash stock is ordinarily outplanted as 1+1 or 2+0.
Aldhous JR. 1972. Nursery practice. Bull. 43. London: Forestry Commission. For. Pub. 5. Washington, DC: USDA Civilian Conservation Corps. 42 p.
194 p. Nikolaeva MG. 1967. Fiziologiya glubokogo pokoya semyan. Akad. Nauk
Arrillaga I, Marzo T, Segura J. 1992. Embryo culture of Fraxinus ornus and SSSR, Bot. Inst.V. L. Komarova. Izdatel’stvo “Nauka,” Lenin Grad.
Sorbus domestica removes seed dormancy. Hortscience 27: 371. [Physiology of deep dormancy in seeds. 1969.Transl.TT 68-50463.
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds. Springfield,VA: USDC National Technical Information Center. 220 p.]
Journal of Seed Technology 16(3): 1–113. Owston PW. 1990. Fraxinus latifolia Benth., Oregon ash. In: Burns RM,
Barger JH, Davidson RH. 1967. A life history of the ash seed weevils, Honkala BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 2,
Thysanocnemis bischoffi Blatchley and T. helvola Leconte. Ohio Journal of Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
Science 67(2): 123–127. 339–343.
Barton LV. 1945. Viability of seeds of Fraxinus after storage. Contributions of Piotto B. 1994. Effects of temperature on germination of stratified seeds of
the Boyce Thompson Institute 13: 427–432. three ash species. Seed Science and Technology 22: 519–529.
Bonner FT. 1963. Some southern hardwoods can be air-layered. Journal of Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North
Forestry 61: 923. America, exclusive of the subtropical and warmer temperate regions.
Bonner FT. 1973. Timing collections of samaras of Fraxinus pennsylvanica 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan. 996 p.
Marsh. in the southern United States. In: International Symposium on Schlesinger RC. 1990. Fraxinus americana L., white ash. In: Burns RM,
Seed Processing.Volume 1, Seed processing (IUFRO W.P. S2.01.06). 1973 Honkala BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 2,
September; Bergen, Norway. Stockholm: Royal College of Forestry: 7 p. Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
Bonner FT. 1974. Fraxinus L., ash. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of 333–338.
woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: Soljanik I. 1961. [Producing seedlings from unripe forest seed.] Sumarstvo
USDA Forest Service: 411–416. 14(5/6): 161–167 [Transl.TT-67-58012. Springfield,VA: USDC National
Bonner FT. 1975. Germination temperatures and prechill treatments for Technical Information Center].
white ash (Fraxinus americana L.). Proceedings of the Association of Solomon JD, Leininger TD, Wilson AD, Anderson RL,Thompson LC,
Official Seed Analysts 65: 60–65. McCracken FI. 1993. Ash pests: a guide to major insects, diseases,
Brown CL, Kirkman LK. 1990. Trees of Georgia and adjacent states. air pollution injury, and chemical injury. Gen.Tech. Rep. SO-96. New
Portland, OR:Timber Press. 292 p. Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station.
Clausen KE. 1984. Survival and early growth of white ash provenances and 45 p.
progenies in 19 plantations. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 14: Sondheimer E, Galson EC,Tinelli E, Walton DC. 1974. The metabolism of
775–782. hormones during seed germination and dormancy: 4.The metabolism of
Clausen KE, Kung FH, Bey CF, Daniels RA. 1981. Variation in white ash. (5)-2-14C-abscisic acid in ash (Fraxinus americana) embryos. Plant
Silvae Genetica 30(2/3): 93–97. Physiology 54: 803–808.
Cram WH. 1984. Presowing treatments and storage for green ash seeds. Steinbauer GP. 1937. Dormancy and germination of Fraxinus seeds. Plant
Tree Planters’ Notes 35(1): 20–21. Physiology 12: 813–824.
Cram WH, Lindquist CH. 1982. Germination of green ash is related to seed Steiner KC, Williams MW, Hayes DH de, Hall RB, Eckert RT, Bagley WT,
moisture content at harvest. Forest Science 28: 809–812. Lemmien WA, Karnosky DF, Carter KK, Cech FC. 1988. Juvenile per-
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- formance in a range-wide provenance test of Fraxinus pennsylnanica
agation. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. Marsh. Silvae Genetica 37(3/4): 104–111.
Eliason EJ. 1965. Treatment of forest tree seed to overcome dormancy Stinemetz CL, Roberts BR. 1984. An analysis of the gibberellic and abscisic
prior to direct seeding. In: Direct Seeding in the Northeast: A acid content of white ash seeds. Journal of Arboculture 10: 283–285.
Symposium. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Experiment Station: Suszka B, Muller C, Bonnet-Masimbert M. 1996. Seeds of forest
87–91. broadleaves from harvest to sowing. In: Gordon A, trans. Paris: Institute
Francis JK. 1990. Fraxinus uhdei (Wenzig) Lingelsh. Fresno, tropical ash. In: National de la Recherche Agronimique. 294 p.
Silvics manual. SO-ITF-SM-28. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Tinus RW. 1982. Effects of dewinging, soaking, stratification, and growth reg-
Southern Forest Experiment Station. 4 p. ulators on germination of green ash seed. Canadian Journal of Forest
Gendel SM, Fosket DE, Miksche JP. 1977. Increasing white ash seed germina- Research 12: 931–935.
tion by embryo dissection. Res. Note NC-220. St. Paul, MN: USDA Tylkowski T. 1990. Mediumless stratification and dry storage of after-ripened
Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 3 p. seeds of Fraxinus excelsior L. Arboretum Kornickie 35: 143–152 [Seed
Harms WR. 1990. Fraxinus profunda (Bush) Bush, pumpkin ash. In: Burns RM, Abstracts 18(4): 1150; 1995].
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Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: matured in dry weather conditions. Arboretum Kornickie 38: 131–139
355–357. [Seed Abstracts 18(12): 4022; 1995].
Heit CE. 1967. Propagation from seed: 11. Storage of deciduous tree and Tzou DS, Galson EC, Sondheimer E. 1973. The metabolism of hormones
shrub seeds. American Nurseryman 126(10): 12–13, 86–94. during seed germination and release from dormancy: 3.The effects and
Hendrix KW, Lowe WJ. 1990. Geographic variation of green ash in the metabolism of zeatin in dormant and nondormant ash embryos. Plant
Western Gulf region. Silvae Genetica 39(3/4): 95–103. Physiology 51: 894–897.
Houston DB. 1976. Determining the quality of white ash seed lots by x-ray Van Deusen JL, Cunningham RA. 1982. Green ash seed sources for North
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ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. International rules for Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 5 p.
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Karrfalt RP. 1992. Increasing hardwood seed quality with brush machines. ash. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 100:
Tree Planters’ Notes 43(2): 33–35. 630–632.
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Honkala BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 2, University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
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348–354. be seed water content during cold treatment. Physiologia Plantarum 69:
Kentzer T. 1966. Gibberellin-like substances and growth inhibitors in relation 645–650.
to the dormancy and after-ripening of ash seeds (Fraxinus excelsior L.). Williams RD, Hanks SH. 1976. Hardwood nurseryman’s guide. Agric.
Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 35(4): 575–585. Handbk. 473. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 78 p.
Krinard RM. 1989. Stand parameters of 11- to 15-year old green ash plant- Winstead JE, Smith BJ, Wardell GI. 1977. Fruit weight clines in populations
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Forest Experiment Station. 4 p. Wright JW, Rauscher HM. 1990. Fraxinus nigra Marsh., black ash. In: Burns
Little EL Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). RM, Honkala BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 2,
Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p. Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
Marshall PE. 1981. Methods for stimulating green ash seed germination.Tree 344–347.
Planters’ Notes 32(3): 9–11.
McBride JR, Dickson R. 1972. Gibberellic, citric acids and stratification
enhance white ash germination.Tree Planters Notes 23(3): 1–2.
Mirov NT, Kraebel CJ. 1939. Collecting and handling seeds of wild plants.
Fraxinus • 543
F Sterculiaceae—Sterculia family
Fremontodendron Coville
fremontia, flannelbush
Susan E. Meyer
Dr. Meyer is a research ecologist at the USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station’s
Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus seeds are cast from the capsules by wind, hail, or animal
Fremontodendron is endemic to California and adjacent disturbances (Nord 1974). The seeds have a more or less
areas of Arizona and Baja California. It includes 2 common well-developed caruncle or elaiosome at the micropylar end
and 1 rare species (table 1) (Kelman 1991). Fremontias are (figure 1), and there is good evidence of dispersal by har-
shrubs or small trees with evergreen leaves that are alternate, vester ants, at least for eldorado fremontia (Boyd 1996). In
entire to lobed, and covered with characteristic stellate hairs. that species, the testa is much thicker under the elaiosome
They are components of chaparral vegetation and are able to than at other positions on the seed (figure 2), apparently as a
resprout abundantly after fire. The resprouts are valuable protection from the ant dispersers that eat the elaiosomes.
forage for deer and domestic livestock (Nord 1974). These ants act as predators on seeds that do not possess an
Fremontias are handsome plants that are used extensively in elaiosome “bribe.”
California for roadside and residential landscaping and are Seed collection, cleaning, and storage. Fremontias
becoming known as native garden plants (Holmes 1993). grow rapidly and reach reproductive age the second season
Interspecific hybrids such as F. mexicanum × F. californicum
‘California Glory’ have been developed for horticultural use.
Fremontias are drought-tolerant and have been successfully Figure 1—Fremontodendron californicum, California
fremontia: seeds.
planted for watershed protection in wildland settings (Nord
1974).
Flowering and fruiting. The large, perfect, yellow to
copper-colored flowers appear on the plants from April
through June. They have a single perianth series that is fused
into a saucer shape, 5 stamens fused into a staminal column,
and a superior ovary. The flowers produce abundant nectar
and are pollinated mostly by large native bees (Boyd 1994).
Much of the seedcrop may be destroyed by insect larvae
prior to dispersal, at either the flower bud or the immature
fruit stage (Boyd and Serafini 1992). The large, bristly, 4- to
5-chambered capsules ripen from July to September and
split open at the tip. The numerous reddish brown to black
F. californicum (Torr.) Coville California fremontia, flannelbush N to S California & central Arizona
F. decumbens R. Lloyd eldorado fremontia, California flannelbush One location in Eldorado Co., California
F. mexicanum A. Davids. Mexican fremontia, Mexican flannelbush San Diego Co., California & N Baja California
Seeds/weight Maximum
Species /kg /lb Fill % germination %
Fremontodendron • 545
because the period of germination is apparently relatively better results than hydroseeding or broadcasting. Successful
F
long even for scarified and chilled seeds (Boyd and Serafini spring seedings required the use of chilled seed.
1992; Nord 1974). Fremontia species have been produced as container
Field seeding and nursery practice. Direct-seeding stock using the hot water soak plus chilling protocol for
in the fall using hot-water scarified seed has been successful seed germination described above (Emery 1988; Nord
for California fremontia (Nord 1974). Because of the rela- 1974). They are also readily produced from stem cuttings
tively large seed size, spot-seeding or drilling with a range- (Nord 1974).
land drill at a depth of 10 to 25 mm (0.4 to 1 in) gave much
References
Boyd RS. 1994. Pollination biology of the rare shrub Fremontodendron Keeley JE. 1987. Role of fire in seed germination of woody taxa in
decumbens (Sterculiaceae). Madroño 41: 277–289. California chaparral. Ecology 68: 434–443.
Boyd RS. 1996. Ant-mediated seed dispersal in the rare chaparral shrub Keeley JE. 1991. Seed germination and life history syndromes in the
Fremontodendron decumbens (Sterculiaceae). Madroño 43: 299–315. California chaparral. Botanical Review 57: 81-116.
Boyd RS, Serafini LL. 1992. Reproductive attrition in the rare chaparral Kelman WM. 1991. A revision of Fremontodendron (Sterculiaceae).
shrub Fremontodendron decumbens Lloyd (Sterculiaceae). American Systematic Botany 16: 3–20.
Journal of Botany 79: 1264–1272. Nord EC. 1974. Fremontodendron Cov., fremontia. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech.
Emery DE. 1988. Seed propagation of native California plants. Santa coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450.
Barbara: Santa Barbara Botanic Garden. 107 p. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 417–419.
Holmes R, ed. 1993. Taylor’s guide to natural gardening. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin: 158, 338.
Dr. Shepperd is a research silviculturist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fort Collins, Colorado
Growth habit and occurrence. The genus Garrya— Flowering and fruiting. Flowers are dioecious. Both
silktassel—consists of 14 New World species ranging from appear in axillary or terminal catkinlike racemes in the
the Pacific Northwest to Panama (Dahling 1978). Only those spring (Reynolds and Alexander 1974); however male flow-
in the United States and Mexico are considered here. Garrya ers are minute (Dahling 1978). Silktassels are well adapted
is a highland genus occurring in chaparral and coniferous for wind pollination. Several species hybridize, most notably
forests above lowland deserts, in semiarid regions, or in bearbrush with ashy silktassel and eggleaf silktassel with
coastal or near-coastal conditions. Species may vary in size laurel-leaf silktassel (Dahling 1978; Mulligan and Nelson
from low shrubs to trees (table 1). First discovered by David 1980).
Douglas in the Pacific Northwest in 1826, Garrya was Silktassel fruits are persistent, 2-sided berries that
named in honor of Nicholas Garry, the first secretary of the appear green and fleshy when young but become dry and
Hudson Bay Company (Dahling 1978). Alternatively classi- brittle at maturity (Dahling 1978) (figures 1–3). The fruit is
fied in Garryaceae and Cornaceae by various taxonomists, globose to ovoid and relatively uniform among the species
the genus will be classified as Garryaceae in this manual, included here, averaging 7.2 mm long by 6.2 mm wide and
after Dahling (1978) and Kartesz (1994). producing from 1, 2, or (rarely) 3 seeds that are 2 to 3 mm
Use. Wavyleaf and canyon silktassels and bearbrush in diameter (Dahling 1978).
are planted as ornamentals in many areas of the world Collection of fruits. Ripe fruits may be gathered by
(Dahling 1978). The graceful catkins and stately shape of stripping them from the branches onto canvas, or hand-pick-
these species make them desirable landscape shrubs. ing them from the bushes. Because the fruits may be infest-
Introduced into cultivation between 1842 and 1902, silk- ed with insect larvae, care must be taken to collect only
tassels have also been used for erosion control (Rehder sound fruits (Reynolds and Alexander 1974).
1940; Reynolds and Alexander 1974). Native plants are Extraction and storage of seeds. After twigs, leaves,
browsed by domestic livestock, deer (Odocoileus spp.), and and other debris have been sifted out, fruits are run through
bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) (Reynolds and Alexander a macerator and the pulp and empty seeds floated off or
1974). Wavyleaf silktasssel will tolerate arid conditions, low screened out. Seeds may also be extracted by rubbing the
fertility, sandy soils, and a wide range of pH values fruits over a fine-mesh screen and floating off the pulp and
(Ridgeway 1973). empty seeds in water (Reynolds and Alexander 1974). Fifty
Although known to be toxic, stem extracts of laurel-leaf kilograms (110 lb) of dry bearbrush berries yield about 25
silktassel are used as an antidiarrhetic throughout rural kg (55 lb) of cleaned seeds. Cleaned seed densities range
Mexico, and bark extracts were reportedly used by Native from 37,500 to 72,800 seeds/kg (17,000 to 33,000/lb).
Americans to treat fever (Dahling 1978). Ashy silktassel was About 85 to 99% of the seeds will normally be sound
used as a laxative and to treat colds, stomach aches, and (Reynolds and Alexander 1974). Storage methods suitable
gonorrhea by Kawaiisu Indians (Moerman 1986). Whole- for most shrub species should also apply to silktassel seeds.
plant extracts of ashy and wavyleaf silktassel plants native to Pregermination treatments. Seeds of ashy silktassel
Arizona have been found to contain gutta-percha, a natural and bearbrush will not germinate without pretreatment
rubber. This is the first reported occurrence in Garryaceae because of embryo dormancy (Mirov and Kraebel 1937;
(Roth and others 1985). Reynolds and Alexander 1974). Some seeds of Wright silk-
tassel exhibit embryo dormancy, whereas others germinate
Garrya • 547
G Table 1—Garrya, silktassel: occurrence, elevational range, and growth form
G. buxifolia Gray dwarf silktassel N California, S Oregon chaparral, 60–2,133 Brushy shrub
associated with pine at higher elevations
G. elliptica Dougl. wavyleaf silktassel Central Oregon to Santa 3–840 Shrub (< 6 m)
ex Lindl. Cruz Island, California; coastal
& higher elevations inland
G. flavescens S.Wats. ashy silktassel Pacific Coast states, SW US, 450–2,740 Shrub (< 6 m)
Baja California; canyons, deserts, mtns
G. fremontii Torr. bearbrush S Washington to central California; 150–2,740 Shrub
Sierra Nevada & Cascades
G. glaberrima — Scattered locations in mtns of 1,487–2,740 Small tree
Wangerin Coahuila, Neuvo Leon, & Tamaulipas;
between lowland deserts &
highland conifer forests
G. grisea Wiggins — Baja California; upper Sonoran 1,370-2,423 Shrub (2–4.6 m)
& transition communities
G. laurifolia Benth. laurel-leaf silktassel Central Mexico to Central America; 610–3,566 Tree (< 11 m)
semiarid shrub communities
G. longifolia Rose — S Mexico on volcanic slopes 1,280–2,650 Small tree
G. ovata Benth. eggleaf silktassel Arizona, New Mexico,Texas, 610–2,560 Clumped shrub
N Mexico; mtns above lowland deserts (2–4.6 m)
G. salicifolia — S Baja California; sandy loam soils 1,554–1,830 Small tree
Eastwood
G. veatchii Kellog canyon silktassel S California, Baja California; lower 230–2,600 Shrub
mtn chaparral & riparian communities
G. wrightii Torr. Wright silktassel Arizona,W Texas, N Mexico; arid 914–2,133 Shrub
Sonoran & transition communities
Figure 1—Garrya fremontii, bearbrush: berry (left) and well without pretreatment (Reynolds and Alexander 1974).
seed (right). Because of this variability, seeds of Wright silktassel should
also be pretreated before testing or sowing. Recommended
pretreatments for these species include stratification at 2 to
5 °C in moist sand, vermiculite, or sphagnum moss for 30 to
120 days (Reynolds and Alexander 1974; Mirov and Kraebel
1937), followed by soaking for 17 hours at room tempera-
ture in a 100-ppm solution of gibberellin. However, germi-
nation of bearbrush was also improved by stratification in
moist sand for 90 days at greenhouse temperatures followed
by 90 days at 5 °C (Reynolds and Alexander 1974).
Germination tests. Germination tests have been done
on pretreated seeds placed in sand, vermiculite, Kimpak™,
and sphagnum moss under light for 30 to 60 days, and at
temperatures alternating diurnally from 25 to 13 °C, or from
30 to 20 °C (Reynolds and Alexander 1974). Seeds of
Wright silktassel had germination capacities of 47 to 86%.
Seeds of ashy silktassel germinated best at temperatures (3 to 4 in) long that were collected in late summer through
between 10 to 15 °C, but poor at 23 to 27 °C. Low-tempera- November, then basally treated with 0.8% indole butyric
ture stratification alone does not always result in satisfactory acid (IBA) and bottom-heated at 20 to 21 °C, successfully
germination of bearbrush (Reynolds and Alexander 1974). rooted within 6 to 8 weeks (Ridgeway 1973). The growth
Nursery practice. Seeds of Wright silktassel should medium should be well drained and only misted during the
be sown in the late winter after 90 days of stratification in day. Silktassels are sensitive to root disturbance when
moist sand. Sufficient viable seeds should be sown to pro- actively growing, so dormant potting is recommended
duce about 100 seedlings/m2 (9 seedlings/ft2). They should (Ridgeway 1973); however, they will not tolerate high fertil-
be covered with about 1.2 cm (1/2 in) of soil and a light mat ity in the potting compost. It is difficult to achieve economic
mulch. Seedlings are ready for outplanting at age 2 years rooting percentages unless selection of cutting material, and
(Reynolds and Alexander 1974). porosity and hygiene of the rooting medium are carefully
Silktassels can also be vegetatively propagated in the controlled (Ridgeway 1985).
nursery. Tip nodal cuttings of wavyleaf silktassel 8 to 18 cm
References
Dahling GV. 1978. Systematics and evolution of Garrya. Contributions from Reynolds HG, Alexander RR. 1974. Garrya, silktassel. In: Schopmeyer CS,
the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University 209: 1–104. tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk.
Kartesz JT. 1994. A synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 420–421.
United States, Canada, and Greenland. 2nd ed. Portland, OR:Timber Ridgeway D. 1973. Production of Garrya elliptica. Combined Proceedings of
Press. 813 p. the International Plant Propagators’ Society, 23: 177–180.
Moerman DE. 1986. Medicinal plants of native America. Ann Arbor: Ridgeway D. 1985. Propagation and production of Garrya elliptica.
University of Michigan, Museum of Anthropology. 910 p. Combined Proceedings of the International Plant Propagators’ Society,
Mirov NT, Kraebel CJ. 1937. Collecting and propagating seeds of California 34: 261–265.
wild plants. Res. Note 18. Berkeley, CA: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Roth WB, Carr ME, Davis EA, Bagby MO. 1985. New sources of gutta-
Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 27 p. percha in Garrya flavescens and G. wrightii. Phytochemistry 24(1):
Mulligan BO, Nelson EC. 1980. Garrya × issaquahensis Nelson (G. elliptica 183–184.
Lindl. × G. fremontii Torr.) in cultivation in western USA and Ireland. UW
Arboretum Bulletin 43(3): 10–15.
Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. 2nd ed. New York:
Macmillan. 996 p.
Garrya • 549
G Ericaceae–Heath family
Gaultheria L.
wintergreen
David W. Huffman, John C. Zasada, and William I. Stein
Dr. Huffman is a research associate at Northern Arizona State University’s Ecological Restoration Institute,
Flagstaff, Arizona; Dr. Zasada retired from the USDA Forest Service’s
North Central Research Station; Dr. Stein is a forest ecologist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s
Pacific Northwest Research Station, Corvallis, Oregon
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. Of the 100 to in coastal Oregon and Washington, on lowland sites in
150 species of the genus Gaultheria, commonly called win- British Columbia, and on low-productivity timber sites in
tergreen, most are found in Asia, Australia, and South southeast Alaska (Fraser and others 1993; Hemstrom and
America. Only 6 species—creeping snowberry, alpine win- Logan 1986; Minore and Weatherly 1994; Viereck and Little
tergreen (G. humifusa (Graham.) Rydb.), G. miqueliana 1972).
Takeda, G. ovatifolia A. Gray, checkerberry, and salal— Both creeping snowberry and checkerberry are low
occur in North America north of Mexico (Abrams 1951; cover species valued for wildlife habitat and ornamental use
Chou 1952; Hitchcock and others 1959; Viereck and Little (Dirr 1990; Hitchcock and others 1959; Robinette 1974;
1972). The 3 species considered here (table 1) are evergreen Stiles 1980; White and Stiles 1992). Animals known to feed
shrubs. Both creeping snowberry and checkerberry have a on fruits, buds, or leaves of checkerberry include migratory
prostrate or creeping form (Fernald 1950) and have been birds; grouse, including blue (Dendragapus obscurus),
described as semi-herbaceous or almost herbaceous spruce (Canachitea canadensis), and ruffed (Bonasa umbel-
(Fernald 1950; Rosendahl 1955). Salal has a distinctly lus) grouse; bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus); wild
woody stem and grows 1 to 3 m tall. turkey (Meleagris gallopavo); ring-necked pheasant
Over its wide range in the United States and Canada, (Phasianus colchicus); as well as black bear (Ursus ameri-
creeping snowberry is most common in bogs and wet canus); white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus); and oth-
forested conditions (Curtis 1959; Gleason 1952; ers. Checkerberry is a favorite food of the eastern chipmunk
MacKinnon and others 1992). Checkerberry tolerates site (Tamias strictus) (Martin and others 1951; Robinette 1974;
conditions ranging from dry to poorly drained and grows Stiles 1980; Van Dersal 1938). Leaves of this species con-
well on many acidic soil types, including peat, sand, sandy tain oil of wintergreen, which has been extracted for phar-
loam, and coal mine spoils (Robinette 1974). Salal also maceutical use, and the edible fruits have been marketed
grows on a variety of sites, including shallow rocky soils, (Dimock and others 1974).
sand dunes, glacial till, and peat (Haeussler and Coates Within the plant communities in which they grow,
1986). It is most common on well-drained slopes and ridges creeping snowberry and checkerberry occupy a far less
G. hispidula (L.) Muhl. ex Bigelow creeping snowberry, Labrador to British Columbia; S to Newfoundland,
Chiogenes hispidula (L.) Torr. & Gray creeping pearlberry, Nova Scotia & Pennsylvania; higher elevations to
moxieplum North Carolina; W through Michigan, Wisconsin
& Minnesota; Idaho
G. procumbens L. checkerberry, wintergreen, Newfoundland to Manitoba; S through Minnesota
mountain-tea & Wisconsin, to Alabama & Georgia
G. shallon Pursh salal, Oregon wintergreen Pacific Coast from S Alaska to S California inland
into the Cascades & Sierra Nevada
Sources: Abrams (1951), Fernald (1950), Gleason (1952), Hitchcock and others (1959).
Gaultheria • 551
G Table 2—Gaultheria, wintergreen: phenology of flowering and fruiting
Sources: Fernald (1950), Gleason (1952), Hitchcock and others (1959), McMinn (1951), Robinette (1974), Rosendahl (1955),Van Dersal (1938).
* Actual ripening time uncertain.
† Fruit of this species notably persistent and reportedly increase slightly in size during winter (Van Dersal 1938).
Figure 3—Gaultheria shallon, salal: the ripe fruit is a pur- Figure 4—Gaultheria shallon, salal: the seeds are very
plish black, somewhat-fuzzy pseudo-berry. small.
Sources: Fernald (1952), Gleason (1952), Hitchcock and others (1959), Rehder (1940), Rosendahl (1955), Stein (1995).
* Length.
Figure 5—Gaultheria procumbens, checkerberry: longitu- native capacity from 31 to 21% after 1 year of storage at
dinal section through a seed. 4 °C (Sabhasri 1961). Another seedlot showed 73 and 27%
germination, respectively, after 3 years of storage at 4 °C or
room temperature (Mirov and Kraebel 1937). Some seedlots
stored for 3 to 4 years at 1 °C showed 70 to 80% germina-
tion and did not differ in germination characteristics from
fresh seedlots (Zasada 1996).
Pregermination treatments and germination tests.
Very limited data indicate that creeping snowberry and
checkerberry require cold stratification to substantially
improve seed germination; however, salal does not (table 5).
For seeds of creeping snowberry collected in New
Hampshire, germination was completed after 98 days in a
greenhouse when preceded by winter stratification outdoors
for 83 days; unstratified seeds kept in a greenhouse did not
germinate (Nichols 1934). Low germination of checkerberry
was doubled with stratification (table 5). Salal seeds germi-
nate as well without stratification as with it, but stratification
tends to increase the rate and widen the range of tempera-
tures at which germination can occur (table 5). Seeds strati-
Based on limited evidence, viability of wintergreen fied for 120 days began to germinate in 4 to 12 days at tem-
seeds may be maintained for 5 years or longer in cool, dry peratures of 21 to 10 °C, respectively (Zasada 1996).
storage; storing seeds at temperatures below freezing has not Germination was complete in 18 days at 10 °C; germination
been studied. Untested seeds of checkerberry stored for 2 was complete in 27 days at 21 °C. Seeds stratified for 150
years at 5 °C in sealed bottles showed 16% germination days began to germinate during stratification. Germination is
(Dimock and others 1974). McKeever (1938) obtained as epigeal (figure 6).
high as 83% germination of salal seeds stored dry in paper Nursery practice and natural regeneration.
bags at 21 °C for 159 days and 49% for seeds stored at the Untreated seeds of checkerberry, and perhaps of creeping
same conditions for 525 days. Salal seeds declined in germi- snowberry, can be sown from fall through early winter, or
Gaultheria • 553
stratified and sown in the spring (Dimock and others 1974; after germination), or under shade cloth (Huffman and oth-
G
Rogers 1994). Salal seeds can be sown in the fall or spring ers 1994b; McKeever 1938; Rogers 1994). Even without
without stratification, but stratification will increase germi- such measures, up to 73% germination has been obtained in
nation at lower temperatures. soil-filled flats (Mirov and Kraebel 1939). Light for 8
Surface-sowing is recommended in either glass- or hours/day is recommended. Some propagators expose seeds
poly-covered flats, in open beds under tacked down loose- to an additional 2 hours of light during the dark period
weave cheesecloth or muslin (which seedlings penetrate (Rogers 1994). A potted plant of checkerberry can be propa-
gated from seeds in 4 months (Rogers 1994). Salal seedlings
raised in outdoor nursery beds grew 11 to 17 cm (4.3 to 6.7
Figure 6—Gaultheria shallon, salal: seedling development
2, 8, 15, and 33 days after germination in) tall in 2 years (Huffman and others 1994b). They exhibit-
ed poor apical dominance, however, developing 6 to 12 aeri-
al stems. Light shade (70% light) produced seedlings with
greater biomass, greater canopy size, and more aerial stems
compared to those under 20 or 50% or full sun. Under all
light intensities, some seedlings produced rhizomes in 2
years.
All 3 species are readily propagated vegetatively from
layers, suckers, division of plants, stem or root cuttings,
stolons, or rooting at the nodes (Brown and Hafenrichter
1962; Dimock and others 1974; Huffman and others 1994b;
Rogers 1994; Sabhasri 1961; Van Dersal 1938). In the
Northwest, salal is presently propagated almost entirely by
rhizome cuttings (Dimock and others 1974). Cultured rhi-
zome cuttings can produce 5 or more new rhizomes and
over 7 aerial shoots/year under light shade during the first 2
years after planting (Huffman and others 1994b). Moist,
acid conditions under partial shade are beneficial for young
plants of all 3 species raised from either cuttings or seed.
G. hispidula† 83 Soil — — 98 — — —
G. procumbens 0 Peat 30 20 213 7 59 8
G. shallon 60 Peat 30 20 56 16 15 16
0 Paper 30 20 61 28 27 38
30–120 Paper 30 20 55 26 37 31
0 Sand/soil 21 21 28 74 22 76
0 Paper/pads 21 16 60 42 30 51
0‡ Paper/pads 16 10 60 28 30 51
0‡ Paper/pads 10 4 60 0 30 41
60‡ Paper/pads 21 16 60 39 30 45
60‡ Paper/pads 16 10 60 31 30 40
60‡ Paper/pads 10 4 60 23 30 50
150‡ Paper/pads 21 16 60 55 30 59
150‡ Paper/pads 10 4 60 32 30 40
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1298–1305. Swingle CF, comp. 1939. Seed propagation of trees, shrubs, and forbs for
Mirov NT, Kraebel CJ. 1937. Collecting and propagating the seeds of conservation planting. SCS-TP-27. Washington, DC: USDA Soil
California wild plants. For. Res. Note 18. Berkeley, CA: USDA Forest Conservation Service. 198 p.
Service, California Forest and Range Experiment Station. 27 p. Tappeiner JC II, Zasada JC. 1993. Establishment of salmonberry, salal, vine
Mirov NT, Kraebel CJ. 1939. Collecting and handling seeds of wild plants. maple, and bigleaf maple seedlings in the coastal forests of Oregon.
For. Pub. 5. Washington, DC: Civilian Conservation Corps. 42 p. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 23: 1775–1780.
Nichols GE. 1934. The influence of exposure to winter temperatures upon Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their ero-
seed germination in various native American plants. Ecology 15: sion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC: USDA.
364–373. 362 p.
Pojar J. 1974. Reproductive dynamics of four plant communities of south- Viereck LA, Little EL Jr. 1972. Alaska trees and shrubs. Agric. Handbk. 410.
western British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Botany 52: 1819–1834. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 265 p.
Pojar J, MacKinnon A, eds. 1994. Plants of the Pacific Northwest coast. Weetman GF, Fournier R, Schnorbus Panozzo E, Barker J. 1990. Post-burn
Redmond, WA: Lone Pine Publishing. 527 p. nitrogen and phosphorus availability in coastal B.C. cedar/hemlock
Price DT, Black TA, Kelliher FM. 1986. Effects of salal understory removal on forests and the use of fertilization and salal eradication to restore pro-
photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance of young Douglas-fir ductivity. In: Gessel SP, Lacate DS, Weetman GF, eds. Sustained productivi-
trees. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research 16:90–97. ty of forest soils. Proceedings, 7th North American Forest Soils
Reader RJ. 1977. Bog ericad flowers: self compatibility and relative attrac- Conference,Vancouver, BC; 1988 July 24–28.Vancouver: University of
tiveness to bees. Canadian Journal of Botany 55: 2279–2287. British Columbia.
Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North White DW, Stiles EW. 1992. Bird dispersal of fruits of species introduced
America. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan. 996 p. into eastern North America. Canadian Journal of Botany 70: 1689–1696.
Robinette SL. 1974. Checkerberry wintergreen Gaultheria procumbens L. In: Zasada JC. 1996. Personal observation and unpublished data. Grand Rapids,
Gill JD, Healy WM, eds. Shrubs and vines for northeastern wildlife. Gen. MN: USDA Forest Service, North Central Research Station.
Tech. Rep. NE-9. Radnor, PA: USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Forest
Experiment Station: 20-22.
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Synonym. Gaylussacia resinosa (Ait.) Torr. & Gray. Figure 1—Gaylussacia baccata, black huckleberry:
Other common names. highbush huckleberry, exterior view of seed in 2 planes.
black-snap, huckleberry.
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Black huckle-
berry—Gaylussacia baccata (Wangh.) K. Koch—is a small
deciduous shrub found from Louisiana east to Florida and
north to Maine, Iowa, and Manitoba. It is upright and highly
branched and reaches heights of 0.3 to 1.2 m at maturity
(Vines 1960). The berries are an important food for wild
animals (Van Dersal 1938) and are sometimes eaten by
humans. The shrub was cultivated as early as 1772 (Bonner
and Halls 1974).
Flowering and fruiting. The small, perfect, pinkish
flowers appear in May to June, and the berrylike, drupa-
ceous fruits mature in July to September. They are dark red-
dish to purple when immature and black when mature.
Fruits are 6 to 10 mm long and contain 10 one-seeded,
bone-colored nutlets that are 1.5 to 2.0 mm in length
(Radford and others 1968; Vines 1960) (figures 1 and 2). Figure 2—Gaylussacia baccata, black huckleberry:
longitudinal section through a seed.
Collection, extraction, and storage. Black huckle-
berry fruits (“berries”) may be stripped from the branches
by hand or with blueberry rakes any time after they thor-
oughly ripen. They often persist for several weeks. Seeds
may be extracted by macerating the fruits in water and
allowing the pulp and empty seeds to float away. Some sam-
ples have been reported to have less than 50% filled seeds.
Seed yields of 30 g of cleaned seeds/kg (1/2 oz/lb) of fruits
have been reported (4 samples), with an average of 780
cleaned seeds/g (22,100/oz) (Bonner and Halls 1974). No
seed storage studies have been reported with this species,
but the seeds appear to be orthodox in storage behavior. This
assumption is supported by a report that seeds stored in
sealed bottles at 5 °C for over 2 years did not lose viability
(Bonner and Halls 1974).
Gaylussacia • 557
Germination. Black huckleberry seeds are dormant References
G
and require treatment for good germination. In one test,
Bonner FT, Halls LK. 1974. Gaylussacia baccata (Wangh.) K. Koch, black
samples from a 2-year-old seedlot were subjected first to huckleberry. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in
warm stratification in moist peat at diurnally alternating the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest
Service: 427–428.
temperatures of 20 to 30 °C for 30 days. Then the tempera- Radford AE, Ahles HE, Bell CR. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the
Carolinas. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 1183 p.
ture was lowered to 10 °C, and 80% of the seeds germinated Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants on the United States: their
after 27 days and 96% after 47 days (Bonner and Halls erosion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC:
USDA. 362 p.
1974). Germination is epigeal (figure 3). Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
Dr. Shepperd is a research silviculturist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Fort Collins, Colorado
Other common names. maidenhair-tree, Kew-tree. at this time a larger percentage of the seeds have immature
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Ginkgo is a embryos and cannot be germinated under normal test condi-
monotypic genus native to China, the sole survivor of the tions (Alexander 1974; Eames 1955; Willan 1985). Embryo
ancient family of Ginkgoaceae (Bailey 1923; Dallimore and development continues while seeds on the ground are
Jackson 1948; Seward and Gowan 1900). Geologic records exposed to temperatures normally encountered during fall
indicate that ginkgos have grown on Earth for 150 million and early winter. Embryo maturation is usually complete
years (AGINFO 1994). This tall (<35 m) deciduous, sparse- about 6 to 8 weeks after the seeds drop (Lee 1956; Maugini
ly branched, long-lived tree has been cultivated extensively 1965). Because of the offensive odor of the outer layer of
in the Far East and Europe (AGINFO 1994; Bailey 1923, the seeds, only male clones are recommended for landscape
1947; Seward and Gowan 1900). The foliage of this broad- use (AGINFO 1994).
leaved gymnosperm consists of alternate, simple, fan- Ginkgo is also capable of reproducing vegetatively. Del
shaped, leathery leaves 2 to 5 cm long, with forking parallel Tredici (1992) describes the origin and development of basal
veination. Ginkgo trees grow in an upright pyramidal form, chichi, tuber-like callus growths on the lower trunk that
becoming broader and regular with age (AGINFO 1994). originate from superficial meristematic buds (located in the
Ginkgo was introduced into North America in 1784 and has cotyledonary axils of all ginkgo seedlings) that allow clonal
generally been successful on good sites in the moist temper- regeneration. Within 6 weeks of germination, these buds
ate zone of the midwestern and eastern United States and become embedded in the cortex of the stem and develop
along the St. Lawrence River in Canada (Bailey 1947; below the bark surface. If a traumatic event damages the
Rehder 1940). Ginkgo trees prefer full sunlight and well- tree, these buds grow down from the trunk to form basal
drained conditions and are adaptable to many soils, but they
are slow to recover from transplanting (AGINFO 1994). The Figure 1—Ginkgo biloba, ginkgo: seeds enclosed in their
male of the species is valued as an ornamental and shade fleshy outer layers (far left and right) and cleaned seeds
tree, particularly as a park and street tree (Bailey 1947). with fleshy layers removed (center).
Ginkgo is highly resistant to air pollution and can be grown
in areas within its introduced range where air pollution dam-
ages other species. The cooked seeds are used for food by
the Chinese, but the fleshy layer can cause dermatitis
(AGINFO 1994; Porterfield 1940).
Flowering and fruiting. The species is dioecious.
The catkin-like male flowers appear in late March or early
April, and the pistillate flowers appear later in April before
leafout (Sakisaka 1927). A single naked ovule ripens into a
drupe-like seed with a fleshy outer layer smelling of rancid
butter and a thin, smooth, cream-colored, horny inner layer
(figures 1 and 2). The fleshy coated seeds are frequently
called fruits. They are cast in the fall after the first frost, but
Ginkgo • 559
Figure 2—Ginkgo biloba, ginkgo: longitudinal section from 50 kg (110 lb) of seeds with fleshy layers (Swingle
G through a seed 1939). Cleaned seed density varies from 400 to 1,150
seeds/kg (180 to 520 seeds/lb) (Alexander 1974; Swingle
1939). Cleaned seeds have been kept in ordinary dry storage
in both open and closed containers at 5 to 21 °C without any
apparent adverse effects (Davis and Henery 1942; Hatano
and Kano 1952; Swingle 1939).
Germination. Recommended germination test condi-
tions for ginkgo call for the placement of the seeds, with
their coats removed, on the top of or between moist blotters
at alternating day/night temperatures of 30 and 20 °C for 30
days (ISTA 1993). Germination tests conducted in moist
sand for 60 days using 20 °C nights and 30 °C days ranged
from 46% germination for seed collected in October to 90%
germination for seed collected in December (Alexander
1974). Germination of untreated seed planted in a soil medi-
chichi from which both aerial shoots and adventitious roots um varied from 32 to 85% (Davis and Henery 1942;
can grow. Up to 40% of mature trees Del Tredici observed Swingle 1939). A stratification period of 30 to 60 days at
at 1 location in China were multi-stemmed, with 2 or more 5 °C before planting has been recommended (Ponder and
secondary stems originating from 1 or more basal chichi. others 1981), however 1 to 2 months of warm stratification
This form of vegetative regeneration may have played a role before cold stratification is also advised to allow seeds to
in the remarkable survival of ginkgo since the Cretaceous fully mature (Dirr and Heuser 1987; Willan 1985).
Period. Nursery practice. Seeds should be sown in the late
Collection, extraction, and storage. Ginkgo trees fall (November), preferably in furrows, and covered with 5
begin bearing seeds when they reach 30 to 40 years of age to 8 cm (2 to 3 in) of soil and a sawdust mulch (Alexander
(Hadfield 1960; Ponder and others 1981). The flesh-coated 1974; Heit 1967). About half of the viable seeds that are
seeds may be collected on the ground as they ripen or sown will produce usable 2+0 seedlings (Alexander 1974).
picked by hand from standing trees from late fall through Ginkgo seedlings grown in artificial growth chambers were
early winter. Seeds may be prepared for cleaning by cover- able to grow continuously for 20 weeks under a 32 to 25 °C
ing them with water for several days until the flesh begins to day/night regime (16-hour day-length). This regime pro-
soften (Munson 1986). Food processing blenders can be duced similar-sized plants as those grown under a 24/17 °C
used to macerate the softened fruits after their metal blades regime for 40 weeks (Flesch and others 1991).
are replaced with plastic tubing propellers. Fruits should be Ginkgo can also be propagated in the nursery from cut-
covered with water, then macerated thoroughly in a blender tings, although rooted cuttings are slow growing. Cuttings
cup using short bursts of the motor. The pulp is then floated 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in) long should be collected from mature
away by slowly adding additional water and allowing filled trees in midsummer, treated with 8,000 ppm indole-butyric
seeds to sink to the bottom of the cup (Munson 1986). acid (IBA) in solution or in talc, and misted for 7 to 8 weeks
About 12.5 kg (27.5 lb) of cleaned seeds can be obtained (Dirr and Heuser 1987).
References
AGINFO. 1994. Plant database [available at www.ags.udel.edu]. Newark, Del Tredici P. 1992. Natural regeneration of Ginkgo biloba from downward
DE: University of Delaware, College of Agricultural Sciences. growing cotyledonary buds (basal chichi). American Journal of Botany
Alexander RR. 1974. Ginkgo biloba L., ginkgo. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. 79(5): 522–530.
coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop-
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 429–430. agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p.
Bailey LH. 1923. Cultivated evergreens. New York: Macmillan: 177–178. Eames AJ. 1955. The seed and Ginkgo. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum
Bailey LH. 1947. Standard cyclopedia of horticulture. 2nd ed. New York: 36: 165–170.
Macmillan. 338 p. Flesch V, Jacques M, Cosson L, Petiard V, Balz JP. 1991. Effects of light and
Dallimore W, Jackson AB. 1948. Handbook on coniferae. 3rd ed. London: temperature on growth of Ginkgo biloba cultivated under controlled
Edward Arnold Co.: 229–233 long day conditions. Annales des Sciences Forestieres 48:133–147.
Davis SH, Henery JT. 1942. A Xylaria pathogenic to Ginkgo biloba (L.) Hadfield M. 1960. Some notes on the Ginkgo. Quarterly Journal of
seeds. Phytopathology 32: 91–92. Forestry 54(4): 331–337.
Ginkgo • 561
G
Fabaceae—Pea family
Gleditsia L.
honeylocust
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Growth habit and uses. There are 12 species of Figure 1—Gleditsia, honeylocust: legumes of G. triacan-
Gleditsia, but only the 2 North American species and their thos, honeylocust (top left), G. aquatica, water honeylocust
(bottom left), and G. × texana,Texas honeylocust (right).
natural hybrid are considered here (table 1). Honeylocusts
are deciduous trees that are useful for windbreaks, shelter-
belts, erosion control, wildlife food, and local wood prod-
ucts (posts and railroad ties) (Blair 1990). There are numer-
ous ornamental selections; the most notable is a thornless
variety—G. triacanthos var. inermis—that is widely planted
in this country and in Europe (Blair 1990; Dirr and Heuser
1987). Honeylocust has also become highly valued as an
agroforestry species in other parts of the world (Davies and
Macfarlane 1979; Felker and Bandurski 1979).
Flowering and fruiting. The polygamo-dioecious
flowers of honeylocusts are borne in single or densely clus-
tered axillary racemes. Those of waterlocust and honeylo-
cust are greenish in color, whereas flowers of their hybrid
are orange-yellow (Vines 1960). Honeylocust fruits are flat,
indehiscent, often twisted legumes (pods) 15 to 41 cm in and pulpless (Vines 1960). Their legumes contain 1 to 3
length (Blair 1990) (figure 1). The small, flat, brownish seeds each, whereas honeylocust legumes may have up to
seeds, 8 to 12 mm in length, are embedded in a sweet pulp, 12. These legume and seed characteristics are the best way
the feature that attracts livestock and wildlife to the fruits. to distinguish between the species where both occur togeth-
Waterlocust legumes are smaller (2.5 to 8 cm), oval-shaped, er (Brown and Kirkman 1990).
Table 1—Gleditsia, honeylocust: nomenclature, occurrence, height at maturity, and year first cultivated
Height (m) Year first
Scientific name Common name(s) Occurrence at maturity cultivated
G. aquatica Marsh. waterlocust, Coastal plain from South Carolina to 12–18 1723
swamp honeylocust. Texas,N in Mississippi Valley to Missouri,
Illinois, & Indiana
G. × texana Sarg. Texas honeylocust, Mississippi to E Texas, N in 40 1900
Texas locust Mississippi Valley to Arkansas & SW Indiana
G. triacanthos L. honeylocust, W Pennsylvania to SE South Dakota, 21–43 1700
sweet-locust, S to E Texas & NW Florida; widely
thorny-locust planted & naturalized E of Appalachian
Mtns from South Carolina to New England
Gleditsia • 563
the acid treatment has been much more effective. Soaking Germination tests. Recommendations for official
G
time in acid must be determined for each seedlot because of tests call for testing scarified seeds at a constant 20 °C on
variation in seedcoat hardness due to genetic or develop- moist blotter for 21 days (AOSA 1993). Alternating temper-
mental differences. Several studies have shown that any- atures of 20 and 30 °C also have been used with great suc-
where from 1 to 2 hours is ideal for acid scarification of cess on moist blotters (Singh and others 1991). In 22 tests in
fully matured honeylocust (Heit 1942; Liu and others 1981). other media, pretreated seeds of honeylocust were germinat-
Seeds collected while they are slightly immature will have ed in a mixture of sand, peat, and soil at 30 °C under light
thinner seedcoats and may be damaged by the acid treat- for about 8 hours each day and at 21 °C during the dark
ments that work for fully mature seeds. In fact, seeds col- period of each 24 hours. Germination ranged from 45 to
lected when legumes still show some green areas can often 99% after 9 and 20 days and averaged 75% in 40 days
be germinated without any pretreatment. This practice is not (Bonner and others 1974).
recommended, however, because the immature seedcoats are Nursery practice. Pretreated seeds can be drilled in
not effective barriers against disease. When the hot water rows 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 in) apart and covered with soil to
treatment is used, the seeds are placed in 3 to 4 times their a depth of 12 to 19 mm (1/2 to 3/4 in). A sowing rate of 33 to
volume of water at 85 to 90 °C. Seeds and water are allowed 49 seeds/linear m (10 to 15/ft) is recommended (Bonner and
to cool to room temperature or until the seeds swell. The others 1974). Mechanical broadcasting of seeds is also feasi-
imbibed seeds should be sown promptly, as they will not ble. With either method, a desirable seedbed density is 160
store well in this imbibed condition. to 215 seedlings/m2 (15 to 20/ft2) (Williams and Hanks
For pretreatment of small seedlots, as in germination 1976). Seedlings should reach suitable size for field planting
testing, nicking with a knife or burning with a heated needle in 1 year. Vegetative propagation by hardwood cuttings is
are both excellent methods (Singh and others 1991). Tests extremely difficult, but root cuttings have been quite suc-
with other legumes (Stubsgard 1986) have indicated that cessful. Budding is also practiced successfully on ornamen-
seeds treated with a hot needle can be returned to storage tal varieties (Dirr and Heuser 1987).
without any problems, and this may be true with honey-
locust seeds as well.
References
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds. Heit CE. 1942. Acid treatment of honey locust. Notes For. Invest. 42.
Journal of Seed Technology 16(3): 1–113. Albany: New York Conservation Department. np.
Blair RM. 1990. Gleditsia triacanthos L., honeylocust. In: Burns RM, Honkala Kiktev YN, Mitrofanov AS, Gaziev FM. 1977. [Machine for collecting seeds
BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 2, Hardwoods. Agric. from standing trees]. Lesnoe Khozyaistvo 7: 56–57 [Forestry Abstracts
Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 358–364. 39(7): 2764; 1978].
Bonner FT, Burton JD, Grigsby HC. 1974. Gleditsia L., honeylocust. In: Little EL Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized).
Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p.
Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 431–433. Liu NY, Khatamian H, Fretz TA. 1981. Seed coat structure of three woody
Brown CL, Kirkman LK. 1990. Trees of Georgia and adjacent states. legume species after chemical and physical treatments to increase seed
Portland, OR:Timber Press. 292 p. germination. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science
Davies DJG, Macfarlane RP. 1979. Multiple-purpose trees for pastoral farm- 106: 691–694.
ing in New Zealand: with emphasis on tree legumes. New Zealand Mazzini MN, Cerezo AS. 1979. The carbohydrate and protein composition
Agricultural Science 13(4): 177–186 [Forestry Abstracts 42(1): 252; of the endosperm, embryo and testa of the seed of Gleditsia triacanthos.
1981]. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 30: 881–891.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant propa- Singh DP, Hooda MS, Bonner FT. 1991. An evaluation of scarification
gation. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. methods for seeds of two leguminous trees. New Forests 5: 139–145.
Felker P, Bandurski RS. 1977. Protein and amino acid composition of tree Stubsgard F. 1986. Pretreatment of Acacia and Prosopis seed: two mechani-
legume seeds. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 28: cal methods.Tech. Note 27. Humlebaek, Denmark: DANIDA Forest
791–797. Seed Centre. 8 p.
Felker P, Bandurski RS. 1979. Uses and potential uses of leguminous trees Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
for minimal energy input agriculture. Economic Botany 33(2): 172–184. University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
Gordon D. 1966. A revision of the genus Gleditsia (Leguminosae) [PhD dis- Williams RD, Hanks SH. 1976. Hardwood nurseryman’s guide. Agric.
sertation]. Bloomington: Indiana University. 114 p. Handbk. 473. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 78 p.
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Other common names. holly-bay, gordonia, bay, ommendations for germination testing, but the ease of ger-
tan bay, black laurel. mination suggests that the common alternating regime of
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Loblolly-bay— 20/30 °C would suffice. Germination of 70 to 80% within
Gordonia lasianthus (L.) Ellis—is a small to medium-sized 10 days in petri dishes in sunlight has been reported
evergreen tree that occurs on swampy sites on the Atlantic (Gresham and Lipscomb 1990). Germination is epigeal. This
Coastal Plain from Albermarle Sound in North Carolina species is also very easy to propagate vegetatively. Cuttings
south to central Florida, with separate populations in south- taken in June through August rooted 90 to 100% in
ern Alabama and Mississippi (Gresham and Lipscomb 1990; peat–perlite and mist with 3,000 ppm of IBA applied (Dirr
Little 1979). This relatively slow-growing tree can attain a and Heuser 1987).
height of 23 m on rich sites but is shrubby on poorer ones.
Figure 1—Gordonia lasianthus, loblolly-bay: capsules.
Although its bark was once used locally for tanning leather,
loblolly-bay has little commercial value now except as an
ornamental (Brown and Kirkman 1990).
Flowering and fruiting. The perfect, showy, white
flowers open for 2 to 3 days in May to August; 7 to 8 cm
wide, they are borne singly on long stalks in axillary clus-
ters. Pollination is primarily by insects. The fruits are ovoid,
woody capsules 12 mm in diameter and 20 mm long (figure
1); they contain from 10 to 40 small, square, winged seeds
about 1.5 mm long (figures 2 and 3). The capsules turn
brown as they mature in September or October, and most
seeds are disseminated by wind by mid-December (Brown
and Kirkman 1990; Gresham and Lipscomb 1990; Vines
Figure 2—Gordonia lasianthus, loblolly-bay: seeds.
1960).
Collection, extraction, and storage. Capsules should
be collected when they turn brown in the fall. They can be
opened with air-drying, and the seeds are then easily
extracted by shaking. There are 264,550 to 332,895 dry
seeds/kg (120,000 to 151,000/lb) (Gresham and Lipscomb
1990). No storage data are available for this species, but the
nature of the seeds suggests that they are orthodox and can
be stored easily at low temperatures and low seed moisture
contents.
Germination and nursery practices. Loblolly-bay
seeds have no dormancy and will germinate readily when
sown (Dirr and Heuser 1987). There are no published rec-
Gordonia • 565
G Figure 3—Gordonia lasianthus, loblolly-bay: longitudinal References
section of a seed.
Brown CK, Kirkman LK. 1990. Trees of Georgia and adjacent states.
Portland, OR:Timber Press. 292 p.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop-
agation. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p.
Gresham CA, Lipscomb DJ. 1990. Gordonia lasianthus (L.) Ellis, loblolly-bay.
In: Burns RM, Honkala BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume
2. Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest
Service: 365–369.
Little EL, Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized).
Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p.
Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
Dr. Shaw is a research botanist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Boise, Idaho; Dr. Haferkamp is a rangeland scientist at the USDA Agricultural
Research Service’s Fort Keogh Livestock and Range Research Laboratory, Miles City, Montana; Dr. Hurd
retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus Spiny hopsage provides cover for birds and other small
Grayia Hook. & Arn., named for the American botanist Asa animals; spring and early summer forage for big game and
Gray, contains a single species—spiny hopsage (table 1). livestock, and soil stabilization on gentle to moderate slopes
Plants are erect to rounded, summer-deciduous shrubs 0.3 to (McCullough 1969; USDA SCS 1968). The species was first
1.2 (1.5) m tall. Branches are divergent and thorn-tipped, cultivated in 1897 (Rehder 1940).
with whitish gray to brownish bark that exfoliates in long Geographic races and hybrids. Spiny hopsage is
strips. Leaves are gray-green, alternate, entire, and fleshy, tetraploid (4x = 36) (McArthur and Sanderson 1984).
sometimes turning bright red before abscising. Pubescence Natural hybridization between spiny hopsage and related
of young twigs and leaves consists of simple or stellate members of the Chenopodiaceae has not been observed.
hairs. Prominent globose, gray-green overwintering leaf However, Drobnick and Plummer (1966) were successful in
buds develop prior to summer leaf fall. fertilizing female flowers of fourwing saltbush—Atriplex
Widely distributed in the western United States (table canescens (Pursh) Nutt.—with spiny hopsage pollen and
1), spiny hopsage is a common associated species in obtaining viable progeny.
Wyoming big sagebrush, salt desert shrub, pinyon–juniper, Flowering and fruiting. Plants are monoecious or
Mojave Desert, and Great Basin–Mojave Desert transition dioecious, with the percentage of each varying among popu-
communities, but it rarely grows in monocultures (Welsh lations (Goodrich and Neese 1986; McArthur and Sanderson
and others 1987). The species occurs at elevations ranging 1984). Inflorescences develop on floral shoots that die back
from 160 to 2,130 m on soils that are silty to sandy, neutral following fruit dispersal. Flowers are inconspicuous.
to strongly basic, and often high in calcium. It also grows on Staminate flowers, each consisting of a 4- or 5-lobed peri-
sand dunes. Growth and nutrient content of vegetation grow- anth and 4 or 5 stamens, develop in glomerate spikes.
ing near spiny hopsage are enhanced by the accumulation of Pistillate flowers develop in dense bracteate spikes, racemes,
litter rich in potassium and other cations (Rickard and or panicles with 1 to several flowers in the axil of each
Keough 1968). bract. Some flowers are commonly vestigial. Each flower
G. spinosa (Hook.) Moq. spiny hopsage, applebush, E-central & SE Washington, E Oregon, S & central
Chenopodium spinosum Hook. grayia, Gray’s saltbush, Idaho, S Montana, Nevada, Utah,W Wyoming
G. polygaloides Hook. & Arn. hopsage, horsebush, W Colorado, E & S California, & N Arizona
Eremosemium spinosum Greene saltbrush, spiny-sage,
Atriplex grayii Collotzi wintersage
A. spinosa (Hook.) Collotzi
Sources: Collotzi (1966), Dayton (1931), Hitchcock and Cronquist (1973), Kay (1977), Shaw (1992a&b), Smith (1974),Welsh and others (1987).
Grayia • 567
consists of a single pistil enclosed in 2 cordate to orbicular Figure 3—Grayia spinosa, spiny hopsage: seeds.
G
bracteoles united along their length except for a minute api-
cal opening. Bracteoles enlarge in fruit, forming a papery,
dorsally wing–margined sac 9 to 15 mm in diameter (Shaw
and others 1996) (figure 1). Mature bracteoles are white,
green, or parchment-colored and are sometimes suffused
with pink or red.
Fruits are utricles with the thin, papery pericarp free
from the seed (Shaw and others 1996) (figure 2). Seeds are
vertical, disk-shaped, and 1 to 2 mm in diameter (figure 3).
The seedcoat consists of a thin, dark brown outer layer and a
tough, elastic inner layer. A well-developed embryo with
pale yellow cotyledons and an elongate, inferior radicle
encircles the perisperm (figure 4).
During a prolonged drought, spiny hopsage shrubs
developing from a southern Idaho seeding began flowering
Figure 4—Grayia spinosa, spiny hopsage: longitudinal
in the 4th year (Shaw 1992b). Flowering occurs in late win- section through a seed.
ter or early spring (table 2) and may be triggered by photo-
period (Ackerman and Bamberg 1974). Flowers are wind-
Sources: Ackerman and Bamberg (1974), Ackerman and others (1980), Blauer and others (1976), Branson and others (1967), Everett and others (1980), Goodrich and
Neese (1986), Plummer and others (1968), Shaw (1992b),Wallace and Romney (1972).
Table 3— Grayia spinosa, spiny hopsage: fruit and seed numbers per weight
Seeds/weight
Bracted utricles/weight Range Average
/kg /lb /kg /lb /kg /lb
Sources: Belcher (1985), Kay and others (1977), King (1947), Plummer and others (1968), Shaw (1992b), Smith (1974), Swingle (1939).
Note: Filled seeds (%) = 18 to 95.
Grayia • 569
Wallace and Romney 1972; Wood and others 1976). Shaw Viability testing—Soak seeds in water at 28 °C for 12
G
(1992a) examined the effect of 45 days of wet prechilling at hours, then drain; pierce seeds through perisperm with a
3 to 5 °C on 2 northern shrub steppe collections. Prechilled sharp probe or needle; soak in a 1% 2,3,5-triphenyl tetra-
bracted utricles and cleaned seeds of each collection were zolium chloride solution for 4 to 8 hours at 28 °C. Excise
incubated over a wide range of constant (10, 15, 20, 25 or embryos with sharp needles and evaluate as described by
30 °C) and alternating (8/16 hours) temperatures (15/5 °C Peters (2000) for members of the Chenopodiaceae.
and 10/2 °C). Prechilling increased germination from 9 to X-radiography—Shoot at 12 kV for 30 seconds with
64% and reduced days required to reach 50% germination Kodak® AA film and Industrex® paper or at 12 kV for 60
from 40 to 29. Based on these results, she recommended 1 seconds with Polaroid® film. Filled, empty, and abnormal
to 2 months of wet prechilling for northern shrub steppe development will be visible.
seedlots. Nursery practice. Container stock can be grown
Wood and others (1976) examined the germination using planting media as described by Augustine and others
response of 4 Nevada (Great Basin) and 1 California (1979), Ferguson (1980), and Ferguson and Monsen (1974).
(Mojave Desert) spiny hopsage seedlots at 5 constant and Seeds should be wet prechilled, if necessary.
alternating temperatures. Prechilling was not required as the Bareroot stock of northern spiny hopsage populations
seeds were nondormant. After 1 week, germination of seed- may be produced by fall-seeding to permit early spring ger-
lots incubated at constant temperatures was greatest at 10 mination (Shaw 1992a, Shaw and Haferkamp 1990). This
and 15 °C (66 to 74%). For a seedlot collected at Dayton, treatment maximizes the period of active seedling growth
Nevada, a 5 °C low temperature alternating with high tem- prior to leaf abscission and the onset of summer dormancy.
peratures between 10 and 30 °C, inclusive (8/16 hours alter- Spring seedings of prechilled seeds generally have not been
nations), provided the greatest germination percentages (85 successful as it is difficult to prepare and plant the nursery
to 90%). Maximum seedling elongation for this seedlot beds early enough in the season. Seedlings developing from
occurred after 1 week at 5, 20/15, 20, or 25/5 °C. fall plantings generally produce a branched shoot and a tap-
Wood and others (1976) also found that the presence of root system with few lateral roots during the first growing
bracts did not affect germination of seeds collected in season. Plants may attain adequate size for lifting as 1+0
Nevada and California that were exposed to favorable incu- stock, or they may be allowed to grow for an additional sea-
bation conditions. At low water potentials, greater germina-
tion of bracted utricles compared to seeds was attributed to
the presence of the hygroscopic bracteoles. Shaw (1992a)
Figure 5—Grayia spinosa, spiny hopsage: seedling devel-
found that prechilling enhanced subsequent germination of opment at 1, 9, and 14 days after germination.
seeds more than bracted utricles from northern shrub steppe
populations when placed under favorable incubation condi-
tions and speculated that enhancement might be due to
improved oxygen uptake by the seeds.
The following techniques and criteria (with instructions)
are recommended for laboratory analyses by Belcher (1985),
Dueleheimer (1992), and Shaw (1992a):
References
Ackerman TL, Bamberg SA. 1974. Phenological studies in the Mojave Blauer AC, Plummer AP, McArthur ED, Stevens R, Giunta BC. 1976.
Desert at Rock Valley (Nevada Test Site). In: Leith H, ed. Phenology and Characteristics and hybridization of important Intermountain shrubs: 2.
seasonality modeling, ecological studies. New York: Springer-Verlag 8: Chenopod family. Res. Pap. INT-335. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service,
215–226. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 78 p.
Ackerman TL, Romney EM, Wallace A, Kinnear JE. 1980. Phenology of Branson FA, Miller RF, McQueen IS. 1967. Geographic distribution and fac-
desert shrubs in southern Nye County, Nevada. Great Basin Naturalist tors affecting the distribution of salt desert shrubs in the United States.
Memoirs 4: 4–23. Journal of Range Management 20: 287–296.
Ansley RJ, Abernethy RH. 1985. Environmental factors influencing Gardner Collotzi AW. 1966. Investigations in the genus Grayia, based on chromato-
saltbush seed dormancy alleviation. Journal of Range Management 38: graphic, morphological, and embryological criteria [MS thesis]. Logan:
331–335. Utah State University. 42 p.
Augustine G, Augustine J, Bach D, Backhaus R, Corgan J, and others 1979. Dayton WA. 1931. Important western browse plants. USDA Misc. Pub.
Soil mixes for greenhouse and nursery growth of desert plants. Desert 101. Washington, DC: USDA. 214 p.
Plants 1: 82–88. Drobnick R, Plummer AP. 1966. Progress in browse hybridization in Utah.
Beall K. 2000. Personal communication. Boise, ID: USDA Forest Service, Proceedings of the Conference of Western State Game and Fish
Boise National Forest, Lucky Peak Nursery. Commissioners 46: 211–213.
Belcher E. 1985. Handbook on seeds of browse-shrubs and forbs.Tech. Dueleheimer C. 1992. Unpublished data. Boise: Idaho State Seed
Pub. R8-8. Atlanta: USDA Forest Service, Southern Region. 246 p. Laboratory.
Grayia • 571
Everett RL,Tueller PT, Davis JB, Bruner AD. 1980. Plant phenology in Peters J, ed. 2000. Tetrazolium testing handbook. Contrib. 29. In: Handbook
G galleta–shadscale and galleta–sagebrush associations. Journal of Range on seed testing. [Las Cruces, NM]: Association of Official Seed Analysts.
Management 33: 446–450. Plummer AP, Christenson DR, Monsen SB. 1968. Restoring big-game range
Ferguson RB. 1980. Potting media for Atriplex production under green- in Utah. Pub. 68-3. Salt Lake City: Utah Division of Fish and Game. 183 p.
house conditions. Res. Note INT-301. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. New York:
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 7 p. Macmillan. 996 p.
Ferguson RB, Frischknecht NC. 1981. Shrub establishment on reconstruct- Rickard WH, Keough RF. 1968. Soil-plant relationships of two steppe
ed soils in semiarid areas. In: Stelter LH, DePuit EJ, Mikol SJ, tech. coords. desert shrubs. Plant and Soil 19: 205–212.
Shrub establishment on disturbed arid and semiarid lands; 1980 Rickard WH, Warren JL. 1981. Response of steppe shrubs to the 1977
December 2–3; Laramie, WY. Cheyenne: Wyoming Game and Fish drought. Northwest Science 55: 108–112.
Department: 57–62. Romney EM, Wallace A, Childress JD. 1971. Revegetation problems follow-
Ferguson RB, Frischknecht NC. 1985. Reclamation on Utah’s Emery and ing nuclear testing activities at the Nevada Test Site. In: Proceedings, 3rd
Alton coal fields: techniques and plant materials. Res. Pap. INT-335. National Symposium on Radioecology; 1971 May 10; Oak Ridge,TN. Los
Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Angeles: University of California—Los Angeles, School of Medicine.
Experiment Station. 78 p. Volume 2: 1015–1073.
Ferguson RB, Monsen SB. 1974. Research with containerized shrubs and Shaw NL. 1992a. Germination and seedling establishment of spiny hopsage
forbs in southern Idaho. In:Tinus RW, Stein WI, Balmer WE, eds. (Grayia spinosa [Hook.] Moq.) [PhD dissertation]. Corvallis: Oregon
Proceedings, North American Containerized Forest Tree Seedling State University [Dissertation Abstracts 9229768].
Symposium; 1974 August 26–29; Denver, CO. Pub. 68. Lincoln, NB: Great Shaw NL. 1992b. Unpublished data. Boise, ID: USDA Forest Service,
Plains Agricultural Council: 349–358. Forestry Sciences Laboratory.
Frischknecht NC, Ferguson RB. 1984. Performance of Chenopodiaceae Shaw NL, Haferkamp MR. 1990. Field establishment of spiny hopsage. In:
species on processed oil shale. In:Tiedemann AR, McArthur ED, Stutz McArthur ED, Romney ER, Smith SD,Tueller PT, comps. Proceedings,
HC, Stevens R, Johnson KL, comps. Proceedings, Symposium on the Symposium on Cheatgrass Invasion, Shrub Die-off, and Other Aspects of
Biology of Atriplex and Related Chenopods; 1983 May 2–6; Provo, UT. Shrub Biology and Management; 1989 April 5–7; Las Vegas, NV. Gen.
Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-172. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Tech. Rep. INT-276. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 293–297. Research Station: 193–199.
Goodrich S, Neese E. 1986. Uinta Basin flora. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Shaw NL, Haferkamp MR, Hurd EG. 1994. Germination and seedling estab-
Service, Intermountain Region, Ashley National Forest; and USDI Bureau lishment of spiny hopsage in response to planting date and seedbed
of Land Management,Vernal District. 320 p. environment. Journal of Range Management 47: 165–174.
Hitchcock CL, Cronquist A. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle: Shaw NL, Hurd EG, Haferkamp MR. 1996. Spiny hopsage fruit and seed
University of Washington Press. 730 p. morphology. Journal of Range Management 49: 551–553.
Hunter RB, Wallace A, Romney EM. 1980. Fencing enhances shrub survival Smith JG. 1974. Grayia H.&A., hopsage. In: Shopmeyer CS, tech. coord.
and growth for Mojave Desert revegetation. Great Basin Naturalist Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450.
Memoirs 4: 212–215. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 434–436.
Jorgensen K. 1992. Unpublished data. Ephraim: Utah Division of Wildlife Springfield HW. 1972. Winterfat fruits undergo afterripening. Journal of
Resources. Range Management 25: 69–70.
Kay BL. 1976. Test of seeds of Mojave Desert shrubs. Prog. Rep. BLM con- Swingle CF. 1939. Seed propagation of trees, shrubs, and forbs for conser-
tract 535000-CT4-2(N). Davis: University of California. 48 p. vation planting. SCS-TP-27. Washington, DC: USDA Soil Conservation
Kay BL, Graves WL,Young JA. 1988. Long-term storage of desert shrub Service. 198 p.
seed. Mojave Reveg. Notes 23. Davis: University of California. 22 p. Tueller PT, Bruner AD, Everett R, Davis JB. 1974. The ecology of Hot Creek
Kay BL, Pergler CC, Graves WL. 1984. Storage of seed of Mojave Desert Valley, Nevada and nonradiation effects of an underground nuclear deto-
shrubs. Journal of Seed Technology 9: 20–28. nation. USAEC Rep. 96. Reno: University of Nevada, Max C. Fleischmann
Kay BL, Ross CM, Graves WL. 1977. Hop-sage. Mojave Reveg. Note 6. College of Agriculture. 51 p.
Davis: University of California. 5 p. USDA SCS. 1968. Management and uses of spiny hopsage in the State of
King JE. 1947. The effect of various treatments to induce germination of Washington. Washington Plant Sci. Handbk. Spokane, WA: USDA Soil
seed of some plants valuable for soil conservation and wildlife [MS Conservation Service, Plant Materials Section. 2 p.
thesis]. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 97 p. Wallace A, Romney EM. 1972. Radioecology and ecophysiology of desert
Manning SJ, Groeneveld DP. 1990. Shrub rooting characteristics and water plants at the Nevada Test Site. USAEC Rep.TID-25954. Riverside:
acquisition on xeric sites in the western Great Basin. In: McArthur ED, University of California—Los Angeles, Departments of Soil Science and
Romney EM, Smith SD,Tueller PT, comps. Proceedings, Symposium on Agricultural Engineering; Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine and Radiation
Cheatgrass Invasion, Shrub Die-off, and Other Aspects of Shrub Biology Biology; Agricultural Sciences; and Environmental Radiation Division.
and Management; 1989 April 5–7; Las Vegas, NV. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT- 439 p.
276. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: Wallace A, Romney EM. 1974. Feasibility and alternate procedures for
238–244. decontamination and post-treatment management of PU-contaminated
McArthur ED, Sanderson SC. 1984. Distribution, systematics, and evolution areas in Nevada. Los Angeles: University of California—Los Angeles,
of the Chenopodiaceae. In:Tiedemann AR, McArthur ED, Stutz HC, School of Medicine: 251–337.
Stevens R, Johnson KL, comps. Proceedings, Symposium on the Biology Wallace A, Romney EM, Hunter RB. 1980. The challenge of a desert: reveg-
of Atriplex and Related Chenopods; 1983 May 2–6; Provo, UT. Gen.Tech. etation of disturbed desert lands. Great Basin Naturalist Memoirs 4:
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and Range Experiment Station: 14–24. Welsh SL, Atwood ND, Goodrich S, Higgins LC, eds. 1987. A Utah flora.
McCullough DR. 1969. The Tule elk: its history, behavior, and ecology. Pub. Great Basin Naturalist Memoirs 9: 1–894.
Zool. 88. Berkeley: University of California Press. 191 p. Wood MK, Knight RW,Young JA. 1976. Spiny hopsage germination. Journal
of Range Management 29: 53–56.
Synonym. Stylurus robusta (A. Cunn.) Deg. ra—is also found in Hawaii (Wong 1974) and is officially
Other common names. silver-oak, lacewood. classified there as a noxious weed (Haselwood and Motter
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Silk-oak— 1966).
Grevillea robusta A. Cunningham ex R. Br.—is a medium Flowering and fruiting. Silk-oak is monoecious and
to large evergreen tree native to coastal regions of eastern flowers from early March through October, reaching its peak
Australia (Skolmen 1990). Silk-oak is commonly planted as during the months of April through June in Hawaii (Little
an ornamental for its showy orange blossoms, and in refor- and Skolmen 1989; Skolmen 1990; Wong 1974). Trees in
estation programs in many warm–temperate, subtropical, Hawaii usually begin producing flowers and seeds when
and tropical locales worldwide. In the United States, it has they are 10 to 15 years old (Wong 1974). In Jamaica, trees
been planted in Hawaii (since about 1880), California, seed profusely from 10 years of age (Streets 1962). The
Florida, and Puerto Rico, and has become naturalized in bright orange blossoms are borne on horizontal racemes, 8
Hawaii and southern Florida, where it is considered by to 18 cm long, which are on short, leafless branches arising
some to be a noxious weed (Skolmen 1990). The species mostly from the trunk (Little and Skolmen 1989). The fruit,
has adapted well to Hawaii’s varied climates and grows vig- which turns from green to black on maturity, is a slightly
orously from sea level to 1,200 m (Neal 1965). Its prolific flattened, leathery, dehiscent follicle, 15 to 25 mm long,
seeding, wide dissemination of the seeds by wind, and its tipped with a slender, recurved, stiff style (figure 1) (Little
tolerance of diverse site conditions have enhanced its ability and Skolmen 1989; Wong 1974). The follicles remain on the
to proliferate (Wong 1974). The tree attains heights of up to tree for a year or so after the seeds are dispersed (Neal
35 m and diameters up to 0.9 m (Wong 1974). 1965). Two brown, elliptical, flattened seeds—each 10 to 15
The pale pinkish brown wood has a beautiful, well- mm long with light, winged margins—are found in each fol-
marked silver grain, making it desirable for furniture and licle (figures 1 and 2). Seedcrops of Kahili flower resemble
cabinet work (Magini and Tulstrup 1955; Skolmen 1990). those of silk-oak. The blossoms of silk-oak are orange, those
However, care must be taken when machining and finishing of Kahili flower are red, and those of white Kahili flower
this wood because the sawdust contains a skin irritant that are creamy white.
produces an uncomfortable rash lasting a week or more. Collection, extraction, and storage. The fruits of
Hydrocyanic acid has been detected in the fruit and flowers silk-oak are gathered from the tree before opening, when the
(Wong 1974). first hint of brown color appears, indicating that the seeds
Another species—Kahili flower, Grevillea banksii R. are mature (Wong 1974). The seeds are extracted by air-dry-
Br.—is less common because reforestation attempts with it ing the fruits in trays under shade for 5 or 6 days or until the
follicles open and release the seeds. The seeds are then sepa-
have failed in Hawaii. Only on Kauai and Maui are remnant
rated by means of a seed cleaner (Wong 1974). Purity has
stands of early plantings found (Wong 1974). It is a smaller
averaged 87% (Goor and Barney 1968; Magini and Tulstrup
tree, up to 10 m in height. The flowers and fruits of this
1955). Moisture content of fresh seeds collected in Hawaii
species also contain cyanogenic compounds that produce a was 28.5% (ETSL 1969). The following numbers of seeds
rash similar to that from poison-ivy (Toxicodendron radi- per weight have been reported for 3 locations: Hawaii,
cans ssp. radicans (L.)) Kuntze; see Rhus (p.954) (Magini 64,700/kg (29,350 lb) (ETSL 1969); East Africa, 66,000 to
and Tulstrup 1955; Wong 1974). A white-flowered form of 154,000/kg (29,950 to 69,850/lb) (Parry 1956); and
this species—white Kahili flower, G. banksii forma albiflo- Australia, 79,200 to 99,000/kg (35,925 to 44,900/lb) (Goor
Grevillea • 573
Figure 1—Grevillea robusta, silk-oak: follicle and seed. germination rates ranging from 60 to 70% when seed mois-
G
ture was maintained below 10% during storage in airtight
containers (Jones 1967).
Germination. Testing procedures for official purposes
call for 21 days of testing at alternating temperatures of
20/30 °C with no pretreatment (AOSA 1993). Two
pregermination treatments have been found to increase sub-
stantially the germination of stored seeds (ETSL 1969). A
48-hour water soak and stratification at 3 °C for 30 days
were equally effective. Pretreated seeds were germinated on
moist Kimpak at diurnally alternating temperatures of 30 °C
during an 8-hour light period and 20 °C during the dark
period. The average germination rate of 8 samples was 38%
after 17 days and 70% after 72 days. Germination of stored,
untreated seeds, however, was only 26% (ETSL 1969).
Figure 2—Grevillea robusta, silk-oak: longitudinal section Fresh seed in Australia had a germination rate of 60 to 80%
through a seed. (Goor and Barney 1968). Germination of fresh, unstratified
seeds require about 20 days (Skolmen 1990). Germination in
silk-oak is epigeal.
Nursery practice. Nursery practices vary among
countries where silk-oak is grown (Skolmen 1990). In some
countries 4- to 6-week-old wildlings are lifted and potted
and later replanted. Seedlings grown in Sri Lanka are out-
planted when they are about 40 cm (16 in) tall, whereas
those in Jamaica are outplanted when about 60 cm (24 in)
tall (Streets 1962). Elsewhere, plants are grown to 45-cm
(18 in) heights in large baskets so that they can compete
more effectively when outplanted. In Hawaii, silk-oak seeds
are sown at a depth of 1.25/cm (1/2 in) without mulch
(Wong 1974). Seedbeds are treated with insecticides and
fungicides before sowing. Seedling density ranges from 200
to 300 seedlings/m2 (19 to 28/ft2). Seedlings grown in flats
and Barney 1968). Seeds of silk-oak are orthodox in storage are outplanted when they are about 9 months old (Wong
behavior and are easy to store in cool, dry conditions 1974), whereas container-grown seedlings reach a plantable
(Schaefer 1991). Seeds stored for 2 years at –7 and 3 °C had size of 20 cm (8 in) in height in 12 to 14 weeks (Skolmen
1990).
References
354 p.
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds. Neal MC. 1965. In gardens in Hawaii. Spec. Pub. 50. Honolulu: Bishop
Journal of Seed Technology 16(3): 1–113. Museum Press. 924 p.
ETSL [Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory]. 1969. Germination and sowing rate Parry MS. 1956. Tree planting practices in tropical Africa. For. Dev. Pap. 8.
report for 1969. Macon, GA: USDA Forest Service and Georgia Forest Rome: FAO. 302 p.
Commission. Schaefer C. 1991. Storage of tree seeds in Kenya: recommendations and
Goor AY, Barney CW. 1968. Forest tree planting in arid zones. New York: problems. In: Schnier P, ed. Proceedings, 1st National Tree Seed
Ronald Press. 409 p. Workshop; 1991 July 1–5; Nairobi, Kenya. Nairobi: Kenya Forestry
Haselwood EL, Motter GG. 1966. Handbook of Hawaiian weeds. Honolulu: Research Centre: 99–113.
Hawaii Sugar Planters’ Association Experiment Station. 479 p. Skolmen RG. 1990. Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. In: Burns RM, Honkala BH,
Jones L. 1967. Effect of storage at various moisture contents and tempera- tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 2, Hardwoods. Agric.
tures on seed germination of silk oak, Australian pine, and Eucalyptus spp. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, Forest
Res. Note SE-83. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Service, Southeast Forest Service: 370–373.
Experiment Station. 4 p. Streets RJ. 1962. Exotic trees of the British Commonwealth. Oxford:
Little, EL, Jr, Skolmen RG. 1989. Common forest trees of Hawaii. Agric. Clarendon Press. 765 p.
Handbk. 670. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 321 p. Wong WHC Jr. 1974. Grevillea robusta, A. Cunn., silk-oak. In: Schopmeyer
Magini E,Tulstrup NP. 1955. Tree seed notes. For. Dev. Pap. 5. Rome: FAO. CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric.
Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 437–438.
Dr. McDaniel is a professor and Mr. Wood a research assistant at New Mexico State University’s
Department of Animal and Range Sciences, Las Cruces, New Mexico
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus Figure 1—Gutierrezia sarothrae, broom snakeweed: flow-
Gutierrezia—commonly called snakeweed or broomweed— ering head (center); ray (left) and disk (right) flower with
includes 16 annual or perennial species of low-growing attached achene (adapted from Ruffin 1974).
woody and herbaceous plants native to the arid regions of
North and South America. Shinners (1950, 1951) placed
Gutierrezia in the genus Xanthocephalum, based mainly on
morphological characteristics. Since that time, the generic
alignment has vacillated between the 2 genera, and publica-
tions using either name can be found between 1950 and
1985. Lane (1985) authoritatively resolved the issue when
she provided evidence that the name Gutierrezia was taxo-
nomically more appropriate. The genus in general—and
broom snakeweed (G. sarothrae (Pursh) Britt. & Rusby) in
particular—is regarded as undesirable on grazing land in the
western United States because it interferes with forage
growth and is toxic to livestock (McDaniel and others 1982).
Threadleaf snakeweed—G. microcephala (DC.) Gray—
is closely allied to broom snakeweed and collectively these
2 species are commonly referred to as perennial snakeweed
or simply, snakeweed. Other common names often used to
describe these species include turpentine weed, rubberweed,
rockweed, stinkweed, yellowtop, matchweed, and perennial
broomweed. Snakeweeds are widespread on rangeland in the
southwestern United States and are rarely included in seed- flowering can occur any time of the year. Snakeweed plants
ing mixtures. may bear a few seeds the first year, but they become more
Flowering and fruiting. Flowering heads of broom productive in later years. Good crops may occur every year
snakeweed are numerous and small (about 3.75 mm high on some sites, but climatic factors, plant age, and insects
and 1.75 mm wide) and are borne in clusters of 2 or 3 in generally cause wide fluctuations in seed production from
panicles or short spikes (Lane 1985; Ruffin 1974; Solbrig year to year.
1960, 1964). The heads usually contain 2 to 7 ray flowers The achenes from ray florets are brown, roughly cylin-
with yellow corollas and from 0 to 9 disk flowers (figure 1). drical (about 0.9 to 1.6 mm long and 0.2 to 0.7 mm wide),
Viable achenes are produced mainly by ray flowers and only and weigh about 0.15 mg (figures 2 and 3). The often-infer-
occasionally by disk flowers. Threadleaf snakeweed usually tile disk achenes are smaller than the ray achenes. The ach-
has 2 or less flowers per capitulum, but only ray flowers pro- enes are pubescent, with rows of white trichomes appressed
duce viable seeds (Lane 1985). Flowering in southwestern to the seedcoat in the direction of the pappus. Upon imbibi-
deserts usually begins in August and continues until a freeze tion, the trichomes radiate outward to draw and retain water
in early November. In northern latitudes, flowering begins next to the pericarp. The trichomes act to anchor the achene
earlier, often in June or July. Under greenhouse conditions, and enhance soil penetration (Mayeux 1983, 1989). The
Gutierrezia • 575
Figure 2—Gutierrezia sarothrae, broom snakeweed: face in fall were mostly inviable by the next summer (Wood
G longitudinal section through an achene. and others 1997). Similarly, achenes retained in flower
bracts and collected biweekly from October to May were
tested as more than 50% viable; however, after May viabili-
ty declined below 10%.
Germination. The after-ripening requirements of
freshly collected snakeweed achenes were reduced by
exposing them to a continuous temperature of 50 °C for at
least 48 hours before laboratory or greenhouse germination
trials (Mayeux and Leotta 1981). Dormancy-breaking treat-
ments such as scarification, stratification, and leaching have
been reported not to enhance germination (Kruse 1970).
Stirring in dichloromethane for 10 minutes increased germi-
nation of newly harvested threadleaf snakeweed seeds and
stirring in large volumes of distilled water for 24 hours
before incubation on filter paper had the same effect
(Mayeux and Leotta 1981). Tests show that optimal germi-
pappus consists of small white or yellowish erose scales nation in greenhouse pots occurs when achenes are sown on
(<1 mm length) aligned with the axis of the achene. This the surface or pressed lightly onto the soil and maintained at
highly reduced pappus is unlike many members of the tribe a 15 to 25 °C alternate temperature regime, a minimum of 8
Astereae, which usually have a well-developed pappus for hours of light, and soil saturated and subsequently main-
wind dispersal (Solbrig 1960). Thus, snakeweed achenes are tained at a soil water potential above –300 kPa for at least 5
absent of any specialized structures to facilitate long-range days (Kruse 1970; Mayeux 1981; Wood and others 1997).
dispersal and most fall directly below the parent on the lee- Field practice. Because snakeweed is toxic to live-
ward side (Oshman and others 1987; Wood and others stock and sometimes to wildlife, competes with more desir-
1997). Dispersal is highest in the autumn (about 60%) and able forage, and offers limited soil erosion protection, it is
may continue into the following summer or as long as usually not considered a beneficial species for seeding
flower bracts remain on the plant. About 91% of the achenes rangelands. It might be considered for use on land under
are independently dispersed, with the remainder falling reclamation. Although we found no studies to confirm this,
within a portion of the capitula (Wood and others 1997). we anticipate that sowing seeds extensively on an exposed
Seed collection and cleaning. A mature plant in soil surface in early spring when daytime temperatures are
autumn can be clipped or pulled from the soil, placed in a near 20 °C offers the best potential for propagation.
paper bag, and shaken to remove most achenes from the
capitula. Oven-drying a plant for 48 hours at 50 °C facili- Figure 3—Gutierrezia sarothrae, broom snakeweed:
tates achene removal and reduces the after-ripening period achenes.
(Mayeux 1989). Contents after hand-threshing should be
pulsed twice in a seed scarifier to further loosen the achenes.
A pneumatic seed cleaner with 2 sieves (about 3 and 5 mm
round holes) can be used to separate achenes from other
flower parts by setting the air blower at 8.0 mm and turning
it on twice for about 10 sec/plant (Wood and others 1997). A
medium-sized snakeweed plant produces about 4,000 ach-
enes, but this number can vary greatly by year and plant age
(Ragsdale 1969).
Seed storage. Snakeweed achenes (figure 3) can be
stored in paper or cloth bags under dry laboratory conditions
for 3 or more years (Mayeux 1989). They are reportedly
dormant at maturity and require a 4- to 6-month after-ripen-
ing period unless they are dried soon after collection
(Mayeux and Leotta 1981). Under field storage, achenes
contained within nylon packets and placed on the soil sur-
Kruse WH. 1970. Temperature and moisture stress affect germination of Ragsdale BJ. 1969. Ecological and phenological characteristics of perennial
Gutierrezia sarothrae. Journal of Range Management 23: 143–144. broomweed [PhD dissertation]. College Station:Texas A&M University.
Lane MA. 1985. Taxonomy of Gutierrezia (Compositae: Astereae) in North 142 p.
America. Systematic Botany 10: 7–28. Ruffin J. 1974. A taxonomic re-evaluation of the genera Amphiachryris,
Mayeux HS. 1983. Effects of soil texture and seed placement on emer- Amphipappus, Greenella, Gutierrezia, Gymnosperma, Thurovia, and
gence of four subshrubs. Weed Science 31: 380–384. Xanthocephalum (Compositae). Sida 5: 301–333.
Mayeux HS. 1989. Snakeweed seed characteristics and germination Shinners LH. 1950. Notes on Texas Compositae: 4. Field & Lab 18: 25–32.
requirements. In: Huddleston EW, Pieper RD, eds. Snakeweed: problems Shinners LH. 1951. Notes on Texas Compositae: 7. Field & Lab 19: 74–82.
and perspectives. Bull. 751. Las Cruces: New Mexico State University, Solbrig OT. 1960. Cytotaxonomic and evolutionary studies in the North
Agricultural Experiment Station. 225 p. American species of Gutierrezia (Compositae). Contributions from the
Mayeux HS, Leotta L. 1981. Germination of broom snakeweed and Gray Herbarium of Harvard University 188: 1–63.
threadleaf snakeweed seed. Weed Science 29: 530–534. Solbrig OT. 1964. Intraspecific variations in the Gutierrezia sarothrae com-
McDaniel KC, Pieper RD, Donart GB. 1982. Grass response following thin- plex (Compositae-Astereae). Contributions from the Gray Herbarium
ning of broom snakeweed. Journal of Range Management 35: 219–222. of Harvard University 193: 67–115.
Oshman A, Pieper RD, McDaniel KC. 1987. Soil seed banks associated with Wood B, McDaniel KC, Clason D. 1997. Broom snakeweed (Gutierrezia
individual broom snakeweed plants. Journal of Range Management 40: sarothrae) dispersal, viability, and germination. Weed Science 45: 77–84.
441–443.
Gutierrezia • 577
G
Fabaceae—Pea family
Gymnocladus dioicus (L.) K. Koch
Kentucky coffeetree
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. Kentucky Figure 1—Gymnocladus dioicus, Kentucky coffeetree:
legume and seed.
coffeetree—Gymnocladus dioicus (L.) K. Koch—is a medi-
um to large deciduous tree that occurs naturally in rich bot-
tomlands from New York, Pennsylvania, southern Ontario,
and Minnesota, southward to eastern Nebraska, Oklahoma,
eastern Kentucky, and Tennessee. The only other species of
Gymnocladus is native to central China (Sargent 1965). The
tree grows to heights of 23 to 34 m and bole diameters of 60
to 90 cm. Kentucky coffeetree is used chiefly as an orna-
mental and also to some extent for posts and crossties
(Harrar and Harrar 1946). Rehder (1940) reported that the
species was introduced into cultivation prior to 1748. It has
been reported that early settlers of Kentucky and Tennessee
used the seeds as a substitute for coffee and the pulp of the
green fruit in medicines (Harrar and Harrar 1946). There has
been some research into the insecticidal properties of certain
unusual amino acids isolated from the seeds (Rehr and oth-
ers 1973; Evans and Bell 1978).
Flowering and fruiting. The greenish white, dioe-
cious flowers appear in May and June (after the leaves) and
are borne in terminal racemose clusters. The fruit is a tardily
dehiscent, flat, thick, woody legume (pod) that ripens in
September or October and usually persists unopened on the
tree until late winter or early spring (Van Dersal 1939). The number of clean seeds per weight ranges from 440 to 600/kg
dark brown or red brown legume is 15 to 25 cm long, 2.5 to (200 to 300/lb) and averages 500/kg (230/lb). Purity of seed-
5 cm wide, and usually contains 4 to 8 dark brown or black lots is almost 100% and 90 to 95% of the seeds are usually
oval seeds separated by a mass of dark, sweet pulp (figures sound (Sander 1974).
1 and 2). The seeds are about 2 cm long with a very hard There are no long-term storage data for seeds of
and thick seedcoat. They will generally remain in the Kentucky coffeetree, but like other Fabaceae of the temper-
legume until it falls and is broken up by decay, a process ate zone, storage is not difficult. Dried seeds should be
that may take 2 years or longer (Harr 1927; Sargent 1965). stored at near- or below-freezing temperatures. Short term
Collection of fruits; extraction and storage of seeds. storage (overwinter) has been successful under these condi-
The fruits can be collected at any time during the late fall, tions (Weisehuegel 1935), and storage for much longer peri-
winter, or spring by picking them from the tree or from the ods should be possible also.
ground. Sometimes the legumes can be dislodged by vigor- Pregermination treatments. Kentucky coffeetree’s
ously shaking or flailing the branches. hard, impermeable seedcoat normally requires scarification
The seeds may be extracted from the fruits by hand or for timely germination. The best results have been obtained
with mechanical macerators or threshers (see chapter 3). The by treating the seeds with concentrated sulfuric acid for
Gymnocladus • 579
H Styracaceae—Storax family
Halesia carolina L.
Carolina silverbell
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Other common names. opossum-wood, silverbell, Figure 1—Halesia carolina, Carolina silverbell: fruits.
snowdrop-tree.
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. Carolina silver-
bell—Halesia carolina L.—is a small, deciduous tree found
naturally from West Virginia and southern Illinois south to
South Carolina, northwestern Florida, and Alabama, with
small pockets as far west as Arkansas and Oklahoma
(Sargent 1965; Sluder 1990). It has been successfully plant-
ed in Massachusetts and California and also to some extent
in northern and central Europe. Carolina silverbell was first
cultivated in 1756 (Bonner and Mignery 1974). It is highly
valued as an ornamental, and its fruits are a source of food
for wildlife.
Flowering and fruiting. The perfect, white (some-
times pink), bell-shaped, axillary flowers of Carolina silver-
bell are borne in fascicles of 1 to 5 in March to May (Brown
and Kirkman 1990; Sluder 1990). The species is precocious Germination tests. The seeds are extremely dormant
and seedlings may flower when only a little over 1 m in and they response best to warm stratification followed by
height (Dirr and Heuser 1987). The fruit, which matures in cold stratification. Moist stratification at 13 °C for 60 to 120
August and September, is an oblong or oblong-ovate, dry, 4- days, then 60 to 90 days at 1 to 5 °C, has worked for seeds
winged, reddish brown, corky drupe 2.5 to 5 cm long. The from many sources (Bonner and Mignery 1974), although
ovary is a 4-celled ellipsoid stone, 13 to 16 mm long, usual- more northern collections may require more than 90 days of
ly containing only 1 seed (figures 1 and 2) (Bonner and cold (Dirr 1977). Other sources, however, seem to need only
Mignery 1974; Brown and Kirkman 1990; Sluder 1990). cold stratification (Chadwick 1935). Stratified seeds can be
The fruits are persistent on the branches, and dispersal germinated in flats of sand or sand–peat mixtures for 60 to
occurs well into the winter. 90 days with 30 °C day and 20 °C night temperatures. Seven
Collection, extraction, and storage. Carolina silver- samples germinated in this manner averaged 53% germina-
bell fruits may be collected from the trees in late fall and tion (Bonner and Mignery 1974). Germination is epigeal
early winter. De-winging can be done mechanically (figure 3).
(Thornhill 1968) and is recommended to reduce bulk and Nursery practice. Because of uncertain response to
facilitate handling. Complete extraction of stones from the stratification, the most practical method of propagation from
fruits is not necessary. Bonner and Mignery (1974) found seeds may be to plant in the fall and allow 2 years for full
about 2,600 to 5,500 de-winged fruits/kg (1,200 to 2,500/lb) germination (Dirr and Heuser 1987). Stratified seeds should
using 2 samples. Although no data on long-term storage are always be used for spring-sowing. Some growers in the
available, dry cold storage of cleaned fruits has been recom- North have planted seeds in flats of soil and have kept them
mended (Chadwick 1935). in a greenhouse during the early winter months. In January,
References
Bonner FT, Mignery AL. 1974. Halesia carolina var. carolina, Carolina silver-
bell. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the
United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest
Service: 441–442.
Brand MH, Lineberger RD. 1986. In vitro propagation of Halesia carolina L.
and the influence of explantation timing on initial shoot proliferation.
Plant Cell,Tissue and Organ Culture 7: 103–113.
Brown CL, Kirkman LK. 1990. Trees of Georgia and adjacent states.
Figure 3—Halesia carolina, Carolina silverbell: seedling Portland, OR:Timber Press. 292 p.
development after 1, 4, 16, and 40 days. Chadwick LC. 1935. Practices in propagation by seed. American
Nurseryman 62(12): 3–9.
Dirr MA. 1977. The silverbells. American Nurseryman 146(3): 12–14, 42,
44, 46.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop-
agation. Athens, GA: Varsity Press. 239 p.
Sargent CS. 1965. Manual of the trees of North America (exclusive of
Mexico). 2nd ed., corrected and reprinted. New York: Dover. 934 p.
Sluder ER. 1990. Halesia carolina L., Carolina silverbell. In: Burns RM,
Honkala BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 2,
Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
374–378.
Thornhill HB. 1968. Propagation of woody ornamentals by seed. American
Nurseryman 127(6):
Halesia • 581
H Hamamelidaceae—Witch-hazel family
Hamamelis L.
witch-hazel
Jill R. Barbour and Kenneth A. Brinkman
Ms. Barbour is a germination specialist at the USDA Forest Service’s National Seed Laboratory,
Dry Branch, Georgia; Dr. Brinkman retired from the USDA Forest Service’s
North Central Forest Experiment Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Witch-hazels (figure 2). There is limited dispersal by birds. Annual fruit
are deciduous shrubs or small trees that attain heights of 2 production is highly variable, with abundant fruit crops
to 10 m (table 1). American witch-hazel is native from Nova occurring 1 out of 4 years (DeSteven 1982).
Scotia to southeastern Minnesota, south to Missouri, south- Developing witch-hazel seeds are the larval food of the
eastern Oklahoma and Texas, and east to central Florida beetle Pseudanthonomus hamamelidis Pierce (Curculio-
(Little 1953). First cultivated in 1736 (Rehder 1940), nidae) (DeSteven 1982). Weevil eggs are laid on the fruits
American witch-hazel is used in environmental plantings from mid-June to early July and the newly hatched larvae
largely because it flowers in late autumn. The species pro- feed on the fruits from mid-July to September. Lepidopteran
vides seeds for birds and browse for wildlife (Van Dersal caterpillars may also consume the seeds. The 2 most abun-
1938). Bark, leaves, and twigs have been used medicinally dant species are in the families Gelechiidae and Pyralidae,
in the form of extracts. Another species—Ozark witch- and 3 other “occasional” species are in the families Nolidae,
hazel—is a shrub of the Ozark region of Missouri,
Arkansas, and Oklahoma but is seldom planted. Japanese
Figure 1—Hamamelis virginiana, witch-hazel: fruits
and Chinese witch-hazels are popular introduced ornamen- (capsules) before and after seeds were discharged.
tals that bloom in the spring. Hamamelis × intermedia
‘Arnold Promise’, a hybrid of Japanese and Chinese witch-
hazels, was first produced at the Arnold Arboretum (Hora
1981).
Flowering and fruiting. The spider-like yellow or
rusty red flowers of American witch-hazel open in
September or October, but the ovules are not fertilized until
the following May. The fruits ripen early the next autumn
(Rehder 1940; Van Dersal 1938). Members of the witch-
hazel family have catkins for flowers and they are wind-pol-
linated (Johnson 1973). Ozark witch-hazel flowers from
midwinter to spring (Fernald 1970). Capsules (figure 1)
burst open when dry, each discharging 2 shiny black seeds
Hamamelis • 583
Nursery practice. Witch-hazel seeds may be fall-
H References
sown in the nursery as soon as collected, or stratified seeds
may be sown in the spring. Limited trials show that seeds Brinkman KA. 1974. Hamamelis virginiana L., witch-hazel. In: Schopmeyer
collected as early as August and sown by early October CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric.
Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 443–444.
results in as much as 90% germination the following spring DeSteven D.1982. Seed production and seed mortality in a temperate for-
est shrub (witch-hazel, Hamamelis virginiana) Journal of Ecology 70:
(Heit 1968; Sandahl 1941). Fall-sowing is recommended; 437–443.
the seedbeds should be mulched over winter and uncovered Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop-
agation from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p.
at germination time in the spring. For spring-sowing of Fernald ML. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. 8th ed. New York: American
Book Co. 1631 p.
stratified seeds, seedbeds should be prepared as early as soil Fernald ML. 1970. Gray’s manual of botany. 8th ed. New York:Van
conditions permit. Sowing in drills spaced 20 to 30 cm Nostrand Co. 1632 p.
Fordham AJ. 1976. Propagation of some Hamamelidaceae (witch-hazel
(8 to 12 in) apart will facilitate weeding and cultivating. family) Combined Proceedings of the International Plant Propagators’
Society 26: 296–298.
Secondary leaves may develop on a seedling within 21 days Fordham AJ. 1991. Propagation techniques of Cornus kousa and Hamamelis
after germination (figure 3). Propagation by layering also is taxa: 1940’s vs. 1980’s. Combined Proceedings of the International Plant
Propagators’ Society 1990 40: 524–527.
possible. Heit CE. 1968. Propagation from seed: 15. Fall planting of shrub seeds for
successful seedling production. American Nurseryman 128(4): 8–10,
70–80.
Hora B. 1981. The Oxford encyclopedia of trees of the world. Oxford, UK:
Figure 3—Hamamelis virginiana, witch-hazel: seedling at Oxford University 288 p.
21 days after germination. Johnson H. 1973. The international book of trees. New York: Simon &
Schuster. 288 p.
LHBH [Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium]. 1976. Hortus third: a concise dic-
tionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York:
Macmillan. 1290 p.
Little EL Jr. 1953. Checklist of native and naturalized trees of the United
States (including Alaska). Agric. Handbk. 41. Washington, DC: USDA
Forest Service. 472 p.
Moore RP. ed. 1985. Handbook on tetrazolium testing. Zurich: International
Seed Testing Association. 99 p.
Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. 2nd ed. New York:
Macmillan. 996 p.
Rivera R, Popp HW, Dow RB. 1937. The effect of high hydrostatic pres-
sures upon seed germination. American Journal of Botany 24: 508–513.
Sandahl PL. 1941. Seed germination. Parks and Recreation 24(11): 508.
Van Dersal WI. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their ero-
sion-control and wildlife values.
Dr. Meyer is a research ecologist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. The genus Figure 1—Heteromeles arbutifolia, Christmasberry: seeds.
Heteromeles has only a single species—H. arbutifolia
(Lindl.) M. Roemer, also known as H. salicifolia (K. Presl.)
Abrams (Phipps 1992). It is closely related to the large trop-
ical genus Photinia Lindl., to which it has sometimes been
referred. Christmasberry, also known as toyon, California-
holly, and hollywood, is a long-lived shrub or small tree,
2 to 10 m in height, that sprouts freely after fire from a sub-
terranean burl. It has shiny, leathery, evergreen leaves that
are sharply toothed along the margins. A common con-
stituent of chaparral vegetation throughout California and
Baja California, it is usually found on less harsh, more
mesic microsites. Christmasberry is useful for erosion con-
trol, is a source of honey, and has leaves and fruits that pro-
vide food for wildlife. It has also been widely planted in
California as an ornamental for park, freeway, and home
landscape use (Magill 1974). The attractive foliage and
fruits are cut and used for their decorative value.
Flowering and fruiting. Unlike many chaparral Christmasberry seed weight is apparently highly vari-
shrubs, Christmasberry is summer-flowering (Magill 1974). able. Magill (1974) reported a mean seed weight of 19 mg
The numerous, small flowers are borne in flat-topped or and count of 52,630 seeds/kg (23,900/lb), whereas Keeley
convex terminal inflorescences. The flowers are perigynous (1991) reported a seed weight of 5.5 mg and count of
and have 5 separate petals, 10 stamens, and a 2- to 3-carpel- 181,820/kg (82,500/lb). Martineja and Bullock (1997) exam-
late ovary. The fruits are bright red to orange, 2- or 3-seeded ined Christmasberry seed weight as a function of habitat
juicy pomes that are 6 to 10 mm in diameter. They ripen variables. They found no correlation with latitude or annual
from October through January and are dispersed by birds. precipitation but did find a significant increase in seed
Good crops are reported to occur yearly (Keeley 1992). weight with increasing elevation. Overall mean seed weight
Seed collection, cleaning, and storage. for their 12 Christmasberry populations was 36 mg and seed
Christmasberry fruits may be clipped or stripped from the count was 27,800 seeds/kg (12,600/lb), with weight ranges
branches once they have attained a bright red or orange of 28 to 49 mg and counts of 20,400 to 35,700 seeds/kg
color (Magill 1974). They should be soaked in water and (9,200 to 16,200/lb).
allowed to ferment slightly. (However, too-long a soaking Christmasberry seeds have limited longevity at room
period can damage the seeds, which have soft, pliable seed- temperature, but they are probably orthodox in storage
coats.) The seeds (figure 1 and 2) may then be separated behavior. Keeley (1991) reported a shelf life of less than 1
from the pulp by passage through a macerator, followed by year in laboratory storage. The seeds were also damaged or
flotation to remove the pulp. Small lots can be hand-rubbed killed by high temperature treatments. One hour at 70 °C
through a large-holed screen. The seeds may then be reduced viability from 99 to 33%, and 5 minutes at 120 °C
allowed to dry. Once dry, any flat, unfilled seeds can be resulted in essentially complete mortality (Keeley 1987).
removed by screening. Magill (1974) recommended sealed storage at low tempera-
Heteromeles • 585
Figure 2—Heteromeles arbutifolia, Christmasberry: Figure 3—Heteromeles arbutifolia, Christmasberry: young
H longitudinal section through a seed. seedling (left) and older seedling (right).
ture but did not give any data on viability retention under
these conditions.
Germination and seed testing. Christmasberry seeds
are reported to be nondormant at dispersal (Emery 1988; brush (Purshia spp.) can be used for tetrazolium evaluation.
Keeley 1987; Magill 1974), whereas seeds that have been The seeds should be soaked in water overnight, then clipped
stored are rendered secondarily dormant and require 3 at the cotyledon end. The embryos can then be gently
months of chilling at 3 to 5 °C in order to germinate. Under squeezed out, immersed in 1% tetrazolium chloride for 6
field conditions, Christmasberry seeds germinate within a hours at room temperature, and examined for staining pat-
few months of dispersal and do not form a persistent seed- terns. Older seedlots that have begun to lose viability and
bank (Parker and Kelly 1989). Germination is epigeal (fig- germinate sporadically will probably also have ambiguous
ure 3). Recruitment of new individuals is rarely observed. tetrazolium staining patterns.
Although winter seedling emergence is a common occur- Field seeding and nursery practice. Christmasberry
rence, the seedlings almost invariably die, either from her- would probably be difficult to direct-seed in a wildland set-
bivory or summer drought (Parker and Kelly 1989). Because ting because of its establishment requirements (Keeley
of the transient seed bank, there can be no recruitment after 1992). The seedlings require shady, moist conditions and
fire, and new recruitment is in fact restricted to chaparral deep litter, so they would have difficulty getting established
stands that have been free of fire for at least 50 years on the open disturbances that characterize most wildland
(Keeley 1992). The seedlings are not very drought-tolerant seeding projects. Christmasberry is easily propagated from
and seem to need the shade and the deep litter that develops seeds in a nursery setting, however. The seeds maybe plant-
under adult shrub canopies in old stands in order to survive. ed in flats in sand or soil. If freshly harvested seeds are
Recently harvested lots of Christmasberry seeds that are used, no pretreatment is necessary, and seedlings emerge
well-cleaned to remove unfilled seeds generally have high over a period of 10 to 40 days (Magill 1974). Emergence of
fill and high viability. Keeley (1987) reported germination of 73% has been reported in one case. The seeds may also be
99% at 23 °C. Such lots should be relatively easy to evalu- planted outdoors in nursery beds. Chilling before spring-
ate, either with a germination test or with tetrazolium stain- planting is recommended (Magill 1974). Greever (1979)
ing. A 3-month chill at 5 °C followed by a germination test reported 100% emergence from March sowing in sand and
of 28 days at 20 or 25 °C should give maximum germina- that there was little difference in seedling size between
tion. Christmasberry seeds have no endosperm, and the December and March sowings by May. Propagation by
embryo completely fills the seed cavity (figure 2). A proce- grafting or cuttings is also practiced (Greever 1979;
dure similar to that used for apple (Malus spp.) or bitter- Magill 1974).
Emery DE. 1988. Seed propagation of native California plants. Santa Martineja NE, Bullock SH. 1997. Geographic variation in seed mass in the
Barbara, CA: Santa Barbara Botanic Garden. 107 p. chaparral shrub Heteromeles arbutifolia (Rosaceae). Southwestern
Greever PT. 1979. Propagation of Heteromeles (Photinia) arbutifolia by soft- Naturalist 42: 119–121.
wood cuttings or by seed. Plant Propagator 25 (2): 10–11. Parker VT, Kelly VR. 1989. Seed banks in California chaparral and other
Keeley JE. 1987. Role of fire in seed germination of woody taxa in Mediterranean climate shrublands. In: Leck MA, Parker VT, Simpson RL,
California chaparral. Ecology 68: 434–443. eds. Ecology of soil seed banks. San Diego: Academic Press: 231–255.
Keeley JE. 1991. Seed germination and life history syndromes in the Phipps JB. 1992. Heteromeles and Photinia (Rosaceae, subfam. Maloideae) of
California chaparral. Botanical Review 57: 81–116. Mexico and Central America. Canadian Journal of Botany 70:
Keeley J. 1992. Recruitment of seedlings and vegetative sprouts in 2138–2182.
unburned chaparral. Ecology 73: 1194–1208.
Magill AW. 1974. Photinia arbutifolia Lindl., Christmasberry. In: Schopmeyer
CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric.
Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 582–583.
Heteromeles • 587
H Elaeagnaceae—Oleaster family
Hippophae rhamnoides L.
common seabuckthorn
Richard T. Busing and Paul E. Slabaugh
Dr. Busing is an ecologist at the USDI Geographical Survey, Corvallis, Oregon; Dr. Slabaugh (deceased)
retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station
Other common names. Sandthorn, swallow-thorn. Figure 1—Hippophae rhamnoides, common seabuckthorn:
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Common fruit and seed.
seabuckthorn—Hippophae rhamnoides L.—is native to
northwestern Europe through central Asia to the Altai
Mountains, western and northern China, and the northern
Himalayas. Of the 2 species in the genus, only common
seabuckthorn is widely cultivated (Rehder 1940). A very
hardy deciduous shrub or a small tree, common seabuck-
thorn is used primarily for ornamental purposes. In Europe
and Asia, it is used to form hedges and, because of its nitro-
gen-fixing symbionts, serves to enrich and protect soils
(Bogdon and Untaru 1967; Kao 1964; Stewart and Pearson
1967). A tendency to form thickets by root suckering limits
its use in shelterbelts. In Asia, the plant has a variety of
medicinal uses (Ma 1989). The berries, which are a rich wet fruits through a macerator and floating off the pulp.
source of vitamins (Stocker 1948; Valicek 1978; Zhmyrko Prompt cleaning and drying is advantageous because germi-
and others 1978), have been used in making a cordial and nation rate is very low for seeds left too long in the fruits
jam in Siberia (Hansen 1931). The plant stems bear many (Eliseev and Mishulina 1977; Rohmeder 1942). From 45 kg
sharp, stout thorns and provide protection, cover, and food (100 lb) of fruits, 4.5 to 14 kg (10 to 30 lb) of cleaned seeds
for various birds and small rodents (Hansen 1931; Pearson may be extracted. Soundness of 85% and purity of 97%
and Rogers 1962). have been reported (Slabaugh 1974). The average number
Flowering and fruiting. The species is dioecious; its of cleaned seeds determined on 10 samples is 88,000/kg
very small, yellowish, pistillate flowers appear in March or (40,000/lb), with a range of 55,000 to 130,000/kg (25,000
April before the leaves (Pearson and Rogers 1962; Slabaugh to 59,000/lb) (Slabaugh 1974). Smaller seeds, numbering
1974). Orange-yellow, drupelike acidic fruits about the size 258,000 to 264,500/kg (117,000 to 120,000/lb), were
of a pea (figure 1) (Rehder 1940) ripen in September or reported in Romania (Enescu and Stegaroiu 1954). The
October (Hoag 1965; Hottes 1952) and frequently persist on seeds are orthodox and store easily at low moisture contents
the shrubs until the following March. Each fruit contains a and temperatures. Dry seeds have been kept satisfactorily
bony, ovoid seed (figures 1 and 2). Seedcrops are borne for 1 to 2 years at room temperature (Slabaugh 1974).
annually. Viabilty of 60% has been reported for seeds stored 4 to 5
Collection, extraction, and storage. Common years (Smirnova and Tikhomirova 1980).
seabuckthorn fruits are soft and cling tenaciously to the brit- Germination. Internal dormancy in seeds of seabuck-
tle twigs (Demenko and others 1983). Fruits may be picked thorn can be broken by stratification in moist sand for 90
from the bushes at any time between late fall and early days at 2 to 5 °C (Cram and others 1960; Pearson and
spring. However, germination may vary with the time that Rogers 1962). Stratification for 15 days is sufficient if seeds
seeds were extracted from the ripe fruits (Eliseev and are sown in the autumn (Grover and others 1962).
Mishulina 1972). Seeds may be extracted by running the Germination tests may be run in 40 days on stratified seeds
References
Avanzanto D, Magherini R, Lodoli E. 1987. Studies on the germination Enescu V, Stegaroiu V. 1954. Analiza calitatii semintelor de catina alba [in
potential of seeds and the rooting ability of cuttings of Hippophae rham- Romanian: Analysis of the quality of Hippophae rhamnoides seeds]. Revue
noides L. Ministero dell’Agricoltura e delle Foreste 1987: 411–419. Pádurilor 69(3): 114-117.
Bogdon N, Untaru E. 1967. The substitution of Hippophae rhamnoides on Grover R, Lindquist CH, Martin EW, Nagy MJ. 1962. Seed viability research.
eroded sites in Vrancea [in Romanian]. Revue Pádurilor 82(5): 238–243. In: 1961 summary report for the Forest Nursery Station. Indian Head,
Cram WH, Nagv MJ, Lindquist CH. 1960. Propagation research. In: 1960 SK: Canada Department of Agriculture, Research Branch: 21–24.
Summary report for the Forest Nursery Station. Indian Head, SK: Hansen NE. 1927. Plant introductions. Bull. 224. Brookings: South Dakota
Canada Department of Agriculture, Research Branch: 16–18. Agricultural Experiment Station. 64 p.
Demenko VI, Potemkina GA, Medvedkova LA. 1983. Biological aspects of Hansen NE. 1931.The shrubs and climbing vines of South Dakota. Bull. 263.
fruit growth and shedding in sea buckthorn. Biologicheskie Nauki Brookings: South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station. 135 p.
(Moscow) 10: 78–83. Hoag DG. 1965. Trees and shrubs of the northern plains. Minneapolis: Lund
Eliseev IP, Mishulina IA. 1972. New data on the biology of germination of Press. 376 p.
Hippophae rhamnoides seeds.Trudy Gor’kovskogo Hottes AC. 1952. The book of shrubs. 6th ed. New York: De La Mare Co.
Sel’skokhozyaistvennogo Instituta 38: 107–109. 438 p.
Eliseev IP, Mishulina IA. 1977. Changes in the biological and biochemical Kao SW. 1964. Study on fixing and afforesting sands in Yulin [in Chinese;
properties of Hippophae rhamnoides seeds during ripening.Trudy Russian summary]. Scientia Silvae, Peking 9(2): 114–133.
Gor’kovskogo Sel’skokhozyaistvennogo Instituta 105: 15–22. Ma YC. 1989. Proceedings of international symposium on sea buckthorn
(H. rhamnoides L.).Yangling, Shaanxi, China: Wugong Agricultural Research
Center. 421 p.
Hippophae. • 589
Papp L. 1982. The importance of vegetative propagation of the sea buck- Stewart WDP, Pearson MC. 1967. Nodulation and nitrogen-fixation by
H thorn (Hippophae rhamnoides). Erdo 31(7): 309–312. Hippophae rhamnoides L. in the field. Plant and Soil 26: 348–360.
Pearson, MC, Rogers JA. 1962. Hippophae rhamnoidea L. Journal of Ecology Stocker O. 1948. Tir[o]ler sanddorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) als
50: 501–513. vitamin-C Hochstleistungs-pflanze [H. rhamnoides from the Tirol as the
Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. 2nd ed. New York: highest yielder of vitamin C]. Züchter 19(9): 13.
Macmillan. 996 p. Valicek P. 1978. Hippophae rhamnoides, a promising medicinal plant. Nase
Rohmeder E. 1942. Keim-und Saatversuche mit Sanddorn (H. rhamnoidea). Liecive Rastliny 15(5): 135–137.
Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt 64: 241–245. Varga IL, Foldesi D. 1985. Characterisation, cultivation and processing of
Slabaugh PE. 1974. Hippophae rhamnoides L., common seabuckthorn. In: Hippophae rhamnoides L. Herba Hungarica 24(2/3): 237–263.
Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United Zhmyrko TG, Gigienova EI, Umarov AU. 1978. Vitamins from the oils of
States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: Hippophae rhamnoides fruits. Khimiya Prirodnykh Soedinenii 3: 313–317.
446–447.
Smirnova NG,Tikhomirova NI. 1980. Combined use of x-ray photography
and the tetrazolium method for assessing seed viability. Byulleten
Glavnogo Botanicheskogo Sada 117: 81–85.
Dr. Shaw is a research botanist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station, Forestry
Sciences Laboratory, Boise, Idaho; Drs. Hurd and Stickney retired from the USDA Forest Service’s
Rocky Mountain Research Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Holodiscus is a creambush ocean-spray in its more compact growth habit,
taxonomically complex genus including about 6 species of leaves with decurrent petioles, and leaf lobes or teeth with-
western North America and northern South America out secondary teeth. Gland ocean-spray grows east of the
(Hitchcock and others 1961; Ley 1943). The 2 generally Cascade Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, from north cen-
recognized North American species (table 1)—creambush tral Oregon to Chihuahua, Mexico, at elevations ranging
ocean-spray and gland ocean-spray—are deciduous, multi- from 1,400 to 3,350 m (Harrington 1954; Mozingo 1987;
stemmed shrubs with simple, alternate, deciduous, toothed USDA FS 1937). Although gland ocean-spray is found in a
to shallowly lobed, exstipulate leaves. variety of plant communities, its most characteristic habitats
Creambush ocean-spray grows from 1 to 6 m in height, are talus slopes, rock outcrops, slickrock plateaus, and dry,
with slender, arching branches and grayish red exfoliating rocky desert areas.
bark. It is a prolific root sprouter, capable of recovering Palatability and forage value of both ocean-spray
from fire, grazing, or mechanical damage by resprouting species vary geographically but are generally low for live-
from perennating buds in the root crown. Growing at eleva- stock and big game. However, in the absence of more palat-
tions from sea level to 2,150 m, it is most abundant in able shrubs, substantial quantities are browsed by deer
coastal areas from British Columbia to southwestern (Odocoileus spp.) and by elk (Cervus elaphus) on low-
California. It also occurs eastward to Montana in drier elevation winter ranges. In some areas, ocean-sprays are
conifer types of the interior Pacific Northwest. A dominant important year-round (USDA FS 1937). Both shrubs may
shrub in a number of forested communities, creambush increase on summer ranges where other forage species are
ocean-spray is also common in riparian areas and on rocky browsed preferentially (Ferguson 1983). Gland ocean-spray
talus slopes (Halversen and others 1986; Topik and others is browsed in summer by bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis)
1986). Remnant stands are found on higher peaks of Great and both species are browsed by rabbits (Sutton and
Basin mountain ranges (Hitchcock and others 1961; USDA Johnson 1974; Todd 1975; Van Dersal 1938).
FS 1937). Ocean-spray has considerable potential for revegetating
Gland ocean-spray is a low, intricately branched shrub a variety of disturbed areas. Populations capable of growing
that is 0.1 to 3 m tall (Harrington 1954). It differs from on dry, rocky, well-drained sites may be particularly useful
Sources: Archer (2000), Flessner and others (1991), Hitchcock and others (1971), Ley (1943), McMurray (1987b).
Holodiscus • 591
(Stark 1966; Sutton and Johnson 1974). Ocean-spray has Figure 1—Holodiscus, ocean spray: achenes of H. discolor,
H creambush ocean-spray (left) and H. dumosus, gland ocean-
been recommended for use in nonintensive highway plant-
ings, riparian areas, windbreaks, erosion control projects, spray (right).
wildlife habitat improvement projects, and conservation
plantings (Antieau 1987; Atthowe 1993; Flessner and others
1992). Because of their growth habits, showy inflorescences,
and fall coloration, both species are attractive ornamentals.
Creambush ocean-spray was first cultivated in 1827 and
gland ocean-spray in 1853 (Rehder 1940).
Native Americans made digging sticks and arrow shafts
from the hard wood and straight branches of ocean-spray
(Anderson and Holmgren 1969; Daubenmire 1970; Hopkins
and Kovalchik 1983). Fruits of gland ocean-spray were
eaten by Native Americans of the Great Basin, and pioneers
made nails from its wood.
Both North American ocean-sprays are tetraploid, with
2X = n = 18 (Antieau 1986; Goldblatt 1979; McArthur and
Sanderson 1985), and both exhibit considerable morphologi-
cal variation. A genetic basis for variability in such charac- rare and costly. In addition, the achenes are difficult to han-
teristics as growth habit, growth rate, leaf morphology, and dle because of their pubescence and small size. Achenes are
flower abundance in creambush ocean-spray is suggested by hand-stripped from inflorescences in late summer or autumn
common garden studies (Flessner and others 1992). (table 2) (Monsen 1996). Large debris in air-dried collec-
Flowering and fruiting. Although the showy terminal tions can be removed with a fanning mill. Small lots may be
panicles and floral buds of both species develop in early cleaned by hand-rubbing and sieving (Link 1993).
spring, flowering is delayed until late spring to mid-summer. Sound achenes are identified by examining imbibed ach-
Fruits ripen in late summer and are dispersed by wind and enes through a dissecting microscope for the presence of an
gravity through November (Hitchcock and others 1961; embryo. Using this method, King (1947) found that only 7%
Stickney 1974) (table 2). The insect-pollinated flowers are of ocean-spray achenes collected were sound. In creambush
small, creamy-white, perfect, and perigynous (Hitchcock ocean-spray from British Columbia, viability was greater for
and others 1961; McArthur 1984). The entire disk lining the achenes collected in October or November than for those
hypanthium gives the genus its name (Greek: holo = whole collected in August or September (Marchant and Sherlock
and diskos = disk). Each flower produces 5 villous, light- 1984).
yellow achenes that are about 2 mm long (figures 1 and 2). Storage requirements for ocean-spray have not been
Seeds are broadly oblong and contain a thin endosperm and examined. The achenes appear to be orthodox in storage
an embryo with ovate cotyledons (figure 2) (Ley 1943). behavior and can probably be stored for several years at low
Collection, cleaning, and storage. Ocean-spray ach- water contents and temperatures.
enes are among the smallest of shrub fruits. Estimates of the Germination. There are no official testing prescrip-
number of cleaned achenes per weight exceed tions for this genus. Germination of creambush ocean-spray
11,000,000/kg (5,000,000/lb) for each species (King 1947; seeds is enhanced by wet prechilling at 2 to 5 °C for 15 to
Link 1993). Achene collection is tedious, and supplies are 18 weeks (King 1947; Marchant and Sherlock 1984). King
Table 2—Holodiscus, ocean-spray: phenology of flowering and fruiting
Holodiscus • 593
Creambush ocean-spray can be established by trans- seedlings grew slowly the first year. Low survival on west-
H
planting. Youtie (1992) reported good survival of rooted ern Montana roadcuts was attributed to poor soils and
cuttings on biscuit scablands in Oregon’s Columbia River unhealthy planting stock (Hungerford 1984).
Gorge. Marchant and Sherlock (1984) found that planted
References
Anderson BA, Holmgren AH. 1969. Mountain plants of northeastern Utah. Macdonald B. 1986. Practical woody plant propagation for nursery
Circ. 319. Logan: Utah State University. 148 p. growers.Volume 1. Portland, OR:Timber Press. 669 p.
Antieau CJ. 1986. Patterns of natural variation in ocean-spray (Holodiscus Marchant C, Sherlock J. 1984. A guide to selection and propagation of
discolor) (Rosaceae). HortScience 21: 120. some native woody species for land rehabilitation in British Columbia.
Antieau CJ. 1987. Field notes: Holodiscus discolor. American Nurseryman For. Res. Rep. RR84007-HQ.Victoria, BC: British Columbia Ministry of
166: 110. Forests. 117 p.
Archer AJ. 2000. Holodiscus discolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, McArthur ED. 1984. Natural diversity of western range shrubs. In: Cooley
available online at http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/]. Missoula, MT: JL, Cooley JH, eds. Natural Diversity in Forest Ecosystems. Proceedings,
USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences 1982 November 29–December 1; Athens, GA. Athens, GA: University of
Laboratory. Georgia, Institute of Ecology: 193–209.
Atthowe H. 1993. Propagation of riparian and wetland plants. In: Landis TD, McArthur ED, Sanderson SC. 1985. A cytotaxonomic contribution to the
tech. coord. Proceedings, Western Forest Nursery Association; 1992 western North American rosaceous flora. Madroño 32: 24–28.
September 14–18; Fallen Leaf Lake, CA: Gen.Tech. Rep. RM-221. Fort McMurray NE. 1987. Holodiscus dumosus. In: Fischer WC, comp. Fire Effects
Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Information System [available online at
Experiment Station: 78–81. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/]. USDA Forest Service, Rocky
Daubenmire R. 1970. Steppe vegetation of Washington.Tech. Bull. 62. Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory.
Pullman: Washington State University. Monsen SB. 1996. Unpublished data. Provo, UT: USDA Forest Service,
Drew LA. 1967. Comparative phenology of seral shrub communities in the Rocky Mountain Research Station.
cedar/hemlock zone [thesis]. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 108 p. Morgan P, Neuenschwander LF. 1988. Seed-bank contributions to regener-
Everett PC. 1957. A summary of the culture of California plants at the ation of shrub species after clear-cutting and burning. Canadian Journal
Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden. Claremont, CA: Rancho Santa Ana of Botany 66: 169–172.
Botanic Garden. 223 p. Mozingo HN. 1987. Shrubs of the Great Basin. Reno: University of Nevada
Everett RL, Meeuwig RO, Robertson JH. 1978. Propagation of Nevada Press. 342 p.
shrubs by stem cuttings. Journal of Range Management 31: 426–429. Munz PA, Keck DD. 1973. A California flora. Berkeley: University of
Ferguson RB. 1983. Use of rosaceous shrubs for wildland plantings in the California Press. 1681 p.
Intermountain West. In: Monsen SB, Shaw N, comps. Proceedings; Orme ML, Leege TA. 1980. Phenology of shrubs on a north Idaho elk
Managing Intermountain Rangelands—Improvement of Range and range. Northwest Science 54: 187–198.
Wildlife Habitats; 1981 September 15–17;Twin Falls, ID, & 1982 June Peters J, ed. 2000. Tetrazolium testing handbook. Contrib. 20. [Las Cruces,
22–24; Elko, NV: Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-157. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest NM]: Association of Official Seed Analysts.
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 136–139. Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. 2nd ed. New York:
Flessner TR, Darris DC, Lambert SC. 1992. Seed source evaluation of four MacMillan. 996 p.
native riparian shrubs for streambank rehabilitation in the Pacific Shaw NL, Monsen SB. 2004. Rosaceous shrubs. In: Monsen SB, Stevens R,
Northwest. In: Clary WP, McArthur ED, Bedunah D, Wambolt CL, Shaw NL, comps. Restoring western ranges and wildlands. Fort Collins,
comps. Proceedings, Symposium on Ecology and Management of CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.
Riparian Shrub Communities; 1991 May 29–31; Sun Valley, ID: Gen.Tech. Stark N. 1966. Review of highway planting information appropriate to
Rep. INT-289. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Nevada. Bull. B-7. Reno: University of Nevada, College of Agriculture,
Research Station: 155–162. Desert Research Institute. 209 p.
Goldblatt P. 1979. Miscellaneous chromosome counts in Angiosperms: 2. Stickney PF. 1974. Holodiscus discolor (Pursh) Maxim., creambush rock-
Including new family and generic records. Annals of Missouri Botanic spiraea. In: Shopmeyer, CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the
Gardens 66: 856–861. United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest
Halverson NM,Topik C,Van Vickle R. 1986. Plant association and manage- Service: 448–449.
ment guide for the western hemlock zone: Mt. Hood National Forest. Stickney PF. 1996. Personal communication. Missoula, MT: USDA Forest
R6-ECOL-232A. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.
Region. 111 p. Sutton R, Johnson CW. 1974. Landscape plants from Utah’s mountains.
Harrington HD. 1954. Manual of the plants of Colorado. Denver: Sage EC-368. Logan: Utah State University. 137 p.
Books. 666 p. Todd JW. 1975. Foods of Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep in southern
Hitchcock CL, Cronquist A, Ownbey M,Thompson JW. 1961. Vascular Colorado. Journal of Wildlife Management 39: 108–111.
plants of the Pacific Northwest: 3. Saxifragaceae to Ericaceae. Seattle: Topik C, Halverson NM, Brockway DG. 1986. Plant association and man-
University of Washington Press. 614 p. agement guide for the western hemlock zone: Gifford Pichot National
Hopkins WE, Kovalchik BL. 1983. Plant associations of the Crooked River Forest. R6-ECOL-230A. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, Pacific
National Grassland. R6-ECOL-133-1983. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Northwest Region. 132 p.
Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 98 p. USDA FS [USDA Forest Service]. 1937. Range plant handbook.
Hungerford RD. 1984. Native shrubs: suitability for revegetating roadcuts in Washington, DC. 512 p.
northwestern Montana. Res. Pap. INT-331. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their ero-
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 13 p. sion control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC: USDA.
Hurd EG. 1996. Unpublished data. Boise, ID: USDA Forest Service, 362 p.
Intermountain Research Station. Welsh SL, Atwood ND, Higgins LC, Goodrich S. 1987. A Utah flora. Great
Jorgensen K. 2004. Appendix I. In: Monsen SB, Stevens R, comps. Restoring Basin Naturalist 9: 1–894.
western ranges and wildlands. Fort Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Wright HA, Neuenschwander LF, Britton CM. 1979. The role and use of
Rocky Mountain Research Station. fire in sagebrush-grass and pinyon-juniper plant communities: a state of
King JE. 1947. The effect of various treatments to induce germination of the art review. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-58. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest
seeds of some plants valuable for soil conservation and wildlife [thesis]. Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 48 p.
Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 97 p. Youtie BA. 1992. Biscuit scabland restoration includes propagation studies
Kruckeberg, AR. 1982. Gardening with native plants of the Pacific (Oregon). Restoration & Management Notes 10: 79–8
Northwest. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 252 p.
Ley A. 1943. A taxonomic revision of the genus Holodiscus (Rosaceae).
Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 70: 275–288.
Link E. 1993. Native plant propagation techniques for National Parks: inter-
im guide. East Lansing, MI: Rose Lake Plant Materials Center. 240 p.
Hymenaea courbaril L.
courbaril
J. A.Vozzo
Dr.Vozzo is a research plant physiologist at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Other common names. jutaby, cuapinol, algarrobo. Flowering and fruiting. Large trees with full, over-
Occurrence and growth habit. Courbaril— head light usually flower during spring and summer.
Hymenaea courbaril L.—is a large tree, about 45 m tall, rel- Terminal racemes bear white flowers about 4 cm wide.
atively slow growing (about 1 m/year) with a well-formed Mature legumes (figure 1) measure 5 to 10 cm long, 2 to 3.5
clean trunk. It develops best on sandy, drained ridges and cm wide, and 2.5 cm thick and fall during the following
river banks (but not well in wetlands) and is normally found spring. The thick, hard legume does not open naturally, but
in open sites from southern Mexico, Central America, and protects 3 or 4 large seeds (figures 2 and 3) encased in a
the West Indies, to northern South America. It is found in a powdery, cream-colored pulp (Liogier 1978). Small ani-
variety of soils, such as clay to sand, occurring predomi- mals—such as agouties (Tayassu spp.) and peccaries
nantly in oxisols, with a pH range from 4.8 to 6.8. It grows (Dasyprocta spp.)—open the legumes to eat the pulp and
best in areas with 1,900 to 2,150 mm of rainfall, and from seeds. Legumes have a protective gum that delays rotting for
sea level to about 900 m. It coppices well in cut-over areas several months, until the seeds begin to take up moisture for
except from large stumps and can also be propagated from germination; otherwise the seeds would rot in their legumes
cuttings. Courbaril is the most widespread of the 17 species (Jansen 1983).
in the genus Hymenaea; there is an African species and the Collection and storage. Seeds collected in Puerto
remaining species are found in neotropical America. Rico average about 253/kg (115/lb) (Francis 1990), whereas
Courbaril readily forms forest associations in semi-decidu- those collected in Brazil yield 475/kg (215/lb) (Pereira
ous, secondary, moist subtropics (Rzedowski 1981). It is 1982). A single tree may produce 100 legumes per year but
also reported in nearly pure stands in Mexico (Weaver not necessarily each year. Because of the height of the trees,
1987). the legumes are usually picked manually from the ground,
Use. Courbaril’s basic use is for timber. The wood is and seeds are obtained from fresh legumes that have fallen
strong, hard, and tough; it is difficult to saw, machine, and in spring (Jansen 1983). After-ripening causes an actual
carve but bends well after steaming. It is commercially use-
ful for flooring, handles, sporting equipment, furniture, and
Figure 1—Hymenaea courbaril, courbaril: legume.
railroad ties (Chudnoff 1984). Its heartwood has a specific
gravity of about 0.70 g/cm3. Although courbaril wood is
resistant to white-rot fungi (less to brown-rot) and termites,
it has little resistance to marine borers. It does not weather
well and does require painting (Francis 1990; Longwood
1962). The tree has limited ornamental use for shade, parks,
and streets because of its heavy legumes (pods) and the
offensive odor of the broken legumes as seeds mature.
Although it has a limited appeal, the seed pulp is a good
dietetic source of sugar and high in fiber when eaten plain or
toasted or drunk as a fermented beverage. It is also given to
livestock. According to local folk medicine, a bark infusion
is used as a laxative and the fruit pulp as an antidiarrheal
(Liogier 1978).
Hymenaea • 595
Figure 2—Hymenaea courbaril, courbaril: seeds. Figure 3—Hymenaea courbaril, courbaril: longitudinal
H section through a seed.
References
Allen ON, Allen EK. 1981. The Leguminoseae: a source book of characteris- Liogier AH. 1978. Arboles Dominicanos. Santo Domingo, Dominican
tics, uses, and nodulation. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. 812 p. Republic: Academia de Ciencias de la Republica Dominicana. 220 p.
Chudnoff M. 1984. Tropical timbers of the world. Agric. Handbk. 607. Longwood FR. 1962. Present and potential commercial timbers of the
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 466 p. Caribbean. Agric. Handbk. 207. Washington, DC: USDA. 167 p.
Decelle J. 1979. Pygiopachymerus lineola (Chevr.), coleoptere bruchide Marrero J. 1943. A seed storage study of some tropical hardwoods.
neotropical introduit a Tahiti. Bulletin et Annales de la Societe Royale Caribbean Forester 4(3): 99–106.
Belge d’Entomologie.Tervuren, Belgium: Musee Royale de l’Afrique Marrero J. 1949. Tree seed data from Puerto Rico. Caribbean Forester
Centrale. 10(1): 11–36.
Francis JK. 1990. Hymenaea courbaril (L.). SO-ITF-SM 27. New Orleans: Marshall RC. 1939. Silviculture of the trees of Trinidad and Tobago, British
USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 5 p. West Indies. London: Oxford University Press. 247 p.
Francis JK, Rodríguez A. 1993. Seeds of Puerto Rican trees and shrubs: sec- Pereira AP. 1982. Ensaios em viveiro florestal e fruitificacao de algumas
ond installment. Res. Note SO-374. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, especies Amazonicas. Silvicultura em Sao Paulo 16A(2): 1135–1138.
Southern Forest Experiment Station. 5 p. Rzedowski J. 1981. Vegetacion de Mexico. Mexico City, DF: Editorial Limusa.
Jansen DL. 1975. Behavior of Hymenaea courbaril when its predispersal 432 p.
seed predator is absent. Science 189(4194): 145–147. Weaver PL. 1987. Tree growth in several tropical forests of Puerto Rico.
Jansen DL. 1983. Costa Rican natural history. Chicago: University of Res. Pap. SO-152. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest
Chicago Press. 816 p. Experiment Station. 15 p.
Ilex L.
holly
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The hollies— contain a very small embryo in a fleshy endosperm
genus Ilex—include almost 400 species of deciduous or ever- (figure 3).
green shrubs and trees that occur in temperate and tropical Collection, extraction, and storage. Ripe fruits may
regions of both hemispheres (Brown and Kirkman 1990). be picked by hand or flailed from the branches onto sheets
About 20 species are native to eastern North America. Of the spread on the ground. Seeds should be extracted by running
7 species included in this book (table 1), most are highly the fruits through a macerator with water and floating or
valued for ornamental plantings and all are good food skimming off the pulp and empty seeds. For small seedlots,
sources for wildlife. More than a thousand cultivars of kitchen or laboratory blenders do a thorough job, although
American holly have been selected for their ornamental fea- replacing the metal blades with plastic tubing propellers has
tures (Grelen 1990). This species also hybridizes with been recommended to avoid damage to the seeds (Munson
dahoon (Ilex cassine L.) to produce Topel holly (I. × attenua- 1986). In another method, the fruits are fermented in warm
ta Ashe) (Little 1979). The wood of American holly is also water, then rubbed over a screen by hand to remove the pulp
used in cabinetry and for construction of novelties and spe- (Vines 1960). Seed yield data are summarized in table 4.
cialized wood products (Vines 1960). If the seeds are to be stratified immediately, drying is not
Flowering and fruiting. The small, axillary, white or necessary. If the seeds are to be stored, they should be dried
greenish white, dioecious flowers appear in the spring on the to about 10% moisture content, placed in moisture-proof
current season’s growth (table 2). Holly fruits are rounded, containers, and stored at temperatures near or below freezing.
berrylike drupes that range from 6 to 13 mm in diameter Viability of seeds after storage for more than 1 year has not
(figure 1). Each fruit contains 2 to 9 bony, flattened seeds been reported, but hollies are orthodox in storage behavior
that are botanically defined as nutlets, or pyrenes (figure 2). and should keep well at temperatures a few degrees above
The fruits mature in the fall (table 2), turning from green to (or below) freezing. Storage foods in the embryo are primari-
various shades of red, yellow, or black (table 3). The seeds ly lipids and proteins (Hu and others 1979).
Scientific name
& synonym Common name(s) Occurence
Ilex • 597
I Table 2—Ilex, holly: phenology of flowering and fruiting
Sources: Bonner (1974), Halls (1973), Little and Delisle (1962), Stupka (1964),Vines (1960).
Figure 1—Ilex, holly: fruits and leaves of I. opaca, Pregermination treatment. Holly seeds exhibit a
American holly (top) and I. vomitoria, yaupon (bottom). deep dormancy that is caused partly by the hard endocarp
surrounding the seedcoat (figure 3) and partly by an imma-
ture embryo. In nature, germination of American holly is
commonly delayed for as long as 3 years (Bonner 1974).
This condition suggests that alternating warm and cold
moist treatments may be the best approach. Reasonable ger-
mination of American holly has been reported after 12
months of warm treatment that is followed by 3 months of
Sources: Bonner (1974), Brown and Kirkman (1990), Grelen and Duvall (1966), Halls (1973), Little and Delisle (1962), Maisenhelder (1958), Rehder (1962),Vines (1960).
Cleaned seeds/weight
Range Average
Species /kg /lb /kg /lb Samples
cold (Dirr and Heuser 1987). For common winterberry, be sufficient for staining. All tissues, including the
which may have a more permeable endocarp than other hol- endosperm, should be fully stained in viable seeds.
lies, some benefit may be obtained by stratifying seeds at Nursery practice. Holly seeds may be broadcast or
alternating temperatures of 20 °C (night) and 30 °C (day) sown in drills in fall or spring. Sowing immediately after
for 60 days, followed by 60 days at 5 °C (Giersbach and collection has been recommended for American holly and
Crocker 1929). inkberry (Afanasiev 1942; Hartmann and Kester 1968), but
Germination and viability tests. Because of the germination should not be expected until the second or even
extremely slow germination of hollies, there is no satisfac- third spring (Bonner 1974). Seeds should be covered with 3
tory method for testing germination directly. Germination of to 13 mm (1/8 to 1/2 in) of soil, and fall-sown beds should be
70 to 95% has been reported for inkberry in tests that ran mulched (Bonner 1974; Muir 1965). In another recommend-
over 300 days (Hughes 1964), and 33 to 56% for American ed procedure, seeds are sown in a flat of moist medium that
holly in tests that ran 2 1/2 years (Barton and Thornton is then covered with a plastic bag and placed in a warm (15
1947). Test periods of this length are not practical, and indi- to 27 °C) shaded room until seedlings start to emerge. When
rect estimates of viability are commonly used in place of this occurs, the bag should be removed and the flat moved
germination tests. Cutting tests give good estimates of via- to a spot with normal germination conditions (Dirr and
bility for freshly collected seeds, but for most purposes, Heuser 1987). Half-shade is recommended for beds of
tetrazolium staining is best. Procedures recommended for English holly during the first 2 summers, and field planting
English holly by the International Seed Testing Association should be with 2+2, 2+3, or 2+2+2 stock (Bonner 1974).
(1993) should work well with other holly species. Seeds Because of the extreme dormancy in holly seeds, most prop-
should be cut longitudinally through the seedcoat and into agation is by rooted cuttings, especially for ornamental vari-
the endosperm, or cut transversely at distal or both ends into eties and selections. All species do not root equally or with
the endosperm, to allow entry of the tetrazolium solution. the same treatments, so a good manual on vegetative propa-
Incubation for 24 hours at 30 °C in a 1.0% solution should gation should be consulted (Dirr and Heuser 1987). A con-
siderable amount of research on embryo culture of several
holly species has also taken place (Hu 1975, 1977).
IIex • 599
References
I
48(12): 10780; 1978].
Afanasiev M. 1942. Propagation of trees and shrubs by seed. Circ. C-106. Hu CY, Rogalski F, Ward C. 1979. Factors maintaining Ilex rudimentary
Stillwater: Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station. 43 p. embryos in the quiescent state and the ultrastructural changes during in
Bonner FT. 1974. Ilex L., holly. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of vitro activation. Botanical Gazette 140: 272–279.
woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: Hughes RH. 1964. Some observations on germination of gallberry seed.
USDA Forest Service: 450–543. Res. Note SE-17. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Service, Southeastern
Brown CL, Kirkman LK. 1990. Trees of Georgia and adjacent states. Forest Experiment Station. 3 p.
Portland, OR:Timber Press. 292 p. ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. International rules for
Barton LV,Thornton NC. 1947. Germination and sex population studies of seed testing: rules 1993. Seed Science & Technology 21 (Suppl.): 1–259.
Ilex opaca Ait. Contributions of the Boyce Thompson Institute 14: Little EL Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized).
405–410. Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p.
Dirr MA, Heuser Jr CW. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- Little EL, Delisle AL. 1962. Time periods in development: forest trees,
agation. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. North American.Table 104. In: Altman PL, Dittmer DS, eds. Biological
Giersbach J, Crocker W. 1929. Germination of Ilex seeds. American Journal handbook on growth. Washington, DC: Federation of American Societies
of Botany 16: 854–855. for Experimental Biology.
Grelen HE. 1990. Ilex opaca Ait., American holly. In: Burns RM, Honkala BH, Maisenhelder LC. 1958. Understory plants of bottomland forests. Occ.
tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 2, Hardwoods. Agric. Pap. 165. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest
Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 379–385. Experiment Station. 40 p.
Grelen HE, Duvall VL. 1966. Common plants of longleaf pine–bluestem Muir J.1965. The holly growers. Farm Quarterly 20(4): 44–45, 133–134.
range. Res. Pap. SO-23. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Munson RH. 1986. Extracting seeds from fleshy fruits. Plant Propagator
Forest Experiment Station. 96 p. 32(2): 14–15.
Halls LK. 1973. Flowering and fruiting of southern browse species. Res. Pap. Rehder A. 1962. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. 2nd ed New York:
SO-90. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Macmillan. 996 p.
Experiment Station. 10 p. Stupka A. 1964. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of Great Smoky Mountain
Hartmann HT, Kester DE. 1968. Plant propagation: principles and practices. National Park. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. 186 p.
2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Swingle CF, comp. 1939. Seed propagation of trees, shrubs, and forbs for
Hu CY. 1975. In vitro culture of rudimentary embryos of eleven Ilex species. conservation planting. SCS-TP-27. Washington, DC: USDA Soil
Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 100: 221–225. Conservation Service. 198 p.
Hu CY. 1977. Advances in Ilex embryo culture. Proceedings, 54th Meeting Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
of the Holly Society of America 1977: 5–6 [Horticultural Abstracts University of Texas Press. 1104
Juglans L.
walnut
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The walnuts 1982). English walnut is a major nut crop in many temperate
include about 20 species of deciduous trees or large shrubs regions around the world, including the United States. Of
that occur in the temperate regions of North America, north- the 6 native species, black walnut is by far the most widely
western South America, northeastern Europe, and eastern planted. Butternut, little walnut, and Hinds walnut have had
Asia. Six are native to the United States, and 2 exotic limited utilization. Butternut is currently being killed
species are also planted in this country (table 1). The wood throughout its range in North America by Sirococcus
of most species is used to some extent, and that of many clavigignenti–juglandacearum Naiv. Kostichka & Kuntz, a
species, primarily black walnut, is highly valued for furni- fungus of unknown origin (Ostry and others 1994). Research
ture, cabinet work, gunstocks, and interior trim. The nuts is underway to identify and propagate resistant trees.
provide food for humans as well as for wildlife, and ground Geographic races. There is considerable genetic vari-
shells are used as an abrasive grit for industrial cleaning. ation in the walnuts that are widely distributed. Three dis-
Numerous medicinal products and dyes have been made tinct geographic races of English walnut are recognized:
from extracts of walnut fruits (Krochmal and Krochmal Turkestani, Himalayan, and Central Asian—and many horti-
Juglans • 601
cultural varieties of English and Japanese walnuts have been cm for little walnut to 5 to 8 cm for butternut (Krochmal and
J
developed (Brinkman 1974). Black walnut has demonstrated Krochmal 1982; Sargent 1965). The nut (figure 2) is incom-
tremendous geographic variation in growth, wood, and fruit- pletely 2- or 4-celled and has a bony, furrowed shell (figure
ing characteristics (Bey 1970; Bresnan and others 1994; 3). Available data on seeding habits of 8 species are listed in
Rink and Kung 1995; Rink and Phelps 1989; Rink and oth- table 3.
ers 1994; Williams and others 1985), and selected material Collection of fruits. Walnut fruits can be collected
has performed well (Beineke 1989; Hammitt 1989). Around from the ground after natural dispersal in fall or early winter
400 cultivars of this species alone have been released (Rink (table 2), or they may be dislodged from the trees by shak-
1988; Williams 1990). Seed collection zones have also been
recommended for black walnut (Deneke and others 1980).
Figure 2—Juglans, walnut: nuts (with their husks
Flowering and fruiting. Walnuts are monoecious. removed) of J. cinerea, butternut (top left); J. hindsii; Hinds
The greenish male flowers are slender catkins that develop walnut (top right); J. californica, California walnut
from axillary buds on the previous year’s outer nodes. They (center left); J. nigra; black walnut (center right);
range in length from 5 to 7 cm on California walnut to 10 to J. microarpa, little walnut (bottom left).
20 cm on Arizona walnut (Krochmal and Krochmal 1982;
Sargent 1965). The small female flowers, usually 6 to 12
mm long, occur in short terminal spikes on the current
year’s shoots. The flowers appear with or shortly after the
leaves in the spring (table 2). The ovoid, globose, or pear-
shaped fruits ripen in the first year. The fruit is a nut
enclosed in an indehiscent, thick husk that develops from a
floral involucre (figure 1). The diameters range from 1 to 2
Table 3—Juglans, walnut: height, seed-bearing age, seedcrops frequency, and fruit ripeness criteria
Minimum Years
Height at Year first seed-bearing between large Fruit ripeness criteria
Species maturity (m) cultivated age (yrs) seedcrops Preripe color Ripe color
Juglans • 603
often spread on the ground in the shade to allow husks to (Bonner 1990). Nuts of most species can be stored with or
J
dry and deteriorate. If husks are allowed to dry too much, without their husks and are commonly stored without. If
however, they become very hard and removal is difficult. In their moisture contents are reduced to around 10 to 15%,
the slightly soft stage, husks can be removed by hand or by nuts can be stored at below-freezing temperatures. Long-
running the fruits through a macerator or a corn sheller. For term storage of walnuts is not common, however, and nuts
commercial quantities of nuts, mechanical hullers are avail- are commonly stored at higher temperatures and moisture
able. After complete husk removal, unfilled nuts can be sep- contents. Nuts of Japanese and little walnuts and butternut
arated from filled nuts by water floatation. Seeds enclosed in were successfully stored for several years at relative humidi-
their husks will germinate, but most nurseries find it easier ties of 80 to 90% and temperatures of 1 to 4 °C (Brinkman
to control seedling density in the beds with cleaned seeds. 1974). Cleaned black walnuts with a moisture content of 20
Husking is necessary if seeds are to be treated with a fungi- to 40% were stored successfully at 3 °C for a year in plastic
cide. bags (Williams 1971b), and nuts with 50% moisture in a
Walnut nuts are basically orthodox in storage behavior screen container were buried in an outdoor pit for 4 years
(that is, capable of surviving desiccation), but their high without significant loss in germination capacity (Williams
lipid contents put them in the sub-orthodox category 1971a).
Table 5—Juglans, walnut: stratification period, germination test conditions and results
J. ailantifolia‡ 0 — — — 42 — — 75 3 —
J. californica 156 — — — 30 — — 58 3+ —
J. cinerea 90–120 8+ 30 20 50–80 54 58 65 7 96
J. hindsii 156 — 30 20 30+ — — 41 4 —
J. major 120–190 8+ 30 20 49 10 28 64 5 —
J. microcarpa 190 — 30 20 30–60 68 14 46 7 94
J. nigra 90–120 8+ 30 20 15–40 60 24 50 14+ 87
J. regia 30–156 — 30 20 40 — — 82 4 High
Sowing Mulch
Stratification* Sowing Seedlings/area depth Depth
Species Medium Days season /m2 /ft2 cm in Type cm in
Sources: Brinkman (1974), Schultz and Thompson (1990),Williams and Hanks (1976).
* Outdoors during the winter or in a cold room at 1 to 5°C.
† Seeds were soaked in water at 88 °C for 11/2 to 2 minutes before sowing.
Juglans • 605
References
J
Beineke WF. 1989. Twenty years of black walnut genetic improvement at Rink G. 1988. Black walnut cultivars. In: Burde EL, ed. Walnut Notes, #1.06.
Purdue University. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry 6(2): 68–71. St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment
Bey CF. 1970. Geographic variation for seed and seedling characters in Station. 4 p.
black walnut. Res. Note NC-101. St. Paul: USDA Forest Service, North Rink G. 1990. Juglans cinerea L., butternut. In: Burns RM, Honkala BH, tech.
Central Forest Experiment Station. 4 p. coord. Silvics of North America.Volume 2, Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk.
Bonner FT. 1982. Measurement of seed moisture in Carya ovata and Juglans 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 386–390.
nigra. In: Wang BSP, Pitel JA, compl. Proceedings, International Symposium Rink G, Kung FH. 1995. Age trends in genetic control of Juglans nigra L.
on Forest Tree Seed Storage. 1980 September 23–27; Chalk River, ON. height growth. In: Gottschalk KW, Fosbroke SLC, eds. 1995 March 5–8;
Ottawa: Canadian Forestry Service: 33–39. Morgantown, WV. Gen.Tech. Rep. NE-197. Radnor, PA: USDA forest
Bonner FT. 1990. Storage of seeds: potential and limitations for germplasm Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station: 247–255.
conservation. Forest Ecology and Management 35: 35–43. Rink G, Phelps JE. 1989. Variation in heartwood and sapwood properties
Bresnan DF, Rink G, Diebel KE, Geyer WA. 1994. Black walnut provenance among 10-year-old black walnut trees. Wood and Fiber Science 21:
performance in seven 22-year-old plantations. Silvae Genetica 43: 177–182.
246–252. Rink GH, Zhang G, Jinghua Z, Kung FH, Carroll ER. 1994. Mating parame-
Brinkman KA. 1974. Juglans L., walnut. In: Seeds of woody plants in the ters in Juglans nigra L. seed orchard similar to natural population esti-
United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest mates. Silvae Genetica 43: 261–263.
Service: 454–459. Sargent CS. 1965. Manual of the trees of North America (exclusive of
DeHayes DH, Waite CE. 1982. The influence of spring sowing on black wal- Mexico). 2nd ed., corrected and reprinted. New York: Dover. 934 p.
nut germination in northern Vermont.Tree Planters’ Notes 33(4): 16–18. Schultz RC,Thompson JR. 1990. Nursery practices that improve hardwood
Deneke FJ, Funk DT, Bey C. 1980. Preliminary seed collection zones for seedling root morphology.Tree Planters’ Notes 41(3): 21–32.
black walnut. NA-FB/M-4. Broomall, PA: USDA Forest Service, Stuke W. 1960. Seed and seed handling techniques in production of walnut
Northeastern Area, State and Private Forestry. 5 p. seedlings. International Plant Propagators Society Proceedings 10:
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- 274–277.
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their ero-
Engstrom HE, Stoeckeler JH. 1941. Nursery practice for trees and shrubs sion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC: USDA.
suitable for planting on the prairie-plains. Misc. Pub. 434. Washington, 362 p.
DC: USDA. 159 p. Van Sambeek JW. 1988a. Grafting. In: Burde EL, ed. Walnut Notes, #1.05.
Farmer RE. 1973. Vegetative propagation: problems and prospects. In: Black St. Paul: USDA Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment
walnut as a crop. Black Walnut Symposium; 1973 August 14–15; Station. 4 p.
Carbondale, IL. Gen.Tech. Rep. NC-4. St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest Service, Van Sambeek JW. 1988b. Growing containerized seedlings. In: Burde EL, ed.
North Central Forest Experiment Station: 66–70. Walnut Notes, #1.03. St. Paul: USDA Forest Service, North Central
Hammitt WE. 1989. Growth differences among patented grafts, seed Forest Experiment Station. 4 p.
orchard seedlings, and nursery-run seedlings of black walnut.Tree Van Sambeek JW. 1988c. Nut production In: Burde EL, ed. Walnut Notes,
Planters’ Notes 40(3): 29–32. #4.01. St. Paul: USDA Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment
Jones J. 1993. Eastern black walnut nut production considerations: a per- Station. 2 p.
sonal perspective. In: Workshop Notes, Annual Meeting of the Walnut Van Sambeek JW, Preece JE, Lindsay TL, Gaffney GR. 1990. In vitro studies
Council; 1993 August 1–4. Staunton:Virginia Polytechnic Institute and on black walnut embryo dormancy. Northern Nut Growers Association
State University: 29–31. Annual Report 80: 55-59.
Krochmal A, Krochmal C. 1982. Uncultivated nuts of the United States. Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
Agric. Info. Bull. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 89 p. University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
Little EL, Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). Vozzo JA. 1978. Radiopaque agents for seed research. In: Bonner FT, ed.
Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p. Proceedings, Flowering and Seed Development in Trees: A Symposium.
Long LM, Preece JE,Van Sambeek JW. 1995. Adventitious regeneration of 1978 May 15–18; Starkville, MS. Mississippi State: Mississippi State
Juglans nigra L. (eastern black walnut). Plant Cell Reports 14: 799–803. University: 272–280.
Nielson RR. 1973. Dehusking black walnuts controls rodent pilferage.Tree Williams RD. 1971a. Stratified walnut seed still viable after four years in
Planters’ Notes 24(3): 33. storage.Tree Planters’ Notes 22(4): 1–2.
Ostry ME, Mielke ME, Skilling DD. 1994. Butternut—strategies for managing Williams RD. 1971b. Storing black walnut seed. Northern Nut Growers
a threatened tree. Gen.Tech. Rep. NC-165. St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest Association Annual Report 62: 87–89.
Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 7 p. Williams RD. 1990. Juglans nigra L., black walnut. In: Burns RM, Honkala BH,
Phares RE, Funk DT, Nixon CM. 1974. Removing black walnut hulls before tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 2, Hardwoods. Agric.
direct seeding not always protection against pilferage.Tree Planters’ Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 391–399.
Notes 25(4): 23–24. Williams RD, Hanks SH. 1976. Hardwood nurseryman’s guide. Agric.
Ponder F, Jr. 1976. Fertilization increases nut, but not wood, production of Handbk. 473. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 76 p.
pole-sized black walnut. Northern Nut Growers Association Annual Williams RD, Rink G, Funk DT. 1985. Planting site and genotype affect black
Report 67: 60–63. walnut seedling development more than nursery environment. Canadian
Journal of Forestry Research 15: 14–17.
Wyman D. 1947. Seed collecting dates of woody plants. Arnoldia 7(9):
53-56.
Juniperus L.
juniper
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. There are about Genetic variation and hybridization. Junipers exhib-
50 species of junipers widely distributed throughout the it considerable natural variation in their growth habit and
temperate and subtropical regions of the Northern appearance, and studies have established marked differences
Hemisphere and south of the Equator in Africa. Most are in color, crown form, growth rate, and disease resistance in
evergreen shrubs and small trees. Thirteen species are native eastern redcedar (Henderson and others 1979; Minckler and
to the United States (Little 1979), and 11 of these are Ryker 1959; Seidel and Watt 1969; Tauer and others 1987;
included in this book (table 1). Eastern redcedar is the most Van Deusen 1979), Rocky Mountain juniper (Tauer and oth-
widespread juniper in the eastern United States, and Rocky ers 1987), and western juniper (Matthews 1945). Where
Mountain juniper and Utah juniper are very common in the ranges of the junipers overlap, natural hybridization
West. Common juniper is one of the most widespread tree abounds. This condition probably explains the large number
species in the Northern Hemisphere, ranging from Asia to of reported varieties of North American junipers (Dealey
Europe and North America. 1990; Fassett 1945; Hall 1952; Hall and others 1961;
The close-grained, aromatic, and durable wood of the Lawson 1990; Noble 1990; Ross and Duncan 1949; Vines
larger junipers was once used for furniture, interior paneling, 1960; Wilhite 1990).
novelties, posts, poles, fuel, and charcoal (Dealy 1990; Flowering and fruiting. The small, inconspicuous
Hemmerly 1970; Lawson 1990; Noble 1990; Wilhite 1990). flowers are borne in the spring (table 2) on the ends of short
The most important current uses are for firewood, furniture, branchlets or along the branchlets. The flowers are dioecious
paneling, and novelty products. Juniper “berries” are used or occasionally monoecious in oneseed juniper and some
for flavoring in cooking and in gin (the word “gin” is sources of western juniper (Dealy 1990; Johnsen and
derived from the Dutch word for juniper, jenever). Junipers Alexander 1974). Pollen cones are yellow, terminal, and
are also valuable for watershed and windbreak plantings, about 3 to 4 mm long; ovulate cones are composed of point-
wildlife habitat and food, and ornamental use (Dealy 1990; ed scales, 3 to 8 in number, that fuse to form a fleshy cone
Johnsen and Alexander 1974; Lawson 1990; Noble 1990; 6 to 8 mm long (figure 1) (Brown and Kirkman 1990). The
Wilhite 1990). Their utility as ornamental plants has led to fleshy cones are commonly called berries. Cones are usually
the selection and propagation of many horticultural varieties greenish in color when immature and change to a bluish
(Dirr and Heuser 1987; Vines 1960). Some junipers are black or reddish brown as they mature in the autumn (table
sources for natural oil products. Cedar-wood oil is extracted 2). Most are covered with a conspicuous glaucous bloom.
from the heartwood and foliage of Ashe juniper and eastern Cones of alligator, Utah, and common junipers require 2
redcedar to produce fragrance in soaps, sprays, disinfectants, years to reach full maturity, but those of common juniper
and cleaning agents. Rocky Mountain juniper oils have the may require 3 years in some parts of its range (Johnsen and
potential for these uses also (Adams 1987). Because of the Alexander 1974; Vines 1960). Cones of the other junipers
encroachment of junipers onto range and pasture lands, par- mature in the fall of the first year (table 2). The outer skins
ticularly in the West, considerable effort has been directed of the cones may be thin and resinous, as in Virginia red-
toward their control (Burkhardt and Tisdale 1976; Jameson cedar and Rocky Mountain and oneseed junipers, or dry and
1966; Johnsen 1962; McPherson and Wright 1990). leathery or mealy, as in alligator and Utah junipers (Johnsen
and Alexander 1974).
Juiperus • 607
J Table 1—Juniperus, juniper: nomenclature and occurrences
There may be 1 to 4 brownish seeds per juniper cone Not much is known about the insects that infest seeds of
(table 3). The seeds are rounded or angled, often with longi- junipers, or how much damage they do to seedcrops. Larvae
tudinal pits (figure 2) and have thick, bony seedcoats (figure of Eurytoma juniperina Marcovitch, a sawfly, have been
3). Embedded within the fleshy, white- or cream-colored found in seeds of Utah and western junipers and eastern red-
endosperm is a straight embryo with 2 to 6 cotyledons. cedar. Larvae of Periploca atrata Hodges and another
Junipers begin bearing seeds when they are about 10 to 20 unnamed Cochylidae moth are known to feed on seeds of
years old. Heavy seedcrops are irregular, but some seeds are alligator and California junipers (Hedlin and others 1980).
produced almost every year. Large numbers of empty seeds Collection of cones. Juniper cones are usually collect-
are common in juniper crops, a likely result of poor pollina- ed in the fall by stripping them from the branches by hand
tion. Seeds disperse during the autumn, but some ripe cones directly into containers. Cones can also be collected by
of most species will persist on the trees through the winter. shaking or flailing the limbs to dislodge the cones onto
Seeds are naturally dispersed, usually by birds that eat the netting or dropcloths on the ground. The larger fruits of alli-
cones (Chavez-Ramirez and Slack 1994; Holthuijzen and
others 1987; Livingston 1972).
gator and Utah junipers may be picked up from the ground filled seeds can vary widely from tree to tree, as noted
after dispersal (Johnsen and Alexander 1974). Care should above, and collections can be adjusted to allow for this con-
be taken to avoid collecting from plants with large numbers dition. Although collection can be delayed over much of the
of green immature cones because they are difficult to sepa- winter for some species, it is desirable to collect the fruits as
rate from the mature ones. It is always wise to perform cut- soon as possible after ripening to reduce losses to wildlife.
ting tests on samples from each tree or group of trees to Freshly collected cones should be spread to avoid heating
determine the percentage of filled seeds. The number of but should not be dried enough to make the fleshy covering
tough and difficult to remove.
Juniperus • 609
J Table 3—Juniperus, juniper: height, seedcrop frequency, and fruit color
Height Year Years
at maturity first Seeds/ between large Fruit ripeness criteria
Species (m) cultivated cone seedcrops Preripe color Ripe color
Figure 3—Juniperus scopulorum, Rocky Mountain juniper: ommended. The pulp residue can then be removed from the
longitudinal section through a seed. filled seeds by adding a little liquid detergent to warm water
and agitating for about 5 minutes (Van Haverbeke and
Barnhart 1978). Dried fruits should be soaked in water for
several hours before macerating. After the seeds have been
separated from the pulp and cleaned, they can be prepared
for stratification or dried for storage. Intact cones can be
stored also, but this is not usually done. Seed yields and
weights are listed in table 4.
Juniper seeds are orthodox in storage behavior. They
should be air-dried to a moisture content of about 10% and
stored at temperatures of 5 to 18 °C (Johnsen and Alexander
1974; Jones 1962; Stoeckler and Slabaugh 1965). There
have been no long-term studies to compare different storage
temperatures and moisture contents for juniper, but results
are available from several sources. Seeds of Ashe juniper
stored in a bag at about 5 °C and high humidity retained
about half their original viability after 4 years, and seeds of
Rocky Mountain juniper stored in sealed containers at 12 to
16 °C (both in dried cones and as cleaned seeds) showed
Extraction and storage of seeds. Twigs, leaves, and about 30% germination after 3 1/2 years (Johnsen and
other debris should be removed by winnowing, screening, or Alexander 1974). The seeds of alligator, oneseed, and Utah
aspiration. Seeds can be easily extracted from the pulpy junipers stored dry in sealed bags or jars at room tempera-
cones by maceration with water. Small seedlots can be ture for 45, 21, and 9 years, respectively, yielded germina-
cleaned with laboratory or kitchen blenders, and large lots tion of 17, 51, and 16% (Johnsen 1959).
can be cleaned in larger macerators. Full seeds should sink, Pregermination treatments and germination tests.
and pulp and empty seeds can be floated off the top of the Juniper seeds germinate very slowly due to conditions of
water (Johnsen 1959; Johnsen and Alexander 1974). For deep dormancy. Their dormancy appears to result from inter-
extraction of Rocky Mountain juniper and eastern redcedar nal embryo dormancy, seed coat dormancy, germination
seeds, a cone volume to water volume ratio of 1:2.5 is rec- inhibitors in the pulp of the cones, or a combination of all
Cleaned seeds/weight
Place Range Average
Species collected /kg /lb /kg /lb Samples
Sources: Johnsen and Alexander (1974), Stoeckler and Slabaugh (1965),Vines (1960).
three (Johnsen and Alexander 1974). There is wide variation ric acid for periods of 35 to 120 minutes (Djavanshir and
among species in degree of dormancy. The least dormant Fechner 1976; Johnsen and Alexander 1974), although stim-
may be eastern and southern redcedars, whereas Rocky ulation for the latter 2 species occurred only when the car-
Mountain juniper is among the most dormant (Rietveld bonized layer was removed from the surface of the seeds
1989). There is also considerable variation among sources (Djavanshir and Fechner 1976). Washing seeds of oneseed
and crop years; some seedlots from alligator and oneseed juniper in running water for 48 hours, followed by 30 min-
junipers germinated without any stratification (Johnsen utes in 30% hydrogen peroxide, stimulated germination to
1959; Meagher 1943; Riffle and Springfield 1968). 79% from 47% for untreated controls (Riffle and Springfield
The most common treatment for overcoming dormancy 1968). Another promising method reported for western and
is long periods of moist stratification at 3 to 5 °C. Periods of Utah junipers is 12 weeks of soaking in aerated water at
30 to 180 days have been used for seeds of Ashe, alligator, 5 °C; germination percentages of around 50% were recorded
and oneseed junipers and eastern redcedar (Barton 1951; for both species. If gibberellin (GA3 at 0.289 mmol/liter)
Benson 1976; Johnsen and Alexander 1974; Taylor 1941). was added to the aerated solution, germination increased to
Early reports suggested freezing juniper seeds during strati- 84% for western juniper and to 64% for Utah juniper
fication, but this method has generally been unsuccessful (Young and others 1988).
(Johnsen and Alexander 1974). Seeds of common, Utah, and Prescriptions for official germination tests have been
Rocky Mountain junipers, eastern redcedar, and possibly established for 3 species: common juniper, eastern redcedar,
western juniper often respond positively to warm stratifica- and Rocky mountain juniper (ISTA 1993). Tetrazolium
tion at room temperature (around 25 °C) or alternating tem- staining is the recommended method for these species, but
peratures of 20 °C (night) and 30 °C (day) for 45 to 240 alternative stratification directions are also suggested.
days, followed by cold stratification for similar periods Common juniper should be stratified for 90 days at 3 to
(Johnsen and Alexander 1974; Rietveld 1989; Van 5 °C, whereas eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper
Haverbeke and Comer 1985). Young and others (1988), seeds should receive 60 days at 20 °C, followed by 45 and
however, reported no response by western and Utah junipers 40 days, respectively, at 3 to 5 °C. Recommended germina-
to the 2-temperature pretreatment. The best treatment for tion temperatures are 20 °C for common juniper and 15 °C
eastern redcedar was to first soak the seeds for 96 hours in a for eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper.
10,000 ppm solution of citric acid, followed by warm strati- Germination of Pinchot juniper is reported to be best at
fication for 6 weeks and cold stratification for 10 weeks 18 °C (Smith and others 1975), but no data exist for the
(Van Haverbeke and Comer 1985). The use of citric acid other junipers. There is obviously much to learn about stim-
was suggested by Cotrufo (1963), and although the nature of ulation of germination for the junipers, and more research is
the stimulation is unknown, some seedlots respond with called for. Germination capacities for various pretreatments
faster germination rates. Faster germination has also been and test conditions are given in table 5. Germination is
reported for seeds of Pinchot and Rocky Mountain junipers epigeal (figure 4).
and eastern redcedar that were soaked in concentrated sulfu-
Juniperus • 611
J
Nursury practices. Juniper seeds are usually sown in Seedlings of alligator juniper (figure 4) should be shaded
the late summer or fall, but may be sown in the spring or only during the germination period (Johnsen and Alexander
early summer. All seeds should usually be stratified, no mat- 1974). Burlap may be used over snow-fence shade structures
ter when they are sown, but untreated seeds can be used in to conserve moisture and to protect against early spring
some circumstances. Untreated fresh seeds may be sown in freezing (Stoeckler and Slabaugh 1965). During the autumn,
the fall within a week after collection and extraction if they
are not dried (Meines 1965). Stratified seeds sown in the Figure 4—Juniperus deppeana, alligator juniper: seedling
spring should be in the ground early enough to ensure com- development at 2, 17, 43, and 96 days after germination
plete germination before the air temperatures go higher than
21 °C. If stratification is successful, germination should
begin 6 to 10 days after sowing and be completed in 4 to 5
weeks (Johnsen and Alexander 1974; Stoeckler and
Slabaugh 1965).
Juniper seeds are usually drilled in rows 15 to 20 cm (6
to 8 in) apart and covered with about 6 mm (1/4 in) of firmed
soil or sand (Stoeckler and Slabaugh 1965). The seeds are
occasionally broadcast by hand onto the seedbed and cov-
ered with sand. The beds should be mulched with straw,
sawdust, burlap, or plastic film to prevent winter drying,
alternate freezing and thawing, and premature germination
in the spring. The mulch normally must be held in place to
prevent blowing (Stoeckler and Slabaugh 1965). The
seedbeds should be kept moist, and burlap or plastic film
mulches should be removed as soon as germination begins.
Light shade should then be provided by slat-wire snow fence
or plastic screening materials; young seedlings of eastern
redcedar and Ashe, oneseed, and Rocky Mountain junipers
should be shaded throughout the first growing season.
Sources: Cotrufo (1963), Johnsen (1959), Johnsen and Alexander (1974), Meagher (1943), Riffle and Springfield (1968).
* 30 to 20 °C alternated diurnally.
† 5 °C.
‡ Seeds soaked in sulfuric acid 45 minutes.
§ Seeds soaked in 1% citric acid for 4 days.
References
Adams RP. 1987. Investigation of Juniperus species of the United States for Fassett NC. 1945. Juniperus virginiana, J. horizontalis, and J. scopulorum: 5.
new sources of cedarwood oil. Economic Botany 41: 48–54. Taxonomic treatment. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 72: 480–482.
Afanasiev M, Engstrom A, Johnson EW. 1959. Effects of planting dates and Hall MT. 1952. Variation and hybridization in Juniperus. Annals of the
storage on survival of eastern redcedar in central and western Missouri Botanical Garden 39: 1–64 [Forestry Abstracts 14(1): 96; 1953].
Oklahoma. Sta. Bull. B-527. Stillwater: Oklahoma Agricultural Hall MT, McCormick JF, Fogg GG. 1961. Hybridization between Juniperus
Experiment Station. 19 p. [Forestry Abstracts 21(1): 445; 1960]. ashei Buchholtz and J. pinchotii Sudworth in southwestern Texas. Butler
Barton LV. 1951. Germination of seeds of Juniperus virginiana L. University Botanical Studies 14(1): 9–28 [Forestry Abstracts 24(3): 3264;
Contributions of the Boyce Thompson Institute 16(8): 387–393 1963].
[Forestry Abstracts 13(4): 2925; 1952]. Hedlin AF,Yates HO III,Tovar DC, Ebel BH, Koerber T, Merkel EP. 1980.
Benson DA. 1976. Stratification of Juniperus scopulorum.Tree Planters’ Cone and seed insects of North American conifers. Study Group on
Notes 27(2): 11, 23. Forest Insects and Diseases, North American Forestry Commission, FAO.
Brown CL, Kirkman LK. 1990. Trees of Georgia and adjacent states. Ottawa: Canadian Forestry Service. 122 p.
Portland, OR:Timber Press. 292 p. Hemmerly TE. 1970. Economic uses of eastern redcedar. Economic Botany
Burkhardt JW,Tisdale EW. 1976. Causes of juniper invasion in southwest- 24(1): 39–41.
ern Idaho. Ecology 57: 472–484. Henderson LT, Koppe TF, Schoenike RE. 1979. Ten-year evaluation of a seed
Chavez-Ramirez F, Slack RD. 1994. Effects of avian foraging and post-for- source study of eastern redcedar in South Carolina.Tree Planters’ Notes
aging behavior on seed dispersal patterns of Ashe juniper. Oikos 71: 30(3): 3–6.
40–46. Holthuijzen AMA, Sharik TL, Fraser JD. 1987. Dispersal of eastern redcedar
Cotrufo C. 1963. Stimulation by citric acid of germination of eastern red- (Juniperus virginiana) into pastures: an overview. Canadian Journal of
cedar (Juniperus virginiana L.). Nature 199: 92–93. Botany 65: 1092–1095.
Dealy JE. 1990. Juniperus occidentalis Hook., western juniper. In: Burns RM, Houle G, Babeux P. 1994. Variations in rooting ability of cuttings and in seed
Honkala BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 1, Conifers. characteristics of five populations of Juniperus communis var. depressa
Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 109–115. from subarctic Quebec. Canadian Journal of Botany 72: 493–498.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. International rules for
propagation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. seed testing. Rules 1993. Seed Science & Technology 21 [Suppl.]: 1–259.
239 p. Jameson DL. 1966. Juniper control by individual tree burning. Res. Note
Djavanshir K, Fechner GH. 1976. Epicotyl and hypocotyl germination of RM-71. Fort Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest
eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper. Forest Science 22: and Range Experiment Station. 4 p.
261–266. Johnsen TN Jr. 1959. Longevity of stored juniper seeds. Ecology 40:
Edson JL, Wenny DL, Dumroese RK, Leege-Brusven A. 1996. Mass propa- 487–488.
gation of Rocky Mountain juniper from shoot cuttings.Tree Planters’ Johnsen TN Jr. 1962. One-seed juniper invasion of northern Arizona
Notes 47(3): 94–99. grassland. Ecological Monographs 32: 187–207.
Juniperus • 613
Johnsen TN Jr, Alexander RA. 1974. Juniperus L., juniper. In: Schopmeyer CS, Riffle JW, Springfield HW. 1968. Hydrogen peroxide increases germination
J tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. and reduces microflora on seed of several southwestern woody species.
450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 460–469. Forest Science 14: 96–101.
Jones L. 1962. Recommendations for successful storage of tree seed.Tree Ross JG, Duncan RE. 1949. Cytological evidence of hybridization between
Planters’ Notes 55: 9–20. Juniperus virginiana and J. horizontalis. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club
Lawson, ER. 1990. Juniperus virginiana L., eastern redcedar. In: Burns RM, 76: 414–429.
Honkala BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 1, Conifers. Sargent, CS. 1965. Manual of the trees of North America (exclusive of
Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 131–140. Mexico). 2nd ed., corrected and reprinted. New York: Dover. 934 p.
Little EL Jr. 1971. Atlas of United States trees.Volume 1, Conifers and Seidel KW, Watt RF. 1969. Survival and growth of eastern redcedar seed
important hardwoods. Misc. Pub. 1146. Washington, DC: USDA Forest sources in southwest Missouri. Res. Note NC-84. St. Paul: USDA Forest
Service. 209. Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 4 p.
Little EL Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). Smith MA, Wright HA, Schuster JL. 1975. Reproductive characteristics of
Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p. redberry juniper. Journal of Range Management 28: 126–128.
Livingston RB. 1972. Influence of birds, stones and soil on the establishment Stoeckler JH, Slabaugh PE. 1965. Conifer nursery practice in the prairie-
of pasture juniper, Juniperus communis, and red cedar, J. virginiana, on plains. Agric. Handbk. 279. Washington, DC: USDA, Forest Service. 93 p.
New England pastures. Ecology 53: 1141–1147. Tauer CG, Harris KD,Van Haverbeke DF. 1987. Seed source influences
McPherson GR, Wright HA. 1990. Establishment of Juniperus pinchotii in juniper seedling survival under severe drought stress. Res. Note RM-470.
western Texas: environmental effects. Journal of Arid Environments 19: Fort Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and
283–287 [Forestry Abstracts 52(9): 6566; 1991]. Range Experiment Station. 4 p.
Matthews OV. 1945. The Robinson juniper. Journal of Forestry 43: 755–756. Taylor CA. 1941. Germination behavior of tree seeds as observed in regu-
Meagher GS. 1943. Reaction of pinyon and juniper seedlings to artificial lar handling of seed at the seed extractory and nursery, Norfolk, NE:
shade and supplemental watering. Journal of Forestry 41: 480–482. USDA Forest Service, Prairie States For. Proj., 8 p. [Forestry Abstracts
Meines MK. 1965. Juniper germination simplified.Tree Planters’ Notes 70: 4(1): 26; 1942].
6–7. Van Deusen JL. 1979. Eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana) seed sources
Minckler LS, Ryker RA. 1959. Color, form, and growth variations in eastern recommended for North Dakota sites. Res. Note RM-371. Fort Collins,
redcedar. Journal of Forestry 57: 347–349. CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range
Noble DL. 1990. Juniperus scopulorum Sarg., Rocky Mountain juniper. In: Experiment Station. 6 p.
Burns RM, Honkala BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 1, Van Haverbeke DF, Barnhart MR. 1978. A laboratory technique for depulp-
Conifers. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: ing Juniperus cones.Tree Planters’ Notes 29(4): 33–34.
116–126. Van Haverbeke DF, Comer CW. 1985. Effects of treatment and seed
Otta JD, Fiedler DJ, Lengkeek VH. 1980. Effect of benomyl on Phomopsis source on germination of eastern redcedar seed. Fort Collins, CO:
juniperovora infection of Juniperus virginiana. Phytopathology 70: 46–50. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment
Peterson GW. 1973. Infection of Juniperus virginiana and J. scopulorum by Station. 7 p.
Phomopsis juniperovora. Phytopathology 63: 246–251. Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
Peterson GW. 1977. Epidemiology and control of a blight of Juniperus vir- University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
giniana caused by Cercospora sequoiae var. juniperi. Phytopathology 67: Wilhite LP. 1990. Juniperus silicicola (Small) Bailey., southern redcedar. In:
234–238. Burns RM, Honkala BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 1,
Peterson GW, Wysong DS. 1968. Cercospora blight of junipers: damage and Conifers. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
control. Plant Disease Reporter 52: 361–362. 127–130.
Rehder A. 1956. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North Young JA, Evans RA, Budy JD, Palmquist DE. 1988. Stratification of seeds of
America. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan. 996 p. western and Utah juniper. Forest Science 34: 1039–1066.
Rietveld WJ. 1989. Variable seed dormancy in Rocky Mountain juniper. In:
Landis TD, tech. coord. Proceedings, Intermountain Forest Nursery
Association. 1989 August 14–18; Bismark, ND. Gen.Tech. Rep. RM-184
Fort Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station: 60–64.
Kalmia latifolia L.
mountain-laurel
Frank A. Blazich and Mark C. Starrett
Dr. Blazich is alumni distinguished graduate professor of plant propagation and tissue culture at North Carolina
State University’s Department of Horticultural Science, Raleigh, North Carolina; Dr. Starrett is
associate professor at the University of Vermont’s Department of Plant and Soil Science, Burlington,Vermont
Synonyms. Kalmia latifolia var. laevipes Fern. durable wood is used for making pipes and other items
Other common names. Broad-leaved laurel, calico- (Jaynes 1997). Unfortunately, the foliage of mountain-laurel
bush, spoonwood, ivy, mountain ivy, big-leaved ivy, ivy- is poisonous and caution should be exercised when planting
bush, laurel-leaves, and calmoun. in a landscape utilized by young children or grazing animals
Growth habit and occurrence. The genus Kalmia L. (Jaynes 1997; Mabberley 1993).
consists of about 6 species of evergreen or deciduous shrubs Geographic races and hybrids. Five races of moun-
native to North America and Cuba (LHBH 1976). Of these tain-laurel have been identified:
species, mountain-laurel—Kalmia latifolia L.—has for a
number of reasons attracted the most attention. Mountain- • Kalmia latifolia f. angustata Rehd.
laurel is a broad-leaved, evergreen shrub that is dense and • Kalmia latifolia f. fuscata (Rehd.) Rehd.
symmetrical when young but develops an open, loose habit • Kalmia latifolia f. myrtifolia (Bosse) K. Koch.
with age (Dirr 1990). Typically, the shrub reaches a height • Kalmia latifolia f. obtusata (Rehd.) Rehd.
and spread of 1.5 to 2 m. However, heights of 4.6 to 9 m • Kalmia latifolia f. polypetala (Nickolsen) Beissner,
have been reported (Bridwell 1994; Dirr 1990). The species Schelle, & Zabel.
has a wide range, from coastal Maine to northwestern
Florida, primarily along the Appalachian Mountain range, There are 4 interspecific crosses that produce progeny:
westward to Louisiana and northward into southern Ohio
and Indiana (Fernald 1950; Jaynes 1997). This range • K. polifolia Wangenh. × K. latifolia—reciprocal cross
includes USDA Hardiness Zones 4 to 9 (Dirr 1990). did not result in seed set (Jaynes 1997)
Mountain-laurel is often found in rocky or gravelly woods • K. latifolia × K. hirsuta Walt.—reciprocal cross also
and clearings, typically on acid or sterile soils (Fernald set seed (Jaynes 1997)
1950). A common associate of mountain-laurel in the moun- • K. angustifolia L. × K. latlifolia—reciprocal cross did
tainous regions of the southern United States is rosebay rho- not result in seed set (Jaynes 1997)
dodendron—Rhododendron maximum L. Together, these 2 • K. polifolia × K. microphylla (Hook.) A. Heller—recip-
species form almost impenetrable thickets, sometimes rocal cross also set seed (Jaynes 1997)
known locally as “laurel slicks” or “rhododendron hells”
(Olson and Barnes 1974). There is also 1 intergeneric cross known to produce
Use. Mountain-laurel is an excellent ornamental shrub progeny:
for shady borders and for naturalizing (Dirr 1990). As an
understory shrub, it effectively prevents water runoff and • K. latifolia × Rhododendron williamsianum Rehd. &
soil erosion (Jaynes 1997). Clumps and thickets of moun- Wils.—putative hybrid (Jaynes 1997)
tain-laurel are a haven for wildlife, providing year-round
cover and protection (Jaynes 1997). Practical considerations Flowering and fruiting. Mountain-laurel typically
aside, Rehder (1986) has described mountain-laurel as one flowers between April and June, depending on local climate
of the most beautiful American flowering shrubs. In addition (Radford and others 1968). Floral color ranges from white to
to the value of the species as a landscape plant, the foliage is a deep rose with purple markings (Dirr 1990). There have
also used in Christmas decorations and the fine-grained and been many cultivar selections across this color spectrum
Kalmia • 615
(Jaynes 1997). An individual shrub commonly has hundreds This process should be repeated several times until clean
K
of terminal inflorescences (corymbs), each with 50 to 300 seeds are separated. If the capsules are collected premature-
flowers (Rathcke and Real 1993). Flower size also varies ly, they will not dehisce and must be crushed. This treatment
with different forms and cultivars of the species, but the nor- results in large amounts of debris that can be removed effec-
mal diameter ranges from 2 to 2.5 cm (Dirr 1990). Flowers tively by sieving. Viable seeds can also be separated from
have an unusual pollination mechanism, with 10 anthers chaff and empty seeds by using an air-column blower or by
held in pouches along the inside of the corolla (Mabberley placing crushed capsules in water and allowing viable seeds
1993). When pollen is ripe, a visiting insect—typically a to sink (Jaynes 1997). Seeds of mountain-laurel are extreme-
bumble bee (Bombus ternarius Say)— triggers the release of ly small, with cleaned pure seeds averaging 50,000/g (1.4
the anthers (Rathcke and Real 1993). The pollen is then cast million/oz) (Jaynes 1997). Each seed is about 1 mm long
over the insect so that cross pollination can occur with the and 0.3 mm wide, with a ribbed or striated surface (figures 2
next flower of mountain-laurel visited by the insect. and 3).
Typically, mountain-laurel is considered to be a non-selfing Storage. Seeds of mountain-laurel can remain viable
species (Fryxell 1957; Jaynes 1997). A recent study by for several years when stored at room temperature (Glenn
Rathcke and Real (1993) suggested that certain populations and others 1998; Wyman 1953). However, longevity of
of mountain-laurel may be able to self-fertilize in the seeds can be extended greatly (up to 15 years) if seeds are
absence of pollinators. Autogamy seems most likely to have stored at 4.4 °C (Jaynes 1997). When dried to a moisture
evolved for reproductive assurance under competition for content of 5%, seeds have been stored successfully for 4
pollinator service (Rathcke and Real 1993). The fruit is a years at –18 or 4 °C with no loss in viability (Glenn and
brown, 5-valved, globular dehiscent capsule about 6 mm in others 1998). Storage under these conditions suggests that
diameter, borne in clusters, that matures in September and the species is orthodox in storage behavior, and that viability
October (Radford and others 1968) (figure 1). can be maintained for extremely long periods of time.
Collection of fruits and seed extraction. Once seed Pretreatments and germination tests. After harvest,
capsules have turned brown and dried, seeds are mature and there is no inhibiting dormancy, and seeds germinate readily
ready for harvest. Harvested capsules should be placed in a with no pretreatment necessary (Fordham 1960; Jaynes
coin envelope, paper bag, or small vented container and 1997). However, stratification (moist-prechilling) for 8
allowed to dry for an additional 2 to 4 weeks at about 21 °C. weeks or soaking seeds overnight in 200 ppm gibberellic
Capsules will then open, and their seeds can be shaken loose acid may increase germination (Jaynes 1997). Seeds of
(Blazich 1996; Jaynes 1997). The seeds are cleaned by gen- mountain-laurel require light for germination (Jaynes 1971;
tly shaking them down a creased sheet of paper (Jaynes Malek and others 1989). Malek and others (1989) conducted
1997). Seeds will move down the paper faster than the chaff. a 30-day germination study of seeds from a native popula-
Figure 1—Kalmia latifolia, mountain-laurel: cluster of Figure 2—Kalmia latifolia, mountain-laurel: seeds.
capsules (top) and a single capsule (bottom).
References
Blazich FA. 1996. Unpublished data. Raleigh: North Carolina State Lloyd G, McCown B. 1980. Commercially feasible micropropagation of
University. mountain laurel, Kalmia latifolia, by use of shoot-tip culture. Proceedings
Bridwell FM. 1994. Landscape plants: their identification, culture, and use. of the International Plant Propagators’ Society 30: 421–427.
Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers. 560 p. Mabberley DJ. 1993. The plant-book. New York: Cambridge University
Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, Press. 707 p.
ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation and uses. 4th ed. Malek AA, Blazich FA, Warren SL, Shelton JE. 1989. Influence of light and
Champaign, IL: Stipes Publishing Co. 1007 p. temperature on seed germination of mountain laurel. Journal of
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- Environmental Horticulture 7(4): 161–162.
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. Malek AA, Blazich FA, Warren SL, Shelton JE. 1992. Initial growth of
Fernald ML. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. 8th ed. New York: American seedlings of mountain laurel as influenced by day/night temperature.
Book Co. 1632 p. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 117(5):
Fordham AJ. 1960. Propagation of woody plants by seed. Arnoldia 20(6): 736–739.
33–40. Olson Jr DF, Barnes RL. 1974. Kalmia, mountain-laurel. In: Schopmeyer CS,
Fryxell PA. 1957. Mode of reproduction in higher plants. Botanical Review tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk.
23: 135–233. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 470–471.
Glenn CT, Blazich FA, Warren SL. 1998. Influence of storage temperatures Radford AE, Ahles HE, Bell CR. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the
on long-term seed viability of selected ericaceous species. Journal of Carolinas. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 1183 p.
Environmental Horticulture 16(3): 166–172. Rathcke B, Real L. 1993. Autogamy and inbreeding depression in mountain
Jaynes RA. 1971. Seed germination of six Kalmia species. Journal of the laurel, Kalmia latifolia (Ericaceae). American Journal of Botany 80(2):
American Society for Horticultural Science 96: 668–672. 143–146.
Jaynes RA. 1997. Kalmia, mountain laurel and related species. Portland, OR: Rehder A. 1986. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North
Timber Press. 295 p. America. 2nd ed. Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press. 996 p.
LHBH [Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium]. 1976. Hortus third: a concise dic- Weinberg R. 1984. A new look at mountain laurel. American Horticulturist
tionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. 3rd ed. 63(6): 5–8, 35.
New York : Macmillan. 1290 p. Wyman D. 1953. Seeds of woody plants. Arnoldia 13(7/9): 41–60.
Kalmia • 617
K Araliaceae—Ginseng family
Dr. Pijut is a research plant physiologist at the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Research Station,
Hardwood Tree Improvement and Regeneration Center,West Lafayette, Indiana
Synonym. K. pictus (Nakai). forming large terminal panicles that measure 30.5 to 61 cm
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus across (Dirr 1990; Hillier 1991; Rudolf 1974). The fruits are
Kalopanax comprises 1 species of deciduous, small to medi- globose drupes about 0.4 cm wide with a persistent style
um-sized tree that is native to China, Japan, eastern Russia, (bluish black in color) that contains 2 flat seeds (Dirr 1990;
and Korea (LHBH 1976; Ohashi 1994). Castor-aralia— Krüssmann 1984). The fruits, which ripen in September–
K. septemlobus (Thunb. ex A. Murr.) Koidz.—was intro- October, have a fleshy coat and are relished by birds (Dirr
duced in 1865 and has been used primarily for ornamental 1990; Dirr and Heuser 1987).
purposes, as a shade tree yielding a tropical effect in USDA Collection of fruits; extraction, cleaning, and storage
Hardiness Zones 4 to 7 (Dirr 1990; Hillier 1991; Krüssmann of seeds. The fruits are harvested by hand or shaken onto
1984; van Gelderen and others 1994; Wijnands 1990). It is a canvas as they ripen in September–October (Rudolf 1974).
valuable tree in China (Zhao and others 1987) and the wood Fruits should be run through a macerator with water to
may be suitable for bentwood, carving, and some interior extract the seeds (figure 1). Although more recent informa-
use (KRRT 1987). The dried bark has been used as a medi- tion was not attainable, Sins (1925, cited by Rudolf 1974)
cine in China for various ailments (Sano and others 1991). reported that about 3.6 to 4.5 kg (8 to 10 lb) of clean seeds
Analysis of the nutrient content of leaves of castor-aralia can be obtained from 45.4 kg (100 lb) of fresh fruits. The
showed plentiful levels of calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, number of cleaned seeds per weight was 220,000/kg
and beta-carotene, making it a potential food source of high (99,790/lb) (Satoo 1992). The seeds (figure 2) have small
nutritive value (Liu and others 1998). Phytochemical inves- embryos and contain endosperm tissue (Rudolf 1974).
tigations have allowed the isolation and characterization of Reports indicate that seeds can be kept satisfactorily for
saponin and phenolic compounds (Porzel and others 1992; 1 year under ordinary storage conditions (Sins 1925, cited
Sano and others 1991; Shao and others 1989, 1990; Sun and by Rudolf 1974). However, the use of sealed containers kept
others 1990) that are reported to show preventive activity at 0 to 5 °C is suggested for longer storage periods.
against stress-induced changes in mice.
Castor-aralia is an upright, oval-rounded tree that can
obtain heights of 24.4 to 27.4 m in the wild, but under culti- Figure 1—Kalopanax septemlobus, castor-aralia: cleaned
vation practices usually 12.2 to 18.3 m (Dirr 1990). The seed extracted from the fleshy fruit.
branches are coarse, stout, and bear numerous broad-based
prickles (Dirr 1990; Hillier 1991). The leaves are quite vari-
able—but somewhat similar in shape to sweetgum,
Liquidambar styraciflua L.—changing to yellow or red in
the fall (Dirr 1990). Another variety—K. septemlobus var.
maximowiczii (Van Houtte) Hand.-Mazz.—has leaves that
are deeply lobed (5–7) and incised to beneath the middle of
the blade (Krüssmann 1984).
Flowering and fruiting. The perfect, white flowers,
which bloom in July to early August (sometimes as early as
May in parts of Japan), are produced in numerous umbels,
References
Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, Rudolf PO. 1974. Kalopanax pictus (Thunb.) Nakai, kalopanax. In:
ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. Champaign, IL: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United
Stipes Publishing. 1007 p. States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- 472–473.
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. Sano K, Sanada S, Ida Y, Shoji J. 1991. Studies on the constituents of the
Hillier Nurseries (Winchester) Ltd. 1991. The Hillier manual of trees and bark of Kalopanax pictus Nakai. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 39
shrubs. Melksham, Wiltshire, UK: Redwood Press. 704 p. (4): 865–870.
Huang YG. 1986. Study on embryonic dormancy of Kalopanax septemlobus Sato H. 1998. A stratification procedure to accelerate the germination of
seeds [in Chinese; summary in English]. Journal of North-East Forestry Kalopanax pictus [in Japanese; summary in English]. Journal of the
University—China 14(1): 39–44. Japanese Forestry Society 80 (4): 279–282.
Huang YG. 1987a. A preliminary study on neutral and acid inhibitors in the Satoo S. 1992. Propagation of 30 broad-leaved tree species in Hokkaido by
seed of Kalopanax septemlobus [in Chinese; summary in English]. Acta seedling: practical results from the nursery of the Tokyo University Forest
Botanica Sinica 29(3): 283–292. in Hokkaido [in Japanese; summary and tables in English]. Bulletin of the
Huang YG. 1987b. Inhibiting substances play a role in dormancy of Tokyo University Forests 87: 89–128.
Kalopanax septemlobus seeds [in Chinese; summary in English]. Journal of Shao CJ, Kasai R, Ohtani K, Xu JD,Tanaka O. 1989. Saponins from leaves of
North-East Forestry University—China 15(2): 18–25. Kalopanax septemlobus (Thunb.) Koidz.: structures of Kalopanax saponins
KRRT [Korea Republic, Research Team on the Wood Properties of Native La, Lb, and Lc. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 37 (12): 3251–3254.
Hardwoods]. 1987. Studies on the wood properties of native hard- Shao CJ, Kasai R, Ohtani K,Tanaka O, Kohda H. 1990. Saponins from leaves
woods of major importance: 4. Wood properties of 2 species of genus of Kalopanax pictus (Thunb.) Nakai, Harigiri: structures of Kalopanax
Acer, 2 species of Prunus and 1 species of genus Kalopanax. Research saponins JLa and JLb. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 38 (4):
Reports of the Forestry Research Institute—Seoul, Korea 34: 93–109. 1087–1089.
Krüssmann G. 1984. Manual of cultivated broad-leaved trees and shrubs. Sins NI. 1925. Pitomnik [in Russian:The forest nursery]. Moscow. 227 p.
Volume 2, E–Pro. Beaverton, OR:Timber Press. 445 p. Sun WJ, Zhang DK, Sha ZF, Zhang HL, Zhang XL. 1990. Studies on the
LHBH [Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium]. 1976. Hortus third: a concise dic- saponin constituents of Kalopanax septemlobus (Thunb.) Koidz. [in
tionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Chinese; summary in English]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica 25 (1): 29–34.
Macmillan. 1290 p. van Gelderen DM, de Jong PC, Oterdoom HJ, van Hoey Smith JRP. 1994.
Liu GP, Sun JH, Lin GP, Sun JH. 1998. Analysis of nutrient elements of Maples of the world. Portland, OR:Timber Press. 458 p.
Kalopanax septembolus [in Chinese; English summary]. Journal of Wijnands DO. 1990. Proposal to reject Acer pictum Thunb. ex Murr.
Northeast Forestry University 26(3): 65–67. (Aceraceae).Taxon 39: 535–536.
McDonald B. 1986. Practical woody plant propagation for nursery growers. Xu SH, Han ZH. 1988. Embryo development and dormancy of Kalopanax
Portland, OR: timber Press. 669 p. septemlobus Koidz. during seed storage in sand [in Chinese; summary in
Ohashi H. 1994. Nomenclature of Kalopanax septemlobus (Thunberg ex English]. Journal of Shenyang Agricultural University 19 (2): 29–34.
Murray) Koidzumi and classification of its intraspecific taxa (Araliaceae). Zhao RH, Hu CH, Jin WY, Zhang SY. 1987. Biological characteristics and tech-
Journal of Japanese Botany 69 (1): 28–31. niques of cultivating Kalopanax septemlobum forest [in Chinese; summary
Porzel A, Sung TV, Schmidt J, Lischewski M, Adam G. 1992. Studies on the in English). Journal of Shenyang Agricultural University 18 (1): 6–12.
chemical constituents of Kalopanax septemlobus. Planta Medica 58 (5):
481–482.
Kalopanax • 619
K Chenopodiaceae—Goosefoot family
Kochia Roth
kochia
Stanley G. Kitchen and Stephen B. Monsen
Mr. Kitchen and Mr. Monsen are botanists at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Two woody- halogeton (Halogeton glomeratus (Bieb.) C.A. Mey.) and
based non-rhizomatous sub-shrub species of kochias are cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum L.) (Blauer and others 1993;
found in the western United States. The widely distributed McArthur and others 1990). Natural spread of forage kochia
native, gray molly, and its introduced and closely related from seeds can be rapid where perennial cover is lacking.
counterpart (Blackwell and others 1978), forage kochia, are The high water content of stems and leaves during summer
found in salt-desert, sagebrush, pinyon–juniper, and dry months and crown sprouting capacity make this species
mountain brush communities (table 1). Erect to steeply especially desirable for desert landscapes prone to high fire
ascending annual stems growing from a woody base and frequencies (Kitchen and Monsen 1999).
long-lived prostrate branches attain heights of 5 to 50 cm for Geographic races and hybrids. Blackwell and others
gray molly (Welch and others 1987) and 10 to 100 cm for (1978) concluded that the random variation in pubescence in
forage kochia (Baylan 1972). gray molly did not justify dissection of this species to sub-
Each species provides nutritious winter forage for live- species level. Conversely, forage kochia is a complex
stock (Baylan 1972; Blauer and others 1976). Variability in species represented by 3 known ploidy levels (2X, 4X, and
preference by livestock (Shishkin 1936) and mule deer 6X) (Pope and McArthur 1977) and extensive phenotypic
(Odocoileus hemionis) (Davis and Welch 1985) has been variation in plant stature, stem color and diameter, leaf size
observed among ecotypes of forage kochia. and pubescence, growing season, and adaptability to soils
Both species have potential for use in revegetation of (Baylan 1972). Numerous regional ecotypes have been
saline and alkaline soils on arid and semi-arid sites (Blauer grouped into as many as 4 species; however, a single species
and others 1976; Clarke and West 1969; Francois 1976; with 2 subspecies—virescens (Frenzl) Prat. (green-stem) and
Romo and Haferkamp 1987) and forage kochia has been grisea Prat. (gray-stem and highly variable)—is the most
used successfully in stabilizing mine spoils (Frischknecht commonly accepted (Baylan 1972).
and Ferguson 1984). Perhaps the greatest potential use of About 40 accessions of forage kochia have been intro-
forage kochia is in providing cover and forage on degraded duced to the United States, primarily for evaluation as can-
western cold-deserts (McArthur and others 1974; Monsen didates for revegetation of disturbed arid and semi-arid
and Turnipseed 1990; Pendleton and others 1992). Where regions in the western United States (Kitchen and Monsen
established, it effectively competes with weeds such as 1999). To date, a single cultivar, ‘Immigrant’ (2X, ssp.
Kochia • 621
temperature and longer in cold storage (Baylan 1972; nation rate was comparable to that of fresh lots of forage
K
Kitchen and Monsen 1999). Germination of recently har- kochia seeds (Monsen and Kitchen 1999).
vested seeds is enhanced by fluorescent light and moist Seed viability can be difficult to determine from tetra-
chilling. Germination of after-ripened or chilled seeds zolium chloride staining due to interference of embryonic
occurs across a wide range of temperatures and osmotic chlorophyll. Independent laboratory tests for the same seed
potentials (Young and others 1981; Romo and Haferkamp lot often produce variable results. Laboratory germination
1987). Germination rate at near freezing temperatures (2 °C) tests are also sometimes inconsistent due to difficulty with
for recently harvested seeds is asynchronous within acces- seedling normality classification. Dormant healthy seeds
sions and highly variable among ecotypes. Mean germina- germinate normally and rapidly after the seedcoat is pierced.
tion time shortens as seeds after-ripen (table 2). Field studies Nursery and field practice. Forage kochia transplants
have demonstrated that when after-ripened seeds (with a are easily grown as bareroot and container stock from non-
rapid, synchronized germination rate) are sown in late dormant seeds. For best results, seeds should be sown in
fall/early winter, premature germination results in poor stand growth medium 4 to 6 mm (1/8 to 1/4 in) deep. Germinants
establishment (Kitchen and Monsen 1999). Haferkamp and are susceptible to fungal root pathogens, dictating clean
others (1990) attributed poor establishment from 1-year-old greenhouse culture techniques. Transplant survival from
forage kochia seeds to loss of seed viability and/or vigor. early spring planting is commonly 90% or higher using stan-
Their data show that in germination tests of laboratory- dard practices (Monsen and Kitchen 1995).
stored seeds, germination rate had greatly increased for 1- Seeding should be conducted in the fall or early winter
year-old seed when compared to the same lots tested fresh. for best establishment from direct seeding on non-irrigated
This suggests that the poor establishment that they observed untreated sites (Haferkamp and others 1990). Proper seeding
for 1-year-old seeds may have been related, at least in part, rate varies from 0.5 to 4.5 kg/ha (0.5 to 4.0 lb/acre) (pure
to change in germination rate, as has been observed by live seeds) depending on species mix, site conditions, and
Kitchen and Monsen (1999) and Stewart and others (1999). seeding method. Successful spring plantings have been
Kitchen and Monsen (1995) also observed that seeds stored reported using after-ripened seeds (Monsen and Turnipseed
for more than 2 years at refrigerated and frozen tempera- 1990). Irrigated fields can be sown during summer months.
tures retain full viability and are able to delay germination Seed placement at or near the soil surface is critical for suc-
sufficiently for successful stand establishment. cessful establishment (Baylan 1972; Stevens and Van Epps
Germinating gray molly seeds tolerate higher salinity 1984). Satisfactory stands have been achieved from broad-
levels than do seeds of many halophytic forage plants casting seeds on the soil surface or on snow with little or no
(Clarke and West 1969). In limited germination trials con- seed-bed preparation (Kitchen and Monsen 1999).
ducted on a single lot of fresh gray molly seeds, the level of
initial dormancy was 26% and the cold temperature germi-
Table 2—Kochia prostrata, forage kochia: mean germination times as affected by temperature of dry storage
314929† 72 a 11 b 60 a 67 a
343101 51 a 12 b 46 a 55 a
356818 53 a 14 b 51 a 58 a
356826 108 a 11 c 86 b 90 b
358941 81 a 12 c 63 b 76 a
Mean 71 a 12 b 61 a 69 a
Baylan GA. 1972. Prostrate summer cypress and its culture in Kirghizia. McArthur ED, Guinta BC, Plummer AP. 1974. Shrubs for restoration of
Isdatel’stvo, Frunze, Kirghizistan [translated from Russian. 1979. depleted ranges and disturbed areas. Utah Science 34: 28–33.
Washington, DC: USDA and National Science Foundation]. Monsen SB,Turnipseed D. 1990. Seeding forage kochia into cheatgrass
Blackwell WH, Baechle MD, Williamson G. 1978. Synopsis of Kochia infested ranges. In: McArthur ED, Romney EM, Smith SD,Tueller PT,
(Chenopodiaceae) in North America. SIDA 7: 248–254. comps. Proceedings, Symposium on Cheatgrass Invasion, Shrub Dieoff,
Blauer AC, McArthur ED, Stevens R, Nelson, SD. 1993. Evaluation of road- and Other Aspects of Shrub Biology and Management; 1989 April 5–7.
side stabilization and beautification plantings in south-central Utah. Res. Las Vegas, NV. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-276. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest
Pap. INT-462. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Service, Intermountain Research Station: 66–71.
Station. 65 p. Pendleton RL, Frischknecht NC, McArthur ED. 1992. Long-term survival of
Blauer AC, Plummer AP, McArthur ED, Stevens R, Giunta BC. 1976. 20 selected plant accessions in a Rush Valley, Utah, planting. Res. Note
Characteristics and hybridization of important Intermountain shrubs: 2. INT-403. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research
Chenopod family. Res. Pap. INT-177. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Station: 7 p.
Intermountain Research Station. 42 p. Pope CL, McArthur ED. 1977. IOBP chromosome number reports: 55.
Clarke LD, West NE. 1969. Germination of Kochia americana in relation to Chenopodiaceae.Taxon 26: 109.
salinity. Journal of Range Management 22: 286–287. Romo JT, Haferkamp MR. 1987. Forage kochia germination response to
Davis JN, Welch BL. 1985. Winter preference, nutritive value and other temperature, water stress, and specific ions. Agronomy Journal 79: 27–30.
range use characteristics of Kochia prostrata (L.) Schrad. Great Basin Shishkin BK, ed. 1936. Flora of the U.S.S.R.Volume 6, Centrospermae.
Naturalist 45: 778–783. Moscow: Isdatel’stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR [translated from Russian.
Francois, LE. 1976. Salt tolerance of prostrate summer cypress (Kochia 1970. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution and National Science
prostrata). Agronomy Journal 68: 455–456. Foundation]. 731 p.
Frischknecht NC, Ferguson RB. 1984. Performance of Chenopodiaceae Stevens R,Van Epps GA. 1984. Seeding techniques to improve establish-
species on processed oil shale. In:Tiedemann AR, McArthur ED, Stutz ment of forage kochia [Kochia prostrata (L.) Schrad.] and fourwing salt-
HC, Stevens R, Johnson KL, comp. Proceedings, Symposium on the bush [Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt.]. In:Tiedemann AR, McArthur ED,
Biology of Atriplex and Related Chenopods; 1983 May 2–6; Provo, UT. Stutz HC, Stevens R, Johnson KL. comps. Proceedings, Symposium on the
Gen Tech. Rep. INT-172. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Biology of Atriplex and Related Chenopods; 1983 May 2–6; Provo, UT.
Intermountain Research Station: 293–297. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-172. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service,
Haferkamp MR, Ganskopp DC, Marietta KL, Knapp BW. 1990. Intermountain Research Station: 269–272.
Environmental influences on germination of utricles and seedling estab- Stevens R, Jorgensen KR, McArthur ED, Davis JN. 1985. ‘Immigrant’ forage
lishment of ‘Immigrant’ forage kochia. Journal of Range Management 43: kochia. Rangelands 7: 22–23.
518–522. Stevenson R. 1995. Personal communication. Ephraim, UT: Stevenson
Jorgensen KR, Davis JN. 1984. A technique for retaining seed viability in Intermountain Seed.
Kochia prostrata. In:Tiedemann AR, McArthur ED, Stutz HC, Stevens R, Stewart A, Anderson VJ, Kitchen SG, 1999. ‘Immigrant’ forage kochia (Kochia
Johnson KL, comps. Proceedings, Symposium on the Biology of Atriplex prostrata) seed germination as affected by storage conditions. In:
and Related Chenopods; 1983 May 2–6; Provo, UT. Gen Tech. Rep. INT- McArthur ED, Ostler WK, Wambolt CL, comps. Proceedings, Shrubland
172. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: Ecotones; 1998 August 12–14; Ephraim, UT. RMRS-P11. Ogden, UT:
166–167. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 274–279.
Kitchen SG, Monsen SB. 1999. Unpublished data. Provo, UT: USDA Forest Waller SS, Britton CM, Schmidt DK, Stubbendieck J, Sneva FA. 1983.
Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. Germination characteristics of two varieties of Kochia prostrata (L.)
McArthur ED, Blauer AC, Stevens R. 1990. Forage kochia competition with Schrad. Journal Range Management 36: 242–245.
cheatgrass in central Utah. In: McArthur ED, Romney EM, Smith SD, Welsh SL, Atwood ND, Higgins LC, Goodrich S. 1987. A Utah flora. Great
Tueller PT, comps. Proceedings, Symposium on Cheatgrass Invasion, Basin Naturalist Memoirs 9: 1–894.
Shrub Dieoff, and Other Aspects of Shrub Biology and Management; Young JA, Evans RA, Stevens R, Everett RL. 1981. Germination of Kochia
1989 April 5–7; Las Vegas, NV. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-276. Ogden, UT: prostrata seed. Agronomy Journal 73: 957–961.
USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 56–65.
Kochia • 623
K Sapindaceae—Soapberry family
Dr. Michler is the director of the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Research Station, Hardwood Tree
Improvement and Regeneration Center, West Lafayette, Indiana; Dr. Rudolf (deceased) retired from the
USDA Forest Service’s North Central Forest Experiment Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Native to China, Figure 2—Koelreuteria paniculata, panicled golden raintree:
Korea, and Japan, the panicled golden raintree—also called longitudinal section through a seed.
pride-of-India, China tree, and varnish tree—is a small
deciduous tree ranging from 5 to 11 m tall that has been cul-
tivated since 1763, chiefly for ornamental purposes (Rehder
1940).
Flowering and fruiting. The irregular (or apparently
polygamous) yellow flowers occur in broad, loose, terminal
panicles and bloom from July to September (Krüssmann
1960; Ohwi 1965; Plouvier 1946). The fruits are bladdery,
triangular, 3-celled capsules about 3 to 5 cm long (figure 1);
when they ripen in September and October they change
from a reddish color to brown. Within the papery walls of
ripe fruit are 3 round, black seeds (figure 2) (Rehder 1940;
Rudolf 1974). The seeds are naturally dispersed from fall to
the next spring (Pammel and King 1930). Good seedcrops
are borne almost annually (Rudolf 1974).
Collection of fruits; extraction and storage of seeds. from 46 kg (100 lb) of fruits is about 32 kg (72 lb) of
Capsules should be collected from trees in September and cleaned seeds (Plouvier 1946). Cleaned seeds per weight
October for extraction and cleaning the seeds. The yield ranged from 5,700 to 7,700/kg (2,600 to 3,500/lb), and aver-
aged 6,394/kg (2,900/lb) for 3 samples. Four samples of
Figure 1—Koelreuteria paniculata, panicled golden raintree: commercial seedlots averaged 99% in purity and 95% in
capsules (top) and seeds (bottom). soundness (Rudolf 1974; Swingle 1939; Zentsch and Kaul
1968). One sample that was stored in fruit jars with loosely
fastened lids and exposed to temperatures ranging from
about 4 to 32 °C showed 50% germination at the end of 10
years (Toumey 1921).
Pregermination treatments. Dormancy in seeds
appears to be caused by an impermeable seedcoat and possi-
bly by an internal condition of the embryo. In a series of
tests, soaking seeds in sulfuric acid for 1 hour plus 90 days
of stratification in moist sand at 4.5 °C gave the best results
(Rudolf 1974). In another series of tests, mechanically scari-
fied seeds germinated promptly and well (Zentsch and Kaul
1968). Mechanical scarification followed by stratification for
90 days produced complete germination in 9.7 days (Garner
1979; Garner and Lewis 1980). Seed exposure to an electro-
References
Bailey LH. 1939. The standard cyclopedia of horticulture. New York: Plouvier V. 1946. Sur l’heide des graines de Xanthoceras sorbifolia Bunge et
Macmillan. 3639 p. Koelreuteria paniculata Laxm. (Sapindaceae). Comptes Rendus de
Garner JL. 1979. Overcoming double dormancy in golden-rain tree seeds. l’Academie des Sciences 222 (15): 916–917.
Plant Propagator 25(2): 6–8. Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. New York:
Garner JL, Lewis AJ. 1980. An evaluation of techniques used for germinating Macmillan. 2966 p.
goldenrain tree seeds. American Nurseryman 151(8): 12. Rudolf PO. 1974. Koelreuteria paniculata Laxm., panicled golden raintree.
ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. International rules for In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United
seed testing: rules 1993. Seed Science and Technology 21 (Suppl.): States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
1–259. 474–475.
Jack RA. 1969. Personal communication. Silverton, OR: Silver Falls Nursery. Swingle CF. 1939. Seed propagation of trees, shrubs, and forbs for conser-
Krüssmann G. 1960. Handbuch der Laubgehölze.Volume 1. 495 p.; vation planting. SCS-TP-27. Washington, DC: USDA Soil Conservation
Volume 2. 608 p. Service. 198 p.
Maronek DM. 1975. Electromagnetic seed treatment increased germination Toumey JA. 1921. On the viability of tree seeds after storage for ten years.
of Koelreuteria paniculata Laxm. HortScience 10(3): 227–228. Journal of Forestry 19: 814.
Ohwi J. 1965. Flora of Japan. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Zentsch W, Kaul MLH. 1968. Viability and germination behaviour of Indian
1067 p. forest tree seeds. Karl Marx Universität Beiträge zür Tropicalische und
Pammel LH, King CM. 1930. Germination and seedling forms of some Subtropicalische Landwirtschaftliche Forschung 6(3): 213–219.
woody plants. Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Science 37:
131–141.
Koelreuteria • 625
K Chenopodiaceae—Goosefoot family
Synonyms. Eurotia lanata (Pursh) Moq., Ceratoides ing to restore depleted western rangelands and for providing
lanata J.T. Howell, Diotis lanata Pursh; see appended notes waterfowl nesting cover on the Canadian prairies. It was
on nomenclature. first cultivated in 1895 (Springfield 1974b). Notable
Other common names. white-sage. progress has been made in seed handling and seeding meth-
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Winterfat is a ods so that disturbed lands sown with winterfat regularly
sub-shrub that in early spring appears as small bunches of develop healthy stands.
new leaves closely joined to dead-looking low stems that Ecotypic variation. Winterfat displays strong ecotyp-
have new shoots arising from woody bases. By late summer, ic variation that appears to account for the range of habitats
the shrub’s attractive foliage is 20 to 80 cm high and often occupied by the species. This variation must be considered
crowned with dense clusters of handsome, white, fruiting when collecting seeds for a particular environment or use
bracts. The leaves can grow to 5 cm and are narrow and (Bai and others 1997b; Plummer and others 1968; Workman
entire, with strongly revolute margins. Leaves and herba- and West 1969). Seed quality and seedling vigor differ by
ceous stems have short white hairs that give the plant its collection (Booth 1992; Moyer and Lang 1976; Springfield
characteristic gray-green color and its Eurotia synonym 1968a), with some differences appearing as adaptive com-
(from the Greek euros, meaning mold). promise between seed quality and the demands of stressful
Winterfat habitats are characterized by drought and tem- environments (Booth 1990a; Booth and Haferkcamp 1995).
perature extremes. It grows in scattered clusters or uniform The selection of high-vigor lines may be possible (Riedl and
stands on dry plains, foothills, and mountains from western others 1964), but studies are needed to understand genetic
Nebraska and Texas to California and from northern Mexico and environmental interactions with seed quality and cultivar
to the prairie provinces and the Yukon Territory of Canada, adaptability.
north to the vicinity of Lake Kluane, Alaska (Coupland Flowering and fruiting. Flowers are small, gray-
1950; Hulten 1968; Stevens and others 1977; Welsh 1974). green, and inconspicuous and are likely cross-pollinated by
In the Great Basin, winterfat occupies thousands of hectares wind (Riedl and others 1964). The plants are dioecious or
in pure stands and may be found at elevations from the monoecious. Flowers bloom from June to August, depend-
lower Sonoran zone to ridges over 3,048 m in elevation ing on elevation and weather. Staminate flowers have a
(Stevens and others 1977). Soils supporting winterfat are 4-parted calyx with 4 exerted stamens. Pistillate flowers
low in sodium and other soluble salts but often high in car- have 2 styles emerging from between 2 united bracts. At
bonates of calcium and magnesium; soil textures vary from maturity the bracts have formed fluffy white diaspores
clays to sandy and rocky loams (Nelson 1962; Stevens and (seed-containing dispersal units) that decorate the fruiting
others 1977). spikes and function in seed dispersal, embryo protection,
Native stands are highly valued as forage for livestock and in promoting the establishment and survival of the
and wildlife (Asay 1959; Jones and Barclay 1972; Nelson seedling (Booth 1988, 1990b). Bract hairs are 2 to 8 mm
1905; Plummer and others 1968), but many have been long in spreading tufts (figure 1). Each pair of bracts enclose
depleted or destroyed by abusive grazing or by wildfire in an indehiscent, pubescent, 1-seeded fruit (utricle) (figure 2).
combination with the invasion of exotic annual grasses. The seedcoat is thin and transparent and is most easily dis-
Winterfat is regularly used in re-vegetating disturbed lands, cerned on naked imbibed or germinating seeds. Diaspores
has value as an ornamental, and is recommended for reseed- disperse in the fall or winter and collect in aggregations on
the soil surface (figure 3). Plants may produce seeds the first
Krascheninnikovia • 627
K Table 1— Krascheninnikovia lanata, winterfat: diaspore weights by source and harvest year
Diaspores/weight
Years Mean* Range
Source Collections harvested /g /oz /g /oz
Germination is most suitably tested by imbibing dias- ers 1997b; Booth 1989a; Hodgkinson 1975; Stevens and
pores at 0 to 5 °C for 4 or 5 days followed by incubation at others 1977). Ecotype, imbibition temperature, conditioning,
15 °C. A longer cold treatment, 6 to 15 days, may increase and stage of growth are factors influencing seed and
the germination rate and seedling vigor for some seedlots, seedling freeze-tolerance (Bai and others 1997b; Booth
especially those that are less than 3 months or more than 12 1989a; Hodgkinson 1975).
months after harvest. Seeds less than 3 months from harvest Winterfat can be transplanted as container-grown or
may require after-ripening (Springfield 1972). Germination bareroot plants. Shaw and Monsen (1984) recommended
is not affected by light (Hilton 1941) and is rapid at warm beds producing bareroot seedlings contain 167 to 222
temperatures. seedlings/m2 (15 to 20/ft2). These should be lifted as 1+0
Nursery and field practice. In the past, it was con- stock in the spring before they break dormancy. Shaw and
sidered important to thresh the seed from the diaspore to Monsen (1984) found that 93% of mechanically transplanted
simplify seeding with mechanized equipment (Springfield seedlings were alive after 5 growing seasons when these rec-
1974b). However, that practice is no longer recommended ommendations were followed.
because the bracts aid in seedling establishment, and thresh- Notes on nomenclature. The type specimen for win-
ing damages the seeds (Booth 1984, 1989a&b, 1990b; terfat was collected by the Lewis and Clark expedition “On
Booth and Schuman 1983). Broadcasting diaspores results the banks of the Missouri River, in open prairies” and was
in good establishment in depressions, in litter, and in pro- described as Diotis lanata by Pursh in 1814 (Pursh 1814).
tected sites (Stevens and others 1977). Diaspores can also be Moquin-Tendon (1840) placed the species in the genus
sown with a cultipacker (Luke and Monsen 1984), with a Eurotia (Adanson 1763) and listed as synonyms Diotis,
hydroseeder (Pellant and Reichert 1984), as pelleted dias- Axyris (Linnaeus 1753), Ceratoides (Gagnebin 1755), and
pores, and in seed tapes (Booth 1987a&b). Use of the cased- Krascheninnikovia (Gueldenstaedt 1772). For more than 2
hole punch seeder (Booth 1995) is effective and allows dias- centuries, botanical authors followed Adanson or Meyer’s
pores to be sown through fabric mulch. Natural establish- emended interpretation of Adanson’s description in major
ment occurs with cool temperatures and high surface mois- botanical works and in numerous papers dealing with win-
ture and with a mat of diaspores on the soil surface (figure terfat description, value, management, ecology, and culture
3) (Booth 1987b, 1989a, 1990b; Gasto 1969; Wilson 1931; (Meyer 1933, as cited by Howell 1971). In 1964, Ball reap-
Woodmansee and Potter 1971). Fall-seeding is recommend- plied the name Krascheninnikovia (Tutin and others 1964).
ed (Zabek and Romo 1998). Under-snow germination pro- Subsequently, Howell (1971) applied Ceratoides to E. lana-
duces vigorous seedlings and contributes to seeding success. ta, and Meeuse and Smit (1971) joined Tutin and others in
Winterfat seeds and seedlings can show freeze-tolerance using Krascheninnikovia. Chu, in his Flora of China, has
(Bai and others 1997a; Booth 1987b, 1989a; Hilton 1941; also choosen to use Krascheninnikovia (Stutz 1995). A 1976
Stricker 1956; Woodmansee and Potter 1971), but reduced attempt by the Russian Grubov to conserve (retain the use
germination or loss of seedlings can also occur (Bai and oth- of) the name Eurotia was rejected (Brummitt 1978).
References
Allen PS, Meyer SE, Davis TD. 1987. Determining seed quality of winterfat Booth DT, Agustrina R, Abernethy RH. 1999. Evidence of cell deterioration
[Ceratoides lanata (Pursh) J.T. Howell]. Journal of Seed Technology 11: in winterfat seeds during refrigerated storage. Journal of Range
7–14. Management 52: 290–295.
Asay KH. 1959. A study of Eurotia lanata [MS thesis]. Laramie: University of Brummitt RK. 1978. Proposal 413.2232. Eurotia Adanson (1763)
Wyoming. 34 p. Chenopodiaceae vs. Axyris Linnaeus (1753).Taxon 27: 288.
Agustrina R. 1995. The influence of imbibition temperature on germination, Coupland RT. 1950. Ecology of mixed prairie in Canada. Ecology
mitochondria structures, and proteins of winterfat (Ceratoides lanata Monographs 20: 271–315.
(Pursh) J.T. Howell) [PhD dissertation]. Laramie: University of Wyoming. Dettori ML, Ballitette HJ,Young JA, Evans RA. 1984. Temperature profiles
125 p. for germination of two species of winterfat. Journal of Range
Bai Y, Booth DT, Romo JT. 1998a. Low temperature exotherm did not mark Management 37: 218–222.
the death of hydrated winterfat (Eurotia lanata (Pursh) Moq.) seeds. Gasto JM. 1969. Comparative autecological studies of Eurotia lanata and
Annals of Botany 81: 595–602. Artiplex conferifolia [PhD dissertation]. Logan: Utah State University.
Bai Y, Booth DT, Romo JT. 1998b. Developmental stages of winterfat germi- 278 p.
nants related to survival after freezing. Journal of Range Management 51: Hilton JW. 1941. Effects of certain macroecological factors on the ger-
709–713. minability and early development of Eurotia lanata. Northwest Science
Bai Y, Booth DT, Romo JT. 1999. Imbibition temperature affects winterfat 15: 86–91.
(Eurotia lanata (Pursh) Moq.) seed hydration and cold-hardiness Hodgkinson HS. 1975. Evaluation of winterfat (Eurotia lanata) in
response. Journal of Range Management 52: 271–174. Washington. Journal of Range Management 28: 138–141.
Booth DT. 1984. Threshing damage to radicle apex affects geotrophic Howell JT. 1971. A new name for “winterfat”. Wasmann Journal of Biology
response of winterfat. Journal of Range Management 37: 222–225. 29: 105.
Booth DT. 1987a. Diaspores of rangeland plants: ecology and management. Hulten E. 1968. Flora of Alaska and neighboring territories. Stanford, CA:
In: Frasier GW, Evans RA, eds. Proceedings, Symposium on Seed and Stanford University Press. 1008 p.
Seedbed Ecology of Rangeland Plants; 1987 April 21–23;Tucson, AZ. Jones Q, Barclay AS. 1972. Industrial raw materials from shrubs. In: McKell
Washington, DC: USDA Agricultural Research Service: 202–211. CM and others, eds. Proceedings, Wildland Shrubs:Their Biology and
Booth DT. 1987b. Contributions to the reproductive autecology of winter- Utilization Symposium. 1971 July; Logan, UT. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-1.
fat [Eurotia lanata (Pursh) Moq] with notes on direct seeding methods Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range
[PhD dissertation]. Laramie: University of Wyoming. 187 p. Experiment Station: 101–108.
Booth DT. 1988. Winterfat diaspore morphology. Journal of Range Kearney TH, Peebles RH. 1960. Arizona flora. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University
Management 41:351-337. of California Press, 1085 p.
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Wallace A, Haferkamp MR, McArthur ED, comps. Proceedings, Leningrad: News of the Soviet Academy of Sciences: 977–1007.
Symposium on Shrub Ecophysiology and Biotechnology; 1987 June Luke F, Monsen SB. 1984. Methods and costs for establishing shrubs on
30–July 2; Logan, UT. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-256. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest mined lands in southwestern Wyoming. In:Tiedemann AR, and others,
Service, Intermountain Research Station: 83–89. comps. Proceedings, Symposium on the Biology of Atriplex and Related
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and their effect on germination and early plant growth. Journal of Range Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station:
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transpiration, wind stress and nutrition on seedling vigor. Journal of (Krascheninnikovia lanata). Native Plants Journal 4(1): 11–15.
Range Management 43: 20–24. Meeuse ADJ, Smit AH. 1971. A new combination in Krascheninnikovia.
Booth DT. 1990b. Plant diaspore functions. Journal of Seed Technology 14: Taxon 20: 644.
61–73. Meyer CA. 1833. Ledebour. Flora Altaica 4: 239.
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affects post-germination growth. Journal of Range Management 45: Paris.
159–164. Moyer JL, Lang RL. 1976. Variable germination response to temperature for
Booth DT. 1994. Unpublished data. Cheyenne, WY: USDA Agricultural different sources of winterfat seed. Journal of Range Management 29:
Research Service. 320–321.
Booth DT. 1995. Cased-hole punch seeder: a tool for increasing plant Munz PA, Keck DD. 1968. A California flora. Berkeley: University of
diversity. Abstracts, 48th Annual Meeting of the Society for Range California Press. 1681 p.
Management; 1995 January 14–20; Phoenix, AZ: 8. Nelson A. 1905. Wyoming forage plants and their chemical composition.
Booth DT, Griffith LW. 1984. Evaluation of air threshing for small lots of Bull. 65. Laramie: Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station.
winterfat fruits. Journal of Range Management 37: 286–287. Nelson JL. 1962. Selection and improvement of Eurotia lanata [MS thesis].
Booth DT, Haferkamp MR. 1995. Morphology and seedling establishment. Laramie: University of Wyoming. 62 p.
In: Sosebee R, Bedunah DJ, eds. Management of grazing lands: impor- Pellent M, Reichert L. 1984. Management and rehabilitation of a burned
tance of plant morphology and physiology to individual plant and com- winterfat community in southwestern Idaho. In:Tiedemann AR, and oth-
munity response. Denver: Society for Range Management. 239–290. ers, comps. Proceedings, Symposium on the Biology of Atriplex and
Booth DT, Schuman GE. 1983. Seedbed ecology of winterfat: fruits versus Related Chenopods; 1983 May 2–6; Provo, UT. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-172.
threshed seeds. Journal of Range Management 36: 387–390. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range
Booth DT, McDonald MB. 1994. Cation concentration in post-imbibed Experiment Station: 281–285.
winterfat seeds as influenced by imbibition temperature. Journal of Plummer AP, Christensen DR, Monsen SB. 1968. Restoring big-game range
Range Management 47: 485–488. in Utah. Pub. 68-3. Salt Lake City: Utah Division of Fish and Game.
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Krascheninnikovia • 629
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K and Son. 751 p. and wildlands. Rangelands 10: 104–105.
Riedl WA, Asay KH, Nelson JL, Delwar GM. 1964. Studies of Eurotia lanata Stevens R, Giunta BC, Jorgensen KR, Plummer AP. 1977. Winterfat
(winterfat). Bull. 425. Laramie: Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station. (Ceratoides lanata). Pub. 77-2. [Salt Lake City]: Utah State Division of
18 p. Wildlife Resources. 41 p.
Romo JT. 1995. Personal communication. Saskatoon: University of Stutz H. 1995. Personal communication. Provo, UT: Brigham Young
Saskatchewan. University.
Shaw, N, Monsen, SB. 1984. Nursery propagation and outplanting of bare- Tutin TG, Heywood VH, Burgess NA,Valentine DH, Walters SM, Webb DA,
root chenopod seedlings. In:Tiedemann AR, and others, comps. Ball PW, Chater AO, eds. 1964. Flora Europaea.Volume 1. Cambridge
Proceedings, Symposium on the Biology of Atriplex and Related UK: Cambridge University Press. 464 p.
Chenopods; 1983 May 2–6; Ogden, UT. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-172. Ogden, Wasser CH. 1945. High protein content makes winterfat valuable forage
UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment for Colorado ranges. Colorado Farm Bulletin 7: 6–7, 13.
Station: 251–260. Welsh SL. 1974. Anderson’s flora of Alaska. Provo, UT: Brigham Young
Springfield HW. 1968a. Germination of winterfat seeds under different University Press. 724 p.
moisture stresses and temperatures. Journal of Range Management 21: Wiersema J. 2000. Personal communication. Beltsville, MD: USDA
314–316. Agricultural Research Service.
Springfield HW. 1968b. Age and year of collection affect germination of Wilson CP. 1931. The artificial reseeding of New Mexico ranges. Bull. 189.
winterfat seeds. Res. Note RM-112. Fort Collins, CO: USDA Forest New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station.
Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 2 p. Woodmansee RG, Potter LD. 1971. Natural reproduction of winterfat
Springfield HW. 1968c. Cold storage helps winterfat seeds retain viability. (Eurotia lanata) in New Mexico. Journal of Range Management 24:
Journal of Range Management 21: 401–402. 24–30.
Springfield HW. 1972. Winterfat seeds undergo after-ripening. Journal of Workman JP, West NE. 1967. Germination of Eurotia lanata in relation to
Range Management 25: 479–480. temperature and salinity. Ecology 48: 659–661.
Springfield HW. 1973. Winterfat fruits and seeds retain high viability 3 years Workman JP, West NE. 1969. Ecotypic variation of Eurotia lanata popula-
in cold storage. Res. Note RM-233. Fort Collins, CO: USDA FS, Rocky tions in Utah. Botanical Gazette 130: 26–35.
Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 3 p. Zabek C, Romo JT. 1995. Seed-seedbed ecology and establishment of win-
Springfield HW. 1974a. Winterat seeds viable after 8 years refrigerated terfat. In: Romo JT, project leader. Seedbed requirements and cold toler-
storage. Journal of Range Management 27: 78. ance of winterfat seedlings: a adapted forage for the Canadian Prairies.
Springfield HW. 1974b. Eurotia lanata (Pursh) Moq., winterfat. In: Prog. Rep. 3. Saskatoon: University of Saskatchewan, Department of
Schopmeyer, CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United Crop Science and Plant Ecology: 7–15.
States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
398–400.
Strickler GSS. 1956. Factors affecting the growth of white-sage (Eurotia
lanata (Pursh) Moq.) [MS thesis]. City: University of Nevada. 125 p.
Laburnum Medik.
laburnum
Paula M. Pijut
Dr. Pijut is a research plant physiologist at the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Research Station,
Hardwood Tree Improvement and Regeneration Laboratory,West Lafayette, Indiana
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus racemes up to 60 cm in length, and a tolerance of alkaline
Laburnum includes 4 species of deciduous trees and shrubs soils (Dirr 1990; Krüssmann 1984).
native to central and southern Europe (Krüssmann 1984; Flowering and fruiting. The perfect, ornate, golden
LHBH 1976; Scheller 1974). Laburnum species have been yellow flowers are 1.9 cm long and are borne on 15- to 25-
cultivated for centuries, primarily for ornamental purposes. cm pendulous racemes; Scotch laburnum has racemes that
Laburnum arches and walks are a popular feature in many are 25 to 38 cm (Dirr 1990). Flowers bloom from May to
large gardens (Wasson 2001). The species is adaptable to June, and the flowers of Scotch laburnum and Waterer labur-
many soil types, including limestone, but prefers well- num ‘Vossii’ are fragrant (Hillier 1991; Krüssmann 1984).
drained soil and light shade (Dirr 1990; Krüssmann 1984; The fruit is a brown legume (pod), 5.1 to 7.6 cm long, with
Rudolf 1974). All parts of the plant, particularly the seeds, black seeds (figures 1 and 2) (Rudolf 1974). The legume of
are poisonous (Krüssmann 1984; LHBH 1976). Seeds and Scotch laburnum is winged, forming a knifelike edge (Dirr
other parts of the plant contain the alkaloid cytisine, which 1990). The seeds are tardily dehiscent, ripening from late
can be fatal to humans and animals (Dirr 1990; Greinwald August to October (Rudolf 1974). Each legume contains
and others 1990; Leyland 1981). The 2 species and a hybrid several black seeds (only 1 or 2 for Waterer laburnum
of interest are described in table 1. ‘Vossii’), and good seedcrops are borne annually
Scotch laburnum is a small tree with a short, sturdy (Krüssmann 1984; Rudolf 1974).
trunk and flat to round-topped crown; it is considered to be Collection of fruits; extraction, cleaning, and storage
the superior garden species (Dirr 1990). Common laburnum of seeds. Legumes should be harvested from the trees
tends to be a low branched, bushy, wide-spreading tree (Dirr beginning in September through November and spread out
1990; LHBH 1976). Waterer laburnum, a natural hybrid on flats in a shed or loft with good air circulation to dry
between Scotch and common laburnums, is a distinctly (Macdonald 1986; Rudolf 1974). Newspaper should be
upright, oval to round-headed small tree or shrub (Dirr placed over the legumes to prevent the seeds from being
1990). The foremost laburnum in cultivation today is ejected away from the flats. Seeds are extracted by breaking
Waterer laburnum ‘Vossii’, a superior tree with dense habit, the legumes by hand or by machine threshing (Macdonald
Table 1—Laburnum, laburnum: nomenclature, occurrence, growth habit, height at maturity, and date of first cultivation
Laburnum alpinum (Mill.) Scotch laburnum, S Alps, N Apennines, Tree 6.1 1596
J. Presl. alpine goldenchain NW Yugoslovia, S
L. anagyroides Medik. common laburnum, Slovakia & Czech Republic, Tree 6.1–9.1 1560
L. vulgare Bercht. & Presl. goldenchain tree & Central & S Europe
L. x watereri (Kirchn.) Dipp. Waterer laburnum, Observed (1856) wild Tree/shrub 3.7–4.6 1875
L. alpinum x L. anagyroides goldenchain tree in Tyrol & Switzerland,
now in cultivation
Sources: Dirr (1990), Hillier (1991), Krüssmann (1984), LHBH (1976).
Laburnum • 631
Figure 1—Laburnum anagyroides, common laburnum: Pregermination treatments. Laburnum seeds do not
L legume (top) and exterior view of a seed (bottom). germinate readily unless the impermeable, hard seedcoat is
ruptured by mechanical or sulfuric acid scarification.
Mechanical scarification of common laburnum seeds result-
ed in 99% germination (Stilinovic and Grbic 1988). Dirr and
Heuser (1987) reported that 30 to 60 minutes of sulfuric
acid treatment resulted in good germination. A sulfuric acid
treatment for 80 minutes and storage for at least 8 months
improved germination rates for common laburnum (Laroppe
and others 1996). A 2-hour sulfuric acid treatment resulted
in 68% (Scotch laburnum) and 100% (Waterer laburnum)
germination (Dirr and Heuser 1987). Seeds of Waterer labur-
num that were collected when the seedcoat was soft (late
July in Boston, Massachusetts) and left “as is”or punctured
with a needle produced uniform germination in 5 days (Dirr
Figure 2—Laburnum anagyroides, common laburnum: and Heuser 1987).
longitudinal section through a seed. Germination tests. Testing prescriptions of the
International Seed Testing Association (ISTA 1993) call for
mechanical scarification by piercing or by removing a piece
of the testa at the cotyledon end and soaking seeds in water
for 3 hours before testing them at alternating 20/30 °C for
21 days on germination paper. An alternative method is to
scarify seeds by soaking them in concentrated sulfuric acid
for 1 hour, washing, and germinating as above (ISTA 1993).
Tests of treated seeds can also be done at a constant 20 °C
for 14 days, and light is not required (Rudolf 1974).
Germination rates averaged about 80% in 7 days, and per-
centage germination about 86% in more than 12 tests (NBV
1946; Schubert 1955, cited by Rudolf 1974).
Nursery practice and seedling care. Scarified seeds
1986). The seeds and debris are separated by sieving or by may be sown broadcast or in drills in late spring at a rate of
using a directed flow of air. About 45 kg (100 lb) of 150 to 200/m2 (14 to 19/ft2) for lining-out stock and 100 to
legumes will yield about 11 kg (25 lb) of cleaned seeds 150/m2 (9 to 14/ft2) for rootstocks (Macdonald 1986). The
(Rudolf 1974). The following values for number of cleaned seeds are covered with 6 mm (1/4 inch) of soil. Field-plant-
seeds per weight for laburnum species have been found: ing has been done with 2+0 stock (Rudolf 1974). This
Scotch laburnum, 31,966 to 35,004/kg (14,500 to 15,878/lb); species can also be propagated by layering and rooting hard-
common laburnum, 35,273 to 37,478/kg (16,000 to wood cuttings taken during the fall and late winter; cultivars
17,000/lb); and Waterer laburnum, 40,917/kg (18,560/lb); are propagated by grafting or budding onto laburnum
with 85% germination and 90 to 99% purity, depending seedling rootstocks (Dirr and Heuser 1987; Hartmann and
upon cleaning techniques (Allen 1994). The dried legumes others 1990; LHBH 1976; Macdonald 1986; Whalley and
may be stored overwinter in sacks placed in a dry shed or Loach 1981, 1983). Micropropagation of Waterer laburnum
loft. Seeds stored dry in sacks will retain good viability for ‘Vossii’ has been reported, but plants cultured in vitro have
2 years (Dirr and Heuser 1987; NBV 1946, cited by Rudolf slowed growth as compared to plants multiplied by grafting
1974). (Gillis and Debergh 1992).
Allen DH. 1994. Personal communication. Sandwich, MA: F.W. Schumacher LHBH [Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium]. 1976. Hortus third: a concise dic-
Co. tionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York:
Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, Macmillan. 1290 p.
ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. Champaign, IL: Macdonald B. 1986. Practical woody plant propagation for nursery
Stipes Publishing Company. 1007 p. growers. Portland, OR:Timber Press. 669 p.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- NBV [Nederlandsche Boschbouw Vereeniging]. 1946. Boomzaden:
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. Handleiding inzake het oogsten, behandelen, bewaren en uitzaaien van
Gillis S, Debergh P. 1992. Preliminary results on micropropagation of boomzaden [in Dutch]. Wageningen,The Netherlands: Ponsen and
Laburnum watereri ‘Vossii’. Mededlingen van de Faculteit Looijen. 171 p.
Landbouwwetenschappen Rijksuniversiteit Gent 57(4a): 1553–1555. Rudolf PO. 1974. Laburnum anagyroides, laburnum. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech.
Greinwald R, Bachmann P, Witte L, Czygan FC. 1990. Cytisine-12-carboxy- coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450.
ethylester, a quinolizidine alkaloid from Laburnum watereri and its occur- Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 476–477.
rence in the leguminosae. Phytochemistry 29(1): 3553–3554. Scheller VH. 1974. Die Bestimmungsmerkmale der kultivierten Laburnum-
Hartmann HT, Kester DE, Davies FT. 1990. Plant propagation: principles and Arten. Mitteilungen der Deutschen Dendrologischen Gesellschaft 67:
practices. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 647 p. 45–51.
Hillier Nurseries (Winchester) Ltd. 1991. The Hillier manual of trees and Schubert J. 1955. Zür Prüfung hartschaligen Saatgutes von Robinia pseudoa-
shrubs. Melksham, Wiltshire: Redwood Press Ltd. 704 p. cacia L. Archiv für Forstwesen 4 (2/3): 241–269.
ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. International rules for Stilinovic S, Grbic M. 1988. Effect of various presowing treatments on the
seed testing: rules 1993. Seed Science & Technology 21 (Suppl.): 1–259. germination of some woody ornamental seeds. Acta Horticulturae
Krüssmann G. 1984. Manual of cultivated broad-leaved trees and shrubs. 226(1): 239–245.
Volume 2, E–Pro. Beaverton, OR: Timber Press. 445 p. Wasson E. 2001. Trees and shrubs: illustrated A–Z of over 8500 plants.
Laroppe E, Muller C, Boulet-Gercourt B. 1996. Levee de dormance des Willoughby, NSW, Australia: Global Book Publishing. 928 p.
graines de trios legumineuses arbores [Breaking dormancy of three legu- Whalley DN, Loach K. 1981. Rooting of two genera of woody ornamentals
minous tree species]: Robinia pseudoacacia, Laburnum anagyroides, and from dormant, leafless (hardwood) cuttings and their subsequent estab-
Cytisus scoparius. Foret Entreprise 109: 47–51. lishment in containers. Journal of Horticultural Science 56(2): 131–138.
Leyland A. 1981. Laburnum (Cytisus laburnum) poisoning in two dogs. Whalley DN, Loach K. 1983. Establishment in containers of woody orna-
Veterinary Record 109(13): 287. mentals propagated from dormant leafless cuttings. Combined
Proceedings of the International Plant Propagators’ Society 32: 186–199.
Laburnum • 633
L Lythraceae—Loosestrife family
Lagerstroemia L.
crape-myrtle
Jean-Jacques B. Dubois and Frank A. Blazich
Dr. Dubois is a plant physiologist at the USDA Agricultural Research Service’s Plant Science Research
Unit, Raleigh, North Carolina; Dr. Blazich is alumni distinguished graduate professor of plant propagation and tis-
sue culture at North Carolina State University’s Department of Horticultural Science, Raleigh, North Carolina.
Occurrence, growth habit, and uses. There are Crape-myrtles are deciduous trees or shrubs exhibiting
about 55 species in the crape-myrtle genus—Lagerstroemia. considerable variability in height; they range from 0.9 to 10
They are indigenous primarily to the Asian and Pacific m tall, with occasional specimens reaching 14 m (Dirr 1998;
island tropics but also occur in China, India, Korea, Japan, Egolf and Andrick 1978). They are observed commonly as
and Australia (Bärner 1962; LHBH 1976). Many are impor- upright, multi-stemmed plants, the bottom third to half
tant timber species, producing wood of quality suitable for devoid of leaves, generally exposing very handsome, sinuate
cabinetry and construction that is also highly resistant to trunks (Dirr 1998; Egolf and Andrick 1978). The crown is
decay and destructive insects (Bärner 1962; Howard 1948). variably rounded to vase-shaped. Queen’s crape-myrtle may
Three species are cultivated in North America, all for their reach 24 m in height in the United States and 30 m in the
horticultural interest (table 1). Asian tropics (Chudnoff 1980).
One species of crape-myrtle, Lagerstroemia indica L., As a result of their ornamental attributes, crape-myrtles
and its hybrids with L. fauriei Koehne—both of which are are used extensively as landscape plants. Due to their broad
called crape-myrtle—are used widely in landscape plantings range of heights, they can be observed growing as specimen
in warmer parts of the continental United States, particularly plants, hedges, mass plantings, or lining streets and alleys
the South. Lagerstroemia indica is indigenous to China, (Dirr 1998; Egolf 1981a&b, 1986a&b, 1987a&b, 1990a&b).
whereas L. fauriei was introduced in 1956 by Creech (1958, Crape-myrtles have also been maintained successfully as
1985) from seeds collected on Yakushima Island, Japan. herbaceous perennials by annual hard pruning to the ground,
Many cultivars have been named, including a few of strict and they are treated as herbaceous plants where winter tem-
L. fauriei parentage (Dirr 1998; Egolf and Andrick 1978; peratures are low enough to kill aerial portions without
Raulston and Tripp 1995). Cultivars of crape-myrtles are injuring the roots (Everett 1981; Huxley 1992). Although
typically cold hardy to USDA Zone 7, but some cultivars widely adaptable, crape-myrtles grow best in full sun and in
have withstood temperatures of –23 °C without injury heavy loam to clay soils with a pH of 5.0 to 6.5 (Egolf
(Egolf 1990b). There have been reports of tropical species, 1981a&b, 1986a&b, 1987a&b, 1990a&b; Egolf and Andrick
particularly Queen’s crape-myrtle, growing in frost-free por- 1978). Crape-myrtles are not grown in the United States for
tions of the United States corresponding to USDA Zones 10 timber use.
and 11 (Egolf and Andrick 1978; Everett 1981; Menninger
1962).
Lagerstroemia • 635
Pregermination treatments and germination tests. greenhouse, such seedlings will make rapid growth, and
L
Seeds germinate readily without pretreatment, although often bloom the first summer from a December or January
stratification (moist prechilling) for 1 month at 4 °C is sowing. Dirr (1998) reported that germination occurs in 2 to
sometimes advised to synchronize germination (Dirr and 3 weeks for seeds sown immediately following collection in
Heuser 1987; Raulston and Tripp 1995). There are no offi- January. Seedling populations of crape-myrtles, whether of
cially prescribed test procedures for this genus. However, hybrid origin or not, are noted for heterogeneity in height,
Babele and Kandya (1986) demonstrated that tetrazolium flower color, floriferousness, and cold hardiness.
staining is a reliable and rapid technique for determining At present, commercial propagation of crape-myrtles is
seed viability of L. parviflora Roxb. primarily by stem cuttings. Softwood, hardwood, or root
Nursery practice, and seedling care. Egolf and cuttings have been used successfully (Dirr and Heuser 1987;
Andrick (1978) reported that without stratification, seeds Egolf 1990b; Egolf and Andrick 1978; Hartmann and others
sown at 15 °C germinated within 10 days. They recom- 2002). Micropropagation techniques have also been reported
mended that seedlings be transplanted into individual pots (Yamamoto and others 1994; Zhang and Davies 1986).
shortly after emergence and then fertilized lightly. In a warm
References
Babele GS, Kandya AK. 1986. Use of TTC for rapid testing of the viability Egolf DR, Andrick AO. 1978. The Lagerstroemia handbook/checklist. Los
of Lagerstroemia parviflora (Roxb.) seeds. Journal of Tropical Forestry Angeles: American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta. 72 p.
2(3): 226–231. Everett TH. 1981. The New York Botanical Garden illustrated encyclopedia
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Chudnoff M. 1980. Tropical timbers of the world. Madison, WI: USDA Kester’s plant propagation: principles and practices. 7th ed. Upper Saddle
Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 831 p. [reprinted in 1984 as River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 880 p.
Agric. Handbk. 607. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service]. Howard AL. 1948. A manual of the timbers of the world. London:
Creech JL. 1958. Exploring southern Japan for ornamental plants. National Macmillan. 751 p.
Horticultural Magazine 37(2): 75–94. Huxley A., ed. 1992. The new Royal Horticultural Society dictionary of gar-
Creech JL. 1985. The National Arboretum does more than gather seeds. dening.Volume 3. London: Macmillan. 790 p.
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Dirr MA. 1998. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, seed. Dehra Dun, India: Indian Council of Forestry Research & Education.
ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation and uses. Champaign, IL: 409 p.
Stipes Publishing Company. 1187 p. LHBH [Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium]. 1976. Hortus third: a concise dic-
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- tionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. 3d ed. New
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. York: Macmillan. 1290 p.
Egolf DR. 1981a. ‘Muskogee’ and ‘Natchez’ Lagerstroemia. HortScience Menninger EA. 1962. Flowering trees of the world for tropics and warm
16(4): 576–577. climates. New York: Hearthside Press. 336 p.
Egolf DR. 1981b. ‘Tuscarora’ Lagerstroemia. HortScience 16(6): 788–789. Mizel III RF, Knox GW. 1993. Susceptibilty of crape myrtle, Lagerstroemia
Egolf DR. 1986a. ‘Tuskegee’ Lagerstroemia. HortScience 21(4): 1078–1080. indica, to the crape myrtle aphid (Homoptera: Aphidae) in North Florida.
Egolf DR. 1986b. ‘Acoma’, ‘Hopi’, ‘Pecos’, and ‘Zuni’ Lagerstroemia. Journal of Entomological Science 28(1): 1–7.
HortScience 21(5): 1250–1252. Raulston JC,Tripp KE. 1995. The year in trees. Portland, OR:Timber Press.
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Egolf DR. 1987b. ‘Apalachee’, ‘Comanche’, ‘Lipan’, ‘Osage’, ‘Sioux’, and ‘Yuma’ Micropropagation of crape myrtle (Lagerstroemia indica L. ). Combined
Lagerstroemia. HortScience 22(4): 674–677. Proceedings of the International Plant Propagators’ Society 44: 254–258.
Egolf DR. 1990a. ‘Caddo’ and ‘Tonto’ Lagerstroemia. HortScience 25(5): Zhang ZM, Davies Jr. FT. 1986. In vitro culture of crape myrtle. HortScience
585–587. 21(4): 1044–1045.
Egolf DR. 1990b. ‘Choctaw’ Lagerstroemia. HortScience 25(8): 992–993.
Larix P. Mill.
larch
Raymond C. Shearer
Dr. Shearer is a research forester at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station
Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana
Occurrence. The larches—Larix P. Mill.—of the as demonstrated at the Wind River Arboretum in southwest-
world are usually grouped into 10 species that are widely ern Washington, where 7 larch species, some with several
distributed over much of the mountainous, cooler regions of varieties, and 1 hybrid were planted from 1913 to 1939
the Northern Hemisphere (Hora 1981; Krüssmann 1985; (Silen and Olson 1992). European larches there are doing
Ostenfeld and Larsen 1930; Rehder 1940; Schmidt 1995). better than Asian species in this warm, moist Washington
Some species dominate at the northern limits of boreal state climate. The native western larch specimens from more
forests and others occur above subalpine forests (Gower and continental climates with lower humidity are doing poorly.
Richards 1990). Seven species are included (table 1)—the In 1992, a larch arboretum containing all species, several
others, Master larch (L. mastersiana Rehd. & Wils.), varieties, and 3 hybrids of larch was established at Hungry
Chinese larch (L. potaninii Batal.), and Himalayan larch Horse, Montana, within the natural range of western larch
(L. griffithiana (Carr.))—are rarely planted in the United (Shearer and others 1995).
States. All species (except possibly Himalayan larch) are Growth habit. Larix is one of the few conifer genera
hardy in the United States (Bailey 1939). However, the with deciduous needles. The trees are valued for their light
seeds should come from a site with comparable conditions, green hues in the spring and shades of yellow to gold in the
Larix • 637
fall. Branching is usually pyramidal with spreading branches Conversely, low genetic variation occurs among popula-
L
(Hora 1981). Maximum height for the 10 species ranges tions of western larch for growth, phenology, and cold hardi-
widely, influenced by elevation and site conditions. ness (Rehfeldt 1982) compared with other Rocky Mountain
Subalpine and Chinese larches often grow at or near timber- conifers. Rehfeldt (1983) identified an 11% variation associ-
line and mature trees may reach only 7 to 13 m in height ated with the elevation of the seed source and recommended
(Krüssmann 1985). The tallest known subalpine larch, as that seedlots not be transferred more than ± 29 m or ± 2
reported by Arno and Habeck (1972), grows on a protected, contour bands. Based on genetic variation in allozymes of
favorable site and reached 46 m. Western larch, tallest of the western larch seeds, Fins and Seeb (1986) cautioned trans-
world’s larch species, can reach about 61 m (Schmidt and ferring seeds from eastern Washington to north Idaho and
others 1976; Schmidt and Shearer 1990). recommended that seedlots for planting should include seeds
Use. Of the 3 American species, tamarack and western from a diversity of locations within an area. Hall (1985)
larch are used for reforestation. Because of its rot resistance, concluded that yields of cones and seeds from interspecific
larch wood is especially valuable for posts, transmission and intraspecific crosses and open-pollinated seeds of
poles, railroad ties, and mine props. Most larches are now European larch were reduced in hybrid crosses compared to
recognized as important for timber production, habitat or non-hybrid crosses. Wide variation in yield suggests that
food for wildlife, watershed protection, environmental both genetic and environmental factors are important in con-
forestry, and also for ornamental purposes (Rudolf 1974). trolling yield of seeds.
Venetian turpentine can be obtained by tapping larches; a Hybrids. Larches hybridize readily (Rudolf 1974;
water-soluble trisaccharide sugar melecitose is extracted Lewandowski and others 1994; Young and Young 1992), and
from wood chips (Dallimore and Jackson 1967; Hora 1981). geographic isolation is a major factor for lack of hybridiza-
Probably because of this high sugar content, black bears— tion. Natural hybrids of western and subalpine larches occur
Ursus americanus cinnamomum—often seek out vigorous where their ranges overlap (Carlson and Blake 1969;
young pole-size western larch in late spring and feed on the Carlson and others 1990). Seeds from natural hybrid trees
inner bark and cambium, usually on the lower 1 to 2 m of closely resemble those of western larch (Carlson and
the trees (Schmidt and Gourley 1992). Often the trees are Theroux 1993). Reciprocal cross pollinations between west-
girdled and die; partially girdled trees frequently produce ern and subalpine larches were successful, and germination
large cone crops following damage (Shearer and Schmidt of seeds from these crosses was higher than that of seeds
1987). from either parent (Carlson 1994).
Genetics. Larch species vary widely in growth rates, L. kaempferi × decidua, known as L. × eurolepis A.
cold hardiness, form, pest resistance, and other characteris- Henry and commonly called Dunkeld larch, originated about
tics. This variability is often under strong genetic control 1900. It has been planted extensively in northwestern
and genetic gain is expected through tree improvement Europe and to a lesser extent in the eastern United States
efforts (Eysteinsson and Greenwood 1995). Winter hardi- and Canada because it combines desirable characteristics of
ness, change in foliage color, and cessation of height growth both parent species and grows faster than either (Eliason
of Japanese larch were correlated with latitude of prove- 1942; MacGillivray 1969). L. kaempferi × sibirica, known
nance origin, but date of bud flush was not (Toda and as L. × marschlinsii Coaz, was originated in 1901. L. larici-
Mikami 1976). Further, branching habit, stem crookedness, na × decidua, known as L. pendula Salisb. or weeping larch,
spiral grain, and disease susceptibility varied between prove- was originated before 1800 (Rehder 1940). Many other larch
nances. Genetic variation of tamarack throughout its range is hybrids are known. Several larch species and hybrids were
comparable to other species of woody plants with extensive tested as potential short-rotation fiber crops for the
ranges (Cheliak and others 1988). Based on genetic differ- Northeast and the Great Lakes region (Einspahr and others
ences in total height and survival of 210 clones of 5-year-old 1984) and in Wisconsin (Riemenschneider and Nienstaedt
vegetatively propagated tamarack in central New Brunswick, 1983); Dunkeld larch showed best growth in both studies.
Park and Fowler (1987) believed that clonal forestry was a Seeds from a single provenance of Japanese larch and 6
good option for this species. Farmer and others (1993) also provenances of European larch had, after 5 years, 3 times
showed genetic variation in height of tamarack was related the growth potential of seeds from native red pine (Pinus
to rate and duration of shoot elongation and from differences resinosa Ait.) in another Wisconsin study (Lee and Schabel
in late-season elongation. 1989).
Larix • 639
The seed cones and pollen cones usually are differentiated in Figure 1—Larix occidentalis, western larch: seed with
L wing.
terminal positions on short-shoot axes that completed at
least 1 cycle of annual growth (Krüssman 1985; Owens and
Molder 1979a). However, the seed and pollen cone buds of
tamarack (Powell and others 1984) and Japanese larch
(Powell and Hancox 1990) can differentiate laterally on long
shoots the year they elongate. Furthermore, as tamarack
plantations go from 5, 6, to 7 years of age, the number of
trees bearing seed and pollen cones and the number of cones
per tree increased each year (Tosh and Powell 1991). Top-
grafting buds of 2-, 5-, 9-, 45-, and 59-year-old Japanese
larch on 17-year-old trees shortened the time to produce
female and male strobili by about 5 years over untreated
controls (Hamaya and others 1989). Loffler (1976) found Figure 2—Larix, larch: longitudinal section through a
that yield of European larch seeds in seed orchards usually seed of L. laricina, tamarack (top) and a de-winged seed of
L. occidentalis, western larch (bottom).
increased with graft age and in comparison to the natural
forest, the cones provided more and larger seeds of better
quality. Ten years after planting in a common garden, west-
ern larch cone production was twice as great for trees graft-
ed with mature scions as for seedlings and five times greater
than for rooted cuttings (Fins and Reedy 1992). The number
of seed and pollen cones increased on 30- to 32-year-old
western larch as average spacing expanded from 2 m to 3 m
and wider (Shearer and Schmidt 1987). The average number
of cones produced per tree during a good cone crop
increased 27 times as the diameter classes increased from 10
to 15 cm to 30 to 36 cm, a reflection of the greater crown
volume (Shearer 1986). Xu (1992) found similar relation-
ships for Dahurian larch in China.
There was no relationship of the number of cone scales
of Olga Bay larch or their color, shape, size, or structure to
site characteristics, developmental stage of trees, or other
biological factors (Suo 1982). Developing larch cones range
in color from red to green with a range of intermediate
shades. Raevskikh (1979) reported that red- and green-coned
forms of Dahurian larch produced better quality seeds than
did rosy-coned forms. Western larch cones are red, green,
and brown in color, but no differences were detected in seed
quality by color (Shearer 1977). Ripe cones become brown-
ish and have woody scales, each of which bears 2 seeds at
the base (Dallimore and Jackson 1967; Rehder 1940). The
seed has a crustaceous, light-brown outer coat; a membrana- A 10-year phenological record of western larch in the
ceous, pale chestnut-brown, lustrous inner coat; a light-col- Northern Rocky Mountains showed a wide range in time of
ored female gametophyte; and a well-developed embryo bud-burst, pollination, and cone opening (Schmidt and
(figures 1 and 2) (Dallimore and Jackson 1967; Rehder Lotan 1980). A 21-year phenological study of subalpine
1940). Occasionally, atypical cones are found on larches. larch showed that spring temperature, not photoperiod, was
Tosh and Powell (1986) identified and studied proliferated a chief factor that determined bud-burst date (Worrall 1993).
and bisporangiate cones on tamarack planted 5 or 6 years Morphological studies increased our understanding of char-
earlier. acteristics of cones and seeds of tamarack (O’Reilly and
Larix • 641
Atmospheric fluorides can reduce the size of seeds, per- European larch plants were produced that use Agrobac-
L
centage germination, numbers of seeds per cone, and num- terium-mediated single gene transfer to promote insect (Bt
bers of cones per tree. Reproductive failure and mortality of toxin gene) and herbicide (aroA gene) resistance.
tamarack in Newfoundland have resulted in their replace- Collection of cones. Larch cones should be collected
ment by more tolerant species (Sidhu and Staniforth 1986). as soon as they ripen; different species ripen at various times
Micropropagation and genetic engineering. from August to December (table 2). Larch cones are picked
Micropropagation techniques can supplement reliance on from trees in forests, seed production areas, seed orchards,
larch seeds for a broad range of tree improvement and and potted tree collections or they can be gathered from
regeneration needs. Karnosky (1992) suggests biotechnology felled trees, slash, or squirrel caches. In Tyrol, European
can help produce genetically superior larch by (1) mass larch seeds were picked from the snow by hand; they can
propagation, (2) disease screening, and (3) transfer of genet- also be gathered in late winter from canvas spread on the
ic information through genetic engineering techniques. ground before the trees were shaken to release the seeds
Organogenesis from young and mature larch callus tissues is (Rudolf 1974). In most species, ripe cones are brown. Tests
reported (Bonga 1984; Chapula 1989). Lelu and others show that seedcoats are hard and that female gametophytes
(1993) developed somatic embryogenesis techniques for are firm. Often seeds mature earlier than expected and the
several species and hybrids of larch. Full-sib immature period for cone collection for tamarack (Smith 1981) and
zygotic embryos were produced from induction of embryon- western larch (Shearer 1977) can be expanded. Cones of
al masses for European and Dunkeld larches and Larix × Siberian larch should be harvested when needles start to turn
leptoeuropaea (Lelu and others 1994a). Thompson and von yellow to assure high-quality seeds (Lobanov 1985). Data
Aderkas (1992) successfully regenerated western larch from on height, seed-bearing age, seed crop frequency, and
immature embryos. Protoplasts of Dunkeld larch can be ripeness criteria are listed in tables 3 and 4.
effectively isolated from embryonal mass and cultured to Exraction of seeds. Freshly collected cones should be
produce somatic plantlets (Charest and Klimaszewska spread out in thin layers to dry in the sun or in well-ventilat-
1994). Further, Lelu and others (1994b) showed that the ed cone sheds. The cones can be opened by solar heat, by
number of mature somatic embryos of Larix × leptoeuro- heating in a cone kiln or room, or by tearing them apart
paea produced per gram (fresh weight) of embryonal mass mechanically (Rudolf 1974; Tkachenko and others 1939).
was influenced by embryogenic line, sucrose concentration, Recommended kiln schedules are 8 hours at 49 °C for
and abscisic acid concentration. No universal maturation tamarack and 7 to 9 hours at 43 °C for western larch
medium was recommended because of the interactive effects (Rudolf 1974).
of these 3 factors. High plantlet survival was achieved in the After opening, cones should be run through a shaker to
greenhouse through either of 2 acclimatization methods remove the seeds. Sometimes equipment must be modified
(Lelu and others (1994c). In gymnosperms, gene transfer to extract larch seeds (Saralidze and Saralidze 1976). Seeds
was first accomplished in European larch; transfer was can then be de-winged by a de-winging machine, by tread-
mediated by Agrobacterium rhizogenes and subsequent ing in a grain sack, or by hand-rubbing. The integument,
regeneration of the transgenic plants (Huang and others which attaches the wing to the seed, is difficult to remove in
1991). Shin and others (1994a&b) reported that transgenic normal processing without damage (Edwards 1987). Finally,
Sources: Arno and Habeck (1972), Asakawa and others (1981),Chinese Academy of Sciences (1978), Kaigorodov (1907), Ohmasa (1956), Rudolf (1974), Shearer (1990),
Tkachenko and others (1939).
Sources: Arno and Habeck (1972), Asakawa and others (1981), ODLF (1962, 1966), Schmidt and Shearer (1990),Tulstrup (1952).
Sources: Raevskikh (1979), Rehder (1940), Rudolf (1974), Shearer (1977), Suo (1982)
seeds should be cleaned with a blower or fanning mill. A 50% were sound; most of the unsound seeds had incom-
mechanical macerator is routinely used for processing tama- pletely developed embryos and endosperm (Farmer and
rack cones and for de-winging larch seeds (Wang 1995). Reinholt 1986). Hall and Brown (1977) found similar condi-
Seed yields for 5 species are listed in table 5 and the number tions among seeds of European and Japanese larches and
of cleaned seeds for 7 species is shown in table 6. Simak their hybrids. Seeds of western larch also have a high pro-
(1973) reported that, although European larch seeds can be portion of embryo failures (Owens and Molder 1979b). Use
upgraded by flotation in 80% to absolute alcohol for 5 to 15 of X-radiography was recommended to evaluate the quality
minutes with a loss of less than 5% germinability, he recom- of tamarack seeds because flotation in 95% ethanol killed
mended using water as an optimal liquid for flotation. In 52% of germinable seeds (Eavy and Houseweart 1987). A
addition, Simak (1966) also reported that a seed sample of purity of 80% and a viability (germinative capacity) of 20%
Himalayan larch had 28% filled seeds and weighed 4.68g were recommended in 1966 as minimum standards for west-
/1,000 seeds (214,000 seeds/kg). Cooling cones and seeds of ern larch (WFTSC 1966). Current standards for tree seeds to
western larch so that the resin forms globules and becomes be certified under OECD Certification in Ontario require a
less sticky facilitates extraction and cleaning (Zensen 1980). minimum of 95% purity for tree seeds, resulting in an aver-
Purity of larch seedlots has ranged from 84 to 94%, but age germinability of 75 to 80% at 15 years for tamarack
filled seed values have consistently been low at 50 to 70% (Wang 1995).
(Rudolf 1974). The low percentage of filled seed may be Storage of seeds. Because larch seeds can be stored
attributed to the development of many unfertilized seeds and for long periods at seed moisture contents of 5 to 10% in
to woody or resin deposits in them. The woody tissue or sub-freezing temperatures, Bonner (1990) classifies them as
resin hinders their removal in the cleaning process (Edwards “true orthodox” seeds. Gordon (1992) found that larch seeds
can be stored at 6 to 8% moisture content at 1 to 3 °C for 25
1987; Rudolf 1974). In lots of tamarack seeds from Ontario,
years with little or no loss of germination quality. European
Larix • 643
larch seeds keep well for a year or two if stored in the cones moist medium usually hastens the germination process.
L (Rudolf 1974). Tamarack seeds store very well at 2 °C for Subalpine larch has a thick seedcoat and seeds rarely germi-
10 years (Wang 1982). Details on seed storage for 6 species nate after 30 days of stratification on moist blotting paper,
are shown in table 7. There was no significant difference in but Carlson (1994) and Shearer and Carlson (1993) obtained
viability of European larch seeds stored at 0 °C or in liquid good germination by stratifying seeds for 30 days in a
nitrogen (–196 °C) for 1 to 6 days (Ahuja 1986). European slightly acid, sphagnum-based soil. Germination of sub-
larch seeds (Sudeten source) collected in 1956 and stored at alpine larch also improved after seeds were soaked in 1%
9% moisture content showed little decrease in germination, hydrogen peroxide for periods of 6 to 24 hours (Shearer
if any at all, over a 12-year period (Hill 1976). 1961). Other pre-germination treatments used for western
Pregermination treatments. Seeds of most larch larch seeds include soaking them in water for 18 days at
species germinate without pretreatment, but stratification in 1 °C or in USP 3% hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) for 12 to 24
Sources: Asakawa and others (1981), Eliason (1942), Eremko and others (1989), NBV (1946), Ohmasa (1956), ODLF (1966), Rudolf (1974),Tulstrup (1952).
* Here, 1.81 kg of seeds were extracted from 45.36 kg of cones (Gorshenin 1941).
Sources: Asakawa and others (1981), Eliason (1942), Heit and Eliason (1940), NBV (1946), Ohmasa (1956), ODLF (1966), Rudolf (1974), Shearer (1961, 1977), Simak
(1967).
* Alpine race.
† Sudeten race.
L. decidua 9 9–10 12
7.5 2–4 14
L. gmelinii 6.2 2–4 15
L. laricina 7 2 10
5.5–9.8 2–4 17–18
L. kaempferi 12.1 2–4 23
L. lyallii 4–8 -18 —
L. occidentalis 6–9 -18 —
6 4 16*
L. sibirica 6–8 1–3 25
6 2–4 13
Sources: Heit (1967), Kiaer (1950), Rudolf (1974), Schubert (1954),Wang (1982),
Wang and others (1993).
* Viability of 5% retained after 16 years of storage.
Larix • 645
L
646
Table 8—Larix, larch: germination test conditions and results
Sources: AOSA (1993), Carlson and Blake (1969), Heit and Eliason (1940), ISTA (1993), Rudolf (1974), Shearer (1961), Simancik (1968).
* Daily light period was 8 to 16 hours.
† Constant temperatures at 26 °C and at 20 °C also were used.
‡ Cold stratification generally recommended for at least 21 days.
§ Constant temperatures at 24 °C and at 20 °C also were used.
// Seeds were soaked in USP 3% H2O2 for 24 hours in lieu of stratification.
Mulch
Sowing Seedlings Sowing depth Depth Tree Outplanting
Species season /m2 /ft2 mm in Type mm in percent age (yrs)
L. decidua Fall or spring 431–538 40–50 3–6 0.13–.25 Straw, litter, or burlap* — — 10 2+0, 1+1, 2+1, or 1+2
L. laricina Fall 269 25 6 0.25 None — — 35 2+0
L. leptolepis Spring† 753–861 70–80 3–6 0.13–.25 None — — 10–20 1+1 or 2+1
L. occidentalis Spring† 323–592 30–35 3–6 0.13–.25 Sawdust 10 .38 40 1+0
L. sibirica Spring† 323–431 30–40 3–6 0.13–.25 — — — 30 2+0 & 1+1
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seedlings of western larch. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 7(4): tral Wisconsin. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry 6(1): 31–33.
108–109. Lelu MA, Klimaszewska KK, Jones C, Ward C, von Aderkas P, Charest PJ. 1993.
Fins L, Seeb LW. 1986. Genetic variation in allozymes of western larch. A laboratory guide to somatic embryogenesis in spruce and larch. Info.
Canadian Journal of Forest Research 16: 1013–1018. Rep. PI-X-111. Chalk River, ON: Forestry Canada, Petawawa National
Genys JB. 1960. Geographic variation in European larch. Res. Demo. Forest Forestry Institute. 57 p.
Bull. 13. Concord: New Hampshire Forestry and Recreation Lelu MA, Bastien C, Klimaszewska K, Ward C, Charest PJ. 1994a. An
Commission. 100 p. improved method for somatic plantlet production in hybrid larch (Larix
Golyadkin AI, Demidenko, IM, Shalamov VP. 1972. The effect of electromag- × leptoeuropaea): 1. Somatic embryo maturation. Plant Cell,Tissue and
netic field on the sowing quality of conifer seeds. Referativnyi Zhurnal Organ Culture 36: 107–115.
78–81. Lelu MA, Bastien C, Klimaszewska K, Charest PJ. 1994b. An improved
Gordon AG. 1992. Seed storage. In: Gordon AG, ed. Seed manual for forest method for somatic plantlet production in hybrid larch (Larix × leptoeu-
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Gower ST, Richards JH. 1990. Larches: deciduous conifers in an evergreen Tissue and Organ Culture 36: 117–127.
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Hakansson A. 1960. Seed development in Larix. Botaniska Notiser 113: immature and mature zygotic embryos and from cotyledons and nee-
29–40. dles of somatic plantlets of Larix. Canadian Journal of Forest Research
Hall JP. 1981. Yield of seed in Larix laricina in Newfoundland. Canadian 24: 100–106.
Forestry Service Research Notes 1(1): 1–2. Lester DT. 1965. Provenance studies in the North Central Region. In: Read
Hall JP. 1985.Variation in seed quantity and quality in two grafted clones of RA, ed. Proceedings, Central States Forest Tree Improvement
European larch (Larix decidua Mill.). Silvae Genetica 34(2/3): 51–56. Conference; 1964 October 1–3; Lincoln, NE. Lincoln: Nebraska
Hall JP, Brown IR. 1977. Embryo development and yield of seed in Larix. Agricultural Experiment Station: 35–37.
Silvae Genetica 26 (2/3): 77–84. Lewandowski A, Kosinski G. 1989. Spring frost damage of European larch
Hamaya T, Sasaki C, Kurahashi A. 1989. Effectiveness of top-budding on the flowers. Arboretum Kornickie 32: 145–150.
acceleration of maturity and flower setting of larch species: 1. Shortening Lewandowski A, Nikkanen T, Burczyk J. 1994. Production of hybrid seed in a
of the juvenile stage in the top-budded ramets of Japanese larch. Journal seed orchard of two larch species, Larix siberica and Larix decidua.
of Japanese Forestry 71(6): 232–240. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 9: 214–217.
Hattemer H. 1968. Versuche zur geographischen Variation bei der Li XJ, Burton PJ, Leadem CL. 1994. Interactive effects of light and stratifica-
Japanischer Lärche. Silvae Genetica 17 (5/6): 186–192 and 18 (1/ 2): tion on the germination of some British Columbia conifers. Canadian
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Heimburger C. 1970. Notes on forest tree breeding in Japan. Info. Rep. Lobanov AI. 1985. Phenological indicators of the time to start collecting
M-X-21. Fredericton, NB: Canadian Forest Service, Forest Research Larix siberica cones. Lesnoe Khpzyaistvo 12: 31–32 [in: Forestry
Laboratory. 40 p. Abstracts 47(9): 622; 4508].
Heit CE. 1967. Propagation from seed: 10. Storage methods for conifer Loffler J. 1976. Experience of seed production in seed orchards.
seeds. American Nurseryman 126(8): 14–15. Mitteilungen,Verein für Forstliche Standortskunde und
Heit CE, Eliason EJ. 1940. Coniferous tree seed testing and factors affecting Forstpflanzenzuchtung 25: 53–58. [in: Forestry Abstracts 38(7): 346;
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Agricultural Experiment Station. 45 p. Logan KT, Polland DFW. 1981. Effect of seed weight and germination rate
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storage.Tree Planter’s Notes 27(2): 2–3. 28–29.
Hora FB. 1981. Larches (genus Larix). In: Hora B, ed.The Oxford encyclo- MacGillivray HG. 1969. Larches for reforestation and tree improvement in
pedia of trees of the world. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press: 76–79. eastern Canada. Forestry Chronicle 45(6): 440–444.
Hrabi L. 1989. Pre-sowing treatment of European larch (Larix europaea) McComb AL. 1955. The European larch: its races, site requirements and
seeds by dipping. Lesnictvi 35(2): 131–142. characteristics. Forest Science 1: 298–318.
Huang Y, Diner A, Karnosky DF. 1991. Agrobacterium-rhizogenes-mediated Miller GE, Ruth DS. 1989. The relative importance of cone and seed insect
genetic transformation and regeneration of a conifer: Larix decidua. In species on commercially important conifers in British Columbia. In:
Vitro Cellular and Developmental Biology 27P: 201–207. Miller GE, comp. Proceedings, 3rd Cone and Seed Insects Working Party
Hunt SS. 1932. European larch in the northeastern United States: a study Conference S2.07-01, IUFRO, 1988 June 26–30;Victoria, BC.Victoria,
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Larix • 649
Simak M. 1973. Separation of forest seed through flotation. IUFRO Working Tosh KJ, Powell GR. 1991. Production and distribution of seed and pollen
L Party S.02.01.06; International Symposium on Seed Processing; 1973. cones on Larix laricina trees in young plantations. Canadian Journal of
Bergen, Norway.Volume 1, No. 16. Stockholm: Royal College of Forestry. Forest Research 21(4): 446–454.
21 p. Trenin VV, Chernobrovkina NN. 1984. Embryogenesis and quality of the
Simancik F. 1968. Germination of presoaked and redried seeds of European seeds in Larix sibirica plantations. Lesovedenie 2: 84–88.
larch (Larix decidua Mill.) during a 3-year period of storage. Acta Tulstrup NP, ed. 1952. Skovfrø nogle praktiskeoplysinger [in Danish: Forest
Universitatis Agricultura 37: 43–56. tree seed: some practical information]. Copenhagen: Dansk
Sindelar J. 1982. Heritability of some reproduction characteristics of Skovforenings frøudvalg. 69 p.
European larch (L. decidua Mill.). Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Turgeon JJ. 1989. Spatial distribution of tamarack cones and those infested
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Management Research Institute] 12: 103–118. preliminary results. Proceedings, 3rd Cone and Seed Insects Working
Sindelar J. 1987. Health and growth of larch (Larix spp.) progeny from open Party Conference S2.07-01, IUFRO, 1988, June 26–30;Victoria, BC.
pollination and controlled cross breeding in the Krusne hory Mountains. Victoria, BC: Forestry Canada, Pacific Forestry Centre: 181–191.
Prace Vyzkumneho Ustavu Lesniho Hospodarstvi a Myslivosti (Strnady) Wang BSP. 1982. Long-term storage of Abies, Betula, Larix, Picea, Pinus, and
70: 37–69. Populus seeds. Proceedings, International Symposium on Forest Tree
Skovforenings f Tulstrup NP (ed.) 1952. [in Danish: Forest tree seed: some Seed Storage. IUFRO Working Party S2.01.06, Seed Problems. 1980
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Smith RF. 1981. How early can tamarack cones be collected? Tech. Note. Canadian Forestry Service: 212–218.
35. Frederickton, NB: Forestry Canada, Maritimes Forest Research Wang BSP, Charest PJ, Downie B. 1993. Ex situ storage of seeds, pollen and
Centre. 4 p. in vitro cultures of perennial woody plant species. For. Pap. 113. Rome:
Sorensen FC. 1990. Stratification requirements for germination of western FAO.
larch (Larix occidentalis Nutt.) seed. Res. Note PNW-493. Portland, OR: Wang BSP. 1995. Personal communication. Chalk River, ON: Forestry
USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 11 p. Canada, Petawawa National Forestry Institute.
Stein WI, Danielson R, Shaw N, Wolff S, Gerdes D. 1986. Users guide for WFTSC [Western Forest Tree Seed Council]. 1966. Sampling and service
seeds of western trees and shrubs. Gen.Tech. Rep. PNW-193. Portland, testing western conifer seeds. Portland, OR: WFTSC. 36 p.
OR: USDA Forest Service, Northwest Research Station. 45 p. Worrall J. 1993. Temperature effects on bud-burst and leaf-fall in subalpine
Suo QS. 1982. Studies on the fruiting role in natural stands of Larix gmelinii larch. Journal of Sustainable Forestry 1(2): 1–18.
var. olgensis Henry in Zhanbei Mountain Range. Scientia Silvae Sinicae Wright JW. 1965. Provenance studies in the North Central Region. In: Read
18(4): 347–356. RA, ed. Proceedings, International Symposium. Central States Forest Tree
Thompson RG, von Aderkas P. 1992. Somatic embryogenesis and plant Improvement Conference; 1964 October 1–3; Lincoln, NE. Lincoln:
regeneration from immature embryos of western larch. Plant Cell Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station: 5–9.
Reports 11(8): 379–385. Xu Z. 1992. Fruiting of Larix gmelinii in 1989 in Tuqiang Forestry Bureau
Tkachenko ME, Asoskov AI, Sinev VN. 1939. Obshee lesovodstvo [in jurisdiction area of the Greater Xingan Mountains. Chinese Journal of
Russian: General forestry]. Leningrad. 745 p. Ecology 11(3): 8–12.
Toda R, Mikami S. 1976. The provenance trials of Japanese larch established Young JA,Young CG. 1992. Larix Mill., larch. In: Dudky TR, ed. Seeds of
in Japan and the tentative achievements. Silvae Genetica 25: 209–216. woody plants in North America. Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press:
Tosh KJ, Powell GR. 1986. Proliferated, bisporangiate, and other atypical 196–199.
cones occurring on young, plantation-grown Larix laricina. Canadian Zensen F. 1980. Improved processing techniques for western larch.Tree
Journal of Botany 64: 469–475. Planters’ Notes 31(4): 23–25.
Larrea tridentata
(Sessé & Moc. ex DC.) Coville
creosotebush
Richard T. Busing
Synonyms. Larrea tridentata (DC.) Cov. Flowering and fruiting. Creosotebush has perfect
Other common names. greasewood, gobernadora, flowers. It blooms most profusely in the spring but may
hediondilla. flower from time to time throughout the year (Kearney and
Growth habit and occurrence. Creosotebush— Peebles 1951; Valentine and Gerard 1968). The fruit is a
Larrea tridentata (Sessé & Moc. ex DC.) Coville—is an densely white, villous, 5-celled capsule (Kearney and
evergreen shrub native to the arid subtropical regions of the Peebles 1951). When fruits are cast, they separate into indi-
southwestern United States, Mexico, Argentina, and Chile vidual carpels, each normally containing 1 seed (figures 1
(Benson and Darrow 1945). Whether the North American and 2) (Martin 1969). Carpel fill under natural conditions
species L. tridentata is distinct from the South American averages 35% (range 12 to 62%) (Valentine and Gerard
species L. divaricata Cav. has been unclear (Benson and 1968). Plants may fruit sparingly at 4 to 6 years of age and
Darrow 1945), but most recent authors recognize L. triden- reach full fruiting maturity at 8 to 13 years (Martin 1974).
tata as a separate species. It is the dominant shrub in all 3 Annual production ranges from 39 to 278 fruits/100 g (11 to
warm deserts of the United States: the Mojave, Sonoran, and 79/oz) of branch or from 119 to 1,714 fruits/plant (Valentine
Chihuahuan Deserts (Barbour and others 1980). Although and Gerard 1968).
creosotebush can grow on a variety of substrates, it is most Collection, extraction, and storage. Ripe fruits may
abundant on calcareous soils (Musick 1978). Stands vary in be collected from the shrub in the late spring or early sum-
density and stature, depending on the aridity of the site mer. Fumigation or dusting fruits with insecticide is advis-
(Woodell and others 1969). Under very low rainfall, shrubs able to prevent insect damage. Clean seeds, extracted from
are smaller and more widely spaced than those in stands the carpels, are small—there are about 374,800/kg
under more mesic conditions. Morphological and physiolog- (170,000/lb)—and are not usually available on the market
ical adaptations of the genus Larrea to growth under xeric (Knipe and Herbel 1966; Martin 1969). Viability of seeds in
conditions are well studied (Barbour and others 1974, 1977). carpels declined little after 2 to 4 years in dry storage at
Despite dominance of the species in xeric sites, the emer- room temperatures, and some 7- to 8-year-old lots germinat-
gence and growth of seedlings is favored by mesic condi- ed well (Barbour and others 1977; Valentine and Gerard
tions. Moisture, neutral pH, low salinity, and moderate tem- 1968). This information strongly suggests that the seeds are
peratures are conducive to successful germination and orthodox in storage behavior and should store well for many
seedling establishment (Barbour and others 1977). years at low temperatures and moisture contents.
Use. Creosotebush is not browsed by livestock.
Although an edible livestock feed has been made from Figure 1—Larrea tridentata, creosotebush: single carpel.
creosotebush and a valuable antitoxidant has been extracted
from the shrub (Duisberg 1952), no economically feasible
program for gathering and using large amounts of creosote-
bush has been developed. Creosotebush, like other common
plants with peculiar odor or taste, has been used in tradition-
al medicine to cure various ills (Benson and Darrow 1945).
In arid and semiarid parts of the Southwest, creosotebush is
used for landscaping and reclamation of disturbed lands
(Day and Ludeke 1980; Graves and others 1978; Williams
and others 1974).
Larrea • 651
Figure 2—Larrea tridentata, creosotebush: longitudinal 60 °C. Yet, exposing seeds to warm temperatures (over
L section through a carpel. 37 °C ) has been found to reduce germination, and continu-
ous exposure to cold temperatures prior to sowing is desir-
able (Barbour 1968). Storage in partially sealed plastic bags
with activated carbon for 30 days at 2 °C is recommended
for high percentage germination (Graves and others 1975).
Germination. There are no official testing prescrip-
tions for creosotebush. In one series of tests, germination of
unscarified seeds (computed on filled carpel basis) in carpels
at 17 °C ranged from 55 to 90% (average 74%) (Valentine
and Gerard 1968). Carpels were dusted with fungicide and
placed on moist blotter paper in petri dishes in humidified
germinators (Valentine and Gerard 1968). Fungicide treat-
ments may delay and reduce germination, however (Tipton
1985). Conditions conducive to germination include dark-
ness (Barbour 1968; Tipton 1985), high moisture with wet-
ting and drying cycles (Barbour 1968; McGee and Marshall
1993), temperatures near 23 °C, low salinity, and near-zero
osmotic pressure (Barbour 1968).
Seedling care. Seedling survival is very low in natural
populations (Ackerman 1979), and large-scale seedling
Pregermination treatments. Creosotebush seeds in establishment is thought to be rare (Barbour 1968). Heavy
carpels exhibit some seedcoat dormancy (McGee and rains in late summer increase seedling germination and sur-
Marshall 1993). Germination can be increased by removal vival (Ackerman 1979; Boyd and Brum 1983). Under lab-
of the carpel (Tipton 1984) and, to a lesser extent, by leach- oratory conditions, maximum root growth occurred at 29 °C
ing of the intact carpel (Barbour 1968; Tipton 1984). Partial in a medium that was slightly acidic, non-saline, and near-
destruction of the carpel by mechanical abrasion is known to zero in osmotic pressure (Barbour 1968). Seedlings grown
increase germination. Seeds in carpels so treated have a high in acidic media are highly susceptible to phosphorus toxicity
average percentage germination (93%) over a range of 10 to (Musick 1978).
References
Ackerman TL. 1979. Germination and survival of perennial plant species in Kearney TH, Peebles RH. 1951. Arizona flora. Berkeley: University of
the Mojave Desert. Southwestern Naturalist 24: 399–408. California Press. 1032 p.
Barbour MG. 1968. Germination requirements of the desert shrub Larrea Knipe D, Herbel CH. 1966. Germination and growth of some semidesert
divaricata. Ecology 49: 915–923. grassland species treated with aqueous extract from creosotebush.
Barbour MG, Burk JH, Pitts, WD. 1980. Terrestrial plant ecology. Menlo Park, Ecology 47: 775–781.
CA: Benjamin/Cummings Publishing. 604 p. Martin SC. 1974. Larrea tridentata, creosotebush. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech.
Barbour MG, Cunningham GL, Oechel WC, Bamberg SA. 1977. Growth coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450.
and development, form and function. In: Mabry TJ, Hunziker JH, Difeo Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 486–487.
DR, eds. Creosote bush. Stroudsburg, PA: Dowden, Hutchinson, and McGee KP, Marshall DL. 1993. Effects of variable moisture availability on
Ross: 48–91. seed germination in three populations of Larrea tridentata. American
Barbour MG, Diaz DV, Breidenbach RW. 1974. Contributions to the biology Midland Naturalist 130: 75–82.
of Larrea species. Ecology 55: 1199–1215. Musick HB. 1978. Phosphorus toxicity in seedlings of Larrea divaricata
Benson L, Darrow RA. 1945. A manual of southwestern trees and shrubs. grown in solution culture. Botanical Gazette 139: 108–111.
Biol. Sci. Bull. 6. [Tucson]: University of Arizona. 411 p. Tipton JL. 1984. Evaluation of three growth curve models for germination
Boyd RS, Brum GD. 1983. Postdispersal reproductive biology of a Mojave data analysis. Journal of the American Society of Horticultural Science
Desert population of Larrea tridentata (Zygophyllaceae). American 109: 451–454.
Midland Naturalist 110: 25–36. Tipton JL. 1985. Light, osmotic stress, and fungicides affect hulled creosote-
Day AD, Ludeke KL. 1980. Reclamation of copper mine wastes with shrubs bush mericarp germination. Journal of the American Society of
in the southwestern U. S. A. Journal of Arid Environments 3: 107–112. Horticultural Science 110: 615–618.
Duisberg PC. 1952. Development of a feed from creosotebush (Larrea Valentine KA, Gerard JB. 1968. Life history and characteristics of the cre-
divaricata) determination of its nutritive value. Journal of Animal Science osotebush, Larrea tridentata. Bull. 526. Las Cruces: New Mexico State
11: 174–180. University Agricultural Experiment Station. 32 p.
Graves WL, Kay BL, Williams WA. 1975. Seed treatment of Mojave Desert Williams WA, Cook OD, Kay BL. 1974. Germination of native desert
shrubs. Agronomy Journal 67: 773–777. shrubs. California Agriculture 28: 13.
Graves WL, Kay BL, Williams WA. 1978. Revegetation of disturbed sites in Woodell SRJ, Mooney HA, Hill AJ. 1969. The behaviour of Larrea divaricata
the Mojave Desert with native shrubs. California Agriculture 32: 4–5. (creosote bush) in response to rainfall in California. Journal of Ecology
57: 37–44.
Ledum L.
Labrador-tea
Tricia L.Wurtz
Dr. Wurtz is a research ecologist at the USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Northwest Research Station,
Boreal Ecology Cooperative Research Unit, Fairbanks, Alaska
Other common names. trapper’s-tea, trapper’s tea. ter and flower the following spring, in late May and early
Growth habit, occurrence and use. The genus June (Reader 1982). Flowers are white, with protruding sta-
Ledum—Labrador-tea—comprises 3 evergreen shrubs with a mens; they occur in numerous umbel-like clusters. Fruits
wide distribution (table 1). Plants range from 0.3 to 0.8 m occur as drooping clusters of dry capsules (figure 1). A large
tall and are much-branched. The leaves are leathery, lance- number of seeds are produced per flower. Sumner (1964)
shaped, and hairy on the lower surface and have a character- found a range of 34 to 181 seeds per fruit in her study of
istic spicy fragrance. Labrador-tea produces seeds vigorous- marsh Labrador-tea in interior Alaska. Extensive flowering
ly; in its natural environment it can reproduce either from is common. Seeds are small (bog Labrador-tea, 1.8 to 3.0
seeds (McGraw and Shaver 1982) or vegetatively (Sumner mm by 0.2 to 0.3 mm; marsh Labrador-tea, 1.4 to 2.0 mm
1964). The below-ground system develops as result of layer- by 0.2 to 0.3 mm) (Karlin and Bliss 1983). Seedcoats are
ing by the above-ground shoots, and as much as 5 times golden and translucent, with a loose, elongated testa that
more biomass has been documented below-ground than aids wind dispersal (Densmore 1997). Calmes and Zasada
above, with clones covering 5 to 10 m2 (Calmes and Zasada (1982) found that only 45% of bog Labrador-tea seeds were
1982). Marsh Labrador-tea is an alternate host for spruce filled.
needle rust—Chrysomyxa ledicola Legerh. (Ziller 1974). Extraction, cleaning, and storage of seeds. Seed
Sumner (1964) gives a detailed description of Labrador-tea capsules open as they dry, readily releasing seeds. Empty
morphology in interior Alaska. Leaves of marsh Labrador- capsules can be separated from seed with a fine-mesh sieve.
tea can be boiled to make an aromatic tea; excessive doses Most seed viability is lost within 1 year of collection. When
can cause drowsiness or intestinal disturbance. Labrador-tea seeds were stored for 22 months at 4 °C, germination
produces a sesquiterpene, germacrone, that makes it highly dropped from 58 to 16% (Karlin and Bliss 1983).
unpalatable to snowshoe hares (Reichardt and others 1990). Pre-germination treatments. Labrador-tea does not
Western Labrador-tea contains toxic alkaloids known to be require cold stratification for germination, but most data
poisonous to livestock (MacKinnon and others 1992). suggest that stratification improves germination. In a study
Flowering and fruiting. Flower buds are initiated in of marsh Labrador-tea, seeds exhibited shallow dormancy
the summer months at the tips of new shoots. They overwin- (Calmes and Zasada 1982); 30 days of cold stratification
Ledum • 653
Figure 1—Ledum groenlandiicum, bog Labrador-tea: Seedling care. Labrador-tea seedlings are fragile and
L individual dry capsules. slow-growing. After 4 months of growth in a greenhouse,
seedlings of bog Labrador-tea were only a few millimeters
tall (Sumner 1964). Though seeds can germinate in water-
saturated substrates, seedling survival and establishment are
enhanced with better drainage.
References
Calmes MA, Zasada JC. 1982. Some reproductive traits of four shrub
species in the black spruce forest type of Alaska. Canadian Field-
Naturalist 96: 35–40.
Densmore RV. 1997. Effect of day length on germination of seeds collected
in Alaska. American Journal of Botany 84(2): 274–278.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop-
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p.
Hulten E. 1968. Flora of Alaska and neighboring territories. Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press.
Junttila O. 1972. Effect of gibberellic acid on dark and light germination at
different temperatures of Calluna, Ledum and Rhododendron seeds.
increased the rate and percentage of germination. Densmore Physiologia Plantarum 26: 239–243.
Karlin EF, Bliss LC 1983. Germination ecology of Ledum groenlandicum and
(1997) achieved 100% germination of marsh Labrador-tea at Ledum palustre ssp. decumbens, in accordance with latitudinal change.
Arctic and Alpine Research 15(3): 397–404.
20 °C and with 20 hour day-length following cold stratifica- MacKinnon A, Pojar J, Coupe R. 1992. Plants of northern British Columbia.
tion. In another study, marsh Labrador-tea germinated best Edmonton, AB: British Columbia Ministry of Forests and Lone Pine
Publishing, 345 pp.
without any stratification (Karlin and Bliss 1983). McGraw, JB Shaver, GR. 1982. Seedling density and seedling survival in
Alaskan cotton grass tussock tundra. Holarctic Ecology 5(2): 212–217.
Germination tests. Seeds can be sprinkled on the sur- Reader RJ. 1982. Variation in the flowering date of transplanted ericacious
face of a moist substrate and covered with clear plastic film. shrubs in relation to their flowering season. Journal of Biogeography. 9:
397–410.
Light is required for germination (Calmes and Zasada 1982; Reichardt PB, Bryant JP, Anderson BJ, Phillips D, Clausen TP, Meyer M, Frisby K.
1990. Germacrone defends Labrador tea from browsing by snow-
Karlin and Bliss 1983); germination is enhanced with longer shoe hares. Journal of Chemical Ecology 16(6): 1961–1970.
day-lengths (Densmore 1997). In addition to light, optimal Sheat WG. 1948. Propagation of trees, shrubs and conifers. London:
Macmillan and Co. 479 p.
germination conditions include a continually moist, some- Sumner PC. 1964. Ecology of Ledum groenlandicum Oeder in interior
what acidic substrate (pH 5.5) and mean daily temperatures Alaska [MS thesis]. Fairbanks: University of Alaska. 174 p.
Viereck LA, Little EL Jr. 1972. Alaska trees and shrubs. Agric. Handbk. 410.
≥ 17 °C (Karlin and Bliss 1983). Treating seeds with gib- Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 265 p.
Young JA,Young CG. 1992. Seeds of woody plants in North America.
berellic acid greatly increased germination under a variety Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press. 405 p.
of environmental conditions (Junttila 1972). Ziller WG. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Pub. 1329.Victoria, BC:
Canadian Forestry Service. 272 p.
Nursery practice. Marsh Labrador-tea has been suc-
cessfully propagated from seeds for horticultural purposes.
The seeds should be sown thinly in boxes of pure, finely
sifted peat moss, and then covered with a fine dusting of
peat moss (Sheat 1948). Cuttings taken from mature plants
in mid-December rooted well (Dirr and Heuser 1987), but
below-ground stem cuttings produced few new shoots
(Calmes and Zasada 1982). Half-mature side shoots can be
pulled off and rooted in a mixture of peat moss, loam, and
sand (Sheat 1948).
Lespedeza Michx.
lespedeza
Richard T. Busing and Willis G.Vogel
Dr. Busing is an ecologist with the USDI Geological Survey, Corvallis, Oregon; Mr.Vogel retired
from the USDA Forest Service’s Northeastern Research Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus Florida (Clewell 1966; Davison 1954). They are planted
Lespedeza includes about 140 species of shrubs, sub-shrubs, mainly for wildlife food and cover (Owsley and Surrency
and herbs (Hensen 1957). Most species are native to the 1989) and for erosion control (Gabrielson and others 1982;
temperate regions of eastern Asia and only about 11 species USDA SCS 1980). Soil enrichment by nitrogen-fixing sym-
are considered native to North America (Clewell 1966). All bionts is also a potential benefit (Allen and Allen 1981). The
native species are herbaceous; however, several species of seeds are preferred quail food (Crider 1952; Davison 1954;
shrub lespedeza have been introduced into the United States Vogel 1974). Some plantings have been made for ornamental
(table 1). The non-native shrub lespedezas tend to have purposes (Clewell 1966; Crider 1952). Grown to maturity,
herbaceous stems with woody bases. All species listed in plants of shrub lespedeza may reach a height of 3 m but
table 1 are planted for conservation and management pur- more commonly 1.2 to 2.4 m (Crider 1952; Davison 1954;
poses (Kelsey and Dayton 1942; Strausbaugh and Core Vogel 1974). In management for seed production, stems of
1964). Both shrub and Thunberg lespedezas are commonly some shrub lespedezas must be cut back to the ground
referenced in the floristic literature (Gleason and Cronquist (Davison 1954; Vogel 1974).
1991). Leafy lespedeza, a less frequently referenced species, Superior strains. Superior strains of shrub lespedeza
is noted by some to occur in the central-eastern United have been selected and developed mostly at the plant materi-
States (Clewell 1966; Isely 1990; Kartesz 1994). Although al centers of the USDA Natural Resources Conservation
the name L. japonica has been used since the 1930s, many Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) in the East
of the L. japonica materials have been re-identified as and Southeast (Vogel 1974). Strains 100 and 101 of shrub
L. thunbergii (Vogel 1974). Classification of these shrubs is lespedeza were developed for their greater production of
difficult and confused because of variation resulting from seed and persistence of fruits on the plants after ripening
interspecific hybridization (Clewell 1966). Shrub lespedeza (Davison 1954). L. bicolor ‘Natob’ matures seeds much ear-
is the most common and widely planted shrub in the genus lier and is more winter-hardy than any other strain of shrub
in the United States (Davison 1954; Vogel 1974). lespedeza grown in the United States. Thus, it can be grown
Lespedeza shrubs are adapted primarily to the southeast- farther north than other shrub lespedezas (Clewell 1966). A
ern two-thirds of the United States, except for southern selection of Thunberg lespedeza called VA-70 (USDA SCS
Lespedeza • 655
1980) ripens seeds a month earlier than most strains of 1963) (figure 1). Seeds of lespedeza have little or no
L shrub lespedeza, thus adapting it to the mountains and more endosperm (figure 2).
northerly areas of the South (Vogel 1974). Collection of fruits; extraction and storage of seeds.
Seeds of these strains have been marketed, but produc- Shrub lespedeza seeds are most commonly harvested with a
tion has been so erratic that seed supplies can be scarce or combine as soon as the fruits are ripe and moderately dry.
nonexistent. Some problem exists in maintaining seed sup- The combined material, which includes stems, intact
plies of pure strains, apparently because of cross-pollination. legumes, and hulled seed, is air-dried and then cleaned to
Flowering and fruiting. The flowers are loosely separate seed and legumes from the stems and inert matter.
arranged on elongate racemes and are mostly rose-purple, Seeds that remain in their legumes can be hulled by running
with gradation to white in some variants (Ohwi 1965; them again through a combine or through a huller-scarifier
Rehder 1940; Strausbaugh and Core 1964). The chasmo- and then should be cleaned (Vogel 1974).
gamic flowers may be self- or cross-pollinated (Clewell Seed yields may exceed 560 kg/ha (500 lb/ac) (Byrd and
1966; Crider 1952; Ohwi 1965). Honey bees (Apis mellifera others 1963), but more commonly yields range from 336 to
L.), bumble bees, and other insects are necessary for pollina- 447 kg/ha (300 to 400 lb/ac) (Crider 1952; Vogel 1974).
tion (Crider 1952; Graetz 1951). Weight of cleaned seeds per volume was 67 kg/bu (60 lb/bu)
Time of flowering and fruiting varies among species and (Vogel 1974). The number of cleaned seeds is about
strains, but it is also controlled by the latitude where the 187,000/kg (85,000/lb) for common shrub lespedeza (Crider
plants are grown. Flowering occurs mostly in July and 1952; Strausbaugh and Core 1964; Vogel 1974); 140,000/kg
August but will begin in June in Mississippi and as late as (64,000/lb) for ‘Natob’ bicolor (Crider 1952; Vogel 1974);
September in Maryland. The brown fruits are 1-seeded inde- and 154,000 to 159,000/kg (70,000 to 72,000/lb) for
hiscent legumes (pods) that mature mostly in late September Thunberg lespedeza (Strausbaugh and Core 1964; Vogel
and October (Vogel 1974) (figure 1). The legumes fall to the 1974).
ground when ripe, and most of them are down by early win- Seeds are stored at 10 °C and 40% relative humidity.
ter (Crider 1952). They may be stored either hulled or unhulled, but seeds
A light seedcrop may occur the first year from 1-year- stored in the hull remain viable longer than hulled seeds.
old transplants, and good seedcrops can be expected each Length of viability varies with harvest years and storage
succeeding year (Crider 1952). Seeds of shrub lespedeza are treatment, but seeds have been viable after 20 years of
pale brown to olive and copiously flecked with purple. storage (Vogel 1974).
Seeds of Thunberg lespedeza are solid dark purple (Musil
References
Allen ON, Allen EK. 1981. The Leguminosae. Madison: University of Kartesz JT. 1994. A synonomized checklist of the vascular flora of the
Wisconsin. 812 p. United States, Canada, and Greenland.Volume 2. Portland, OR:Timber
Byrd M,Young WC, Davison VE. 1963. Seed yields of shrub lespedezas in Press. 816 p.
Arkansas. Journal of Wildlife Management 27: 135–136. Kelsey HP, Dayton WA, eds. 1942. Standardized plant names: a revised and
Clewell AF. 1966. Identification of the lespedezas in North America and a enlarged listing of approved scientific and common names of plants and
selected bibliography on lespedeza. Bull. 7. FL:Tall Timbers Research plant products in American commerce or use. 2nd ed. Harrisburg, PA: J.
Station. 29 p. Horace McFarland. 2675 p.
Crider FJ. 1952. Natob: a new bush lespedeza for soil conservation. Circ. Musil AF. 1963. Identification of crop and weed seeds. Agric. Handbk. 219.
900. Washington, DC: USDA Soil Conservation Service. 10 p. Washington, DC: USDA. 171 p.
Davison VE. 1954. Lespedezas for quail and good land use. Leafl. 373. Ohwi J. 1965. Flora of Japan. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.
Washington, DC: USDA Soil Conservation Service. 8 p. 1067 p.
Gabrielson FC, Cross EA, Bradshaw DK, Carter OC. 1982. Seed size influ- Owsley CM, Surrency ED. 1989. Registration of ‘Amquail’Thunberg
ence on germination and plant growth of Kobe lespedeza and other lespedeza. Crop Science 29: 238.
species used for surface mine revegetation. Reclamation and Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. 2nd ed. New York:
Revegetation Research 1: 271–281. Macmillan. 2996p.
Gleason HA, Cronquist A. 1991. Manual of vascular plants of northeastern Strausbaugh PD, Core ET. 1964. Flora of West Virginia. Bull. Series 65
United States and adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. New York: New York (#3–2),Volume IV. Morgantown: University of West Virginia. 861–1041.
Botanical Garden. 910 p. USDA SCS [Soil Conservation Service]. 1980. VA-70 shrub lespedeza. Prog.
Graetz KE. 1951. Shrub lespedeza requires insect pollination. Soil Aid 1277. Washington, DC: USDA SCS: 328–355.
Conservation 16: 224–226. Vogel WG. 1974. Lespedeza Michx., lespedeza. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech.
Hensen PR. 1957. The lespedezas: Part 1. Advances in Agronomy 9: coord. Agric. Handbk. 450. Seeds of woody plants in the United States.
113–122. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 488–490.
Isely D. 1990. Vascular flora of the southeastern United States. Chapel Hill:
University of North Carolina Press. 258 p.
Lespedeza • 657
L Fabaceae—Pea family
Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit.
leucaena
C. D.Whitesell and John A. Parrotta
Dr. Whitesell retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment
Station; Dr. Parrotta is a research program leader at the USDA Forest Service’s Research and Development
National Office, Arlington,Virginia
Other common names. leadtree, zarcilla, popinac, tion in reforestation (Neal 1965; NAS 1984; Parrotta 1992;
koa haole, tantau. Whitesell 1974). The light reddish heartwood is easily
Synonyms. Leucaena glauca (L.) Benth., L. blancii worked but is of low to medium durability. It is used for
Goyena, L. glabrata Rose, L. greggii Watson, L. latisiliqua light construction, boxes, and particleboard. The wood is
(L.) W.T. Gillis, L. salvadorensis Standl. considered a promising source of short-fiber pulp for paper
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus production. The protein-rich leaves and legumes are widely
Leucaena includes about 50 species of trees and shrubs that used as fodder for cattle, water buffalo, and goats. The pro-
are native to Central America and southeast Asia. Leaves, tein content of dry forage ranges from 14.0 to 16.2% (Oaks
legumes (pods), and young seeds of at least 4 Leucaena and Skov 1967). Depending on variety, the protein consists
species have been used by humans for food since the time of 19 to 47% mimosine (Brewbaker and others 1972), an
of the Mayans (Brewbaker and others 1970). Leucaena— amino acid that can cause weight loss and ill health in
Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit.—the most wide- monogastric animals such as pigs, horses, rabbits, and poul-
spread member of the genus, originated in Mexico and try when leucaena fodder comprises more than 5 to 10% (by
Central America (Brewbaker and others 1972) but is now weight) of the diet. Ruminants (cows, buffalo, and goats) in
considered pantropical. It is found throughout the West most parts of the world (except for Australia, Papua New
Indies from the Bahamas and Cuba to Trinidad and Tobago Guinea, and parts of Africa and the Pacific) have stomach
and has become naturalized in southern Texas and southern microorganisms that render mimosine harmless.
Florida; it also has been planted in California (Little and Flowering and fruiting. Flowering phenology varies
Wadsworth 1964). The species was introduced to Puerto widely among varieties and with location. The common type
Rico and the Pacific Islands during the Spanish colonial era varieties flower year-round, often beginning as early as 4 to
and to Hawaii about 1864. It invades cleared areas and 6 months after seed germination. The giant varieties flower
forms dense thickets, either as a shrub or small tree up to 10 seasonally, usually twice a year. The spherical, whitish
m in height (Takahashi and Ripperton 1949). This species is flower heads are 2.0 to 2.5 cm in diameter and are borne on
evergreen when moisture is not a limiting factor. Strains of stalks 2 to 3 cm long at the ends or sides of twigs (Parrotta
leucaena can be categorized as one of two types: the “com- 1992). The fruits, generally produced in abundance from the
mon” (or “Hawaiian”) and the “giant” (or “Salvadorian”) first year onward, are flat, thin legumes that are dark brown
(Brewbaker and others 1972). The common type, represent- when ripe; they measure 10 to 15 cm long and 1.5 to 2.0 cm
ing the strains most commonly naturalized outside of the wide. A legume contains 15 to 20 seeds (Parrotta 1992). The
species’ native range, is a drought-tolerant, branchy, abun- seeds are small (8 mm long), flat, teardrop-shaped, shiny,
dantly flowering, and aggressive shrub or small tree. The and dark brown with a thin but fairly durable seedcoat (fig-
Salvadorian type is an erect tree that attains heights up to ures 1 and 2). The seeds are usually released from dehiscent
20 m (Brewbaker and others 1972; NAS 1984). In many legumes while still on the tree, although unopened or par-
parts of the world, the species is considered a weed. tially opened legumes may be carried some distance by
Leucaena is used for a variety of purposes, including wind. The legumes are commonly eaten by and pass through
timber, fuelwood, forage, and organic fertilizer. It is planted the digestive tracts of livestock, which appear to be impor-
as a shade tree for coffee, cacao, and other cash crops; for tant dispersal agents in pastures.
soil fertility improvement; erosion control; and site prepara-
Leucaena • 659
L References
Brewbaker JL, Plucknett DL, Gonzales V. 1972. Varietal trials of Leucaena Oaks AJ, Skov O. 1967. Yield trials of Leucaena in the US Virgin Islands.
leucocephala (“koa haole”) in Hawaii. Res. Bull. 166. Honolulu: University Journal of Agriculture of the University of Puerto Rico 51: 176–181.
of Hawaii, College of Agriculture, Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Parrotta JA. 1992. Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit: leucaena, tantan.
Station. 29 p. Res. Note SO-ITF-SM-52. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service,
Daguma B, Kang BT, Okali DUU. 1988. Factors affecting germination of Southern Forest Experiment Station. 8 p.
leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit.) seed. Seed Science and Sherman M,Tamashiro M. 1956. Biological control of Araecerus levipennis
Technology 16(2): 489–500. Jordan (Coleoptera: Anthribidae). Proceedings of the Hawaii
Francis JK. 1993. Leucaena leucocephala established by direst seeding in Entomological Society 16: 138–148.
prepared seed spots under difficult conditions. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Takahashi M, Ripperton JC. 1949. Koa haole (Leucaena glauca): its estab-
Reports 11: 91–93. lishment, culture, and utilization as a forage crop. Res. Bull. 100.
Little EL Jr, Wadsworth FH. 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the Honolulu: University of Hawaii, College of Agriculture. Hawaii
Virgin Islands. Agric. Handbk. 249. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Agricultural Experiment Station. 56 p.
Service. 548 p. Van den Beldt RJ, Brewbaker JL, eds. 1985. Leucaena wood production and
NAS [National Academy of Sciences]. 1984. Leucaena: promising forage use. Waimanalo, HI: Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association. 50 p.
and tree crop for the tropics. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: National Whitesell CD. 1974. Leucaena leucocephala, leucaena. In: Schopmeyer CS,
Academy of Sciences. 100 p. tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk.
Neal MC. 1965. In gardens of Hawaii. Spec. Pub. 50. Honolulu: Bishop 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 491–493.
Museum Press. 924 p.
Dr. Blazich is alumni distinguished graduate professor of plant propagation and tissue culture at North
Carolina State University’s Department of Horticultural Science, Raleigh, North Carolina; Dr. Starrett is asso-
ciate professor at the University of Vermont’s Department of Plant and Soil Science, Burlington,Vermont
Synonyms. Andromeda fontanesiana Steud.; Odenwald and Turner 1987). No geographic races or hybrids
Leucothoe catesbaei (Walter) A. Gray, Leucothoe editorum have been described currently in the literature.
Fern. & Schub. Flowering and fruiting. White, waxy, urn-shaped
Other common names. highland doghobble, doghob- flowers are borne on small, pendant, axillary racemes in
ble, switch ivy, fetterbush. May and scent the air with a pungent fragrance (Dirr 1990;
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. Drooping leu- Odenwald and Turner 1987). Although individual flowers
cothoe—Leucothoe fontanesiana (Steud.) Sleum.)—as its are small (0.6 cm long), they are clustered along 5.0- to
common name implies, has a graceful, arched habit 7.5-cm-long racemes and provide a striking contrast to the
(Bridwell 1994). The plant is a broad-leaved, evergreen dark green foliage (Dirr 1990).
shrub, 1 m tall, with a spread of 1.2 to 1.8 m (Halfacre and Collection of fruits, seed extraction, cleaning, and
Shawcroft 1975). Drooping leucothoe spreads by under- storage. Capsules and seeds ripen in mid- to late autumn
ground stems and can produce impenetrable thickets and can be collected at that time (Wyman 1953). Capsules
(Halfacre and Shawcroft 1975). These dense thickets have are removed from the plant and lightly beaten, then rubbed
often hindered hunting from horseback, ensnaring both to open them completely (Dirr and Heuser 1987); then,
dogs and horses, hence the common names “doghobble” and seeds are shaken from the capsules. Viability can be poor if
“fetterbush.” This species occurs naturally in moist wooded seeds are not graded rigorously. Seeds are quite small (fig-
areas along the Appalachian Mountains of the United States, ures 1 and 2). When dried to a moisture content of 3% and
from Virginia to Georgia and Tennessee (Ingram 1961). In cleaned, pure seeds averaged 22,900/g (650,000/oz) (Blazich
its native habitat, drooping leucothoe occurs as an under- and others 1991). Seeds will remain viable if stored dry at
growth accompaniment to taller shrubs such as rhododen- room temperature and used within 2 years (Wyman 1953).
dron (Rhododendron L. spp.) or mountain-laurel (Kalmia
latifolia L.) (Melvin 1981). Drooping leucothoe is a robust,
hardy shrub that can be cultivated in USDA Hardiness Figure 1—Leucothoe fontanesiana, drooping leucothoe:
Zones 5 to 8. However, a cool, shady, well-drained site must seeds.
be selected for the southern landscape (Dirr 1990).
The species is best suited for landscape use in lightly
shaded sites with moist soil that is high in organic matter
(Ingram 1961). Typically, the plant is utilized as an under-
story shrub to complement other understory plants that have
a leggy habit (Dirr 1990). Drooping leucothoe can best be
used as a cover on shady banks and is especially effective in
mass plantings (Dirr 1990). An additional quality that
increases the value of this plant in the landscape is its rich,
lustrous, dark green foliage, which becomes reddish bronze
in autumn and eventually turns bronze-purple in winter, thus
providing seasonal interest (Halfacre and Shawcroft 1975;
Leucothoe • 661
Figure 2—Leucothoe fontanesiana, drooping leucothoe: daily photoperiods of 0, 1/2, 1/2 twice daily, 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, or
L longitudinal section of a seed. 24 hours. The cool-white fluorescent lamps utilized as the
light source provided a photosynthetic photon flux (400 to
700 nm) of 35 μmol/m2/sec (2.8 klux). For both tempera-
tures, no germination occurred during the 30-day test period
for seeds not subjected to light. At 25 °C, increasing pho-
toperiod increased percentage germination values of 60 and
68% occurring by day 24 for the 12- and 24-hour photoperi-
ods, respectively. The alternating temperature of 25/15°C
enhanced germination when light was limiting. At this temp-
erature, germination ≥ 85% was reached by day 27 for
photoperiods ≥ 2 hours. Germination is epigeal.
Nursery practice. Typically, the germination medium
is kept at 24 °C via bottom heat (Bir 1987). Seeds are sown
on the surface of a steam-pasteurized medium, such as
pinebark sifted through a 6-mm-mesh (0.25-inch-mesh)
screen. They are irrigated slightly and the surface of the ger-
Glenn and others (1998) reported that seeds will remain minating medium is thereafter never allowed to dry com-
viable for several years if stored in a sealed container at –18 pletely (Bir 1987). One recommended practice is to fertilize
or 4 °C. This suggests that the seeds are orthodox in storage seedlings at the first true leaf stage with a half-strength solu-
behavior. tion of a 15-45-5 (N:P2O5:K2O) fertilizer (Bir 1987). After
Germination tests. There are no prescribed methods 2 weeks, the seedlings are then fertilized with a full-strength
for official tests of this species, but the seeds germinate solution applied weekly until they are transplanted into liner
readily without pretreatment (Dirr and Heuser 1987; flats or pots (Bir 1987). Drooping leucothoe can also be
Fordham 1960). Seeds of drooping leucothoe require light propagated vegetatively by rooting stem cuttings (Dirr and
for germination (Blazich and others 1991). Blazich and oth- Heuser 1987). The species roots readily from cuttings taken
ers (1991) conducted a 30-day germination study utilizing during the months of June through December without a
seeds from a native population of plants growing in need for exogenous auxin application (Dirr and Heuser
Henderson County, North Carolina. Seeds were germinated 1987).
at 25 °C or an 8/16 hour thermoperiod of 25/15 °C with
References
Bir RE. 1987. Native plant production using a multidisciplinary approach. Glenn CT, Blazich FA, Warren SL. 1998. Influence of storage temperatures
American Nurseryman 166(12): 74–83. on long-term seed viability of selected ericaceous species. Journal of
Blazich FA, Warren SL, Acedo JR, Whitehead, RO. 1991. Seed germination Environmental Horticulture 16(3): 166–172.
of Leucothoe fontanesiana as influenced by light and temperature. Journal Halfacre RG, Shawcroft AR. 1975. Carolina landscape plants. 2nd ed.
of Environmental Horticulture 9(2): 72–75. Raleigh, NC: Sparks Press. 325 p.
Bridwell FM. 1994. Landscape plants: their identification, culture, and use. Ingram J. 1961. Studies in the cultivated Ericaceae: 1. Leucothoe. Baileya 9:
Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers. 560 p. 57–66.
Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, orna- Melvin NC III. 1981. Additional comments on Leucothoe (Ericaceae). Baileya
mental characteristics, culture, propagation and uses. 4th ed. Champaign, 21(3): 127–130.
IL: Stipes Publishing. 1007 p. Odenwald N,Turner J. 1987. Identification, selection, and use of southern
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant propa- plants for landscape design. Baton Rouge, LA: Claitor’s Publishing
gation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. Division. 660 p.
Fordham AJ. 1960. Propagation of woody plants by seed. Arnoldia 20(6): Wyman D. 1953. Seeds of woody plants. Arnoldia 13(7/9): 41–60.
33–40.
Ligustrum L.
privet
Daniel A. Mikowski and William I. Stein
Mr. Mikowski is a general biologist and Dr. Stein is a forest ecologist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s
Pacific Northwest Research Station, Corvallis Oregon
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. The genus The privets are deciduous or evergreen shrubs or small
Ligustrum—the privets—includes about 50 species native in trees ranging from 2 to 12 m in height (table 2). Maximum
eastern Asia and Malaysia to Australia, with 1 species occur- heights reported in the United States are 7.8, 24.9, and 12.8
ring in Europe and North Africa (Bean 1978; Rehder 1940). m, respectively, for California, Chinese, and Japanese privets
Privets have been widely distributed and cultivated outside (AFA 1996). Growth form ranges from compact dense
of their indigenous distributions, and many varieties and cul- shrubs to small trees with slender spreading branches.
tivars are recognized (Bailey 1947; Bean 1978; Ohwi 1965; Privets grow readily in many kinds of soil (Bailey 1947;
Rehder 1940). At least 4 species have naturalized in the Bean 1978; Meikle 1958) and in moisture regimes ranging
United States, several over broad geographic regions (table from very dry to stream-side and floodplain (Lee and others
1). European, or common, privet is widely naturalized in 1991; Seymour 1982). They establish on roadsides, sand
eastern North America. California privet has been planted dunes, open and closed woodlands, tree borders, and other
from coast to coast in the southern United States and has disturbed areas (Bailey 1947; Radford and others 1968;
naturalized extensively in the Southeast. Seymour 1982; Wilson and Wood 1959).
Table 2—Ligustrum, privet: height, leaf habit, color, and size of mature fruit
Height at
Species maturity (m) Leaf habit Fruit color Fruit size (mm)
Sources: Bean (1978), McMinn and Maino (1937), Ohwi (1965), Radford and others (1968), Rehder (1940),Vines (1983).
Ligustrum • 663
The privets are valued for landscape shrubbery because Figure 1—Ligustrum sinense, Chinese privet: oblong seed
L (upper left); longitudinal section (lower left) and cross
of their handsome white flowers and dark green foliage;
ready establishment; and resistance to insects, dust, and air section (right).
pollution (Bailey 1947; Howe and Woltz 1981). California
privet grows well even in the spray of salt water (Bailey
1947). Japanese privet is an excellent evergreen shrub for
shaping into hedges, screens, or topiary (distinctive shapes
such as globes or animals) (Vines 1983). Glossy privet is an
evergreen tree suited for growing in narrow areas, making it
a fine choice for a street or lawn tree. Several privets have
been used as garden hedges, but their innumerable, fibrous
roots are invasive and may impoverish adjacent flower beds
(Meikle 1958).
Privets are also useful as wildlife habitat, windbreaks,
and erosion-control plantings. Although the lengthy avail-
ability of fruits and seeds indicates that they are not general-
ly relished by wildlife, some consumption by birds has been
observed (Martin and others 1951; Van Dersal 1938; Vines
1983).
Flowering and fruiting. The terminal panicles bear-
ing privet flowers range from 3 to 20 cm long and are usual-
ly somewhat narrower in width than length (Bean 1978).
The flowers are small, perfect, always a shade of white, and
usually fragrant. However, the fragrance of some privet
flowers may be considered “objectionable at close quarters”
(Bean 1978). Summer is the main flowering period, but tim-
ing and duration varies by species (table 3). There is evi-
dence that Japanese privet seedlings require winter chilling
to stimulate blooming (Morita and others 1979).
The fruits are 1- to 4-seeded berrylike drupes with mem- to ensure that their soft-coated seeds are not damaged
branaceous to stony endocarps about 4 to 10 mm long (fig- (figure 1).
ures 1 and 2; table 2). Fruits ripen from September to Privet seeds are relatively small and vary in size and
November (table 3) and those of some species often remain weight by species (table 4). In one sampling, seeds of
on the panicles into winter (Rehder 1940). Ripened fruits European privet constituted 54% of fruit biomass on a dry-
generally range in color from dark blue to black. The fruits weight basis (Lee and others 1991).
in some varieties of European privet, however, are not black: Storage of cleaned European privet seeds in ordinary
f. chlorocarpum (Loud.) Schelle has green fruits; f. leuco- dry conditions was recommended long ago (Chadwick
carpum (Sweet) Schelle, white fruits; and f. xanthocarpum 1935), but little has been reported on the success of this
(G. Don) Schelle, yellow fruits (Bean 1978). practice. It seems likely that their longevity could be pro-
According to incidental observations, privet species longed by closed storage at cool temperatures or even at
produce seedcrops almost annually, but systematic records –18 °C, which has proven satisfactory for many tree species
of crop size and occurrence are not available (Dirr and that tolerate low moisture content.
Heuser 1987). Pregermination treatments and germination tests.
Collection, extraction, and storage. Ripe privet fruits Fresh privet seeds that have been cleaned will germinate in
may be stripped from panicles by hand in the fall or early 60 days without stratification (Heit 1968; Dirr and Heuser
winter. If the fruits are already dry, they can be stored 1987). Stored seeds, however, require 30 to 60 days of cold
uncleaned, but prompt cleaning is generally better. Seeds stratification at 0 to 5 °C to induce prompt germination
can be separated from fresh or remoistened pulp by running (Chadwick 1935; Dirr and Heuser 1987; Heit 1968;
the fruits with ample water through a macerator. For some Shumilina 1967). Fifteen days of warm stratification at 18 to
privet species, particular care must be taken during cleaning 20 °C or alternating warm and cold stratification were suc-
Ligustrum • 665
L References
AFA [American Forestry Association]. 1996. 1996–97 National register of Ohwi J. 1965. Flora of Japan. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.
big trees. American Forests 102(1): 20–51. 1067 p.
Bailey LH. 1947. The standard cyclopedia of horticulture.Volume 2. New Radford AE, Ahles HE, Bell CR. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the
York: MacMillan: 1201–2421. Carolinas. Chapel Hill:The University of North Carolina Press. 1183 p.
Bean WJ. 1978. Trees and shrubs hardy in the British Isles.Volume 2, 8th Rauscherova L,Tesfa L. 1993. Interaction of paclobutrazol and other growth
ed., rev. London: John Murray Ltd. 784 p. regulators in the process of rhizogenesis in Ligustrum vulgare L. Scientia
Burrows FJ, Kohen J. 1983. Germination of Ligustrum lucidum W.T. Ait. and L. Horticulturae 53: 167–173.
sinense Lour. at different temperatures. Australian Weeds 2(4): 130–132. Regulski FJ Jr. 1984. Rooting of three landscape species in gasifier
Catanzaro CJ, Skroch WA, Henry PH. 1993. Rooting performance of hard- residue–based propagation media. Journal of Environmental Horticulture
wood stem cuttings from herbicide-treated nursery stock plants. Journal 2(3): 88–90.
of Environmental Horticulture 11(3): 128–130. Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North
Chadwick LC. 1935. Practices in propagation by seed. American America. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan. 996 p.
Nurseryman 62(12): 3–9. Rudolf PO. 1974. Ligustrum L., privet. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant propa- of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington,
gation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press: 146–147. DC: USDA Forest Service: 500–502.
Heit CE. 1968. Propagation from seed: 15. Fall planting of shrub seeds for Seymour FC. 1982. The flora of New England. 2nd ed. Plainfield, NJ:
successful seedling production. American Nurseryman 128(4): 8–10, Phytologia Memoirs V. 611 p.
70–80. Shumilina ZK. 1949. Podgotovka posevu semyan drevesnykh I kus-
Howe TK, Woltz SS. 1981. Symptomology and relative susceptibility of tarnikovykh porod.Vsesoyuznyi Nauchno-issledovatel’skii Institut
various ornamental plants to acute airborne sulfur dioxide exposure. Agrolesomelioratsii, Moskva-Leningrad, Goslesbumizdat. [Preparation of
Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society 94:121–123. tree and shrub seed for sowing. 1967.Translation TT 67-51300.
ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1996. International rules for Springfield,VA: USDC, CFSTI. 36 p.]
seed testing: 1996. Seed Science and Technology 24 (Suppl.): 1–335. Swingle CF, comp. 1939. Seed propagation of trees, shrubs, and forbs for
Keever GJ, Cobb GS, Mills DR. 1989. Effects of floral buds, flowers, and fruit conservation planting. SCS-TP-27. Washington, DC: USDA Soil
on the propagation of four woody ornamentals from stem cuttings. Conservation Service. 198 p.
Applied Agricultural Research 4(4); 285–287. Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their ero-
Lee WG, Grubb PJ, Wilson JB. 1991. Patterns of resource allocation in sion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC: USDA.
fleshy fruits of nine European tall-shrub species. Oikos 61: 307–315. 362 p.
Little EL Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees, native and naturalized. Vines RA. 1983. Trees of north Texas. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p. 466 p.
Martin AC, Zim HS, Nelson AL. 1951. American wildlife and plants. New Wilson KA, Wood CE Jr. 1959. The genera of Oleaceae in the southeastern
York: McGraw-Hill. 500 p. United States. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 40: 369–384.
McMinn HE, Maino E. 1937. An illustrated manual of Pacific Coast trees. Yang G, Read PE. 1991. Influence of plant growth regulators and season on
Berkeley: University of California Press. 409 p. growth responses of forced woody stems. Acta Horticulturae 300:
Meikle RD. 1958. British trees and shrubs. London: Eyre and Spottiswoode. 173–175.
132–133. Yang G, Read PE. 1992. Pre-forcing treatments influence bud break and
Morita M, Iwamoto S, Higuchi H. 1979. Interrelated effects of thermo- and shoot elongation in forced woody species. Journal of Environmental
photo-periodism on growth and development of ornamental woody Horticulture 10(2): 101–103.
plants: 4.The effects of chilling in winter and photoperiod on growth and
development of several ornamental woody plants. Journal of the
Japanese Society for Horticultural Science 48(2): 205–212.
Lindera Thunb.
spicebush
Victor Vankus, Kenneth A. Brinkman, and H. M. Phipps
Mr.Vankus is a botanist at the USDA Forest Service’s National Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, Georgia; Drs.
Brinkman and Phipps retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Forest Experiment Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. The genus Flowering and fruiting. The yellow to yellow-green
Lindera—spicebush—comprises 80 species of deciduous or flowers of spicebush are dioecious or polygamous and
evergreen trees or shrubs (Huxley and others 1992). The 3 appear from March to May before the leaves (Fernald 1950).
deciduous species (table 1) native to the United States are The fruits, which begin developing in May, are red dru-
generally found in moist woodlands, usually as understory paceus berries ripening in August or September (Rehder
plants. Common spicebush is a deciduous shrub to 4.6 m 1940). Each fruit contains a single seed that is light violet-
tall; it has been cultivated since 1683 and is valuable for brown with flecks of darker brown (figures 1 and 2). The
wildlife food and environmental plantings. The fruits are affects of sun and shade habitats on flower production, sex
eaten by grouse (Bonasa umbellus), quail (Colinus virgini- ratio, and resulting population dynamics of common spice-
anus), pheasants (Phasianus colchicus), and other birds bush have been studied by Niesenbaum (1992) and Cipollini
(Grimm 1957). The dried fruit has been used as a substitute and others (1994).
for allspice and the leaves, bark, and fruit for their medicinal Collection of fruit; extraction and storage of seeds.
properties as a treatment for coughs and colds (Bremness Spicebush fruits should be collected at maturity from August
1994; USDA Forest Service 1948). Both common and to October (Van Dersal 1935). Seedcrops can vary from year
Japanese spicebushes (table 1) are grown and sold by the to year. Seed collectors must pay careful attention to fruit
horticultural industry for their spring flowers and aromatic maturity to ensure that seeds are collected at the optimal
and colorful fall foliage (Huxley and others 1992). Common time and to limit loss of seeds to birds. Fruits collected
spicebush is commonly used as a root stock for cuttings of before maturity had seeds with low or no viability (Boyle
Japanese spicebush (Boyle 1997). Pondberry and bog spice- 1997). The fresh fruits should be de-pulped in water, the
bush are both much less abundant than common spicebush pulp floated off, and the seeds thoroughly air-dried
and have much smaller ranges (table 1). Pondberry was list- (Brinkman and Phipps 1974). Seeds should not be stored or
ed as an endangered species by the USDI Fish and Wildlife planted still within the berry. There are about 10,000
Service in 1986. seeds/kg (4,550/lb). Forty-five kilograms (99.2 lb) of fruits
L. benzoin (L.) Blume common spicebush, northern spicebush, Maine to Ontario & Kansas;
Benzoin aestivale (L.) Nees Benjamin bush, feverbush, wild allspice S to Florida & Texas
L. melissifolia (Walt.) Blume pondberry, southern North Carolina to Missouri;
Benzoin melissifolium (Walt.) Nees spicebush, Jove’s fruit S to Georgia & W to Louisiana
Laurus melissifolia Walt.
L. obtusiloba Blume Japanese spicebush Japan, Korea, & China
Benzoin obtusilobum (Blume) O. Kuntze
L . cercidifolia Hemsley
L. obtusiloba f. velutina T.B. Lee
L. subcoriacea B.E.Wofford bog spicebush North Carolina S to Florida
& W to Louisiana; also New Jersey
Lindera • 667
Figure 1—Lindera benzoin, common spicebush: seed. Figure 2—Lindera benzoin, common spicebush: longitudi-
L nal section through a seed.
Lindera • 669
L Hamamelidaceae—Witch-hazel family
Liquidambar styraciflua L.
sweetgum
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s, Southern Research Station
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Other common names. redgum, American sweet- Figure 1—Liquidambar styraciflua, sweetgum: fruiting
gum, sapgum, bilsted. head.
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Sweetgum—
Liquidambar styraciflua L.—is found on a variety of sites
from Connecticut and southeastern Missouri, south to cen-
tral Florida and southeastern Texas. It also occurs in scat-
tered locations from Mexico south to Nicaragua (Kormanik
1990) and is considered by some to be a very promising
species for the American tropics (McCarter and Hughes
1984). This large deciduous tree reaches heights of over 45
m and diameters of 1.2 m at maturity (Brown and Kirkman
1990). Sweetgum has some value for pulp, lumber, and
veneer. The seeds are eaten by many species of birds (Van
Dersal 1938), and the tree is planted as an ornamental. It
was first cultivated in 1681 (Bonner 1974).
Sweetgum exhibits quite a bit of variation over its wide
natural range (McCarter and Hughes 1984; McMillan and Figure 2—Liquidambar styraciflua, sweetgum: seed.
Winstead 1976; Wells and others 1991; Williams and
McMillan 1971). Minor differences in germination and
seedling growth and morphology have been reported, but
there is no strong evidence for distinct geographic races in
the species.
Flowering and fruiting. The small, greenish, monoe-
cious flowers bloom in March to May. The pistillate flowers
are borne in axillary, globose heads that form the 22- to 35-
mm-diameter multiple heads of small 2-celled capsules (fig-
ure 1). The lustrous green color of the fruiting head fades to
yellowish green or yellow as maturity is reached in
September to November (Bonner 1974; Vines 1960). At the of up to 44% have also been reported from damage by seed
point of color change, moisture content of the fruit head bugs—Leptoglossus oppositus (Say)—in North Carolina
should have dropped below 70% (Bonner 1972). The (Ebel and Summerville 1983). Some trees have been known
beaklike capsules open at this time, and the small, winged to flower and bear fruit 4 and 5 years after planting (Mohn
seeds (figures 2 and 3), 1 or 2 per capsule, are dispersed. and Randall 1970), but good crops are not common until
Empty fruiting heads often remain on the trees over winter. the tress reach 20 to 30 years of age (Bonner 1974).
Fair seedcrops occur every year and bumper crops about Collection and extraction. Mature fruit heads must
every 3 years. The flowers are susceptible to late spring be picked from standing trees or logging slash before seed
freezes that can greatly reduce seedcrops. Crop reductions dispersal. The best indicator of maturity is the fading of
Liquidambar • 671
L Table 1—Liquidambar styraciflua, sweetgum: germination test conditions and results
0 8 Blotter paper 30 20 28 76 21 85 14
30 8 Kimpak 30 20 25 86 14 95 23
15–45 0 Blotter paper 30 30 30 — — 85 13
testing (table 1) (AOSA 1993). Light is not absolutely nec- Figure 4—Liquidambar styraciflua, sweetgum: seedling
essary for germination of stratified seeds (Bonner 1967), but development at 2 and 30 days after germination.
it is normally used in all testing. Tetrazolium staining
(Bonner and Gammage 1967), radiography (Belcher and
Vozzo 1979), and the excised embryo method (Bonner and
Gammage 1967; Flemion 1948) also provide reliable tests of
viability. Germination is epigeal (figure 4). For moisture
testing, duplicate samples of 4 to 6 g each should be dried
for 17 ± 1 hour at 103 ± 2 °C (ISTA 1993), or electric
meters can be used for rapid measurements (Bonner 1981).
Nursery practice. Stratified seeds should be broad-
cast or drilled in the spring to achieve an initial seedling
density of 100 to 160/m2 (9 to 15/ft2) (Barham 1980).
Aluminum powder may be mixed with wet stratified seeds
at a rate of 15 ml/45 kg of seeds (4 tablespoons/100 lb) to
achieve easy flow in seeders (Bonner 1974). The seeds
should be sown on the surface and lightly into the soil with
a roller. A 6- to 12-mm (1/4- to 1/2-in) mulch of sawdust,
sand, or chopped pine straw should be applied (Bonner
1974; Coleman 1965; Vande Linde 1964), although some
nurseries have reported better results with wood fiber
mulches at rates of 1,400 to 2,900 kg/ha (1,250 to 2,600
lb/ac) (Barham 1980).
Ornamental cultivars of sweetgum are usually propagat-
ed vegetatively. Cuttings taken in early June will root, and
budding is common also (Dirr and Heuser 1987).
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds. ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. International rules for
Journal of Seed Technology 16(3): 1–113. seed testing (rules 1993). Seed Science and Technology 21 (Suppl.):
Barham RO. 1980. Nursery-grown sweetgum production improved by 1–259.
hydromulching.Tree Planters’ Notes 31(2): 28–30. Kearney NW, Bonner FT. 1968. Sweetgum seed production on soils in cen-
Belcher E,Vozzo J. 1979. Radiographic analysis of agricultural and forest tree tral Mississippi. Res. Note 50-75. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service,
seeds. Association of Official Seed Analysts Handbk. No. 31. 27 p. Southern Forest Experiment Station. 2 p.
Bonner FT. 1967. Germination of sweetgum seed in response to light. Kormanik PP. 1990. Liquidambar styraciflua L., sweetgum. In: Burns RM,
Journal of Forestry 65: 339. Honkala BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 2,
Bonner FT. 1970. Artificial ripening of sweetgum seeds.Tree Planters’ Notes Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
21(3): 23–25. 400–405.
Bonner FT. 1972. Maturation of sweetgum and American sycamore seeds. McCarter PS, Hughes CE. 1984. Liquidambar styraciflua L.—a species of
Forest Science 18: 223–231. potential for the tropics. Commonwealth Forestry Review 63: 207–216.
Bonner FT. 1974. Liquidambar styraciflua L., sweetgum In: Schopmeyer CS, McMillan C, Winstead JE. 1976. Adaptive differentiation in Liquidambar
tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. styraciflua L. from eastern United States and northeastern Mexico under
450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 505–507. uniform environmental conditions. Botanical Gazette 137: 361–367.
Bonner FT. 1981. Measurement and management of tree seed moisture. Mohn CA, Randall WK. 1970. Flowering in young sweetgum plantations.
Res. Paper SO-177. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Science 16: 70–71.
Forest Experiment Station. 11 p. Nikolaeva MG. 1967. Physiology of deep dormancy in seeds. Komarovskie
Bonner FT. 1987. Collection and care of sweetgum seed. New Forests 3: Chteniya Botanicheskogo Instituta Akademii Nauk SSR [translated by
207–214. USDC National Technical Information Service.TT 68-50463. 1969.
Bonner FT. 1994. Predicting seed longevity for four forest tree species with 220 p.].
orthodox seeds. Seed Science and Technology 22: 361–370. Rink G, Dell TR, Switzer G, Bonner FT. 1979. Use of the Weibull function to
Bonner FT, Farmer RE. 1966. Germination of sweetgum in response to quantify sweetgum germination data. Silvae Genetica 28: 9–12.
temperature, moisture stress, and length of stratification. Forest Science Robbins AMJ. 1984. Seed extraction: 1.The tarpaulin method of sun drying
12: 40–43. pine cones and seed extraction.Tech. Note 9. Humlebaek, Denmark:
Bonner FT, Gammage JL. 1967. Comparison of germination and viability DANIDA Forest Seed Centre.
tests for southern hardwood seed.Tree Planters’ Notes 18(3): 21–23. Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their
Brown CK, Kirkman LK. 1990. Trees of Georgia and adjacent states. erosion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC: US
Portland, OR:Timber Press. 292 p. Department of Agriculture. 362 p.
Coleman MC. 1965. Georgia’s experience in hardwood seedling produc- Vande Linde F. 1964. Nursery practices for southern oaks and gums.Tree
tion. In: Proceedings, Region 8 Forest Nurserymen’s Conferences; 1964 Planters’ Notes 65: 24–26.
August 19–20; Morganton, NC; and September 16–17; Oklahoma City, Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
OK. Atlanta: USDA Forest Service, State and Private Forestry: 25–32. University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant Wells OO, Switzer GL, Schmidtling RC. 1991. Geographic variation in
propagation. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. Mississippi loblolly pine and sweetgum. Silvae Genetica 40: 105–119.
Ebel BH, Summerville KO. 1983. An evaluation of feeding by a seed bug, Wilcox JR. 1968. Sweetgum seed stratification requirements related to
Leptoglossus oppositus (Say), on seed yield of sweetgum, Liquidambar winter climate at seed source. Forest Science 14: 16–19.
styraciflua L. Journal of the Georgia Entomological Society 18: 316–320. Williams GJ III, McMillan C. 1971. Phenology of six United States prove-
Flemion F. 1948. Reliability of the excised embryo method as a rapid test nances of Liquidambar styraciflua under controlled conditions. American
for determining the germinative capacity of dormant seeds. Journal of Botany 58: 24–31.
Contributions of the Boyce Thompson Institute 15: 229–241. Winstead JE. 1971. Populational difference in seed germination and
stratification requirements of sweetgum. Forest Science 17: 34–36.
Liquidambar • 673
L Magnoliaceae—Magnolia family
Liriodendron tulipifera L.
tuliptree
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Other common names. yellow-poplar, poplar, tulip- Figure 1—Liriodendron tulipifera, tuliptree: cone (left) and
poplar, white poplar, whitewood. single samara (right).
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. Tuliptree—
Liriodendron tulipifera L.—occurs naturally throughout the
eastern United States from Vermont and southern Michigan
south to Louisiana and north-central Florida (Little 1979). It
grows under a variety of climatic conditions from sea level
to 1,370 m elevation in the Appalachian Mountains and to
300 m in the northern part of its range. This large deciduous
tree is among the tallest in the eastern United States and
reaches considerable age: tuliptrees planted by George
Washington still grow at Mount Vernon (Griswold 1999). It
can attain heights of 61 m and diameters of 2.4 to 3.7 m at
maturity (Beck 1990). The wood is very valuable for lumber
and veneer. It is a good honey tree and is planted extensively
as an ornamental. Tuliptree has been cultivated since 1663
(Bonner and Russell 1974).
Flowering and fruiting. The large, perfect, greenish-
yellow flowers of tuliptree open from April to June (Little
and Delisle 1962). The fruit is an elongated cone composed Figure 2—Liriodendron tulipifera, tuliptree: longitudinal
of closely overlapped carpels that are dry, woody, and section through an embryo of a samara.
winged (figure 1). Each carpel (samara) contains 1 or 2
seeds (figure 2). The cones turn from green to yellow to
light brown as they ripen; they mature from early August in
the northern part of the range (Guard 1943) to late October
in the South (Bonner and Russell 1974). As the mature
cones dry on the trees, they break apart and the samaras are
scattered by the wind. Peak dissemination occurs in October
and November, but a few samaras fall as late as the follow-
ing March (Carvell and Korstian 1955; Whipple 1968). In
South Carolina, seedfall is usually at least 90% complete by
early December (Goebel and McGregor 1973).
Good seedcrops occur almost every year; failures, as
well as bumper crops, occur infrequently. In North Carolina,
1 large tree produced 29,000 sound seeds, and seedfall of
1.5 million seeds/ha is not uncommon (Beck 1990). In a
South Carolina study, 1 of 5 seedcrops was heavy (Goebel
Liriodendron • 675
L Table 1—Liriodendron tulipifera, tuliptree: seed yield data
Cone wt/ Seed wt/ Cleaned seeds/weight
cone vol cone vol Range Average
Place collected kg/hl lb/bu kg/hl lb/bu /kg /lb /kg /lb Samples
Mississippi
Warren Co. 39 30 8 6 9,455–17,200 4,288–7,804 12,680 5,750 3
Oktibbeha Co. 32 25 — — — — — — —
North Carolina* — — — — 32,430–75,080 14,710–34,050 41,200 18,700 9
E Tennessee — — 9 7 — — — — —
New York — — — — 15,170–30,980 6,880–14,050 23,440 10,630 9
— — 9–24 7–19 22,050–52,920 10,000–24,000 30,870 14,000 —
period of 28 days (AOSA 1993). If empty seeds have not Figure 3—Liriodendron tulipifera, tuliptree: seedling
been removed from test samples, germination percentages development at 1, 18, and 48 days after germination.
will be quite low because of the naturally low proportion of
filled seeds common in this species. Germination of the
filled seeds should be good, however; percentages of 80 to
90% are common (Bonner and Russell 1974). Seeds unger-
minated at the end of a test should be cut to determine if any
embryos are present. Viability can also be estimated by
tetrazolium staining (ISTA 1993) and by radiography
(Belcher and Vozzo 1979; Kaeiser and Boyce 1962; Taft
1962). Germination is epigeal (figure 3).
Nursery practice. Untreated seeds may be sown in
the fall, but stratified seeds must be used for spring sowing.
Seeds may be broadcast at rates of 25 to 75 kg/m2 (1 to 3
lb/ft2) of bed space or sown in rows 20 to 30 cm (8 to 12 in)
apart at a rate of 80 to 100 seeds/m (24 to 30/ft) (Bonner
and Russell 1974). Bed densities of 110 seedlings/m2
(10/ft2) are recommended (Williams and Hanks 1976). To
assure proper bed density, the proportion of filled seeds
must be known before sowing. The seeds should be covered
with 6 mm (1/4 in) of soil or 12 to 25 mm (1/2 to 1 in) of
sawdust and beds should be shaded for 1 to 2 months from
the start of germination (Bonner and Russell 1974).
Fumigation with MC-33 (67% methyl bromide plus 33%
chloropicrin) was recommended for control of cylindro-
cladium root rot—Cylindrocladium scoparium Morg.
(Affeltranger 1969). Because of the uncertain status of
methyl bromide at this time, local extension authorities
should be consulted about an appropriate fumigant to use.
Adams RE. 1968. Are alternating temperatures more beneficial than con- Guard AT, Wean RE. 1941. Seed production in the tulip poplar. Journal of
stant temperatures during stratification of yellow poplar seeds? Tree Forestry 39: 1032–1033.
Planters’ Notes 19(3): 16–17. Griswold M. 1999. Washington’s gardens at Mount Vernon: landscape of the
Affeltranger CE. 1969. An evaluation of a soil fumigation treatment for con- inner man. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 192 p.
trolling cylindrocladium root rot in a forest nursery. Forest Pest Cont. Heit CE. 1942. Tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera): propagation and seed
Rep. 70-1-1. Atlanta: USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Area, State and date. Notes For. Invest. Cornell: New York Conservation Department 44.
Private Forestry. 7 p. 1 p.
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds. Houston DB, Joehlin KA. 1989. Are pollination bags needed for controlled
Journal of Seed Technology 16(3): 1–113. pollination programs with yellow-poplar? Silvae Genetica 38: 137–140.
Beck DE. 1990. Liriodendron tulipifera L., yellow-poplar. In: Burns RM, ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. International rules for
Honkala BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 2, seed testing (rules 1993). Seed Science and Technology 21 (Suppl.):
Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 1–259.
406–416. Kaeiser M, Boyce SG. 1962. X-ray negatives for sorting yellow-poplar
Belcher E,Vozzo J. 1979. Radiographic analysis of agricultural and forest tree samaras with filled and empty seeds. Journal of Forestry 60: 410–411.
seeds. AOSA Handbk. 31. Association of Official Seed Analysts. 27 p. Kavanagh K, Carleton TJ. 1990. Seed production and dispersal patterns in
Bonner FT. 1976a. Effects of gibberellin on germination of forest tree seeds populations of Liriodendron tulipifera at the northern edge of its range in
with shallow dormancy. In: Hatano K, Asakawa S, Katsuta M, Sasaki S, southern Ontario, Canada. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research 20:
Yokoyama T, eds. Proceedings, 2nd International Symposium on 1461–1470.
Physiology of Seed Germination; 1976 October 18–30; Fuji, Japan.Tokyo: Limstrom GA. 1959. Yellow-poplar seed quality varies by seed trees, stands,
Government Forest Experiment Station: 21–32. and years. Sta. Res. Note 134. Columbus, OH: USDA Forest Service,
Bonner FT. 1976b. Maturation and collection of yellow-poplar seeds in the Central States Forest Experiment Station. 2 p.
Midsouth. Res. Paper SO-121. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Little EL Jr. 1978. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized).
Southern Forest Experiment Station. 8 p. Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p.
Bonner FT, Russell TE. 1974. Liriodendron tulipifera L., yellow-poplar. In: Little EL Jr, Delisle AL. 1962. Time periods in development: forest trees,
Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants of the United North American. In: Altman PL, Dittmer, eds. Biological handbook on
States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: growth. Washington, DC: Federation of American Societies for
508–511. Experimental Biology:Table 104.
Bonner FT, Switzer GL. 1971. Upgrading yellow-poplar seeds. Res. Note Paton RR. 1945. Storage of tulip tree seed. Journal of Forestry 43: 764–765.
SO-129. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Sluder ER. 1964. Quality of yellow-poplar planting stock varies by mother
Experiment Station. 4 p. tree and seedbed density. Tree Planters’ Notes 65: 16–19.
Boyce SG, Hosner JF. 1963. Alternating storage temperatures increase the Steavenson HA. 1940. The hammer mill as an important nursery imple-
germination of yellow-poplar seed. Journal of Forestry 61: 731–733. ment. Journal of Forestry 38: 356–361.
Boyce SG, Kaeiser M. 1961. Why yellow-poplar seeds have low viability. Swingle CF, comp. 1939. Seed propagation of trees, shrubs, and forbs for
Tech. Pap. 168. Columbus, OH: USDA Forest Service, Central States conservation planting. SCS-TP-27. Washington, DC: USDA, Soil
Forest Experiment Station. 16 p. Conservation Service. 198 p.
Carvell KL, Korstian CF. 1955. Production and dissemination of yellow- Taft KA Jr. 1962. The effect of controlled pollination and honeybees on
poplar seed. Journal of Forestry 53: 169–170. seed quality of yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.) as assessed by X-
Chadwick LC. 1936. Improved practices in propagation by seed. American ray photography.Tech. Rep. 13. Raleigh: North Carolina State University
Nurseryman 62(12): 3–9. School of Forestry. 21 p.
Cech FC, Keys RN. 1987. Collection of yellow-poplar seed-heads by Whipple SD. 1968. Yellow-poplar regeneration after seed tree cutting and
shaking. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry 4(2): 78–81. site preparation. Bull. 384. Auburn, AL: Auburn University Agricultural
Goebel NB, McGregor WHD. 1973. Seedfall of three bottomland hard- Experiment Station. 15 p.
wood species. For. Bull. 11. Clemson, SC: Clemson University, Williams RD, Hanks SH. 1976. Hardwood nurseryman’s guide. Agric.
Department of Forestry. 5 p. Handbk. 473. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 78 p.
Guard AT. 1943. The development of the seed of Liriodendron tulipifera L. Williams RD, Mony CC. 1962. Yellow-poplar seedling yield increased by
Indiana Academy of Science Proceedings 53: 75–77. seed stratification. Journal of Forestry 60: 878.
Liriodendron • 677
L Fagaceae—Beech family
Occurrence and growth habit. This evergreen hard- tanoak, 40 to 50 years old, have developed in northwestern
wood species, the sole representative of its genus in North California after logging and fire (Thornburgh 1994). Tanoak
America, is considered a link between the chestnuts often forms part of the overstory, but almost always in a
(Castanea) and the oaks (Quercus) (McMinn 1939). Tanoak codominant position. It is rarely found in a dominant posi-
(also known as tanbark-oak)—Lithocarpus densiflorus tion, except possibly when part of a ragged overstory with
(Hook. & Arn.) Rehd.—has flowers that resemble those of Douglas-fir. Because tanoak cannot withstand sudden expo-
the chestnuts, but acorns that resemble those of the oaks. sure to full sunlight, leaving scattered mature tanoak trees
Tanoak is found from just north of the Umpqua River in after heavy logging is a sure way to cause blighted tops and
southwestern Oregon southward throughout the coastal decreased acorn production (McDonald and Tappeiner
ranges to the eastern end of the Santa Ynez Mountains in 1987). Tanoak also is abundant in the understory in interme-
western Ventura County, California. Its range then extends diate and suppressed crown positions.
eastward to near Grants Pass, Oregon, and the lower slopes As a codominant forest tree, tanoak has a crown that is
of Mt. Shasta, and then intermittently southward along the shaped much like the tapering cone of its principal conifer
western slopes of the Sierra Nevada to Mariposa County, associate, Douglas-fir. It has a long, straight bole, often clear
California (Griffin and Critchfield 1972). of branches for 9 to 24 m (Roy 1974); narrow crown; and
A striking characteristic of the tanoak species is that, slender upright branches. Leaning, forking, and crooked
throughout its range, the tree form is found where moisture trees are uncommon. In stature, tanoak is best described as
is present—from the soil, from fog, or from high relative medium in height, with most trees growing to a range of 13
humidity (McDonald and Tappeiner 1987). Another charac- to 47 m.
teristic of the species is that shade is a requirement, but the Tanoak also has a recognized shrubby form—L. densi-
amount varies by reproductive mode. Seedlings from acorns florus var. echinoides (R. Br.) Abrams—and possibly anoth-
need shade to become established and grow. Sprouts from er, unrecognized one. The recognized form is reported in
root crowns, which are often found in burned or otherwise northern California in Shasta, Siskiyou, and Trinity Counties
severely disturbed areas, grow best in full sunlight, but only and on the lower slopes of Mt. Shasta. In these areas, it is
until the crowns close. From then on, and whether from restricted to rocky exposed ridges intermixed with tanoak
acorns or sprouts, only toplight is needed. Indeed, full sun- trees that reach heights of 17 m in protected spots (Griffin
light is then deleterious. and Critchfield 1972). They also describe the shrubby form
Because partial shade is necessary, tanoak is often found at the end of the species’ southern range in the Sierra
in dense stands, usually in mixture with several conifer and Nevada. Roy (1974) states that the northern California vari-
hardwood species. Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii ety has a typical shrub form, low stature, and “small, thin”
Pursh) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) leaves. The unrecognized form is found in the northern
Franco) are its most common associates. The species is par- Sierra Nevada in a narrow elevational band just above that
ticularly abundant in a belt surrounding the redwood forest occupied by the tree form (McDonald and Litton 1987;
in northern coastal California and in Yuba and Butte McDonald and others 1989). Here large clumps, often flat-
Counties in the Sierra Nevada (Sudworth 1908). But even tened by heavy snow, are found with stems straggling
though abundant, it is reported to “never” form pure stands downslope for 5 m or more (Tappeiner and others 1990). In
(Jepson and others 1911). However, extensive pure stands of addition, the thick, dark-green leaves of these plants are as
Lithocarpus • 679
spring. Seeding germinated acorns almost guarantees a high favorable environment and is at least part of the reason for
L
initial seed-to-seedling ratio. this phenomenon.
Pregermination treatments. Stratification in moist Nursery practice. Tanoak seedlings are difficult to
peat moss at temperatures just above freezing is all that is grow in the nursery. The emergent seedling produces a fast-
needed to give high germination values (97% and 6 days). growing taproot that quickly exceeds the depth of conven-
Germination is hypogeal (figure 3). tional containers and should not be clipped.
Germination. Acorn position is a major influence on Seedling care. Extensive trials on a good site in
germination and subsequent seedling survival and develop- northern California involved seeding sound acorns and out-
ment. Reversing polarity (placing acorns so that the pointed planting container seedlings. In spite of the utmost care in
end is up) enhances the speed and completeness of germina- site preparation—yearly removal of competing plants, loos-
tion, as well as seedling development. In a test in a conven- ened soil at each seed spot, careful seeding, use of acorns
tional plantation (clearcutting) with 840 acorns placed point- known to be viable when seeded, rodent protection, fertiliza-
up and 772 point-down, germination was 53% for point-up tion, and irrigation—seedling survival and growth were
acorns and 21% for point-down acorns. Germination rate poor. Survival of 4- and 6-year-old seedlings was about 34%
was 12 versus 41 days, respectively (McDonald 1978). Early and mean height was 30 cm (12 in). Many plants had multi-
germination, however, subjected the just-emerged (7-day- ple stems from repeated dieback and sprouting (McDonald
old) seedlings to late spring frost and many were frozen. It 1978). Most eventually died. The fate of container-grown
is of interest that 75% of these seedlings eventually sprouted seedlings that were given extensive care and artificial shad-
from the root crown, but with multiple stems. Perhaps shade ing was little better. Survival after 2 growing seasons was
from the outer stems provides the inner stems with a more 46%; height growth after outplanting was essentially nil
(McDonald 1978). Most seedlings eventually died. The
clipped taproot did not renew and the seedling’s poorly
Figure 3—Lithocarpus densiflorus, tanoak: seedling devel- developed root system did not extend beyond the already
opment 2 months after germination loosened soil. When that dried out, the seedlings died.
Survival and growth of natural tanoak seedlings is best
described as fair and slow, respectively. We cannot grow
tanoak seedlings in conventional sunlit plantations. An envi-
ronment of moderate shade and plentiful organic material
seems necessary for survival and establishment of both arti-
ficial and natural seedlings. How to achieve consistent and
reliable seedling growth remains a mystery.
References
Lithocarpus • 681
L Caprifoliaceae—Honeysuckle family
Lonicera L.
honeysuckle
Jean-Jacques B. Dubois and Frank A. Blazich
Dr. Dubois is a plant physiologist at the USDA Agricultural Research Service’s Plant Science Research Unit,
Raleigh, North Carolina; Dr. Blazich is alumni distinguished graduate professor of plant propagation and tissue
culture at North Carolina State University’s Department of Horticultural Science, Raleigh, North Carolina
Occurrence, growth habit, and uses. Honeysuckles Figure 1—Lonicera involucrata, black twinberry: fruit
include about 180 species of deciduous or evergreen, bushy, (berry).
scandent, twining, or creeping shrubs, found throughout the
Northern Hemisphere, south to Mexico and North Africa,
Java, and the Philippines (Huxley 1992). Many species are
cultivated for their attractive, often-fragrant flowers and for
their ornamental fruits. Some species furnish food and cover
for wildlife, whereas others are valuable for erosion control
and shelterbelt planting (Brinkman 1974; Huxley 1992).
They are valued also for their extreme cold hardiness
(Herman and Davidson 1997). Many species introduced in
the United States have escaped cultivation and have become
naturalized within this century (table 1). Japanese, Amur,
and Tatarian honeysuckles are now considered invasive
weeds (Luken and Thieret 1997)
Scientific and common names. The nomenclature of
honeysuckles has been the object of many revisions over
time. Many species were once classified as varieties, and
vice versa, making synonyms common. The names currently Bountiful seedcrops of Amur and Tatarian honeysuckles are
accepted for species native to, naturalized, or in cultivation borne nearly every year. No data are available concerning
in the United States are listed in table 1. the age that plants must be to produce a good seedcrop.
Geographic races and hybrids. Erstad (1991) Seeds are dispersed primarily by birds and other animals.
demonstrated extensive genetic variation between black Fruits of Amur, Morrow, and Tatarian honeysuckles persist
twinberry plants from various northwestern American prove- well into the winter (Brinkman 1974).
nances. Thirty North American honeysuckles have been Collection of fruits. Fruits should be hand-picked or
assigned varietal status (Kartesz 1994). Among the 74 culti- stripped from the branches as soon as possible after ripening
vated honeysuckles reported by the Liberty Hyde Bailey to reduce consumption by birds (Brinkman 1974). Belcher
Hortorium (1976), 10 species are of hybrid origin. and Hamer (1982) advocate flailing pruned branches of
Flowering and fruiting. The small, perfect flowers Amur honeysuckle inside a large drum as a time-saving
vary from white or yellow to pink, purple, or scarlet. They method. Although pruned plants do not bloom the following
are borne in axillary pairs or sessile, 6-flowered whorls in season, greater quantities of fruits are produced from these
terminal spikes or panicles. Time of flowering varies not plants the second year after pruning.
only among species but also by geographic locality within Fruit color is generally used as an indicator of maturity.
species (table 2). The attractive fruits are berries, white, red, Cram (1982) reported, however, that the germination rate of
orange, blue, or black at maturity (table 2). They occur often seeds of Tatarian honeysuckle collected several weeks prior
in coalescent pairs that ripen in the spring, summer, or early to the “color-ripe” stage was not significantly different from
fall (figure 1). Depending on the species, each berry con- that of seeds extracted from ripe fruits. It is generally rec-
tains a few to many small seeds that measure about 4 mm in ommended that fruits be collected from isolated plants or
diameter (figures 2 and 3) (Brinkman 1974; Huxley 1992).
N Am occurrence
Scientific name & synonym(s) Common names(s) Native occurrence of introduced species Height (m)
L. albiflora Torr. & Gray western white honeysuckle Arizona E to Oklahoma & Texas — Scandent to 4 m
L. albiflora Torr. & Gray var.
dumosa (Gray) Rehder
L. dumosa Gray
L. arizonica Rehd. Arizona honeysuckle Arizona & New Mexico — 5.5 m
L. x bella Zabel Belle honeysuckle, Wyoming N to Saskatchewan, E to — 2.5 to 3 m
whitebell honeysuckle South Carolina & New Brunswick
L. caerulea L. bearberry honeysuckle, Europe to NE Asia California N to British 2m
sweetberry honeysuckle Columbia, E to Pennsylvania
& Newfoundland
L. canadensis Batr. ex Marsh. fly honeysuckle Tennessee N to Iowa, E to — 1.5 m
Xylosteon ciliatum Pursh Georgia & Nova Scotia
L. caprifolium L. Italian woodbine, Europe to W Asia New Jersey to Massachusetts Scandent to 6 m
Italian honeysuckle & Nova Scotia
L. chrysantha Turcz. ex Ledeb. coralline honeysuckle, NE Asia to Japan No occurrence except 4m
honeysuckle in cultivation
L. ciliosa (Pursh) Poir. ex DC. orange honeysuckle California N to British — 5.5 m
Columbia, E to Utah & Montana
L. conjugialis Kellogg purple flower honeysuckle California N to Washington,
E to Nebraska & Idaho — 1.5 m
L. dioica L. limber honeysuckle, Arizona N to British Columbia, E to — 1.5 m
mountain honeysuckle Georgia, Quebec, & Missouri
L. etrusca Santi Etruscan honeysuckle Mediterranean region California to Scandent to 4 m
British Columbia
L. flava Sims yellow honeysuckle Oklahoma N to Illinois, E — 2.5 m
L. flava Sims var. flavescens Gleason to South Carolina & Ohio
L. flavida Cockerell ex Rehder
L. fragrantissima Lindl. & Paxton winter honeysuckle, China Utah; Louisiana N to Ohio 2m
Xylosteon fragrantissimum sweet-breath-of-spring E to South Carolina & North
(Lindl. & Paxton) Small Carolina
L. hirsuta Eat. hairy honeysuckle Nebraska N to Saskatchewan, — 3.5 m
L. hirsuta Eat. var. interior Gleason E to Pennsylvania & Quebec
L. hirsuta Eat. var. schindleri B. Bovin
L. hispidula (Lindl.) Dougl. California honeysuckle California to British Columbia — —
ex Torr. & Gray
L. interrupta Benth. chaparral honeysuckle California to Oregon & Arizona — —
L. involucrata Banks ex Spreng. black twinberry, bearberry California N to Alaska, E to — 2m
honeysuckle, inkberry, New Mexico & New Brunswick
skunkberry, twinberry
honeysuckle
Lonicera •
683
L
L
Table 1—Lonicera, honeysuckle: scientific and common names, native occurrence and North American occurrence of introduced species and height at maturity (continued)
684 •
N Am occurrence
Scientific name & synonym(s) Common names(s) Native occurrence of introduced species Height (m)
Sources: Bailey (1949), Brickell and Zuk (1997), Brinkman (1974), Dwelley (1980), FNPS (2002), , Hériteau (1990), Huxley (1992), Krüssmann (1985), Las Pilitas Nursery
(2002), LHBH (1976), Maisenhelder (1958).
groups of plants, as honeysuckles are believed to hybridize fly honeysuckle decreased 20% after 1 year (Brinkman
freely (Brinkman 1974). 1974). In another experiment, seeds of Tatarian honeysuckle
Seed extraction and storage. Unless seeds can be stored at 15 to 29 °C showed a more or less continuous
extracted immediately, fresh fruits should be spread out in decrease in viability with length of storage, with negligible
thin layers to prevent heating. Extraction is accomplished by germination after 6 years. In contrast, storage of dried seeds
macerating the fruits in water and allowing the empty seeds in sealed containers at 1 to 3 °C for 15 years resulted in lit-
and pulp to float and the viable seeds to sink. Munson tle loss of viability (Brinkman 1974).
(1986) has described the use of modified kitchen and shop Pregermination treatments. Seeds exhibit consider-
implements to facilitate extraction. After a short drying peri- able variation in dormancy. Some species have both seed-
od, seeds are ready for sowing or storage. Data regarding coat and embryo dormancy, whereas others have only
seed yields are presented in table 3. Honeysuckle seeds are embryo dormancy or lack dormancy entirely. This variabili-
apparently orthodox in storage behavior. Storage of air-dried ty also occurs among different seedlots of the same species
seeds at room temperature results in loss of viability over (Hartmann and others 2002; Romanyuk 1989). Swingle
several years. One study showed that germination of swamp (1939) reported that 75 to 90 days of cold stratification
Lonicera • 685
Figure 2—Lonicera, honeysuckle: seeds of L. dioica, limber Figure 3—Lonicera tatarica,Tatarian honeysuckle: seed in
L honeysuckle (top); L. maackii, Amur honeysuckle (second); longitudinal section (left) and exterior views of seed
L. involucrata, black twinberry (third); and L. tatarica,Tatarian (center and right).
honeysuckle (bottom).
Range Average
Species /kg /lb /kg /lb
L. hirsuta 20–30 60 5 60
L. maackii — — 0–10 60–90
L. oblongifolia 20–30 60 5 90
L. tatarica — — 5 30–60
Figure 4—Lonicera tatarica, Tatarian honeysuckle: seedling sown either broadcast or by drills in the fall, or cold-strati-
development at 1, 3, 13, and 31 days after germination. fied and sown in early spring. Seeds of species believed to
have an impermeable seedcoat as well, however, should be
sown as soon as possible after collection to ensure germina-
tion the next spring. Nondormant seeds may be sown in the
spring without pretreatment. Seeds should be covered with 3
to 6 mm (1/8 to 1/4 in) of nursery soil. Mulching with 5.0 to
7.5 cm (2 to 3 in) of straw prevents excessive drying of the
soil and seeds. Germination of Tatarian honeysuckle usually
is complete in 40 to 60 days after spring-sowing. This time
can be shortened by soaking seeds in water for 2 to 3 days
before sowing. About 15% of sown seeds of Tatarian honey-
suckle result in usable seedlings. One- or 2-year-old
seedlings of this species and Amur honeysuckle are suitable
for field planting (Brinkman 1974).
Vegetative propagation of honeysuckles by stem cuttings
is also possible. Most species can be propagated readily by
softwood, semi-hardwood, or hardwood cuttings (Dirr and
Heuser 1987; Hartmann and others 2002).
Lonicera • 687
L References
Bailey LH. 1949. Manual of cultivated plants, rev. ed. New York: Macmillan. Hartmann HT, Kester DE, Davies FT Jr., Geneve RL. 2002. Hartmann and
1116 p. Kester’s plant propagation: principles and practices. 7th ed. Upper Saddle
Belcher CR, Hamer DW. 1982. Improved technique for harvesting Amur River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 880 p.
honeysuckle seeds.Tree Planters’ Notes 33(3): 17–19. Herman DE, Davidson CG. 1997. Evaluation of Lonicera taxa for honey-
BONAP. 1996. The digital checklist of the vascular flora of North America suckle aphid susceptibility, winter hardiness and use. Journal of
[website: http://www.bonap.org]. Environmental Horticulture 15(4): 177–182.
Brickell C, Zuk J, eds. 1997. The American Horticultural Society A–Z Huxley A, ed. 1992. The new Royal Horticultural Society dictionary of gar-
encylcopedia of garden plants. New York: DK Publishing. 1092 p. dening.Volume 3. London: Macmillan. 790 p.
Brinkman KA. 1974. Lonicera L., honeysuckle. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. Kartesz JT. 1994. A synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the
coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk 450. United States, Canada, and Greenland.Volume 1. Portland, OR:Timber
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 515–519. Press. 622 p.
Cram WH. 1982. Seed germination of elder (Sambucus pubens) and Krüssmann G. 1985. Manual of cultivated broad-leaved trees and shrubs. 3
honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica). HortScience 17(4): 618–619. vol. Portland, OR:Timber Press.
Cullina W. 2002. Native trees, shrubs, & vines: a guide to using, growing, and Las Pilitas Nursery. 2002. California native plants [website available at
propagating North American woody plants. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. www.laspilitas.com]. Escondido & Santa Margarita, CA: Las Pilitas
354 p. Nursery.
Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, orna- LHBH [Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium]. 1976. Hortus third: a concise dic-
mental characteristics, culture, propagation and uses. Champaign, IL: tionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. 3rd ed.
Stipes Publishing Co. 1007 p. New York: Macmillan. 1290 p.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- Luken JO, Goessling B. 1995. Seedling distribution and potential persistence
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. of the exotic shrub Lonicera maackii in fragmented forests. American
Dwelley MJ. 1980. Trees and shrubs of New England. Camden, ME: Down Midland Naturalist 133(10): 124–130.
East Books. 275 p. Luken JO,Thieret JW, eds. 1997. Assessment and management of plant
Erstad JLF. 1991. Annual shoot growth in different populations of Lonicera invasions. New York: Springer-Verlag. 324 p.
involucrata collected in North America and grown in Norway. Euphytica Maisenhelder LC. 1958. Understory plants of bottomland forests. Occ. Pap.
53(3): 165–171. 165. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment
FNPS [Flagstaff Native Plant and Seed]. 2002. Catalog of native plants and Station. 40 p.
seeds [website available at www.nativeplantandseed.com]. Flagstaff, AZ: Munson RH. 1986. Extracting seeds from fleshy fruits. Plant Propagator
FNPS. 32(2): 14–15.
Hériteau J. 1990. The National Arboretum book of outstanding garden Romanyuk VV. 1989. [Seed dormancy in species of the genus Lonicera
plants. New York: Simon and Schuster. 292 p. (Caprifoliaceae)]. Botanicheskii Zhurnal 74(9): 1328-1332 [in Russian;
CAB Abstracts 1990–1991].
Swingle CF, comp. 1939. Seed propagation of trees, shrubs, and forbs for
conservation planting. SCS-TP-27. Washington DC: USDA Soil
Conservation Service. 198 p.
Dr. Petteys is with the Hawaii Division of Forestry, Kauai, Hawaii; Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the
USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station, Mississippi State, Mississippi.
Synonyms. Lophostemon australe Schott., Tristania Figure 1—Lophostemon confertus, brushbox: seed.
conferta R. Br., T. subverticillata Wendl.
Other common names. Brisbane-box, scrub-box,
vinegar-tree.
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. Brushbox is a
straight-boled evergreen tree that obtains heights of 35 to
45 m (18 m in Hawaii) (Carlson and Bryan 1959; Francis
1951; Maiden 1904). It is native to the eastern coastal region
of Australia and has become naturalized throughout India
and Africa as well as in California, Florida, and Hawaii
(Bailey 1906; Little and Skolmen 1989; Streets 1962). It has
been planted for timber and for ornamental purposes in
Hawaii (Little and Skolmen 1989). The wood grown in
Hawaii is moderately resistant to decay and termites, where-
as wood grown in Australia is considered to be very resistant
Figure 2—Lophostemon confertus, brushbox: longitudinal
to both. In Hawaii, the wood is used for pallets, flooring, section through a seed.
and pulp chips, whereas in other regions it is used extensive-
ly for construction, shipbuilding, bridges, railway crossties,
and pallets (Little and Skolmen 1989). This species is a
hardy ornamental and shade tree with handsome foliage
(Streets 1962)
Flowering and fruiting. The white brushbox flowers
appear in clusters of 3 to 7 on short branches at leaf bases
and the backs of leaves. Individual flowers are about 2.5 cm
wide. The fruits are bell-shaped capsules 1 to 1.5 cm in
diameter and light green to brown in color (Little and
Skolmen 1989; Neal 1965). Individual seeds are flat, elon-
gated (figure 1), light brown in color, and less than 4 mm
long (figure 2). Seeds are produced moderately well at 15 to
20 years of age (Carlson and Bryan 1959). In Hawaii, trees
can be found in all stages of the reproductive cycle at any
time during the year, depending on the aspect and elevation
at which they are growing (Petteys 1974).
Collection, extraction, and storage. In Hawaii, the are dry, simple agitation will separate the seeds from the
capsules are picked by hand when they turn from green to capsules. There are almost 5 million seeds/kg (2.2
greenish brown in color. They should be spread out on trays million/lb), but as few as 2 or 3% of these may be viable
or tables to complete the drying process. Once the capsules (Petteys 1974). The seeds are orthodox in storage behavior,
Lophostemon • 689
as they have stored well in sealed polyethylene bags at low References
L
moisture contents and temperatures of –18 to –23 °C
(Petteys 1974). Bailey LH. 1906. Encyclopedia of American horticulture.Volume 4. New
Germination. Brushbox is not dormant and no York: Macmillan. 2016 p.
Carlson NK, Bryan LW. 1959. Hawaiian timber for coming generations.
pregermination treatments are necessary for timely germina- Honolulu:Trustees of the Bernice P. Bishop Estate. 112 p.
Francis WD. 1951. Australian rain-forest trees. Commonwealth of Australia
tion. Germination of full seeds for one group of samples Forestry and Timber Bureau. 469 p.
averaged about 70% (Petteys 1974). Little RL Jr, Skolmen RG. 1989. Common forest trees of Hawaii (native and
introduced). Agric. Handbk. 679. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
Nursery and field practice. Brushbox seeds are 250–254.
Maiden JH. 1904. The forest flora of New South Wales.Volume 1. Sidney,
mixed with fine soil and the mixture is applied to beds with Australia: W.A. Gullick Govt. Printer. 218 p.
a fertilizer spreader. Germination usually begins in 10 to 14 Neal MC. 1965. In gardens of Hawaii. Spec. Pub. 50. Honolulu: Bernice P.
Bishop Museum Press. 924 p.
days. Mulching and shading are not necessary. Seeds are Petteys EQP. 1974. Tristania conferta R. Br., brushbox. In: Schopmeyer CS,
tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk.
usually sown from November to March and seedlings are 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 817–818.
outplanted the following winter as 1+0 stock. Bed densities Streets RJ. 1962. Exotic trees in the British Commonwealth. Oxford, UK:
Clarendon Press. 765 p.
of 215 to 320 seedlings/m2 (20 to 30/ft2) are recommended.
Seedlings must be treated and planted with care to minimize
the high mortality common to this species (Petteys 1974).
Lupinus L.
lupine
Don E. Riemenschneider,Tim D. Davis,Wayne A. Mackay, and Raymond D. Ratliff
Dr. Riemenschneider is a research geneticist at the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Research
Station, Rhinelander,Wisconsin; Dr. Davis is professor and director at Texas A&M University’s Agricultural
Experiment Station, Dallas, and head of the Department of Horticultural Sciences, College Station,Texas; Dr.
Mackay is associate professor of environmental horticulture and associate resident director at Texas A&M
University’s Agricultural Experiment Station; Dr. Ratliffe retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Pacific
Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus Bush lupine, a large, fast-growing but short-lived shrub
Lupinus is a large genus of herbs and shrubs that are dis- found in the northern coastal scrub of California, has been
tributed worldwide (Christofolini 1989). Only 10 to 14 Old planted for dune stabilization in northern California
World species, all herbaceous, are recognized (Williams and (Davidson and Barbour 1977; Gadgil 1971a,b&c). Inyo bush
others 1983). New World lupines are more diverse, with lupine is not positively distinct from whiteface lupine, and
147 species found in North America (USDA SCS 1982), they are often grouped together.
200 in Mexico, 30 to 40 in Central America, and about 500 Flowering and fruiting. Flowers are bisexual, irregu-
in South America (Christofolini 1989). Four shrub species lar, blue, purple, and yellow in racemes. Pauma lupine will
are considered here (table 1). Three species are commonly bear viable seeds at 1 year of age (Everett 1957). It flowers
planted in California. Pauma lupine can reach a maximum from April to May (Munz and Keck 1959) and its seeds
height of about 2.5 m (Hickman 1993). As far as can be ripen from May to August (Ratliffe 1974). Whiteface lupine
determined, Pauma lupine was first cultivated in 1928 and flowers from March to June (Hickman 1993) and its seeds
has since proved to be valuable as an ornamental plant and mature from early June to late July.
for watershed protection and erosion control. Though some Collection, extraction, and storage. The legumes
plants may live for 10 years, Pauma lupine is generally (pods) of both Pauma and whiteface lupines pop open when
short-lived (Everett 1957). Whiteface lupine, a more ripe and disperse 2 to 12 seeds (figures 1 and 2). Hence, it is
northerly shrub species in California, often reaches a maxi- necessary to collect the legumes while the seeds are some-
mum height of 3 m. Since it was first cultivated in 1927, it what green (Ratliffe 1974). Immature legumes can be gently
has been planted for wildlife purposes, watershed protec- air-dried until they open. The coarse material can be
tion, and more recently for environmental forestry. Four removed by screening. The number of clean Pauma lupine
varieties of whiteface lupine are recognized: Lupinus alb- seeds per weight in 2 samples was 39,700 to 52,900/kg
ifrons var. collinus Greene; var. douglassii (J.G. Agardh) (18,000 to 24,000/lb) (Mirov and Kraebel 1937).
C.P. Sm.; var. flumineus C.P. Sm.; and var. eminens Information on seed weight is lacking for whiteface lupine;
(Greene) C.P. Sm. (Hickman 1993; USDA SCS 1982). however, for the closely related Inyo bush lupine, the num-
L. albifrons Benth ex. Lindl. whiteface lupine, silver lupine Coastal range & Sierra Nevada
L. arboreus Sims bush lupine N California coast
L. excubitus M.E. Jones Inyo bush lupine California & Nevada
L longifolius (S.Wats) Abrams Pauma lupine, longleaf bush lupine S California
Sources: Davidson and Barbour (1977), Everett (1957), Gadgil (1971a,b&c), Hickman (1993), USDA SCS (1982).
Lupinus • 691
Figure 1—Lupinus, lupine: seeds of L. albifrons, Germination. Stored seeds of the lupines have hard
L whiteface lupine (left) and L. longifolius, Pauma lupine seedcoats that require pretreatment to induce prompt germi-
(right).
nation. Seeds of the west Australian blue lupine (L. angusti-
folius L.) became impermeable to water when their moisture
content was reduced to 10 to 12% (Quinlivan 1962). Each of
3 treatments—mechanical scarification, a hot water soak,
and cold stratification for 72 days at 2 °C—induced prompt
germination (Ratliffe 1974). In addition, the hard seeds of
this lupine became permeable to water when exposed to
simulated surface soil temperature fluctuating between 16
and 60 °C (Quinlivan 1962). Ongoing research on sundial
Figure 2—Lupinus longifolius, Pauma lupine: longitudinal lupine (Lupinus perennis L.) suggests that seeds from both
section through a seed the northeastern and southwestern United States germinate
poorly (10%) without scarification, but that treatment with
concentrated sulfuric acid for 30 to 60 minutes (depending
on source of seed) improves germination to near 90%.
Preliminary comparisons with bush lupine further suggest
that seeds from the 2 species respond similarly to acid treat-
ment.
Germination percentage has been variable for both
untreated fresh seeds and pretreated stored seeds (table 2),
which may reflect species or population-dependent scarifica-
tion requirements. Current nursery practices for breaking
hardseededness in lupines include nicking, sandpaper scari-
fication, and hot water soaking (Kaplow 1996; Wilson
1996).
Nursery and field practices. Container production of
shrubby lupines is somewhat difficult. Young seedlings are
ber of clean seeds per weight was reported to be 59,500/kg susceptible to slug and snail damage. Soil temperatures must
(27,000/lb) (Mirov and Kraebel 1937). In 1 sample, purity be kept low; pot-heating in summer greenhouses may cause
was 91% and soundness was 76% (Ratliffe 1974). major mortality. Root systems are delicate and transplant
When adequately dried, mature seeds of lupine can be survival is often low (Kaplow 1996). Wilson (1996)
stored for extended periods. Seeds stored for 30 years at recommeded planting seeds directly into large containers
room temperature were found to be viable, and variations in and using a well-aerated soil mix. Shrubby lupines may be
the color of these seeds had no effect on viability (Everett direct-seeded after scarification to break hardseededness.
1957). They do best in poor, rocky, or sandy soils where competi-
tion from perennial grasses is minimal.
L. albiftons 2 72 — 90 1
L. excubitus 0 0 6 92 1
L. longifolims 0 0 10+ 92 1
L. arboreus 0 0 95 4–45 3
Sources: Davidson and Barbour (1977), Mirov and Kraebel (1937), Ratliff (1974).
Christofolini G. 1989. A serological contribution to the systematics of the Kaplow D. 1996. Personal communication. Petaluma, CA: Pacific Open
genus Lupinus (Fabaceae). Plant Systematics and Evolution 166: 265–178. Space, Inc.
Davidson G, Barbour MG. 1977. Germination, establishment, and demogra- Mirov NT, Kraebel CJ. 1937. Collecting and propagating the seeds of
phy of coastal bush lupine (Lupinus arboreus) at Bodega Head, California. California wild plants. Res. Note 18. Berkeley, CA: USDA Forest Service,
Ecology 58: 592–600. Southwestern Forest and Range Experiment Station. 27 p.
Emery D. 1964. Seed propagation of California native plants. Leaflets of the Quinlivan BJ. 1962. Hard seeds in lupines. Western Australia Journal of
Santa Barbara Botanic Garden 1(10): 81–96. Agriculture 3: 683–690.
Everett PC. 1957. A summary of the culture of California plants at the Ratliffe RD. 1974. Lupinus L., lupine. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds
Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden 1927–1950. Claremont, CA: Rancho of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington,
Santa Ana Botanic Garden. 263 p. DC: USDA Forest Service: 520–521.
Gadgil RL. 1971a. The nutritional role of Lupinus arboreus in coastal sand USDA SCS [USDA Soil Conservation Service]. 1982. National list of scien-
dune forestry: 1.The potential influence of undamaged lupin plants on tific plant names. Volume 1, List of plant names.Tech. Pub. 159.
nitrogen uptake by Pinus radiata. Plant and Soil 34: 357–367. Washington, DC: USDA SCS. 415 p.
Gadgil RL. 1971b. The nutritional role of Lupinus arboreus in coastal sand Williams CA, Demissie A, Harbome JB. 1983. Flavenoids as taxonomic
dune forestry: 2.The potential influence of damaged lupin plants on markers in Old World Lupinus species. Biochemical Systematics and
nitrogen uptake by Pinus radiata. Plant and Soil 34: 575–593. Ecology 11: 221–223.
Gadgil RL. 1971c. The nutritional role of Lupinus arboreus in coastal sand Wilson B. 1996. Personal communication. Santa Margarita, CA: Las Pilitas
dune forestry: 3. Nitrogen distribution in the ecosystem before tree Nursery.
planting. Plant and Soil 35: 113–126.
Hickman JC, ed. 1993. The Jepson manual: higher plants of California.
Berkeley: University of California Press. 1400 p.
Lupinus • 693
L Solanaceae—Potato family
Lycium L.
wolfberry
Paul O. Rudolph and Richard T. Busing
Dr. Rudolph (deceased) retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Forest Experiment Station;
Dr. Busing is an ecologist at the USDI Geological Survey, Corvallis, Oregon
Other common names. matrimony vine, desert-thorn, screens of suitable sizes (Glazebrook 1941). After extrac-
boxthorn, squawthorn. tion, the seeds should be dried and stored in sealed contain-
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The wolfber- ers at 5 °C (NBV 1946; Rudolf 1974), or stratified in moist
ries—Lycium L.—include about 100 species of shrubs native sand (Glazebrook 1941; NBV 1946). Stratified seeds of
to the temperate and subtropical regions of both hemi- matrimony vine will maintain good viability for 6 months
spheres (Rehder 1940). Deciduous or evergreen as well as (NBV 1946), but there is no information on long-term stor-
thorn-bearing and unarmed forms occur in the genus. age of dry seeds. They appear to be orthodox, however, so
Species of wolfberry native to the United States tend to be storage should not be a problem. Seed data are listed in
desert shrubs (Benson and Darrow 1954; Wallace and others table 4.
1980; Webb and others 1987). Wolfberries are used as orna- Germination. Dormancy in wolfberry seeds is vari-
mental shrubs because of their showy berries, but they also able. Seed samples of Anderson wolfberry and Arizona
provide wildlife habitat and watershed protection. At least 1 desert-thorn germinated well without pretreatment. They had
species is grown for shelter hedges. The 2 introduced germination of 68 and 94% (Swingle 1939). Germination of
species—Chinese wolfberry and matrimony vine—have matrimony vine seeds, however, was hastened and improved
been grown horticulturally for the longest most extensively by stratification in moist sand for 60 to 120 days at 5 °C.
in this genus. It is likely that geographic races have devel- After cold stratification, the average germination capacity
oped within widely distributed wolfberry species. Some for 19 samples was 74% (Glazebrook 1941; NBV 1946;
botanical varieties may be geographical races. Hitchcock Rudolf 1974). These tests were run in sand flats for 30 to 40
(1932) mentions apparent racial development in Anderson days at diurnally alternating temperatures of 30 to 20 °C.
wolfberry. Natural hybrids occur where species ranges over- Germination after 18 days was 54%. Seeds of Rich wolfber-
lap, as is the case with Anderson wolfberry and Torrey wolf- ry probably would benefit from similar pretreatment,
berry (L. torreyi Gray) and Rich wolfberry (Hitchcock
1932). Information on 5 species (table 1) is included here. Figure 1—Lycium barbarum, matrimony vine: cleaned
Flowering and fruiting. The perfect flowers, grading seed.
by species from white to lavender, usually bloom in the
summer (table 2). They are followed by bright red (rarely
yellow or black) berries (table 3), each with few to many
seeds (figures 1 and 2). Good seedcrops are borne almost
every year by matrimony vine (NBV 1946) and probably by
other wolfberry species. Arizona desertthorn produces seed
abundantly (Van Dersal 1938).
Collection of fruits; extraction and storage of seeds.
Ripe berries may be picked from the bushes in the fall. The
berries are soft and may be pulped by forcing them through
a screen and floating out the pulp (Rudolf 1974). For extrac-
tion on a larger scale, berries may be fermented, mashed in
water, and then run through a hammermill equipped with
L. andersonii W US Apr–June —
SW US Jan–May —
California Nov–Apr —
Arizona Feb–Apr Aug–Sept
L. barbarum Holland, NE US June–Sept Aug–Oct
L. chinense NE US June–Sept Aug–Oct
Japan Aug–Nov —
L. exsertum Arizona Jan–Feb* —
L. richii California May–Sept June–Oct
Sources: Bailey (1939), Kearney and Peebles (1942), McMinn (1951), Mirov and Kraebel (1939), NBV (1946), Ohwi (1965), Rehder (1940),Van Dersal (1938),Vines (1960),
Wyman (1947).
* Most abundant then, but flowers throughout the year (Kearney and Peebles 1942).
Table 3—Lycium, wolfberry: height, length of cultivation, flower color, and fruit characteristics
L. andersonii 0.3–3 Before 1935 Light purple, lavender, Red or white Very many
L. barbarum 1–6 Long cultivated Dull, lilac-purple Scarlet to orange-red 3–20
sometimes yellow
L. chinense 1–2* Before 1709 Purple Scarlet to orange-red —
L. exsertum 1–4 Before 1935 Whitish to purple Orange or red 20–30
L. richii 1–4 Before 1935 Lilac Bright red 30–50
Sources: Bailey (1939), Benson and Darrow (1954), Hitchcock (1932), Kearney and Peebles (1942), McMinn (1951), Rehder (1940), Standley (1924),Vines (1960).
* Up to 4 m long as a prostrate rambler.
Lycium • 695
Figure 2—Lycium barbarum, matrimony vine: longitudinal because germination was only 11% without pretreatment
L section through a seed. (Mirov and Kraebel 1939).
Nursery practice. One recommendation is to sow the
seeds in the fall as soon as the fruits ripen (Laurie and
Chadwick 1934). Another suggestion is to sow stratified
seed in the spring and cover them lightly by sifting-on about
6 mm (1/4 in) of soil (NBV 1946). Tree percent has been
from 10 to 15 for Chinese wolfberry and matrimony vine
(Swingle 1939). Two-year-old seedlings may be outplanted.
References
Bailey LH. 1939. The standard cyclopedia of horticulture. New York: Ohwi J. 1965. Flora of Japan. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. 1067
Macmillan. 3639 p. p.
Benson L, Darrow RA. 1954. The trees and shrubs of the southwestern Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North
deserts. Tucson: University of Arizona Press/Albuquerque: University of America. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan. 996 p.
New Mexico Press. 437 p. Rudolf PO. 1974. Lycium L., wolfberry. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord.
Chiang F. 1983. Nomenclatural changes for new sectional delimitation in Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450.
Lycium (Solanaceae) of the New World.Taxon 32: 456–458. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 522–524.
Glazebrook TB. 1941. Overcoming delayed germination in the seed of Standley PC. 1924. Trees and shrubs of Mexico. Contributions from the
plants valuable for erosion control and wildlife utilization [MS thesis]. U.S. National Herbarium 23: 1–1721.
Moscow, ID: University of Idaho, School of Forestry. 97 p. Swingle CF, comp. 1939. Seed propagation of trees, shrubs, and forbs for
Hitchcock CL. 1932. A monographic study of the genus Lycium of the conservation planting. SCS-TP-27. Washington, DC: USDA Soil
Western Hemisphere. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 19: Conservation Service. 198 p.
179–364. Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their ero-
Kearney TH, Peebles RH. 1942. Flowering plants and ferns of Arizona. sion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC: USDA
Misc. Pub. 423. Washington, DC: USDA. 1069 p. Forest Service. 362 p.
Laurie A, Chadwick LC. 1934. Commercial flower forcing: the fundamentals Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
and their practical application to the culture of greenhouse crops. University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
Philadelphia: Blakiston’s. 519 p. Wallace A, Romney EM, Hunter RB. 1980. The challenge of a desert: reveg-
McMinn HE. 1951. An illustrated manual of California shrubs. Berkeley: etation of disturbed desert lands. In: Soil-plant-animal relationships bear-
University of California Press. 663 p. ing on revegetation and land reclamation in Nevada deserts. Great Basin
Mirov NT, Kraebel CJ. 1939. Collecting and handling seeds of wild plants. Naturalist Memoirs 4: 216–225.
For. Pub. 5. Washington, DC: USDA Civilian Conservation Corps. 42 p. Webb RH, Steiger JW,Turner RM. 1987. Dynamics of Mojave Desert shrub
NBV [Nederlandsche Boschbouw Vereeniging]. 1946. Boomzaden: handlei- assemblages in the Panamint Mountains, California. Ecology 68: 478–490.
ding inzake het oogsten, behandelen, bewaren en uitzaaien van Wyman D. 1947. Seed collecting dates of woody plants. Arnoldia 7(9):
boomzaden [Tree seed: handbook on the collection, extraction, storage, 53–56.
and sowing of tree seed]. Wageningen,The Netherlands: Ponsen and
Looijen. 171 p.
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi.
Synonym. Toxylon pomiferum Raf. ex Sarg. in this manner have a pronounced purple streak and pleasant
Other common names. bois-d’arc, bodark, bow- fragrance, and they germinate promptly (Bonner and
wood, hedge, horse-apple. Ferguson 1974.
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. Osage- After extraction, the seeds should be air-dried and
orange—Maclura pomifera (Raf.) Schneid.—is native to the cleaned by screening to remove small pieces of fruit tissue.
bottomlands of southern Arkansas, southeastern Oklahoma, Common air-screen cleaners serve this purpose very well
and eastern Texas. It is most abundant in the Red River (Myatt and others 1991). Yield data from 22 scattered
Valley of Oklahoma but was widely planted in all 48 conter- samples (Bonner and Ferguson 1974) are as follows:
minous states and southeastern Canada as “living fences” on
the treeless prairies during the mid-1800s and has now natu- No. of fruits/volume 227/hl 80/bu
ralized in many of these locations (Burton 1990; Little 1979; No. of seeds/volume 70,000/hl 24,650/bu
Sargent 1965). Osage-orange is a small deciduous tree
of fruit
chiefly valued for posts and windbreak plantings. Fruits
Seed weight/volume 2.9kg/hl 2.25lb/bu
have some value as wildlife food. A typical height at maturi-
ty is 9 m, but some individuals have grown to 21 m. of fruit
Flowering and fruiting. The small, green, dioecious Cleaned seeds weight
flowers open from April to June; they are wind-pollinated. Average 30,900/kg 14,000/lb
The large, globose, yellow-green, aggregate fruit, or syn- Range 15,400–35,300/kg 7,000–16,000/lb
carp, is composed of many 1-seeded drupelets (figure 1).
The fruits ripen in September and October and soon fall to Purity of 96% and soundness of 95% have been attained
the ground (Bonner and Ferguson 1974). Fruits reach diame- (Bonner and Ferguson 1974). Long-term storage data are
ters of 7.6 to 15 cm and often weigh more than 1 kg (Burton lacking for Osage-orange, but good viability has been
1990). Trees bear fruits by age 10, and good crops occur reported for clean air-dried seeds stored for 3 years in sealed
annually (Bonner and Ferguson 1974). Female trees often containers at 5 °C (Engstrom and Stoeckler 1941).
produce abundant fruit when there are no nearby pollen Pregermination treatment and germination tests.
sources, but these fruits do not contain seeds (Burton 1990). Osage-orange seeds typically exhibit a slight dormancy that
Collection, extraction, and storage. Fruits should be may be overcome by moist stratification for 30 days at 5 °C
picked up soon after they fall from the trees but can be col- or by soaking in water for 48 hours (Engstrom and Stoeckler
lectioned throughout autumn and winter. Seeds (figure 2) 1941). Fresh seeds extracted from rotted fruits are not usual-
may be extracted by macerating the fruits in water and float- ly dormant and need no pretreatment (Bonner and Ferguson
ing off or screening out the pulp. Extraction and cleaning 1974), but stratification or water soaking should probably be
are easier if the fruits are allowed to ferment for several used on stored seeds or seeds dried to low moisture contents
months before maceration. Fruits left in a pile outdoors until (10% or below). Tests have been made in flats of sand or
late March or early April become very soft and mushy and soil with pretreated seeds for 40 days at 20 °C nights and 86
easy to macerate (Myatt and others 1991). Seeds extracted
Maclura • 697
Figure 1—Maclura pomifera, Osage-orange: aggregate Figure 3—Maclura pomifera, Osage-orange: seedling
M fruit composed of 1–seeded druplets, 1/2 x. development after 1 and 8 days of germination.
°C days. Average germination for 13 samples under these (8 to 12 in) apart or sown in bands 7.5 to 10 cm (3 to 4 in)
conditions was 58%. Germination rate was fair: 20 to 79% wide if single-row procedures are used. Seeds should be
in 14 to 34 days (Bonner and Ferguson 1974). Germination covered with 6 to 13 mm (1/4 to 1/2 in) of firmed soil. Fall-
may also be tested in incubators on paper media. sown beds should be mulched, but not spring-sown beds
Germination is epigeal (figure 3). (Bonner and Ferguson 1974). Recommended bed densities
Nursery practice. Untreated seeds may be sown in are 100 to 160 seedlings/m2 (10 to 15/ft2) (Williams and
the fall, but a pregermination treatment should normally be Hanks 1976).
used before spring-sowing. If seeds are freshly extracted Osage-orange can also be propagated by softwood cut-
from fruits that have been rotting overwinter, however, they tings taken in June or by hardwood cuttings taken in
have had a “natural” stratification and can be sown without January. Cuttings should be treated with indole butyric acid
further treatment. Seeds may be drilled in rows 20 to 30 cm (IBA) at 5,000 or 10,000 ppm and placed in sand under mist
(Dirr and Heuser 1987).
Barnett JP, Burton JD. 1997. Osage-orange: a pioneering stewardship Engstrom HE, Stoeckler JH. 1941. Nursery practice for trees and shrubs
species.Tree Planters’ Notes 48(3/4): 81-86. suitable for planting on the Prairie-Plains. Misc. Pub. 434. Washington,
Bonner FT, Ferguson ER. 1974. Maclura pomifera (Raf.) Schneid., Osage- DC: USDA. 159 p.
orange. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the Little EL. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized).
United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p.
Service: 525–526. Myatt A, Huffman G, Odell J. 1991. Seed processing manual. Stillwater:
Burton JD. 1990. Maclura pomifera (Raf.) Schneid., Osage-orange. In: Burns Oklahoma Department of Agriculture, Forestry Division.
RM, Honkala BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 2, Sargent CS. 1965. Manual of the trees of North America (exclusive of
Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: Mexico). 2nd ed., corrected and reprinted. New York: Dover. 934 p.
426–432. Williams RD, Hanks SH. 1976. Hardwood nurseryman’s guide. Agric.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant Handbk. 473. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 78 p.
propagation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press.
239 p.
Maclura • 699
M Magnoliaceae—Magnolia family
Magnolia L.
magnolia
Jill R. Barbour
Ms. Barbour is a germination specialist at the USDA Forest Service’s Tree Seed Laboratory,
Dry Branch, Georgia
The genus Magnolia comprises about 80 species of trees Fossil records suggest that magnolias once occurred
naturally distributed throughout eastern North America and throughout western North America, western Asia, and
southeastern Asia (Callaway 1994). It is the largest genus in Europe. Their range became restricted when the continents
the family Magnoliaceae. There are 10 species and varieties in the southern hemisphere separated and cold water moved
native to the United States (Callaway 1994) and 2 others northward, changing the humid tropical paleo-environment
native to Puerto Rico (table 1) (Figlar 1982, 1984a). to a drier, colder climate (FNAEC 1993). In the past 20,000
Cucumber magnolia is the only species native to Canada. years, the warm temperature taxa have not been disrupted
There are no indigenous magnolias in Europe (Johnson and are in dynamic equilibrium (FNAEC 1993)
1973). Sweetbay was the first native American magnolia to Magnolia species are widely planted as ornamentals
be cultivated in Europe in 1688 (Hora 1981). (Dirr 1990). The leaves and flowers of magnolias are highly
Based on records of early fossil pollen and leaves, the prized for decoration, and the fruits make excellent food for
magnolias are considered the most ancient of all flowering wildlife (Callaway 1994). Less than 2% of hardwood timber
plants (FNAEC 1993). These plants are the base from which in the southeastern United States is from magnolias and is
all other angiosperms have evolved (FNAEC 1993). usually lumped together with that of tuliptree—Liriodendron
tulipifera L. (Burns and Honkala 1990).
Sources: Callaway (1994), Figlar (1984a, b), Fordham (1960), LHBH (1978), Sargent (1965),Wasson (2001)..
* Sometimes spelled Ochlokonee.
Species Ploidy Flower color Leaves, underside color, & hair Tepals
Magnolia • 701
Magnolias have the most primitive seedcoat of the Collection of fruits; extraction and storage of seeds.
M
angiosperms. The seedcoat consists of 3 layers (Earle The fruits are usually picked from standing trees or from
1962)—the fleshy, outer, red sarcotesta; the parenchymatic trees recently felled in logging. The seeds mature in August
middle layer (made up of 57% oil and reducing sugars); and or September. It is recommended that the fruits be collected
the stony sclerotesta. before the follicles open to eliminate competition with seed
Seed crops from magnolia species vary according to predators (Murphy 1996). The unopened fruit aggregates
environmental conditions. The viability of southern magno- can be laid on screens to dry (Galle 1953).
lia seedlots averages 50% (Burns and Honkala 1990). The red sarcotesta can be removed by mechanical mac-
Cucumber magnolia reaches seed-bearing age at 30 years eration or by rubbing the seeds over a screen. The oily
(Burns and Honkala, 1990). Seed size ranges from 10,000 to residue left on seeds can be removed by rinsing them in
16,000 seeds/kg (4,550 to 7,530 seeds/lb) (table 3). soapy water, then in clean water (Callaway 1994). The seeds
must be kept moist while in storage to retain their viability
(Browse 1986; Hanchey and Kimbrough 1954). Saturated
sphagnum moss can be added to a plastic bag to keep the
Figure 2—Magnolia, magnolia: seeds of M. acuminata, seeds moist until sowing (Callaway 1994). Dead and dam-
cucumber magnolia (top left); M. fraseri, Fraser magnolia aged seeds can be removed by floating the seeds in water
(top right); M. grandiflora, southern magnolia (bottom before storage or planting (Hanchey and Kimbrough 1954).
left); M. virginiana, sweetbay (bottom right). Seeds that float—“floaters”—usually are not viable. Storage
of seeds at 0 °C is recommended to reduce the level of
infection by fungi (Afanasiev 1937).
Pregermination treatments. Del Tredici (1981) and
Evans (1933) found that magnolia seeds exhibit double dor-
mancy. Embryos will not develop until seeds are exposed to
warm, moist temperatures after cold, moist temperatures. It
takes a minimum of 2 months of cold, moist stratification at
0 to 10 °C to yield the greatest germination (Evans 1933).
Stratification medium can be any absorbent material such as
sphagnum moss, moss and sand, or vermiculite. During the
after-ripening period, the oil and proteins are converted to
reducing sugars and the water content of a seed increases
from 49 to 61% (Evans 1933). Within 14 days of sowing,
the embryo is 50% as long as the seed (Del Tredici 1981).
Other pretreatments such as freezing and sulfuric acid
Figure 3—Magnolia grandiflora, southern magnolia: longi- (H2SO4) soaks have proved injurious to magnolia seeds
tudinal section through a seed (left) and seed with sar- (Afanasiev 1937; Hanchey and Kimbrough 1954). Hot water
cotesta removed (right).
soaks also were not beneficial to seed germination (Hanchey
and Kimbrough 1954). Increasing oxygen to the seed had no
effect on germination, but eliminating oxygen did inhibit
germination (Afanasiev 1937).
Germination tests. Germination is epigeal (figure 4)
and occurs rapidly following proper stratification and place-
ment in a standard germination medium (table 4) (Galle
1953). Official tests (AOSA 2001) recommend 45 days of
prechilling followed by alternating temperatures of 20/30 °C
for 42 days on top of moist blotters. Evans (1933) found that
the seeds of southern magnolia germinate most rapidly at
29 °C and give the greatest total germination at 15 to
35 °C. Hanchey and Kimbrough (1954) found that 88% of
the seeds of southern magnolia germinated after 2 months of
storage in vermiculite at 15 °C. Seeds of sweetbay germinat-
ed 93% in 33 days after 58 days of prechilling (Del Tredici
Table 4—Magnolia, magnolia: germination test conditions and results for stratified seeds
1981). For seeds of cucumber magnolia, germination started Figure 4—Magnolia, magnolia: seedling development at
earliest and progressed most rapidly at a constant tempera- 1, 5, 13, and 31 days after germination.
ture of 30 °C, but the highest germination was reached when
the temperatures alternated between 15 °C in the dark for 6
hours and 18 hours of light at 26 °C (Afanasiev 1937). At
20 °C, seeds of cucumber magnolia germinated later and
more slowly than at the higher temperatures; temperatures
above 35 °C resulted in the death and decay of the seeds.
There are 3 viability tests performed on magnolia seeds
that correlate with germination. The endosperm of cucumber
magnolia will produce green pigment in 2 to 3 days when
placed on moist blotting paper at 24 to 30 °C (Afanasiev
1937). The proportion of seeds producing the green pigment
is the proportion of viable seeds. Heit (1955) preferred the
excised-embryo test for magnolia seeds and recommended
soaking them in water up to 4 days to soften their seedcoats.
The third viability test is staining with tetrazolium chloride
(TZ). Seeds are soaked overnight, then each seed is cut lati-
tudinally to expose the embryo and placed in TZ solution for
18 to 24 hours at 37 °C (NTSL 1997). Embryos that stain
red are considered viable.
Magnolia • 703
Nursery practice. Sowing seeds in a nursery bed is In more-northern climates, magnolias are grown for 2
M
the preferred method of propagating magnolias when a large years to reach a height of 30 to 60 cm (12 to 18 in) (Murphy
quantity of seedlings are required for reforestation. The 1996). In southern nurseries, a 30-cm (12-in) seedling can
seeds can be planted in October or November in nurserybeds be grown in 1 year. Heit (1939) found that shading the
and allowed to naturally stratify over the winter months. The newly sprouted plants through the hot summer was benefi-
seeds can be sown with or without their sarcotestas if the cial to the survival and development of cucumber magnolia
seeds have not been stored (Papetti 1996). When seed quan- seedlings. Larvae of the black vine weevil—Otorhynchus
tities are limited, hand-sowing is the preferred method. sulcatus F.—are a widespread pest of magnolias. Lamb and
Magnolia seeds have been sown with a mechanical seeder at Kelly(1985) reported that larvae feed on the roots and kill
3 drills/bed and 210 seeds/m (64/ft) (Murphy 1996). A fertil- the plants by eating the bark just below ground and rec-
izer distributor has also been used to sow magnolia seeds ommend using diazinon as a protectant. Root pruning with a
(Buchanan 1996). It drops a seed every 5 cm (2 in), with 2 reciprocating blade makes lifting the large, fleshy root sys-
passes being made over the nurserybed. When planting in tem easier (Buchanan 1996). Hand-lifting is the preferred
the spring, it is considered common practice to sow cleaned, method of lifting magnolias out of the nursery bed, because
prechilled seeds. of the small quantities grown.
If rodents or birds are a problem, the seeds need to cov- Fertilization is needed to stimulate the height growth of
ered with a ground cloth to prevent predation (Bosch 1996). magnolias. In Florida nurseries, a blended fertilizer with no
Coating seeds with Benlate or captan will deter seed fungi additional phosphorus is applied monthly (Buchanan 1996).
(Papetti 1996). For fall-sowing, the seeds should first be In a Virginia nursery, a slow-release fertilizer applied just
covered with 6 to 12 mm (1/4 to 1/2 in) of mulch, then with once lasts for 9 months until the lifting season (Papetti
the same amount of pine bark or pine straw (Buchanan 1996).
1996). For spring-sowing, the seeds need only be covered
with the pine mulch.
References
Afanasiev M. 1937. A physiological study of dormancy in seed of Magnolia Fernald ML. 1970. Gray’s manual of botany. 8th ed. New York:Van
acuminata. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station Memoir Nostrand. 1632 p.
208. 37 p. Figlar RB. 1982. Magnolia splendens: Puerto Rico’s lustrous magnolia. Journal
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 2001. Rules for testing seeds. of the Magnolia Society 18(1): 13–16.
AOSA. 125 p. Figlar RB. 1984a. Magnolia portoricensis: Puerto Rico’s other magnolia.
Bonner FT. 2002. Personal communication. Starkville, MS: USDA Forest Journal of the Magnolia Society 19(2): 1–3.
Service, Southern Research Station. Figlar RB. 1984b. Magnolia splendens. Journal of the Magnolia Society 20(1):
Bosch L. 1996. Personal communication. Jonesboro, LA: Bosch Nursery. 23–24.
Bouman F. 1977. Integumentary studies in the Polycarpicae: 4. Liriodendron FNAEC [Flora of North America Editorial Committee]. 1993. Flora of
tulipfera L. Acta Botanica Neerlandica 26(3): 213–223. North America, North of Mexico.Volume 1, Introduction. New York:
Browse PM. 1986. Notes on the propagation of magnolias from seed. Oxford University Press. 372 p.
Plantsman 8(1): 58–63. Fordham AJ. 1960. Propagation of woody plants by seed. Arnoldia 20:
Buchanan M. 1996. Personal communication. Day, FL: Central Land and 33–40.
Timber Co. Francis JK, Rodriguez A. 1993. Seeds of Puerto Rican trees and shrubs: sec-
Burns RM, Honkala BH, tech. coords. 1990. Silvics of North America. ond installment. Res. Note SO-374. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service,
Volume 2, Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Southern Forest Experiment Station. 5 p.
Forest Service. 877 p. Galle FC. 1953. The propagation of magnolias by seed. Proceedings of the
Callaway DJ. 1994. The world of magnolias. Portland, OR:Timber Press. International Plant Propagators’ Society 3: 105–107.
308 p. Hanchey RH, Kimbrough WD. 1954. Magnolia grandiflora seed germination
Del Tredici P. 1981. Magnolia virginiana in Massachusetts. Arnoldia 41(2): tests. In: Proceedings, Association of Southern Agricultural Workers; 1954
36–49. Feb. 1–3; Dallas,TX: 140.
Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, Heit CE. 1939. Seed treatment and nursery practice with cucumber
ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. Champaign, IL: (Magnolia acuminata). New York State Department of Conservation
Stipes Publishing. 1007 p. Notes on Forest Investigations 20. 2 p.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant Heit CE. 1955. The excised embryo method for testing germination quality
propagation from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 of dormant seed. Proceedings of the Association of Official Seed
p. Analysts 45: 108–117.
Durio B. 1996. Personal communication. Opelousas, LA: Louisiana Nursery. Heit CE. 1968. Personal communication. Geneva, NY: New York State
Earle TT. 1938. Origins of the seedcoats in magnolia. American Journal of Agricultural Experiment Station.
Botany 25: 221–222. Hora B. 1981. The Oxford encyclopedia of trees of the world. Oxford, UK:
Evans CR. 1933. Germination behaviour of Magnolia grandiflora L. Botanical Oxford University Press. 288 p.
Gazette 94: 729–754. Jones L. 1969. Personal observation. Atlanta: USDA Forest Service,
Southeastern Area, State and Private Forestry.
Johnson H. 1973. The international book of trees. New York: Simon &
Schuster. 288 p.
Magnolia • 705
M Berberidaceae—Barberry family
Mahonia Nutt.
Oregon-grape
Don Minore, Paul O. Rudolf, and Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Minore retired from USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Northwest Research Station, Corvallis, Oregon;
Dr. Rudolf (deceased) retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Forest Experiment Station;
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Mahonia—the and Heuser 1987; Rehder 1940; Schlosser and others 1992).
Oregon-grape—is a genus of about 100 evergreen shrubs Like the closely related barberries, Oregon-grapes also are
native to Asia, Europe, North Africa, and the Americas of value for wildlife food (Decker and others 1991), cover,
(Ahrendt 1961). Some authorities (Hitchcock and others and erosion-control planting. The names, heights, habits,
1964) place these species in the genus Berberis, and that and ripe fruit colors of some common species are listed in
nomenclature was accepted in the 1974 edition of this book table 1. Six species that have potential value for conserva-
(Rudolf 1974). However, most authorities (LBHB 1976; tion planting are listed in table 2. Like the barberries, some
USDA NRCS 1999) now separate the genera by placing the Oregon-grapes are alternate hosts for the black stem rust of
evergreen species with compound leaves in Mahonia. The grains—Puccinia graminis Pers: Pers). Some species, for
distinction is far from clear, however: “barberry” is a com- example, hollyleaf barberry, Cascade Oregon-grape, and
mon name for some Mahonia species (table 1) and inter- Oregon-grape, are resistant (Rehder 1940).
generic hybrids have been reported (Ahrendt 1961). Like the seeds of the genus Berberis, seeds of some
Several Oregon-grape species are valued as ornamentals members of the genus Mahonia contain chemical substances
because of their foliage, flowers, or fruits (Bailey 1939; Dirr of potential commercial value. The seeds of the Beale
Sources: Ahrendt (1961), Dirr (1990), Dirr and Heuser (1987), Hitchcock and others (1964), McMinn (1951), Rehder (1940), Rudolf (1974), USDA NRCS (1999),Vines
(1960).
Species Occurrence
Mahonia • 707
Figure 2—Mahonia, Oregon-grape: seeds of M. aquifolium, hollyleaf barberry (top left); M. nervosa, Cascades mahonia
M
(top right); M. nevins, Nevin barberry (bottom left); and M. repens, Oregon-grape (bottom right).
M. aquifolium Mineral Co., Montana (975 m) Late Apr–early May Late July–early Aug
Jackson Co., Oregon (685 m) Mar–May Sept–Oct
M. fremontii Texas, NE US May–June Aug–Sept
Utah & California May–June July –Aug
M. haematocarpa Texas & SW US Spring June–Aug
M. nervosa Clackamas Co., Oregon (90 m) Early Apr Mid–Aug
Jackson Co., Oregon (990 m) Mid-May Late Aug
— Apr–June July–Aug
M. nevinii California Mar–May June
M. repens Black Hills, South Dakota (1,830 m) May –June June–July
— Apr– May Aug–Sept
Sources: Bailey (1939), Loiseau (1945), McMinn (1951), Mirov and Kraebel (1939), NBV (1946), Ohwi (1965), Plummer and others (1965), Radford and others (1964),
Rudolf (1974),Van Dersal (1938),Vines (1960),Wappes (1982),Wyman (1947).
Table 5—Mahonia, Oregon-grape: stratification periods, germination test conditions, and percentage germination
Cold
strati Daily Germination test conditions Germination rate
fication* light Temp (°C) Amount Percent germination Purity Soundness
Species (days) (hrs) Medium Day Night Days (%) Days Avg (%) Samples (%) (%)
Sources: Heit (1968a&b), McLean (1967), Mirov and Kraebel (1939), Morinaga (1926), Plummer and others (1968), Rafn and Son (nd), Rudolph (1974), Swingle (1939),Vines (1960).
* Cold stratification temperatures ranged from –1 to 5 ˚C.
† Maximum germination was obtained with 4 months of warm stratification at 20 ˚C, followed by 4 months of cold stratification at 2 to 4 ˚C (Dirr and Heuser 1987).
‡ Successive stratification periods were 30 days at 1 ˚C, 60 days at 21 ˚C, and 196 days at 1 ˚C. During the final cold period, 62% of the seeds germinated. An additional 12% germinated after the temperature was again raised to 21
Mahonia
˚C for a total of 74%.
•
709
M
the distal end, and incubating in 1% TZ for 18 hrs at 30 °C. Figure 3—Mahonia repens, Oregon-grape: longitudinal
M
All tissues should stain in viable seeds. For the closely relat- section through a seed.
ed Japanese and common barberries, the Association of
Official Seed Analysts (AOSA 1993) recommends germina-
tion of excised embryos in covered petri dishes at tempera-
tures of 18 to 22 °C for 10 to 14 days. This method may
also be satisfactory for species of Oregon-grape.
Nursery practice. Whole berries or (preferably)
cleaned seeds may be sown in the fall, or stratified seeds
may be sown in the spring. Injury from molds is more likely
if whole berries are used (Chadwick 1936). Fall-sown beds
should be mulched until germination begins (NBV 1946).
The seeds should be covered with 0.3 to 1.3 cm (1/8 to 1/2 in)
of soil plus 0.6 cm (1/4 in) of sand (Rudolf 1974).
Germination is epigeal (Terabayashi 1987).
Oregon-grapes can be propagated from rooted stem cut-
tings. Many species root best when hardwood cuttings are
collected in the autumn or winter (Dirr and Heuser 1987).
They should be treated with indole-butyric acid (IBA) root-
ing hormone in talc or in solution.
References
Ahrendt T. 1961. Berberis and Mahonia: a taxonomic revision. Journal of the Loiseau J. 1945. Les arbres et la forêt. Paris:Vigot Freres. 204 p.
Linnean Society of London, Botany 57(369): 1–410. McLean A. 1967. Germination of forest range species from southern British
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds. Columbia. Journal of Range Management 20(5): 321–322.
Journal of Seed Technology 16(3): 1–113. McMinn HE. 1951. An illustrated manual of California shrubs. Berkeley:
Bailey LH. 1939. The standard cyclopedia of horticulture. New York: University of California Press. 663 p.
Macmillan. 3639 p. Millet B. 1976. Kinetic study of the curve of Mahonia aquifolium (Pursh)
Baskin CC, Baskin JM, Meyer SE. 1993. Seed dormancy in the Colorado Nutt. stamens electrically stimulated. Annales Scientifiques de l’Universite
plateau shrub Mahonia fremontii (Berberidaceae) and its ecological and de Besancon Botanique 3(17): 75–80 [Biological Abstracts 68(5): 3095,
evolutionary implications. Southwestern Naturalist 38(2): 91–99. Ref. 31123].
Chadwick LC. 1936. Improved practices in propagation by seed. American Millet B. 1977. A scanning electron microscope survey of the surface of the
Nurseryman 62(8): [3]–4; (9): 5–6; (10): 7–8; (12): [3]–9. staminal filament in some Berberidaceae: Comparison with other sensi-
Decker SR, Pekins PJ, Mautz WW. 1991. Nutritional evaluation of winter tive organs. Comptes Rendu des Seances de la Societe de Biologie, et de
foods of wild turkeys. Canadian Journal of Zoology 69(8): 2128–2132. Ses Filiales 171(3): 580–584 [Biological Abstracts 65(8): 4336, Ref.
Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, orna- 44154].
mental characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. 4th. ed. Champaign, Minore D. 1994. Personal observation. Corvallis, OR: Pacific Northwest
IL: Stipes Publishing Co. 1007 p. Research Station.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- Mirov NT, Kraebel CJ. 1939. Collecting and handling seeds of wild plants.
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. For. Pub. 5. Civilian Conservation Corps. 42 p.
Heit CE. 1967. Propagation from seed: 8. Fall planting of fruit and hard- Morinaga T. 1926. Effect of alternating temperatures upon the germination
wood seeds. American Nurseryman 126(4): 12–13, 85–90. of seeds. American Journal of Botany 13: 141–158.
Heit CE. 1968a. Propagation from seed: 15. Fall planting of shrub seeds for NBV [Nederlandsche Boschbouw Vereeniging]. 1946. Boomzaden:
successful seedling production. American Nurseryman 128(4): 8–10, Handleiding inzake het oogsten, behandelen, bewaren en uitzaaien van
70–80. boomzaden. Wageningen,The Netherlands: Ponsen and Looijen. 171 p.
Heit CE. 1968b. Thirty-five year’s testing of tree and shrub seeds. Journal of Ohwi J. 1965. Flora of Japan. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. 1067
Forestry 66(8): 632–634. p.
Hitchcock CL, Cronquist A, Ownbey M,Thompson JW. 1964. Vascular Plummer AP, Christensen DR, Monsen SB. 1968. Restoring big-game range
plants of the Pacific Northwest: 2. Salicaeae to Saxifragaceae. Seattle: in Utah. Pub. 68-3. Salt Lake City: Utah Division of Fish and Game. 182 p.
University of Washington Press. 597 p. Radford AE, Ahles HE, Bell CR. 1964. Guide to the vascular flora of the
ISTA [International Seed Testing Association]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds: Carolinas. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Book Exchange. 333
rules 1993. Seed Science and Technology 21 (Suppl.): 1–259. p.
Kern FD. 1921. Observations of the dissemination of the barberry. Ecology Rafn J and Son. No date. Skovfrökontoret’s Fröanalyser gennem 40 Aar,
2: 211–214. 1887–1927. Copenhagen: Udfört paa Statsfrökontrollen i Köbenhavn. 5
Kostalova D, Hrochova V,Tomko J. 1986. Tertiary alkaloids of Mahonia p.
aquifolium (Pursh) Nutt. III. Chemical Papers 40(3): 389–394. Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North
LHBH [Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium]. 1976. Hortus third: a concise dic- America. 2nd. New York: Macmillan. 996 p.
tionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Rudolf PO. 1974. Berberis, barberry, mahonia. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech.
Macmillan. 1290 p. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450.
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 247–251.
Mahonia • 711
M Rosaceae—Rose family
Malus Mill.
apple
Paul D. Anderson and John A. Crossley
Dr. Anderson is a plant physiologist at the USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Northwest Research Station,
Corvallis, Oregon; Mr. Crossley retired from the USDA Forest Service’s
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The apple and forbs. It also occurs in the coastal fringe forest as scat-
genus—Malus Mill.—includes about 25 species of decidu- tered, slow-growing individuals on rocky shorelines and
ous trees or shrubs native to the temperate regions of North inland passages where it is protected from wind and salt
America, Europe, and Asia. Taxonomic classification of the spray. Oregon crab apple is somewhat tolerant of brackish
native North American apples is the subject of active debate water and short-term inundation.
(Green 1996; Yanny 1996). Rehder (1940) recognized 9 In the upper mid-West of the United States, prairie and
native species—M. angustifolia, M. bracteata, M. coronaria, Great Lakes crab apples occur in open areas, on well-
M. fusca, M. glabrata, M. glaucescens, M. ioensis, M. lanci- drained soils, near forest margins, in abandoned pastures, in
folia, and M. platycarpa. Fiala (1994) suggests that, based oak savannahs, and at prairie margins (Kromm 1996; Little
on chromosome number, there are 3 distinct native 1980; Yanny 1996). Common associates include shrubs of
species—M. coronaria, M. fusca, and M. ioensis. Other tax- hawthorn (Crataegus spp.) and bur (Quercus macrocarpa)
onomic structures having intermediate numbers of species and black (Q. velutina) oaks. In southeastern Wisconsin, the
have proponents (Green 1996). The nomenclature and native crab apples occur with greater frequency on clay and
occurrence of commonly recognized species are presented in loam soils than on sandy soils. However, in contrast to
table 1. Oregon crab apple, neither prairie or Great Lakes crab
Native apples and planted cultivars occur throughout apples occur in wet areas (Kromm 1996).
much of North America. In general, apple performs best in In the southeastern United States, southern crab apple
full sunlight in deep, well-drained soils. Growth and vigor occurs at low altitudes on moist soils of valley bottoms and
are best in rich sandy loams, but apple will grow well in lower slopes. It is found in abandoned fields, along fence
heavier clay soils as long as they are well-drained (Fiala rows, and at forest margins, often forming dense thickets
1994). Ideal soil pH ranges from 5.5 to 6.5, but soils with (Little 1980).
pH in the range of 5.0 to 7.5 will support apple species Native apples have served as a supply of food for both
(Fiala 1994). wildlife and humans. Indigenous peoples in both the eastern
The Oregon crab apple, the only native apple in western and western regions of North America have consumed crab
North America, occurs along the Pacific Coast from north- apples (Pojar 1996; Vierdeck and Little 1972; Yarnell 1964).
ern California to Alaska, occupying mesic to wet habitats at The occurrence of crab apples may be locally abundant in
less than 800 m elevation (Hickman 1993). In California and areas traditionally inhabited by indigenous peoples, but it is
Oregon, it occurs in open forests of the coast ranges and the not known whether the trees were cultivated or grew from
foothills of the Cascade Range (Hickman 1993). In British discarded fruit remains (Pojar 1996).
Columbia and southern Alaska, its range includes coastal Consumption of fruit by birds and mammals is common.
climatic regions as well as zones of gradual transition to Known consumers include grouse (Bonasa umbellus),
continental climate (Pojar 1996; Vierdeck and Little 1972). pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), rabbits (Sylvilagus spp.),
Oregon crab apple occurs as an early seral species occupy- squirrels (Sciurus spp.), opossum (Didelphis virginiana),
ing gaps within old-growth forests, as a component of estu- raccoon (Procyon lotor), skunks (Conepattus spp.) and
arian and riparian complexes in major river valleys, and in foxes (Vulpes vulpes) (Little 1980). The abundance of crab
upland Sitka spruce–red cedar swamps having locally apples along fencelines and riparian areas is thought to
perched water tables. In tidal marshes, it can form thickets reflect dispersal by wildlife. However, the large fruit size
as the dominant canopy species in association with grasses and retention of the stem upon falling make transport by
Malus angustifolia (Ait.) Michx. southern crab apple, SE US from Virginia to Florida &
narrow-leaf crab apple W to Mississippi
Malus baccata (L.) Borkh. Siberian crab apple Asia; planted extensively in US
Pyrus baccata L.
M. coronaria (L.) Mill. American crab apple, E US; New York to Alabama, W to E Indiana
P. bracteata Baily; P. coronaria L. wild sweet crab apple,
M. bracteata (Baily) Rehd. garland-tree
M. coronaria var. dasycalyx Rehd. Great Lakes crab apple S Ontario to Ohio & Indiana
P. coronaria var. dasycalyx (Rehd.) Fern.
P. coronaria var. lancifolia (Rehd.) Fern.
P. lancifolia (Rehd.) Baily
M. coronaria var. lancifolia (Rehd.) C.F. Reed
M. lancifolia Rehd.
M. floribunda Sieb. ex Van Houtte Japanese flowering Japan; planted extensively in E US
M. pulcherrima (Sieb.) Makino crab apple
M. fusca (Raf.) Schneid. Oregon crab apple, Pacific Pacific Coast region from N California
P. rivularis Dougl. ex Hook. crab apple, western crab to S Alaska
P. fusca Raf. apple, wild crab apple
M. diversifolia (Bong.) M. Roemer
M. glabrata Rehd. Biltmore crab apple SE US; North Carolina to Alabama
M. glaucescens Rehd. Dunbar crab apple E US; New York to North Carolina
P. glaucescens (Rehd.) Baily & W into Alabama
M. ioensis (Wood) Britt. prairie crab apple, Iowa crab Minnesota & Wisconsin to Nebraska &
P. ioensis (Wood) Baily apple, midwest crab apple Kansas & to Texas & Louisiana
M. pumila P. Mill. common apple, apple, Europe & W Asia; cultivated
P. pumila (P. Mill.) Borkh. paradise apple horticulturally and agriculturally in US
M. communis Poir
M. domestica (Borkh.) Borkh.
M. x robusta (Carr.) Rehd. red Siberian crab apple Asia
M. baccata x (M. prunifolia (Willd.) Borkh.
M. sargentii Rehd. Sargent apple Japan
M. sylvestris P. Mill. European crab apple, Europe & W Asia
P. malus L. apple
M. malus (L.) Britt.
most species of frugivorous birds unlikely (Snow and Snow from the Siberian crab apple, but these varieties are usually
1988). Observations suggest that deer may be the principal propagated vegetatively. Common apple and European
dispersal agent of crab apples in Europe (Snow and Snow crabapple are most often used as the rootstock for cultivars
1988) and in southern Wisconsin (Kromm 1996). of crab apple (Fiala 1994).
Members of the apple genus have traditionally been Flowering and fruiting. The pink to white perfect
some of our most important fruit bearers and ornamentals flowers appear in the spring with or before the leaves.
(table 1). Siberian crab apple has been used in shelterbelts. Flowering time varies among species from March to June
Larger stems of southern crab apple have been used to make (table 2). The fruit is a fleshy pome in which 3 to 5 carpels,
tool handles. More recently, propagation of native crab usually 5, are embedded. Each carpel contains 2 seeds or 1
apples has become increasingly important for habitat by abortion (figure 1) (Sargent 1965). Seeds have a thin lin-
restoration (Callahan 1996) and apple cultivars have been ing of endosperm (figure 2), except in the cultivated, or
considered for use in revegetation of minespoil (Brown and common, apple, which has almost no endosperm (Martin
others 1983). Seedling propagation of native prairie crab 1946). Depending upon species, fruits ripen as early as
apple as an ornamental is increasing in the mid-West as a August or as late as November (table 2). The fruits drop to
means of avoiding the poorly adapted plants that can arise as the ground soon after ripening. Color of ripe fruit varies
sprouts from non-native rootstock following shoot girdling among the species (table 2).
or browsing (Yanny 1996). Many cultivated varieties have Good crops of fruits and seeds generally occur every 2
been developed from the common or cultivated apple and to 4 years (Crossley 1974); however, good seed production
Malus • 713
M Table 2—Malus, apple: phenology of flowering and fruiting, color of ripe fruit, and height of mature trees
Sources: Callahan (1996), Crossley (1974), Fiala (1994), Krüssmann (1960), Nielsen (1988), Rehder (1940), Sudworth (1908),Van Dersal (1938).
Figure 1—Malus pumila, common apple: seeds. Figure 2—Malus coronaria, American crab apple: longitu-
dinal section through a seed.
has been observed annually for select stands of prairie crab mal crop of crab apples were produced, yet the fruits bore
apple in Wisconsin (Kromm 1996) and for many crab apple no seeds (Kromm 1996).
cultivars (Fiala 1994). Seed production may be negatively Biennial bearing is a problem for commercial apple pro-
affected by late-spring frosts. The severity of frost effect on duction (Williams 1989). Alternate-year fruit production
seed production depends on the stage of fruit development at arises from competitive effects of vegetative production,
the time of frost. Late-flowering cultivars of apple are less fruit development, and flowering. Trees bearing fruit with a
susceptible to fruit damage by late frosts than early and large complement of seeds tend to initiate fewer flowers.
medium flowering cultivars (Nybom 1992). Cultivars of Chemical methods, including the post-bloom application of
apple exposed to freezing temperatures during the pink to thinning agents or growth regulators, have been used in
early-bloom stages of fruit development demonstrated seed manipulating fruit set and fruit quality (shape, firmness,
abortion and fruit pedicle damage, but they continued to russeting, and seed set) in commercial cultivars of apple
produce a smaller, but economically significant fruitcrop (Greene 1989; Looney and others 1992; Williams 1989).
(Simons and Doll 1976). A similar phenomenon has been Collection of fruits; extraction and storage of seed.
observed in a wild stand of prairie crab apple, where a nor- Ripe apples may be collected either by picking the fruits
Malus • 715
significant impacts on both the percentage embryo germina- Figure 3—Malus coronaria, American crab apple: seedling
M development at 1, 3, 9, and 16 days after germination.
tion and the quality of the resulting plants. Germination of
nearly 100% of non-stratified embryos has been obtained
with GA3 applied at concentrations of 12.5 to 50.0 mg/liter
for periods of 1 to 24 hours and with BAP applied at 12.5 to
100 mg/liter for periods of 6 to 24 hours. Such treatments
have resulted in 50 to 60% germination in less than 10 days
and nearly 100% germination in 30 days (Zhang and
Lespinasse 1991). Some plants produced from treated
embryos demonstrate reduced growth, abnormally thick
stems, or poorly developed roots. The percentage of abnor-
mal plants produced tends to increase with increasing
growth regulator concentration or increasing period of soak-
ing. Successful application of growth regulator treatments as
a substitute for stratification requires careful attention to
protocol and is beyond the needs of most propagators as
germination percentages of 90% or greater are commonly
achieved using the relatively simple cold stratification
process.
Nursery practice. Seedlings for use in landscape
restoration or as apple rootstocks are often grown from
seeds in nurseries (Richardson 1966; Callahan 1996).
Untreated seeds have been sown in late fall (Bakke and oth-
ers 1926; Callahan 1996; Kromm 1996; Yanny 1996) and
stratified seeds have been sown in the spring (Crossley
1974; Yanny 1996). In a Washington nursery, seeds are strat-
ified by first soaking them in water for 5 to 7 days, then seedling stems should be pencil-thick and about 38 cm (15
placing sacks of seeds between layers of ice in a sawdust pit in) high (Richardson 1966). A height of 23 cm (9 in) is
for 6 to 8 weeks. Seeds are subsequently dried only enough regarded as minimum size for grafting (Davis 1940). Most
to flow freely through a mechanical planter (Crossley 1974). commercial varieties are propagated by budding or grafting
Seeds are sown in rows 20 cm (8 in) wide and 106 cm (42 onto seedling rootstocks (Crossley 1974; Fiala 1994;
in) apart (Davis 1940), 1.25 to 2.5 cm (1/2 to 1 in) deep on Richardson 1966; Solovjeva and Kocjubinskaja 1955).
loose friable soil. A thin sawdust mulch aids seedling emer- In Wisconsin, crab apples for landscape use have been
gence on soils that form a crust after watering. Seedlings produced from seeds sown in the fall at a density of 270/m2
may be sprayed weekly with a fungicide to control powdery (5/ft2) and covered with 2.5 cm (1 in) of sand. Apple seeds
mildew. By the end of the growing season most of the are among the first to germinate in the spring, often while
Table 4—Malus, apple: effects of cold stratification and germination test conditions on germination results
M. bacatta 30 30 20 30 48 8 54 2
M. coronaria 120 10 10 30 93 19 96 1
M. fusca 90 — — — — — — —
M. floribunda 60–120 — — — — — — —
M. ioensis† 60 30 20 10 48 4 58 1
M. pumila 60 30 20 60 — — 65 1+
M. x robusta 60–120 — — — — — — —
References
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2, 608 p. in apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) with chemical growth regulators. Acta
Little EL Jr. 1980. The Audubon Society field guide to North American Horticulturae 240:221–228.
trees: eastern region. New York: Knopf. 714 p. Yanny M. 1996. Personal communication. Menomonee Falls, WI: Johnson
Litvinenko SN. 1959. [in Russian:The Ukrainian gibberellin, an effective Nursery.
growth stimulant]. Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR [Horticultural Yarnell RA. 1964. Aboriginal relationships between culture and plant life in
Abstracts 30(73), 1960]. the upper Great Lakes region. Anthropol. Pap. 23. Ann Arbor: University
Looney NE, Granger RL, Chu CL, Mander LN, Pharis RP. 1992. Influences of of Michigan, Museum of Anthropology.
giberellins A4, A4+7 and A4+iso-A7 on apple fruit quality and tree pro- Zhang YX, Lespinasse Y. 1991. Removal of embryonic dormancy in apple
ductivity: 2. Other effects on fruit quality and importance of fruit posi- (Malus x domestica Borkh) by 6-benzylaminopurine. Scientia
tion within the tree canopy. Journal of Horticultural Science 67: Horticulturae 46: 215–223.
841–847.
Malus • 717
M Meliaceae—Mahogany family
Melia azedarach L.
chinaberry
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Other common names. chinatree, bead tree, Indian Figure 1—Melia azedarach L., chinaberry: fruit and
lilac, pride-of-India, umbrella chinaberry, umbrella-tree, stone (lower left).
paráiso.
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Chinaberry—
Melia azedarach L.—is a short-lived deciduous tree, native
to southern Asia and Australia, that has been cultivated and
naturalized in tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate
regions throughout the world. It has naturalized locally in
the southeastern United States from Virginia and Oklahoma
south to Florida and Texas. It can also be found in
California, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands (Little
1979). The tree reaches a maximum height of 15 m in the
United States, where it is planted as an ornamental, yet has
some value for timber and wildlife food. In India the wood
is used for furniture, agricultural implements, and the manu-
facture of writing and printing paper (Guha and Negi 1965).
Extracts of the leaves and fruits have insecticidal properties
(Al-Sharook and others 1991; Atwal and Pajni 1964), and ing. This can easily be done in mechanical macerators with
the fruits are valuable livestock and game food. Birds and water, with the pulp floated off or screened out (Amata-
animals are common seed dispersal agents (Vines 1960). Archachai and Wasuwanich 1986). There are about 1,400
Flowering and fruiting. The flowering habit is either fruits/kg (640/lb) (7 samples). Chinaberry is an oily seed of
perfect or polygamo-dioecious (Nair 1959). The pretty, lilac- the tropics and subtropics, yet several tests suggest that they
colored perfect flowers are borne in axillary panicles 10 to are orthodox in storage behavior (Bonner and Grano 1974;
15 cm long in March to May. The fruit is a subglobose, Moncur and Gunn 1990). Under refrigerated, dry conditions
fleshy, round, drupe, 13 to 19 mm in diameter, that ripens in fruits may be stored for at least a year without loss of viabil-
September and October and persists on the tree well into ity. Additional research on storage of this species is needed.
winter (Vines 1960). It turns yellow and wrinkled as it Germination tests. Pregermination treatments are not
ripens (figure 1). Inside the fleshy mesocarp is a single, flut- necessary (Bonner and Grano 1974), but germination is usu-
ed, light brown or yellowish stone that contains 3 to 5 point- ally improved if the fruit pulp is removed (Moncur and
ed, smooth, black seeds (figures 2 and 3). Abundant seed Gunn 1990). In nature, the epigeous germination usually
crops are borne almost annually. occurs during the spring following dispersal. One fruit may
Collection, extraction, and storage of seeds. Fruits produce up to 4 seedlings. Suggested germination test con-
can be collected by hand after the leaves have fallen in late ditions are 21 °C (night) to 30 °C (day) for 60 days with 200
autumn or early winter. Some seeds will germinate when the seeds/test in sand flats. Fresh stones from southeastern
fruit coats are still green, but it is best to wait until they turn Arkansas had a germinative capacity of 81% at 90 days in
yellow for collection (Moncur and Gunn 1990). The pulp sand flats in a greenhouse; germination rate was 54% at 30
should be removed from the fruits before storage or plant- days (Bonner and Grano 1974). Seeds from tropical sources
References
Al-Sharook Z, Balan K, Jiang Y, Rembold H. 1991. Insect growth inhibitors Little EL Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized).
from two tropical Meliaceae: effects of crude seed extracts on mosquito Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p.
larvae. Journal of Applied Entomology 111: 425–430. Nair NC. 1959. Studies of Meliaceae: 2. Floral morphology and embryology
Amata-Archachai P, Wasuwanich P. 1986. Mechanical extraction and of Melia azedarach Linn.—a reinvestigation. Journal of the Indian
cleaning of nuts of some tropical species. Embryon 2(1): 1–8. Botanical Society 38: 367–378.
Atwal AS, Pajni HR. 1964. Preliminary studies on the insecticidal properties Moncur MW, Gunn BV. 1990. Seed development and germination respons-
of drupes of Melia azedarach against caterpillars of Pieris brassicae L. es of Melia azedarach var. australasica. In:Turnbull JW, ed.Tropical tree
(Lepidoptera: Pieridae). Indian Journal of Entomology 26: 221–227. seed research. 1989 August 21–24; Gympie, Australia. AICAR Proc. 28.
Bonner FT, Grano CX. 1974. Melia azedarach L., chinaberry. In: Schopmeyer Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research:
CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. 24–28.
Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 535–536. Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p.
Guha SRD, Negi JS. 1965. Writing and printing paper from Melia azedarach
Linn. (Persian lilac). Indian Forester 91: 867–869.
Melia • 719
M Menispermaceae—Moonseed family
Menispermum canadense L.
common moonseed
Kenneth A. Brinkman and H. M. Phipps*
Drs. Brinkman and Phipps retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Research Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Common moon- Nursery practice. Common moonseed is propagated
seed—Menispermum canadense L.—is a climbing woody readily by seeds stratified and sown in the spring or planted
vine growing to a height of 3.6 m (Rehder 1940) that is as soon as ripe (Bailey 1935). Vegetative propagation also is
capable of spreading from underground stems (Wyman possible from cuttings.
1949). It is native from Quebec and western New England to
southeastern Manitoba, south to Georgia, Alabama, and
References
Oklahoma (Fernald 1950). The plants are seldom eaten by
livestock (Van Dersal 1938), but the fruits are of value to
wildlife, although reportedly poisonous to humans Bailey LH. 1935. The nursery manual, a complete guide to the multiplication
of plants. 22nd ed. New York: Macmillan. 456 p.
(Kingsbury 1964). This species has been cultivated since Brinkman KA, Phipps HM. 1974. Menispermum, common moonseed. In:
1646 for its attractive foliage and fruit (Rehder 1940). Schopmeyer CS, tech coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States.
Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 537–538.
Flowering and fruiting. The dioecious flowers Fernald ML. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. 8th ed. New York: American
appear from May to July and the bluish-black drupes ripen Book Co. 1632 p.
from September to November (Grimm 1966; Redher 1940). Grimm WC. 1966. Recognizing native shrubs. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole
Books. 319 p.
The seeds are flattened stones in the form of a crescent or Kingsbury JM. 1964. Poisonous plants of the U.S. and Canada. Englewood
ring (figures 1 and 2). Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 626 p.
Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. 2nd ed. New York:
Collection of fruits and seed extraction. Fruits may Macmillan. 2996 p.
be collected from September to November (Rehder 1940). Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their ero-
sion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC: USDA
Seeds may be extracted by washing the macerated fruits in Forest Service. 362 p.
water. One sample showed 16,758 seeds/kg (7,600/lb) Wyman D. 1949. Shrubs and vines for American gardens. New York:
(Brinkman and Phipps 1974). Macmillan. 442 p.
Germination. Stratification of one seedlot at 5 °C for
60 days resulted in 65% germination in 11 days and 98% in *Note: Review of the literature by Jill R. Barbour, germination
specialist at the USDA Forest Service’s National Seed Laboratory,
26 days. An unstratified seedlot showed germination of 83% Dry Branch, Georgia, found no new information.
in 28 days and 92% in 60 days (Brinkman and Phipps
1974). Germination was tested in sand under light at alter-
Figure 2—Menispermum canadense L., common moonseed:
nating temperatures of 30 (day) and 20 °C (night).
longitudinal section through a seed.
Dr. Krugman retired from the World Bank and the USDA Forest Service’s Research and Development
National Office,Washington, DC; Dr. Zasada retired from the USDA
Forest Service’s North Central Research Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Rough flat greenish to brownish with a yellowish narrow wing
menodora—Menodora scabra Gray—is a low herbaceous to (figures 1 and 2) (Munz and Keck 1965; Vines 1960).
woody shrub 0.2 to 0.8 m in height. It is native to dry rocky Good seedcrops of rough menodora usually occur annu-
areas and desert grasslands from 462 to 2,155 m in southern ally (Krugman 1974). The number of cleaned seeds per
California, Arizona, New Mexico, western Texas, Colorado, weight in 2 samples was 224,000 and 246,000/kg (102,000
and Utah (Munz and Keck 1965; Vines 1960). It provides and 112,000/lb). Vines (1960) reported that purity of seed-
browse for livestock and game animals (Krugman 1974). lots was 41% and soundness 98%. Storage in a dry place at
Due to the type of habitat in which it is usually found, it room temperature has been satisfactory.
should grow on strip-mined land (Sabo and others 1979). Germination. Sabo and others (1979) reported that
The genus Menodora is represented by 14 species in North germination occurred at alternating and constant tempera-
America (Turner 1991). Rough menodora is recommended tures between 14 to 40 °C. The best germination (about
for use as a rock garden plant. 80%) was under alternating temperature regimes of 24 °C
Flowering and fruiting; seed collection and storage. for 8 hours and 17 °C for 16 hours and 17 °C for 8 hours
The yellow, often showy flowers of rough menodora appear and 24 °C for 16 hours. The mean day of germination varied
from May through August (Krugman 1974; Vines 1960). from to about 6 to 10 days under these temperature regimes.
The fruit, a bispherical thin-walled capsule with 2 seeds in Light was not required for germination. Percentage and rate
each cell, ripens in September to November. Seeds are dis- of germination of showy menodora—M. longiflora Gray—a
persed during October and November (Krugman 1974;
Munz and Keck 1965; Vines 1960). Seeds should be collect-
ed from September to November (Krugman 1974). The
mature seeds are about 4 to 5 mm in length and 3 mm wide, Figure 2—Menodora scabra, rough menodora: longitudi-
nal section through a seed.
Menodora • 721
related sub-shrub, was improved by acid scarification. but declined at warmer temperatures. Seeds of showy men-
M
However, at a temperature regime of 30/20 °C, 60% of odora germinated in the dark, but both germination rate and
unscarified seeds germinated. Germination rate of scarified germination percentage were greater in a light regime with
seeds increased with increasing temperature up to 30/20 ·°C 12 hours light (Fulbright and Flenniken 1986).
References
Fulbright TE, Flenniken KS. 1986. Effects of temperature and presowing Sabo DG, Johnson GV, Martin WC, Aldon EF. 1979. Germination require-
treatments on showy menodora seed germination. Journal of Range ments of 19 species of arid land plants. Res. Pap. RM-210. Fort Collins,
Management 39(4): 310–313. CO: USDA Forest Service. 23 p.
Krugman SL. 1974. Menodora scabra A. Gray, rough menodora. In: Turner BL. 1991. An overview of the North American species of Menodora.
Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United Phytologia 71(5): 340–356.
States: Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 539. Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
Munz PA, Keck DD. 1965. A California flora. Berkeley: University of University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
California Press. 1681 p.
Mr. Sloan is at the USDA Forest Service’s Lucky Peak Nursery, Boise, Idaho; Mr. Johnson retired from the
USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Dawn-red- (1974) speculates that some of the seeds may have come
wood—Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu & W.C. Cheng— from self-pollinated trees. According to Shao (1982), dawn-
is the only known living example of its genus (Hu and redwood shows a strong apical dominance and produces a
Cheng 1948). It is often called a “living fossil” because until straight stem.
1946 it was known only from the fossil record (Hu 1948; Flowering and fruiting. Dawn-redwood is mono-
Merrill 1945; Shao 1982). The natural range is quite restrict- ecious. Trees that produce female cones begin to do so sev-
ed: a few trees are found near the village of Mo-tao-chi in eral years before trees of the same age produce male cones
eastern Szechuan Province and the bulk of the native groves (Em 1972; Li 1957; Wyman 1968). Female trees do not
are found in Shui-hsa-pa Valley (south of Mo-tao-chi) in the begin to produce seeds until they are 25 to 30 years old and
northwestern corner of Hupeh Province, People’s Republic bear heavily until they are 40 to 60 years old, when produc-
of China (Chu and Cooper 1950; Shao 1982). It has been tion diminishes (Shao 1982).
introduced to many other parts of China, as well as the Male cone buds form in leaf axis or on branch tips and
United States and Europe, for a total of 50 other countries become visible in the fall just prior to leaf drop. At this
(Shao 1982). time, they are about 2.5 mm long. Female cones are borne
Since its introduction into the United States in 1948, singly, opposite along branches (rarely terminal). Male and
this deciduous conifer has mostly been planted as an orna- female buds begin to grow in late January and are readily
mental, especially at museums and in arboreta. The wood is seen by early- or mid-February. Pollination takes place in
soft, weak, and brittle, so it has little value as a source of March before the tree puts on needles (Hwa 1945, 1948).
lumber (Wyman 1968), although it is used for building tim- This early emergence of the cones makes them susceptible
bers in China (Shao 1982). Pulping characteristics are simi- to late winter frosts, which can destroy the cone crop.
lar to, and its fibers are stronger than, southern pines Male cone buds are 4 to 6 mm long when closed and 6
(Wyman 1968). In the United States, Wyman (1968) report- to 10 mm long when expanded and shedding pollen. Each
ed height growth was as much as 18 m in 20 years. In staminate strobilus has 20 to 30 distichously arranged
China, Shao (1982) described 4-year-old dawn-redwood microsporophylls with 3 microsporangia per sporophyll.
trees averaging 7 m tall and 11 cm dbh. In its natural range, Pollen grains are wingless and covered with a sticky sub-
dawn-redwood grows in the submontane zone at elevations stance that causes them to clump together in masses
between 100 and 1500 m. The species is hardy in Mass- (Johnson 1968). Female cones have 16 to 26 distichously
achusetts, where the winter temperatures may drop to arranged scales, with 5 to 8 seeds per scale. Mature cones
-34 °C, and thrives in Placerville, California, where summer are pendulous (with a 10- to 30-mm peduncle), subquad-
temperatures often exceed 35 °C and there is usually no rangular, and shortly cylindrical; they ripen the same year
summer rainfall (Johnson 1974). they are pollinated. Cones ripen in early December and shed
Geographic races. Although great phenotypic diver- their seeds in late December and early January.
sity exists between planted trees, no geographic races are Collection, extraction, and storage. Mature cones
known to exist. Several cultivars have been described are light brown, but color is not a good indication of
(Broekhuizen and Zwart 1967; DeVos 1963). Of the 6 trees ripeness. Cones should be collected late in the year just
growing at the USDA Forest Service’s Institute of Forest before they begin to open. Cones picked when they first turn
Genetics at Placerville, California, half are of the normal from green to light brown do not open and the scales must
single-stemmed conifer shape and the others are bush- be pried apart. But cones picked when the scales naturally
shaped with no single branch showing dominance. Johnson begin to separate will readily open with 1 to 2 weeks of dry-
Metasequoia • 723
ing at room temperature. Tumbling is necessary because 1955; Shao 1982), growing stock can be produced faster
M
some seeds are firmly welded to the scales. Because seed from seeds than from cuttings (Johnson 1974). Cuttings root
wings are minute, de-winging is unnecessary (Johnson best when they are taken in early summer through late fall.
1974). Rooting is promoted by treatment with 50 ppm of α-naph-
Seedcoats of dawn-redwood are thin and fragile. Seeds thalene acetic acid (NAA). Rooting capability of cuttings
with wings attached are light brown, 5 to 6 mm long, 2 to 4 decreases with increasing age of the mother plant
mm wide, obovate (rarely orbicular-oblong), and notched at (Shao 1982).
the apex (figure 1) (Johnson 1974; Nakai and Furuno 1974).
Wings are adnate and appear as tegumentary extensions of
the seed (Sterling 1949). Average weight per seed is 8 mg Figure 1—Metasequoia glyptostroboides, dawn-redwood:
(0.0003 oz) (Nakai and Furuno 1974). Nakai and Furuno filled seed.
(1974) found an average of 70 to 90 seeds per cone, with a
range of 50 to 110. One kilogram of cones contains 430,00
to 560,000 seeds (1 lb contains 195,000 to 254,000 seeds)
(Shao 1982). Dawn-redwood often produces a high propor-
tion of hollow seeds (CDF 1977). Presumably, seeds can be
stored in the same manner as those of other genera in
Taxodiaceae such as redwood (Sequoia) and arborvitae
(Thuja). Storage of dry seeds in airtight containers at 1 to
4 °C has been satisfactory for these genera (Johnson 1974).
Mechanical separation of seeds is not recommended.
Hollow (figure 1) and filled seeds can be identified with x-
radiography, but a simpler and more efficient method is to
use a light table. The seeds should be scattered 1-layer thick
on a light table and then back-lit with the room lights off.
The hollow seeds can be picked out with tweezers. However,
this method is feasible only on a small scale. If large quanti-
ties of seeds become available, all seeds should be stored
and then sown, making allowances for seed-fill when the
seeding rate is calculating (Johnson 1974).
Germination and nursery practice. Seeds of dawn-
redwood do not require chilling (Johnson 1968; Shao 1982;
References
Smith 1950). Germination takes 4 to 8 days (Nakai and
Furuno 1974) and is epigeal. After germination, the seedcoat
Broekhuizen JT, Zwart FN. 1967. A contribution to the knowledge of
sheds in 3 to 5 days, exposing the cotyledons (Johnson Metasequoia glyptostroboides [English summary]. Agric. Comm. 10.
Wageningen,The Netherlands: University of Wageningen Institute of
1974). There are no official testing prescriptions for this Forest Resources: 439–463.
species. CDF [China Department of Forestry, Nanking College of Forest Products].
1977. A preliminary observation on the flowering and seed develop-
Seeds sown directly on soil and mulched with fine sand ment of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu et Cheng. Acta Botanica Sinica
or Sponge Rok® begin germinating within 5 days (Johnson 19(4): 252–256.
Chu K, Cooper WS. 1950. An ecological reconnaissance in the native home
1968). During the first 5 weeks of growth, the tender succu- of Metasequoia glyptostroboides. Ecology 31(2): 260–275.
DeVos F. 1963. Metasequoia glyptostroboides ‘National’. American
lent seedlings are particularly susceptible to damping-off Horticulture Magazine 42(3): 174–177.
(Johnson 1974; Shao 1982). Losses can be minimized by Em H. 1972. Metasequoia glyptostroboides and its growth in the Skopje
basin. Sumarstvo 24:5–15.
sowing on heat-sterilized or fumigated soil. Young seedlings Hu H. 1948. How Metasequoia, the “living fossil,” was discovered. Journal of
thrive in high humidity like that found in a greenhouse the New York Botanical Garden 49(585): 201–207.
Hu H, Cheng W. 1948. On the new family Metasequoiaceae and on
equipped with automatic overhead sprinklers. In hot cli- Metasequoia glyptostroboides, a living species of the genus Metasequoia
mates the young seedlings should be shaded during the first found in Szechuan and Hupeh. Bulletin of Fan Memorial Institute of
Biology NS1(2): 153–161.
growing season (Johnson 1974). Hwa CT. 1945. UCB. M 186893. [Herbarium Specimen] Metasequoia
glyptostroboides. Shui-hsa-pa Valley, 3550 ft. March 10, 1945.
Because seeds of dawn-redwood are scarce, the species Hwa CT. 1948. UCB. M 186884. [Herbarium Specimen] Metasequoia glyp-
is often propagated from cuttings. Although cuttings are tostroboides. In ravine; tree. Li-Chuan, Shui-hsa-pa Valley, 3500 ft. Hupeh
Province. March 10, 1948.
very easy to root (Johnson 1968; Mirov and Blankensop
Metasequoia • 725
M Rubiaceae—Madder family
Mitchella repens L.
partridgeberry
Kenneth A. Brinkman, G. G. Erdmann, and Jill R. Barbour
Drs. Brinkman and Erdmann retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Forest Experiment
Station; Ms. Barbour is a germination specialist at the USDA Forest Service’s National Seed Laboratory,
Dry Branch, Georgia.
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Partridgeberry— berry may contain is 8 (Hicks and others 1985). The level of
Mitchella repens L., also called two-eyed berry or running- natural fruit-set is near 100% for both pins and thrums. In a
fox—is an evergreen vine or herb with fruit valuable as food flowering study in North Carolina, the overall fruit-set level
for birds, raccoons (Procyon lotor), and red foxes (Vulpes for pins and thrums was 100%, whereas in New York, the
vulpes) (Van Dersal 1938). The natural range is from Texas fruit-set was 96.1% for pins and 86.5% for thrums (Hicks
to Florida, north to southwest Newfoundland, and west to and others 1985). A Massachusetts study revealed fruit-set
Ontario and Minnesota (Fernald 1950). This attractive plant values of 96.8% for pins and 96.3% for thrums (Keegan and
was introduced into cultivation in 1761 and is often used in others 1979).
rock gardens (Rehder 1940). Collection of fruits; extraction and storage of seeds.
Flowering and fruiting. The distylous flowers appear Partridgeberry fruits may be picked in late fall. Fruits should
from June to August and can be separated into 2 genetic be macerated in water and screened to remove the seeds
compatibility groups (Rehder 1940). Plants with short-styled (figures 1 and 2). About 45 kg (100 lb) of fruit yield about
flowers (“thrums”) have exserted stamens 15 mm above the 5.4 kg (12 lb) of cleaned seeds (Swingle 1939). Two sam-
ovary and stigmas 10 mm above the ovary; whereas plants ples averaged 427,770 seeds/kg (194,000/lb); 98% of the
with long-styled flowers (“pins”) have stamens 11 mm seeds were sound after cleaning (Brinkman and Erdmann
above the ovary and exserted stigmas 16 mm above the 1974; Swingle 1939). Seeds are orthodox in storage behav-
ovary (Ganders 1975). The only pollinations that are com- ior and can be stored for some time in sealed containers at
patible are those between anthers and stigmas of the same low temperature.
height, that is, between pin and thrum and thrum and pin. Germination tests. Partridgeberry seeds have internal
The genetic control is by a single gene (S), with thrums the dormancy, but this can be overcome by 150 to 180 days of
heterozygotes (Ss) and pins the recessive homozygotes (ss) stratification at 5 °C (Barton and Crocker 1945). No data are
(Allard 1960). Thrums contribute more than three-quarters available on results of germination tests.
of all genes transmitted through ovules, and pins more than
three-quarters of all genes transmitted through pollen (Hicks
and others 1985). Pins and thrums contribute almost equally Figure 1—Mitchella repens, partridgeberry: seed.
to gene flow via pollen and ovules.
The flowers occur in pairs on a short peduncle with the
base of the calyces fused. Each flower has 1 style and 4 sta-
mens (Fernald 1950). Fruit-set occurs when both flowers of
a pair have been pollinated. Bumble bees (Bombus spp.) are
the principal pollinators of partridgeberry. They fly around a
patch of partridgeberry for a mean of 2.3 ± 2.3 minutes, vis-
iting 34 ± 43 inflorescences per minute (Hicks and others
1985).
Fruits are scarlet drupaceous berries 7 to 10 mm wide
that ripen in July but usually persist overwinter (Petrides
1958). The maximum number of seeds that a single full
Mitchella • 727
M Moraceae—Mulberry family
Morus L.
mulberry
Jill R. Barbour, Ralph A. Read, and Robert L. Barnes
Ms. Barbour is a germination specialist at the USDA Forest Service’s National Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch,
Georgia; Dr. Read retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station;
Dr. Barnes retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Southeastern Forest Experiment Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The mulberry fied bacterial disease (Moore and Thomas 1977). Its place is
genus—Morus—comprises about 12 species of deciduous being taken by the introduced and naturalized white mulber-
trees and shrubs native to temperate and subtropical regions ry (Core 1974).
of Asia, Europe, and North America (Rehder 1956). Seeds White mulberry is highly prized in Asia for its leaves,
of 2 native species and 2 naturalized species are described which are eaten by the silkworm—Bombyx mori L. The 7 or
here (table 1). White (sometimes called “Russian”) mulberry more forms and varieties of white mulberry differ in their
was introduced to the United States by Mennonites from relative drought resistance and in chromosome number and
Russia in 1875. The United States Prairie States Forestry may be climatic races. Both white and red mulberry are
Project planted an average of over 1 million trees of this diploids (2n=2x=28), but black mulberry has a high poly-
species annually from 1937 through 1942 for windbreaks in ploidy level (2n=22x=308) (Ottman 1987).
the Great Plains from Nebraska to northern Texas (Read and Mulberries are valuable as food for birds and animals.
Barnes 1974). The high drought resistance of white mulber- Up to 18 bird species have been recorded eating the fruit in
ry makes it well suited for shelterbelt planting (Read and northeastern Kansas, with catbirds (Dumetella carolinensis)
Barnes 1974). and robins (Turdus migratorius) consuming the most fruit
There are 2 mulberries indigenous to North America. (Stapanian 1982). Opossums (Didelphis virginiana), rac-
Littleleaf mulberry occurs in Arizona, New Mexico, coons (Procyon lotor), fox squirrels (Sciurus niger), and
Oklahoma, Texas, and Mexico and has not been cultivated eastern gray squirrels (S. carolinensis) eat the fruit in appre-
(table 1). Red mulberry has a wide range that covers most of ciable amounts, and cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus)
the eastern United States, Great Lakes region, and the south- feed on the bark in winter (Core 1974).
ern Great Plains. Though once common, red mulberry is All the mulberry species have white sap that contains
decreasing over its range, possibly because of an unidenti- latex (Hora 1981). The heartwood is durable, making it
M. alba L. white mulberry, Russian China; naturalized in Europe & North America
M. alba var. tatarica (L.) Ser. mulberry, silkworm mulberry
M. microphylla Buckl. littleleaf mulberry, Texas Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma,Texas, & Mexico
mulberry, mountain mulberry
M. nigra L. black mulberry, Persian mulberry Iran; widely cultivated in Europe
M. rubra L. red mulberry Vermont & Massachusetts to New York, extreme S
Ontario, Michigan, & Wisconsin, SE Minnesota,
SE Nebraska, central Kansas,W Oklahoma,
central Texas, E to S Florida
Morus • 729
Figure 2—Morus alba, white mulberry: longitudinal seed-bearing age is 30 to 85 years; the maximum being 125
M
section through a seed. years (Lamson 1990).
Collection of fruits. Before the fruits are collected,
fruits from every tree should be sampled and checked,
because mulberry fruits can develop without seeds. Ripe
mulberry fruits may be collected by stripping, shaking, flail-
ing, or waiting for them to fall from the tree onto a ground
cloth. Fruits should be collected as soon as most are ripe to
avoid loss to birds and animals. Seedlots of red mulberry
fruits collected 4 to 5 days after falling yielded 89% germi-
nation, whereas seeds from fruits collected 1 to 2 weeks
after falling reduced germination to 73% (Huffman 1996).
Soaking red mulberry seeds in water for 48 and 72 hours
reduced germination to 56 and 33%, respectively, making it
advisable to not soak seeds for more than 24 hours
(Huffman 1996). Seedlots from white mulberry fruits col-
lected in early July that were cleaned and sown immediately
showed 75% germination (Dirr and Heuser 1987). Fresh
fruits, placed in tubs, can be stored in a cooler at 3 to 5 °C
Figure 3—Morus rubra, red mulberry: cleaned seeds. for up to 2 weeks without harming the seeds. Forty-five
kilograms (100 lb) of fresh fruit of either species yields
from 0.9 to 1.4 kg (2 to 3 lb) of clean seeds (Read and
Barnes 1974) (table 4).
Extraction and storage of seeds. Fresh fruits are usu-
ally soaked in water and run through a macerator, where
pulp and empty seeds are skimmed or floated off. If the
fruits are not sufficiently ripe, soaking them in water for 24
hours will aid in the maceration. Fermentation at moderate
indoor temperatures for 1 to 2 days before maceration facili-
tates extraction and improves viability of white mulberry
seeds (Taylor 1941). A more efficient method is to spread
the fruits on a clean floor, allow them to soften at room tem-
perature for 4 to 5 days and then run them through a seed
macerator with the water adjusted so that only the pulp goes
through (the plate should be adjusted to 4 mm) (Engstrom
Sources: Engstrom (1969), FNAEC (1997), Little and Delisle (1962), Read and Barnes (1974), Rehder (1956).
Sources: Little and Delisle (1962), Read and Barnes (1974), Rehder (1956), Sargent (1940), Small (1933).
1969). The now-clean seeds remain. Small samples may be Tests on pretreated seeds run on wet absorbent paper,
cleaned by rubbing the fruits gently through a 2.4-mm (#6) wet sand, and mixtures of sand and peat at the same temper-
round-hole screen and floating off the pulp (Read and ature regime for 15 to 45 days with a daily light period of 8
Barnes 1974). A 1% lye solution can be used to remove any to 16 hours resulted in germination ranging from 20 to 92%
sticky pulp left on the seeds after maceration. (Heit 1968; Read and Barnes 1974; Taylor 1941). In a labo-
Cleaned seeds should be spread to air-dry in the shade, ratory study of seeds planted in sand, red mulberry seeds
then cleaned by fanning before storage or use. Lightweight exhibited very high seedling emergence at 25 °C under mod-
trash and seeds can be removed with a gravity table (Myatt erate moisture conditions (4 to 20%) but did not germinate
and others 1991). Subfreezing temperatures of –23 to –18 at 5 or 10 °C (Burton and Bazzaz 1991). Seedling emer-
°C are recommended for storage of dry mulberry seeds gence was calculated as 75% of the final emerging seedlings
(Engstrom 1969). Numbers of seeds per weight are listed in divided by the number of days required to achieve 75%
table 4. emergence (Burton and Bazzaz 1991).
Pregermination treatments. Germination of untreat- Nursery practice. In fall or spring, properly pretreat-
ed seeds in the laboratory may vary greatly because part of ed mulberry seeds mixed with sand may be broadcast or
each collection may consist of seeds with dormant embryos sown in drills. Rows can be drilled 20 to 30 cm (8 to 12 in)
and impermeable seedcoats (Read and Barnes 1974). apart, with 164 seeds/m (50/ft) of row, and barely covered
Engstrom (1969) found that some seeds that had no pretreat- with soil. In Oklahoma, white mulberry is sown with 65 to
ment—but were extracted from fruits that were fermented 82 viable seeds/m (20 to 25/ft) in a 7.5- to 10-cm (3- to 4-
before the seeds were extracted—did germinate completely in) band to produce 33 usable seedlings/m (10/ft) (Engstrom
under light at low night and high day temperatures. Fresh 1969). One Nebraska nursery uses a seedling density of 197
seeds sown in the fall are usually not pretreated (Lamson to 262/m of drill (60 to 80/ft) (Korves 1969). Freshly har-
1990). For spring-sowing, stratification in moist sand at 0.6 vested and processed white mulberry seeds have been suc-
to 5 °C for 30 to 120 days has improved germination cessfully hand-sown in July at 312 seeds/m2 (29 seeds/ft2),
(Afanasiev 1942; Core 1974; Lamson 1990; Read and lightly raked, rolled, and then covered with straw mulch:
Barnes 1974; Taylor 1941). germination occurred 2 weeks later (Peaslee 2002).
Germination tests. The International Seed Testing Beds should be mulched with straw, leaves, or burlap
Association (ISTA 1999) recommends testing mulberry and kept moist until germination begins. Beds should be
seeds on top of moist blotters for 28 days at diurnally alter- half-shaded for a few weeks after germination, which usual-
nating temperatures of 30 °C (day) for 8 hours and 20 °C ly begins 1 to 2 weeks after spring-sowing (Dirr and Heuser
(night) for 16 hours. No pretreatment is stipulated in the 1987). Twelve to 50% of the seeds of white mulberry should
rules. Germination is epigeal. Red mulberry requires light to produce usable seedlings. One-year-old seedling stock is
germinate under laboratory conditions (Dirr and Heuser used for field planting; seedlings should be dug about 25 cm
1987). Germination values of red mulberry seedlots obtained (10 in) deep with a very sharp blade—main roots are rather
from official laboratory tests vary greatly. The germination stout and tough (Engstrom 1969).
after 30 days of cold moist stratification was 88% with 95% Bacterial canker can be serious threat to white mulberry
full seeds; germination after 60 days of cold moist stratifica- seedlings in the southern Great Plains; however, treatment of
tion was 1 to 66% and after 90 days it was 3 to 68% (USDA soil with formaldehyde solution before seeding has provided
FS 2002).
Morus • 731
M Table 4—Morus, mulberry: seed yield data
Seeds (x1,000)/weight
Range Average
Species /kg /lb /kg /lb Samples
Sources: Engstrom and Stoeckler (1941), Read and Barnes (1974), Swingle (1939).
adequate control. Mulberry seedbeds should not be located Mulberries are easy to root from summer softwoods;
near older mulberry trees (Davis and others 1942). June and July are optimum months (Dirr and Heuser 1987).
Damping-off may occasionally be a problem, but losses are When mid-July cuttings were treated with 8,000 ppm IBA
usually minimal, probably due to nursery cultural methods in talc and stuck into sand, 100% rooted in 3 weeks (Dirr
presently used (Wright 1944). Fungal leaf-spot caused by and Heuser 1987).
Cercospora spp. and Mycosphaerella mori (Fuckel.) E.A.
Wolf, as well as bacterial leaf-spot caused by Pseudomonas
mori (Boy. & Lamb.) Stev. may cause damage.
References
Dr. Griffin is assistant Professor at Kansas State University’s Department of Horticulture, Forestry, and
Recreation Resources, Manhattan, Kansas; Dr. Blazich is alumni distinguished graduate professor of plant propa-
gation and tissue culture at North Carolina State University’s Department of Horticultural Science,
Raleigh, North Carolina
Synonyms and common names. Considerable dis- Cerothamnus Tidestrom (Small 1933). Radford and others
agreement exists regarding taxonomy of the Myricaceae, (1968) also divide Myrica into 2 genera. However, in their
particularly the number and classification of genera within view, sweet gale is removed from Myrica and placed in the
the family. Inclusion of the genera Myrica and Comptonia genus Gale Adanson.
L’Hér. ex Aiton in the Myricaceae appears to be universal The newly standardized plant nomenclature of USDA
(Bornstein 1997; Kartesz 1994; Radford and others 1968; (the PLANTS database of the National Resources
Small 1933; Weakley 2000; Wilbur 1994). However, species Conservation Service), which is being followed in this pub-
within the genus Myrica and its division into 2 separate lication, places the former Myrica species into 2 genera—
genera are still being debated (Bornstein 1997; Weakley Myrica and Morella. Both genera are included in this chap-
2000; Wilbur 1994). If the Myricaceae are divided into 3 ter on Myrica because the Morella nomenclature is not
genera, sweet gale (M. gale L.) and Sierra sweet-bay (M. widely known (table 1). The reader should be aware that fur-
hartwegii S. Wats.) are the only species that remain in the ther division of Myrica is possible in the future and the
genus Myrica (Weakley 2000; Wilbur 1994). The other above cited references should be consulted for more infor-
species formerly in the genus Myrica are grouped under a mation.
third genus which, depending on the authority, is either Occurrence, growth habit, and uses. Bayberries—
Morella Lour. (Weakley 2000; Wilbur 1994) or both Myrica and Morella—include about 35 to 50 species of
Table 1—Morella and Myrica, bayberry and wax-myrtle: nomenclature and occurrence
Morella californica (Cham. & Schlecht.) California wax-myrtle, Pacific Coast from Washington to
Wilbur California bayberry, California
Myrica californica Cham. & Schlecht. Pacific bayberry
Morella cerifera (L.) Small southern wax-myrtle, New Jersey to S Florida,W to
Myrica cerifera L. southern bayberry Texas & N to Arkansas (swampy
Myrica pusilla Raf. waxberry, candleberry or sandy soils with low pH)
Cerothamnus ceriferus (L.) Small
C. pumilus (Michx.) Small
Morella pumila (Michx.) Small
Morella faya (Ait.) Wilbur candleberry-myrtle Canary Islands, Madeira, & Portugal
Myrica faya Ait.
Morella pensylvanica (Mirbel) Kartesz northern bayberry Alaska to Newfoundland, S to
Myrica pensylvanica bayberry, candleberry Pennsylvania,W to Wisconsin,Washington,
Cerothamnus pensylvanica (Mirbel) Moldenke & Oregon; isolated areas of Tennessee &
M. caroliniensis auct. non Mill. North Carolina (swampy soils)
Coastal plain from Newfoundland
& Nova Scotia S to North Carolina
Myrica gale L. sweet gale, bog-myrtle,
Gale palustris Chev. meadow-fern
Myrica palustris Lam.
Sources: Fordham (1983), Huxley (1992), Krochmal (1974), Krüssmann (1984), Schwintzer and Ostrofsky (1989), Walker (1990).
Figure 2—Morella cerifera, southern wax-myrtle: Pregermination treatments and germination tests.
longitudinal section of a drupe. All species of bayberry discussed herein require pregermina-
tion treatments for optimum germination. Those species
with wax-covered drupes require that the wax be removed.
This can be accomplished by abrasion with a screen or with
a warm water soak (Fordham 1983). Following wax
removal, stratification (moist-prechilling) for approximately
90 days at 5 °C is necessary to overcome dormancy.
However, stratification is ineffective if wax remains
(Fordham 1983). Fruits of sweet gale, which lack a wax
coating, will germinate in low percentages without stratifica-
tion. However, best germination occurs following 6 weeks
stratification at 5 °C (Schwintzer and Ostrofsky 1989).
Seeds of candleberry-myrtle also germinate without any
pregermination treatments. However, a fleshy mesocarp and
stony endocarp are inhibitory to germination. Removal of
Collection of fruits, seed extraction and cleaning.
the mesocarp and scarification of the endocarp will signifi-
Ripe drupes can be harvested by stripping branches by hand
cantly increase germination (Walker 1990).
or shaking them from the branches onto ground sheets. After
Fordham (1983) investigated seed germination of south-
harvest, they should be handled as seeds (Krochmal 1974).
ern wax-myrtle. Seeds were subjected to 4 treatments: no
Therefore, seed extraction and cleaning are often unneces-
stratification with no wax removal; stratification at 5 °C for
sary except as mentioned below.
90 days with no wax removal; no stratification with wax
Seed storage. Fordham (1983) suggested that drupes
removal; and stratification with wax removal. Germination
should be stored intact to avoid desiccation of their seeds;
for the first 3 treatments was very poor (6, 17, and 6%,
drupes of northern bayberry stored in this manner remained
respectively), whereas that for the fourth treatment was sig-
viable for 9 months at room temperature (Krochmal 1974).
nificant (data not available).
Most evidence, however, suggests that bayberry seeds are
Schwintzer and Ostrofsky (1989) conducted an exten-
orthodox and should be dried to low moisture contents and
sive study on seed germination of sweet gale. Among factors
stored at low temperatures. Dirr and Heuser (1987) recom-
investigated were the effects of stratification, light, and gib-
mend that wax be removed before long-term (10 to 15
berellic acid (GA) treatment. Some germination (38%) was
years) dry storage at 1 to 3 °C. Seeds of sweet gale air-
noted with no stratification or GA treatment. However, strat-
dried at room temperature for 28 days following collection
ification for 3, 6, or 12 weeks at 5 °C significantly increased
and stored dry at 5 °C remained viable for 6 years
germination with the highest (66%) occurring following 6
(Schwintzer and Ostrofsky 1989). Optimum moisture con-
weeks of stratification. Without stratification, GA treatment
tents for storage of bayberry seeds are not known, but simi-
at 500 ppm (0.05%) stimulated germination (48%).
lar seeds of other orthodox species store well at 6 to 10%
moisture.
Bir RE. 1992. Growing and propagating showy native woody plants. Chapel Krochmal A. 1974. Myrica, bayberry. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds
Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 192 p. of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington,
Blazich FA, Bonaminio VP. 1984. Propagation of southern waxmyrtle by DC: USDA Forest Service: 548–550.
stem cuttings. Journal of Environmental Horticulture 2(2): 45–48. Krüssmann G. 1984. Manual of cultivated broad-leaved trees and shrubs.
Bornstein AJ. 1997. Myricaceae. In: Flora of North America Editorial Volume 1. Portland, OR:Timber Press. 624 p.
Committee, eds. Flora of North America north of Mexico.Volume 3, LHBH [Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium]. 1976. Hortus third: a concise dic-
Magnoliophyta: Magnoliidae and Hamamelidae. New York: Oxford tionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. 3rd ed.
University Press: 429–434. New York: Macmillan. 1290 p.
Brackin RL. 1991. Wax myrtle named Lane. United States Plant Patent Radford AE, Ahles HE, Bell CR. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the
7555. Carolinas. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 1183 p.
Dirr MA, Heuser Jr. CW. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- Schwintzer CR, Ostrofsky A. 1989. Factors affecting germination of Myrica
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. gale seeds. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 19(9): 1105–1109.
Elias TS. 1971. The genera of Myricaceae in the southeastern United States. Small JK. 1933. Manual of the southeastern flora. Chapel Hill: University of
Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 52(2): 305–318. North Carolina Press. 1554 p.
Everett TH. 1981. The New York Botanical Garden illustrated encyclopedia Walker LR. 1990. Germination of an invading tree species (Myrica faya) in
of horticulture.Volume 7. New York: Garland Publishing: 2131–2492. Hawaii. Biotropica 22(2): 140–145.
Fordham AJ. 1983. Of birds and bayberries: seed dispersal and propagation Weakley AS. 2000. Flora of the Carolinas and Virginia: working draft of 15
of three Myrica species. Arnoldia 43(4): 20–23. May 2000. Chapel Hill, NC: Nature Conservancy, Southeast Regional
Hamilton DF, Carpenter PL. 1977. Seed germination of Myrica pensylvan- Office, Southern Conservation Science Department [available in draft
icum L. HortScience 12(6): 565–566. from the author].
Huxley A, ed. 1992. The new Royal Horticultural Society dictionary of Wilbur RL. 1994. The Myricaceae of the United States and Canada: genera,
gardening.Volume 3. New York: Stockton Press. 790 p. subgenera, and series. SIDA 16(1): 93–107.
Kartesz JT. 1994. A synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the Young JA,Young CG. 1992. Seeds of woody plants in North America.
United States, Canada, and Greenland. 2nd ed.Volume 1. Portland, OR: Portland, OR:Timber Press. 407 p.
Timber Press. 622 p.
Dr. Nord (deceased) retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Southwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station; Dr. Leiser is professor emeritus at the University of California’s
Department of Horticulture Davis, California
Other common names. Lobb fiddleleaf. Flowering and fruiting. The numerous small purple
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. There are 2 flowers are borne in reduced terminal cymes or in axillary
perennial species in this genus, both low-growing, suffruti- angles along slightly erect stems; they appear from May to
cose plants native to California, Nevada, and Utah. Only the September. The fruit is a capsule containing 10 to 12 oval,
sub-shrub woolly nama—Nama lobbii Gray—has potential angular, very dark brown seeds up to 1.5 mm long (figures 1
for revegetation use, as it can provide a rather persistent, and 2). The capsules mature in late August, September, and
dense groundcover. The other species—Rothrock fiddleleaf, October. In a test of a cleaned seedlot, seeds measured 1 to
N. rothrockii Gray—furnishes only a sparse cover that dies 1.3 mm in diameter; 85% of the seeds in the lot were filled
back to the roots each year. and there were about 2,000 seeds/g (56,875/oz).
Woolly nama is native to the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Collection, extraction, and storage. Mature seeds
ranges in east central and northern California, and western may be hand-stripped or flailed directly into containers, or
Nevada at elevations of 1,220 to 2,100 m within ponderosa seed heads together with some foliage may be harvested
(Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws.) or Jeffrey (P. jeffreyi mechanically during late September and thereafter until
Grev. & Balf.) pine and California red fir (Abies magnifica snow covers the ground. One means is to use a rotary lawn-
A. Murr.) forests. It occurs in sunny, exposed locations with mower equipped with a collection bag and set at maximum
slightly to moderately acid soils derived mostly from vol- height that clips and gathers the material, which is later
canic mud flows and decomposed granites. Plants 15 to 60 dried and threshed. The seeds may be extracted by threshers
cm tall are generally sparse and widely scattered (McDonald or hammermills, and cleaned with aspirators or air-screen
and Oliver 1984). However, where the tree or associated cleaners. A collection made in the Tahoe basin, using this
shrub overstory is removed, such as by logging or other type of equipment, yielded over 1.8 kg (4 lb) of clean seeds
mechanical means, woolly nama spreads rapidly to form from about 59 kg (130 lb) of dry clippings (Nord and Leiser
dense crowns up to 1.5 m in diameter on individual plants 1974). Only half of the total number of seeds was released
(McDonald and Fiddler 1995). Fast-growing roots that from capsules during clipping and drying, and the remaining
extend up to 5 m or more in a single year contain a profu- seeds had to be extracted and separated by a hammermill
sion of adventitious buds that sprout to form new plants. and South Dakota Seed Blower. No precise data are avail-
Woolly nama has many characteristics that make it able on longevity of woolly nama seeds, but they are pre-
desirable for revegetation on adapted sites. The low growth sumed to be orthodox in storage behavior and should remain
habit helps reduce fire hazards in brush-cleared areas, and
its abundant, aggressive sprouting habit together with dense Figure 1—Nama lobbii, woolly nama: seed.
foliage provides good groundcover. It is known to offer
strong competition and thus reduce growth of young
conifers within plantations (McDonald and Oliver 1984).
Although it is not regarded as a serious weed pest in areas
where it occurs naturally, care should be exercised to pre-
vent introduction and possible spread of this plant into culti-
vated croplands, mainly because of its aggressive rooting
habits, which enable the plant to withstand cultivation.
References
McDonald PM, Fiddler GO. 1995. Development of a mixed shrub–pon- Nord EC, Goodin JR. 1970. Rooting cuttings of shrub species for plantings
derosa pine community in a natural and treated condition. Res. Pap. in California wildlands. Res. Note PSW-213. Berkeley, CA: USDA Forest
PSW-224-web. Albany, CA: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 4 p.
Research Station. 19 p. Nord EC, Leiser AT. 1974. Nama lobbii Gray, woolly nama. In: Schopmeyer
McDonald PM, Oliver WW. 1984. Woody shrubs retard growth of pon- CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric.
derosa pine seedlings and saplings. In: Proceedings, 5th Annual Forest Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 551–552.
Vegetation Management Conference; 1983 November 2–3; Redding, CA.
Redding, CA: Forest Vegetation Management Conference: 65–89.
Nama • 739
N Berberidaceae—Barberry family
Other common names. heavenly-bamboo, sacred- Geographic races and hybrids. Nandina has been in
bamboo, nanten. cultivation for centuries. China and Japan are considered as
Occurrence, growth habit, and uses. Nandina is a sources of dwarf selections. Cultivars with fern-like foliage,
monotypic genus indigenous from India to central China distorted branchlets, and white, yellow, or crimson fruits
(Huxley and others 1992; Krüssmann 1985; Ohwi 1984). It occur in the nursery trade (Dirr 1990).
was introduced into Japan from China before the sixteenth Flowering and fruiting. Nandina will flower and pro-
century (Coats 1992). The species is a broadleaf evergreen, duce fruit in heavy shade to full sun (Dirr 1990). Plants fail
upright, flat-topped shrub reaching a height of 1.5 to 2.4 m to set fruit if planted singly, so it is best to plant groupings
with a spread of 1.0 to 1.5 m that can spread by root suckers of several plants to ensure cross pollination (Gibson 1982).
into large colonies (Dirr 1990; Whitcomb 1996). Plants are Inflorescences are erect, terminal, 20- to 38-cm-long white
characterized by numerous, unbranched stems with horizon- panicles that appear from May to June. Individual flowers
tal branches. However, with age, they tend to become leggy are perfect, 6 to 13 mm across, and pinkish in bud, opening
and open, unless pruned properly (Flint 1997). The species to white with yellow anthers. The fruits are globular, bright
is hardy to USDA Zone 6 (Dirr 1990) and will remain ever- red berries that are 8 mm in diameter with 2 seeds; they
green in USDA Zones 7–8. It becomes deciduous when ripen in the fall and persist through the winter (Dirr 1990).
exposed to colder temperatures (Gibson 1982). Collection of fruits, seed extraction, and cleaning.
In Japan, nandina is called nanten,“sacred-bamboo,” as Fruits should be harvested when mature in the fall. Removal
fruiting twigs are sold in winter to decorate altars, both in of the fleshy pulp is recommended and is accomplished easi-
temples and private homes (Coats 1992; Krüssmann 1985; ly by maceration (Dirr and Heuser 1987; Gibson 1982).
Richards and Kaneko 1988). There, nandina is planted close After fruits are soaked in water for 24 hours and macerated,
to the entrances of homes because the plant is used to com- the seeds (figures 1 & 2) can be separated from the fleshy
fort family members who have bad dreams. The wood is pulp (Newman 1991).
aromatic and very close grained; it is considered by the Seed storage. Due to the presence of a rudimentary
Japanese to be flavorful and suitable for toothpicks (Coats embryo, seeds should be stored under slightly moist condi-
1992). The plant is reputed to have medicinal properties tions at 4 °C, then sown in late spring or summer to obtain
effective in treatment of various ailments (Ikuta 1994). uniform and rapid germination (Dehgan 1984; Hartmann and
Nandina is cultivated commonly in the United States others 1997). Seeds held in cold storage for 9 to 10 months
because of several desirable landscape attributes. The new, germinate as well as those sown immediately after seed
finely dissected leaves are bronze to red, becoming blue- extraction and do so without appreciable loss in viability
green with age, and turning a dull purple to bright red in (Afanasiev 1943; Dirr and Heuser 1987).
winter (Flint 1997). Flowers occur in large panicles held Pregermination treatments. Seeds exhibit delayed
above the foliage and are followed in the fall by showy, germination due to a rudimentary embryo and slow rate of
bright red berries produced in clusters that persist through- embryo development (Dirr and Heuser 1987). The rudimen-
out the winter. The stems give the appearance of bamboo tary embryo is formed after flowering in August and
(Flint 1997). Plants are adaptable to many different soils; September and during fruit enlargement in winter. However,
they tolerate sun, shade, and drought; and they are pest free further development is arrested during spring and summer
(Dirr 1990; Whitcomb 1996). months (Afanasiev 1943), although embryo maturation can
Nandina • 741
N References
Afanasiev M. 1943. Germinating Nandina domestica seeds. American Gwaltney T. 1983. Propagation of dwarf nandina cultivars. Combined
Nurseryman 78 (9): 7–8. Proceedings of the International Plant Propagators’ Society 33: 624–628.
Barr B. 1987. Propagation of dwarf nandina cultivars. Combined Hartmann HT, Kester DE, Davies Jr FT, Geneve RL. 1997. Plant propagation:
Proceedings of the International Plant Propagators’ Society 37: 507–508. principles and practices. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bean WJ. 1976. Trees and shrubs hardy in the British Isles. 8th ed.Volume 3. 770 p.
London: John Murray Co. p. 1. Huxley A, Griffiths M, Levy M. 1992. The new Royal Horticultural Society
Briggs BA, McCulloch SM. 1983. Progress in micropropagation of woody dictionary of gardening.Volume 3. London: Macmillan. 790 p.
plants in the United States and western Canada. Combined Proceedings Ikuta A. 1994. Nandina domestica (heavenly bamboo): in vitro culture and
of the International Plant Propagators’ Society 33: 239–248. the production of jatrorrhizine, berberine, and other alkaloids. In: Bajaj
Coats AM. 1992. Garden shrubs and their histories. New York: Simon and YPS, ed. Biotechnology in agriculture and forestry: Medicinal and aromat-
Schuster. 223 p. ic plants VI.Volume 26. Berlin: Springer-Verlag: 259–268.
Dehgan B. 1984. Germination of Nandina domestica seed as influenced by Krüssmann G. 1985. Manual of cultivated broad-leaved trees and shrubs.
GA3 and stratification. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Volume 2. Portland, OR:Timber Press. 624 p.
Society 97: 311–313. Newman SE. 1991. Germination of doubly dormant woody ornamental
Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, seeds. Combined Proceedings of the International Plant Propagators’
ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. 4th ed. Society 41: 359–364.
Champaign, IL: Stipes Publishing Co. 1007 p. Ohwi J. 1984. Flora of Japan. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- 1067 p.
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. Richards BW, Kaneko A. 1988. Japanese plants: know them and use them.
Flint HL. 1997. Landscape plants for eastern North America: exclusive of Tokyo: Shufunotomo Co.: 98–99.
Florida and the immediate Gulf Coast. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley and Smith RH. 1983. In vitro propagation of Nandina domestica. HortScience
Sons. 842 p. 18(3): 304–305.
Gibson G. 1982. The bamboo alternative. American Horticulturist 61(10): Whitcomb CE. 1996. Know it and grow it: 3. A guide to the identification
4, 7–10, 36. and use of landscape plants. Stillwater, OK: Lacebark Publications and
Research. 802 p.
Dr. Zasada retired from the USDA Forest Service’s North Central Research Station; Dr. Schopmeyer
(deceased) retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Research National Office
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Mountain-holly disperse the seeds (Gorchov 1990). The fruit is a scarlet,
is a deciduous, branchy shrub occasionally attaining small dull-red berrylike drupe, 0.6 to 2.5 cm in diameter, contain-
tree stature that occurs in swamps, bogs, and poor fens from ing 4 to 5 bony nutlets (Rehder 1940), although Gorchov
Newfoundland to Minnesota and south to Virginia and (1990) found a mean of 2.9 seeds/fruit. The latter are some-
Indiana. Heights at ages 5, 10, 20, 30, and 40 years for what crescent shaped and are bone colored, with 1 rib on the
plants in a shrub-dominated peatland in New York were 1.4, back (figure 1). Because the fruits are somewhat persistent,
2.0, 3.5, 4.0, and 4.5 m, respectively (LeBlanc and Leopold they may be collected as late as mid-October (Schopmeyer
1992). It is regarded as an obligate wetland species: 99% of 1974).
the plants grow in wetlands (Begin and others 1990; Curtis Extraction and cleaning of seeds. Seeds in small lots
1959; Reed 1988; Vitt and Slack 1975). It is typically found can be prepared by rubbing the fruits through a #10 soil
on acidic to mildly acidic soils in the shrub zone adjacent to screen (0.7mm) and then floating off the pulp and empty
bog mats (Cram 1988). seeds. There are about 1,600 berries in 0.45 kg (1 lb) of
Nemopanthus is a monospecific genus and is closely fruit. The number of cleaned seeds per weight (3 samples)
related to Ilex spp. Similarities between Ilex and ranged from 68,355/kg (31,000 to 66,000/lb), with an aver-
Nemopanthus in anatomical characteristics provide a basis age of 99,225/kg (45,000/lb). Seed purity in one sample was
for combining the 2 genera, but at this time it is maintained 96% and average soundness in 4 samples was 80%
as a separate genus (Baas 1984). Information from Bonner (Schopmeyer 1974).
(1974) for Ilex seeds is relevant to Nemopanthus. The Germination. Seeds are doubly dormant and require a
species was introduced into cultivation in 1802. period of after-ripening before the immature embryo will
Flowering, fruiting, and seed collection. This develop (figure 1) (Dirr and Heuser 1987). Consequently,
species is mainly dioecious, with some monecious individu- germination is very slow. In 3 tests, germination began sev-
als (Farrar 1995). Flowering occurs in early May to June; eral months after sowing and continued for about 2 years,
fruits ripen as early as July, continuing into August; animals when germination capacities of 14 to 66% were observed
Figure 1—Nemopanthus mucronatus, mountain-holly: longitudinal section through a nutlet showing small immature
embryo (left) and nutlet (right)
Nemopanthus • 743
References
N
(Adams 1927; Schopmeyer 1974). Cold stratification alone Adams J. 1927. The germination of the seeds of some plants with fleshy
fruits, American Journal of Botany 14: 415–425.
did not increase germination rate (Adams 1927; Nichols Baas P. 1984. Vegetative anatomy and the taxonomic status of Ilex collina
1934). Dirr and Heuser (1987) recommended 5 months of and Nemopanthus (Aquifoliaceae). Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 65:
243–250.
warm followed by 3 months of cold stratification. Bailey LH. 1937. The standard cyclopedia of horticulture. 3 vol. New York:
Macmillan. 3639 p.
Propagation by greenwood cuttings is feasible (Bailey 1937; Begin J, Belanger L, Pfalzgraf J, Pineau M. 1990. Qualite de production dans
Dirr and Heuser 1987). les erablieres rouges de la plaine Drummondville, Quebec. Forestry
Chronicle 66(4): 377–386.
Bonner FT. 1974. Ilex L., holly. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of
woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington DC:
USDA Forest Service: 450–453.
Curtis JT. 1959. The vegetation of Wisconsin: an ordination of plant
communities. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press: 655 p.
Cram H. 1988. A focus on peatlands and peat mosses. Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan Press. 306 p.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop-
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p.
Farrar JL. 1995. Trees in Canada. Markham, ON: Fitzhenry and White. 502
p.
Gorchov DL. 1990. Pattern adaptation and constraint in fruiting synchrony
within verterbrate dispersed woody plants. Oikos 58: 169–180.
LeBlanc CM, Leopold DJ. 1992. Demography and age structure of a central
New York shrub-carr 94 years after fire. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical
Club 119(1): 50–64.
Nichols GE. 1934. The influence of exposure to winter temperatures upon
the seed germination in various native American plants. Ecology 15:
364–373.
Reed PB JR. 1988. National list of plant species that occur in wetlands. Biol.
Rep. 88 (26.1), Northeast Region (region 1). Washington DC: USDI US
Fish and Wildlife Service, Northeast Region.
Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. 2nd ed. New York:
Macmillan. 996 p.
Schopmeyer CS. 1974. Nemopanthus mucronatus (L.) Trel., mountain holly.
In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United
States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington DC: USDA Forest Service: 553.
Vitt DH, Slack NG. 1975. An analysis of the vegetation of sphagnum-domi-
nated kettle-hole bogs in relation to environmental gradients. Canadian
Journal of Botany 53: 332–359.
Nyssa L.
tupelo
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Growth habit and use. The 4 deciduous, arboreal on different trees. Fruits of the tupelos are thin-fleshed,
species of tupelo—the genus Nyssa—native to North oblong drupes about 10 to 38 mm long (figure 1). Their col-
America (table 1) are valued for pulp, veneer, specialty ors range from red to blue-black when they ripen in the
wood products, wildlife food, and honey production. Water autumn (table 2). Each fruit contains a bony, ribbed, usually
tupelo, black tupelo, and swamp tupelo were cultivated in 1-seeded stone (figures 2 and 3). Seeds of water tupelo
North America before 1750 (Bonner 1974; Brown and range in color from white to dark brown or gray, and some
Kirkman 1990). are pinkish white. Seeds of all colors have germinated
Flowering and fruiting. The minute, greenish white equally well (Bonner 1974). Trees of Ogeechee tupelo will
flowers that appear in spring (table 2) may be either perfect bear fruit when they are about 5 years old (Kossuth and
or staminate and pistillate; flowers may be borne separately Scheer 1990), and 2-year-old stump sprouts of both swamp
Height at
Scientific name & synonym(s) Common name(s) Occurrence maturity (m)
Sources: DeBell and Hook (1969), Kossuth and Scheer (1990), Radford and others (1964), Vande Linde (1964).
Nyssa • 745
Figure 1—Nyssa, tupelo: fruits of N. aquatica, water tupe- Figure 3—Nyssa sylvatica, black tupelo: longitudinal sec-
N lo (upper left); N. sylvatica, black tupelo (upper right); tion through a seed.
N. ogeche, Ogeechee tupelo (bottom).
Table 4—Nyssa, tupelo: germination test conditions and results on stratified seeds
Daily Germination test conditions Germination rate Germination %
light Temp (°C) Amt Avg Purity
Species (hr) Medium Day Night Days (%) Days (%) Samples (%)
Nyssa • 747
Shading with tobacco shade cloth can help keep beds moist
N Figure 4—Nyssa sylvatica, black tupelo: seedling develop-
ment at 1, 4, and 39 days after germination. and aid the newly emerged seedlings (Vande Linde 1964).
Germination is epigeal (figure 4). Desirable seedbed densi-
ties for water and black tupelos are 100 to 150 seedlings/m2
(9 to 14/ft2) (Williams and Hanks 1976. Vegetative propaga-
tion of tupelos is possible by softwood cuttings and grafting
(Dirr and Heuser 1987).
References
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds. Kossuth SV, Scheer RL. 1990. Nyssa ogeche Bartr. ex Marsh., Ogeechee tupe-
Journal of Seed Technology 16(3): 1–113. lo. In: Burns RM, Honkala BH, tech. coord. Silvics of North America.
Bonner FT. 1974. Nyssa L., tupelo. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of Volume 2, Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA
woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: Forest Service: 479–481.
USDA Forest Service: 554–557. Little EL Jr. 1978. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized).
Bonner FT, Kennedy HE Jr. 1973. Storage of water tupelo seeds.Tree Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p.
Planters’ Notes 24(4): 7–8. McGee CE, Outcalt KW. 1990. Nyssa sylvatica Marsh., black tupelo. N. syl-
Brown CL, Kirkman LK. 1990. Trees of Georgia and adjacent states. vatica Marsh. var. sylvatica; black tupelo (typical), N. sylvatica var. biflora
Portland, OR:Timber Press. 292 p. (Walt.) Sarg., swamp tupelo. In: Burns RM, Honkala BH, tech. coords.
DeBell DS, Hook DD. 1969. Seeding habits of swamp tupelo. Res. Pap. SE- Volume 2, Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA
47. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Forest Service: 482–489.
Station. 8 p. Priester DS. 1979. Stump sprouts of swamp and water tupelo produce
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant seeds. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 3: 149–151.
propagation. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. Radford AE, Ahles HE, Bell CR. 1964. Guide to the vascular flora of the
DuBarry AP Jr. 1963. Germination of bottomland tree seed while Carolinas. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Book Exchange.
immersed in water. Journal of Forestry 61: 225–226. 1183 p.
Earle FR, Jones Q. 1962. Analyses of seed samples from 113 plant families. Schneider RL, Sharitz RR. 1988. Hydrochory and regeneration in a bald
Economic Botany 16: 221–250. cypress–water tupelo swamp forest. Ecology 69: 1055–1063.
Heit CE. 1967. Propagation from seed: 8. Fall planting of fruit and hard- Vande Linde F. 1964. Nursery practices for southern oaks and gums.Tree
wood seeds. American Nurseryman 126 (4): 12–13, 85–90. Planters’ Notes 65: 24–26.
Johnson RL. 1990. Nyssa aquatica L., water tupelo. In: Burns RN, Honkala Williams RD, Hanks SH. 1976. Hardwood nurseryman’s guide. Agric.
BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 2, Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 473. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 78 p.
Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 474–478.
Oemleria cerasiformis
(Torr. & Gray ex Hook. & Arn.) Landon
osoberry
William I. Stein
Dr. Stein is a forest ecologist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Pacific
Northwest Research Station, Corvallis, Oregon
Other common names. Indian plum, squaw-plum, Ripening osoberry fruits are highly attractive to birds
Indian peach. such as cedar waxwings (Bombycilla cedrorum), and ripe
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. The genus fruits are readily eaten by both birds and mammals (Dayton
Oemleria contains a single species—osoberry, Oemleria 1931; Dimock and Stein 1974). The fruits were eaten in
cerasiformis (Torr. & Gray ex Hook. & Arn.) Landon. small quantities fresh, cooked, or dried by Native American
Osoberry was described originally as Nuttalia cerasiformis, peoples in the Pacific Northwest; twigs and bark were used
then identified for decades as Osmaronia cerasiformis (Hunt for several medicinal purposes (Gunther 1945; Mitchem
1970) until an earlier legitimate name was rediscovered 1993; Pojar and Mackinnon 1994). Flavor of the fruits
about 30 years ago (Landon 1975). apparently varies by locality, from sweet to bitter (Dayton
Osoberry is a deciduous, generally multiple-stemmed 1931). Its attractiveness as an ornamental includes flushing
shrub that is 1.5 to 5 m or taller and sometimes develops of light green leaves and white flowers much earlier than
into a small tree (Abrams 1944; Hitchcock and others 1961). other plant associates, handsome variegated appearance as
A plant may have 10 or more stems and can produce new scattered leaves throughout the crown turn yellow in early
stems throughout its lifetime. Individual stems 7 m tall and summer, and colorful clusters of fruit (figure 1) that soon
50 years of age have been observed (Allen and Antos 1993). disperse or are eaten by wildlife.
Osoberry’s native range is from the Pacific Coast eastward
into the Cascade Mountains and the Sierra Nevada from Figure 1—Oemleria cerasiformis, osoberry: ripe and near-
southwest British Columbia southward to California, extend- ripe fruits; their color changes from reddish to purple when
fully ripe.
ing to Tulare County in the Sierras and northern Santa
Barbara County in the coastal ranges (Hitchcock and others
1961; McMinn 1970). It is most widely distributed from the
Willamette Valley northward to Vancouver Island on stream
terraces, alluvial soils, and other moist to moderately dry
locations, especially in Oregon white oak (Quercus garry-
ana Dougl. ex Hook.) woodlands and open Douglas-fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) forests. Based on a
sampling of osoberry stands at 56 locations, Antos and Allen
(1990b) concluded that its geographical distribution is relat-
ed to (1) a fairly mild maritime climate, (2) moist areas over
much of its range, (3) an inability to tolerate low light levels
or wet soils, and (4) a need for disturbance to allow seedling
establishment. It is most common at elevations below 250 m
but occurs up to 1,700 m in the southern part of its range
(Antos and Allen 1990b; Munz and Keck 1959). Two vari-
eties were described in 1905—lancifolia in British
Columbia and nigra in Washington (Hitchcock and others
1961)—but their recognition is now uncertain.
Oemleria • 749
Flowering and Fruiting. Anatomical and natural pop- earlier than the August 1 to September 15 collection period
O
ulation studies have confirmed strongly that osoberry is listed for California by Mirov and Kraebel (1939).
dioecious, with male and female plants similar in size, Collection, extraction, and storage. Clusters of the
growth form, morphology of vegetative structures, and ripe 1-seeded drupes can be stripped readily from the shrubs
microhabitats occupied (Allen and Antos 1988, 1993, 1999; by hand. Fruits in small collections are de-pulped easily by
Antos and Allen 1990a; Sterling 1964). Flowering period in rubbing them against a submerged screen or by running
osoberry is relatively short and varies with latitude and ele- them through a macerator followed by repeated washings to
vation from January to May concurrent with leaf develop- float off the loosened pulp. Fruit biomass is about half pulp
ment (Allen 1986; Haskin 1967; Hitchcock and others 1961; and half seed (ovendry weight); the seeds have a much high-
McMinn 1970). Both male and female plants flower fre- er nitrogen concentration (Antos and Allen 1990a, 1994).
quently except in low light; male plants are generally more Osoberry seeds have a bony endocarp (Abrams 1944) and
abundant and may have up to 3 times as many flowers as
lack endosperm (figures 3 and 4). Air-drying is needed to
female plants (Allen 1986; Allen and Antos 1988, 1993).
minimize molding in cool dry storage.
Male plants start flowering earlier than female plants but
reach peak abundance and finish flowering later (Allen
1986). First flowering has occurred 2 years after germina-
Figure 3—Oemleria cerasiformis, osoberry: seeds have a
tion on male plants raised from seed (Allen and Antos bony endocarp.
1993). The 5-petaled flowers are white, fragrant, and borne
on drooping racemes (figure 2). Osoberry pollen is sculp-
tured and distinctive among Rosaceae pollens studied in
western Canada (Hebda and others 1991).
Pistillate flowers may yield up to 5 thin-fleshed, single-
seeded drupes per flower, but generally fewer than 60% of
pistils on a plant bear fruit; production from 10 to 20 of pis-
tils has been reported (Antos and Allen 1994, 1999). Higher
light levels favorably influence fruit set; exposure to light is
gained by early flowering before deciduous associates leaf
out (Allen and Antos 1988). Fruits develop and ripen in 10
to 12 weeks near Victoria, British Columbia (Antos and
Allen 1994). Developing fruits become peach colored, then
reddish, and finally deep blue-black under a whitish bloom
when ripe (figure 1). In the Pacific Northwest, dispersal by Figure 4—Oemleria cerasiformis, osoberry: longitudinal
section through a seed shows folded cotyledons
gravity, birds, and mammals may begin in May and be near-
ly finished in July (Dimock and Stein 1974), substantially
60 0 1 1
90 21 37 58
120 80 14 94
160 94 0 94
180 95 0 95
Oemleria • 751
O References
Abrams L. 1944. Illustrated flora of the Pacific States. Stanford, CA: Gunther E. 1945. Ethnobotany of western Washington. Seattle: University
Stanford University Press.Volume 2. 635 p. of Washington Press. 61 p.
Allen GA. 1986. Flowering pattern and fruit production in the dioecious Haskin LL. 1967. Wild flowers of the Pacific Coast. Portland, OR: Binfords
shrub Oemleria cerasiformis (Rosaceae). Canadian Journal of Botany 64: and Mort. 408 p.
1216–1220. Hebda RJ, Chinnappa CC, Smith BM. 1991. Pollen morphology of the
Allen GA, Antos JA. 1988. Relative reproductive effort in males and Rosaceae of western Canada: 4. Luetka, Oemleria, Physocarpus, Prunus.
females of the dioecious shrub Oemleria cerasiformis. Oecologia 76: Canadian Journal of Botany 69: 2583–2596.
111–118. Hitchcock CL, Cronquist A, Ownbey M,Thompson JW. 1961. Vascular
Allen GA, Antos JA. 1993. Sex ratio variation in the dioecious shrub plants of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Oemleria cerasiformis. American Naturalist 141: 537–553. Pt. 3, 614 p.
Allen GA, Antos JA. 1995. Personal communication.Victoria, BC: University Hunt DR. 1970. Osmaronia cerasiformis, Rosaceae. Curtis’s Botanical
of Victoria. Magazine NS 178(1):Tab. 582.
Antos JA, Allen GA. 1990a. A comparison of reproductive effort in the Landon JW. 1975. A new name for Osmaronia cerasiformis (Rosaceae).
dioecious shrub Oemleria cerasiformis using nitrogen, energy, and biomass Taxon 24: 200.
as currencies. American Midland Naturalist 124: 254–262. McMinn HE. 1970. An illustrated manual of California shrubs. Berkeley:
Antos JA, Allen GA. 1990b. Habitat relationships of the Pacific Coast shrub University of California Press. 663 p.
Oemleria cerasiformis (Rosaceae). Madroño 37: 249–260. Mitchem, CM. 1993. Short notes on Oemleria. Plantsman 14(4): 252–255.
Antos JA, Allen GA. 1994. Biomass allocation among reproductive struc- Mirov NT, Kraebel CJ. 1939. Collecting and handling seeds of wild plants.
tures in the dioecious shrub Oemleria cerasiformis—a functional For. Pub. 5. Washington, DC: USDA Civilian Conservation Corps. 42 p.
interpretation. Journal of Ecology 82: 21–29. Munz PA, Keck DD. 1959. A California flora. Berkeley: University of
Antos JA, Allen GA. 1999. Patterns of reproductiive effort in male and California Press. 1681 p.
female shrubs of Oemleria cerasiformis: a six-year study. Journal of Pojar J, Mackinnon A, eds. 1994. Plants of the Pacific Northwest Coast.
Ecology 87: 77–84. Redmond, WA: Lone Pine Publishing. 527 p.
Dayton WA. 1931. Important western browse plants. Misc. Pub. 101. Sterling C. 1964. Comparative morphology of the carpel in the Rosaceae:
Washington, DC: USDA. 214 p. 2. Prunoideae: Maddenia, Pygeum, Osmaronia. American Journal of Botany
Dimock EJ II, Stein WI. 1974. Osmaronia (Torr. & Gray) Greene, osoberry. 51: 354–360.
In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United
States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
561–563.
Olea europaea L.
olive
George C. Martin
Dr. Martin is professor of pomology emeritus at the University of California, Davis, California
Growth habit. Olive is a member of the Oleaceae, later than expected. When each leaf axil maintains a devel-
the family that contains the genera Fraxinus (ash), Forsythia oping inflorescence, there are hundreds of flowers per twig.
(golden bell), Forestiera (F. neomexicana, the California Each inflorescence contains between 15 and 30 flowers,
“wild-olive”), Ligustrum (privet), and Syringa (lilac) as well depending on developmental processes for that year and the
as Olea (olive). Commercial olives belong to the species cultivar.
Olea europaea L. There are about 20 species of Olea found The flowers are borne on the inflorescence and are
in tropical and subtropical regions of the world, but only small, yellow-white, and inconspicuous. Each contains a
O. europaea L. produces edible fruit. short, 4-segmented calyx and a short-tubed corolla contain-
Olive is a long-lived evergreen tree; some specimens ing 4 lobes. The 2 stamens are opposite on either side of the
have been reported to live for 1,000 years. The wood resists 2-loculed ovary that bears a short style and capitate stigma.
decay, and when the top of the tree is killed by mechanical Two types of flowers are present each season: perfect flow-
damage or environmental extremes, new growth arises from ers, containing stamen and pistil, and staminate flowers,
the root system. Whether propagated by seed or cuttings, containing aborted pistils and functional stamens. The pro-
the root system generally is shallow, spreading to 0.9 or portion of perfect and staminate flowers varies with inflores-
1.2 m even in deep soils. The above-ground portion of the cence, cultivar, and year. Large commercial crops occur
olive tree is recognizable by the dense assembly of limbs, when 1 or 2 perfect flowers are present among the 15 to 30
the short internodes, and the compact nature of the foliage. flowers per inflorescence. As a rule, more staminate flowers
Light does not readily penetrate to the interior of an olive than pistillate flowers are present.
tree unless the tree is well managed and pruned to open The perfect flower is evidenced by its large pistil, which
light channels toward the trunk. If unpruned, olives develop nearly fills the space within the floral tube. The pistil is
multiple branches with cascading limbs. The branches are green when immature and deep green when open at full
able to carry large populations of fruit on terminal twigs, bloom. Staminate flower pistils are tiny, barely rising above
which are pendulous and flexible—swaying with the slight- the floral tube base. The style is small and brown, greenish
est breeze. white, or white, and the stigma is large and plumose as it is
Olive leaves are thick, leathery, and oppositely in a functioning pistil.
arranged. Each leaf grows over a 2-year period. Leaves have The olive fruit is a drupe, botanically similar to almond,
stomata on their lower surfaces only. Stomata are nestled in apricot, cherry, nectarine, peach, and plum fruits. The olive
peltate trichomes that restrict water loss and make the olive fruit consists of carpel, and the wall of the ovary has both
relatively resistant to drought. Some multicellular hairs are fleshy and dry portions. The skin (exocarp) is free of hairs
present on leaf surfaces. Olive leaves usually abscise in the and contains stomata. The flesh (mesocarp) is the tissue
spring when they are 2 or 3 years old; however, as with eaten, and the pit (endocarp) encloses the seed. Fruit shape
other evergreens, leaves older than 3 years are often present. and size and pit size and surface morphology vary greatly
Flower bud inflorescences are borne in the axil of each among cultivars.
leaf. Usually the bud is formed on the current season’s The mature seed (figure 1) is covered with a thin coat
growth and begins visible growth the next season. Buds that covers the starch-filled endosperm (figure 2). The latter
may remain dormant for more than a year and then begin surrounds the tapering, flat leaflike cotyledons, short radicle
growth, forming viable inflorescences with flowers a season
Olea • 753
Figure 1—Olea europaea, olive: stone. ticated form O. europaea L. These wild types are known to
O
have existed in the region of Syria about 6,000 years ago
(Zohary and Spiegal-Roy 1975). From the eastern
Mediterranean, olive trees were spread west throughout the
Mediterranean area and into Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal,
and France. In 1560, the Spanish Conquistadors carried
olive cuttings and seeds to Peru. From there or independent-
ly, olive was found in Mexico at Jesuit missions. The
Franciscan padres carried olive and other fruits from San
Blas, Mexico, into California. Sent by Jose de Galvez,
Father Junipero Serra established Mission San Diego de
Acala in 1769. Though oil production began there in the
next decade, the first mention of oil was written in the
records of Mission San Diego de Alcala in 1803 as
described by Father Lasuen.
Figure 2—Olea europaea, olive: longitudinal section Use. By the late 1800s, olive oil production in
through a stone.
California was sufficient to supply markets outside of
California. By the 1900s, California olive oil production had
met the competition from imported olive oil and American
vegetable oil and, in an effort to survive, the canning olive
industry was born. During the 20th century, the California
canning olive occupied a strong market position in America,
with olive oil as a salvage industry. Currently, a renewed
emphasis in health benefits of monosaturated olive oil has
lead to a resurgence of olive oil production in California.
The olive tree has been used widely for shade around
homes and as a street tree in cities. Its distribution is only
limited by cold weather in the winter, as temperatures below
–9.4 °C are lethal (Denney and others 1993).
Varieties. Several hundred varieties of olive are
known and can be found at the World’s Olive Variety
Collection in Cordoba, Spain (del Rio and Caballero 1994).
A smaller collection exits at the United States Germplasm
Repository at Winters, California. Varieties differ by features
of the tree shape, leaves, and fruit. Canning varieties possess
(root), and plumule (stem). Seed size and absolute shape larger fruit than do oil varieties. Any of the varieties are use-
vary greatly with cultivar. ful for landscape purposes. The varieties grown in California
The seed undergoes most of its development starting in for canning are ‘Manzanillo’, ‘Mission’, ‘Sevillano’,
July and ending in about September. The fruit is horticultur- ‘Ascolano’, and ‘Barouni’.
ally mature in September or October (ready for the Flowering and fruiting. Floral initiation occurs by
California black-ripe or green-ripe process), and physiologi- November (Pinney and Polito 1990), after which, flower
cally mature in January or February. The seed is horticultur- parts form in March. Unlike deciduous fruits with a short
ally mature by October, and if harvested and stratified at that induction-to-initiation cycle, induction in olive may occur as
time it will achieve maximum germination (Lagarda and early as July (about 6 weeks after full bloom), but initiation
others 1983a). When the fruit is physiologically mature by is not easily seen until 8 months later in February. Complex
January, seed germination is greatly reduced. microscopic and histochemical techniques reveal evidence
Occurrence. The origin of olive is lost in prewritten of floral initiation by November, but the process of develop-
history. The wild olives Olea chrysophylla Lam. and O. ing all the flower parts starts in March. Some olive cultivars,
europaea L. var. oleaster most probably yielded the domes-
Olea • 755
O Table 1—Olea europaea, olive: fruit and seed data
acid bath is followed by 1 to 2 hours of rinsing in water sand or vermiculite and then placed in the dark in a con-
(Crisosto and Sutter 1985). trolled environment. The temperature is kept at 15 °C for 30
The pits can be planted directly after the endocarp treat- days. Stratification is thought to reduce abscisic acid (which
ments. Pits should be planted at a depth about 2 to 3 times inhibits germination) within the embryo or seedcoat. After
their diameter. Seeds planted outdoors in December do not stratification, pits can be planted outdoors if the weather is
germinate until the following spring. Pits can also be planted suitable; severe weather can cause losses. Pits can be plant-
in pots or seedbeds in a greenhouse maintained at a 21 to ed in a greenhouse maintained at a 21 to 27 °C daytime tem-
24 °C daytime temperature. Germination takes up to 3 perature. Bottom heat is necessary. Germination should
months. It is critical that the seeds do not dry out after ger- occur within 1 month. Transplanting seedlings from the
mination begins. The number of fruits and seeds per weight greenhouse to the nursery should include steps to harden the
for 3 commercial size classes are listed in table 1. seedlings, such as partial shade provided by a lathhouse.
Germination is quicker and more uniform when treat- Adequate irrigation and fertilization are recommended to
ments to overcome internal dormancy are carried out in ensure continued rapid growth.
addition to scarification. The most successful of these treat- Nursery practice and seedling care. Virtually all
ments on a commercial scale is stratification. Pits are scari- olive trees are produced from rooted cuttings. Seed handling
fied as described above and then soaked in water at room difficulties, low germination percentage, and slow initial
temperature for 24 hours. The pits are mixed with moist seedling growth rate make seedling production impractical.
References
Crisosto C, Suffer EG. 1985. Improving ‘Manzanillo’ olive seed germination. Largarda A, Martin GC, Polito VS. 1983b. Anatomical and morphological
HortScience 20: 100–102. development of ‘Manzanillo’ olive seed in relation to germination. Journal
del Rio C, Caballero JM. 1994. Preliminary agronomical characterization of of the American Society of Horticultural Science 108: 741–743.
131 cultivars introduced in the Olive Germplasm Bank of Cordoba in Martin GC, Kuniyuki AH, Mehlschau JJ, Whisler J. 1986. Semi-automated pit
March 1987. Acta Horticulturae 356: 110–115. cracking machine for rapid seed removal. HortScience 21: 535–536.
Denney JO, Martin GC, Kammereck R, Ketchie DO, Connell JH, Krueger WH, Pinney J, Polito VS. 1990. Flower initiation in ‘Manzanillo’ olive. Acta
Osgood JW, Sibbeft GS, Nour GA. 1993. Freeze damage and coldhar- Horticulturae 286: 203–205.
diness in olive: findings from the 1990 freeze. California Agriculture 47: Zohary D, Spiegal-Roy P. 1975. Beginnings of fruit growing in the world.
1–12. Science 187: 319–327.
Lagarda A, Martin GC, Kester DE. 1983a. Influence of environment, seed
tissue and seed maturity on ‘Manzanillo’ olive seed germination.
HortScience 18: 868–869.
.
Mr. Becker retired from the USDA Agricultural Research Service’s Western Regional Research Center
Other common names. ironwood, desert ironwood, dark, used for carvings, and will not float, its density being
palo fierro, tesota. 1.22. The tree is threatened by introduced pasture grasses,
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. Olneya is a urbanization, and illegal harvesting for charcoal and artists’
long-lived, multi-trunked, broad-crowned, deciduous tree, 5 wood.
to 10 m high, that is commonly found at elevations below Flowering and fruiting. Flowering occurs from April
600 m in desert washes and valleys of the Sonora Desert in to June (Munz 1984; Shreve and Wiggins 1964). The pink-
California, Arizona, Baja California, Baja California Sur, ish to pale rose-purple flowers, 8 to 9 mm long, produce a
and Sonora (Munz 1974; Shreve and Wiggins 1964). It will legume (pod) that may contain 1 to 2, or sometimes 3 or 4
grow in areas receiving less water than is required to support or more seeds. The legume is light brown, rounded, and
mesquite (Prosopis spp.) (Felker 1981), has a frost tolerance hairy, and measures 4 to 6 cm in length (Munz 1984; Shreve
similar to that of citrus, and will nodulate and fix nitrogen and Wiggins 1964). The seeds are chestnut brown to black-
(Felker and Clark 1981). Olneya provides browse for cattle ish, shiny, ovoid, and 8 to 9 mm long (figure 1) (Irving and
and habitat for native animals; it serves as a nurse plant for Becker 1985).
cacti and other plants (Nabhan and Carr 1994; Suzan and Collection and storage of fruits. Legumes on the tree
others 1994). It was also a food source for early cultures of may be picked in June or July or fallen legumes and seeds
Native Americans (Felger and Moser 1985). The seeds con- may be hand-gathered. The legumes dehise easily (Felker
tain large amounts of canavanine, an arginine analog that is 1981). Many seeds are infested with insect larvae when col-
a potent growth inhibitor (Becker 1983). The wood is very lected, so the seeds should be stored cold or fumigated. Seed
Figure 1— Olneya tesota, olneya: longitudinal section through a seed (left) and exterior view (right).
Olneya • 757
counts on 2 samples were 4,400 and 4,850 seeds/kg (2,000 References
O
and 2,200/lb) (Krugman 1974), with a reported yield of 8 kg
(17.6 lbs) of seeds/tree (Felker 1981). Becker R. 1983. Nutritional evaluation and chemical composition of seeds
Germination and nursery practice. Fresh seeds ger- from desert ironwood Olneya tesota. International Tree Crops Journal 2
(3/4): 297–312.
minate readily when soaked for 12 to 24 hours in water; Emery D. 1964. Seed propagation of native California plants. Leaflet. Santa
Barbara Botanical Garden 1(10): 81–96.
stored seeds may require longer soaking. Mild scarification Everett PC. 1957. A summary of the culture of California plants at the
before soaking is often helpful (Emery 1964; Krugman Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden 1927–1950. Claremont, CA: Rancho
Santa Ana Botanical Garden. 223 p.
1974). Seeds can be broadcast sown in the spring and cov- Felger RS, Moser, MB. 1985. People of the desert and sea: ethnobotany of
the Seri Indians. University of Arizona Press. 435 p.
ered with 6 mm (1/2 in) of soil or sand. Small seedlots can Felker P. 1981. Uses of tree legumes in semiarid regions. Economic Botany
be germinated in planting flats or small containers and then 35(2): 174–186.
Felker P, Clark PR. 1981. Nodulation and nitrogen fixation (acetylene
transplanted. Seeds will rot easily, so extra care must be reduction) in desert ironwood (Olneya tesota). Oecologia 48(2):
292–293.
taken in watering (Everett 1957; Krugman 1974). Initial ger- Irving DW, Becker R. 1985. Seed structure and composition of potential
mination is prompt when soaked or watered, often occurring new crops. Food Microstructure 4(1): 43–53.
Krugman SL. 1974. Olneya tesota, tesota. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord.
within 18 to 24 hours of sowing (Everett 1957; Krugman Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450.
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 560.
1974). Seedlings appear within 6 days after sowing Munz PA. 1974. A flora of Southern California. Berkeley: University of
(Krugman 1974). California Press. 1086 p.
Nabhan GP, Carr JL, eds. 1994. Ironwood: an ecological and cultural key-
stone of the Sonoran Desert. Occ. Pap. 1. Washington DC: Conservation
International. 92 p.
Shreve F, Wiggins IL. 1964. Vegetation and flora of the Sonoran Desert.
Volume 1. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 840 p.
Suzan H, Nabhan GP, Patten DT. 1994. Nurse plant and floral biology of a
rare night-blooming cereus Peniocereus striatus (Brandegee) f. Buxbaum.
Conservation Biology 8(2): 461–470.
Dr. Leak is a silviculturist at the USDA Forest Service’s Northeastern Research Station, Durham,
New Hampshire; Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s
Southern Research Station, Mississippi State, Mississippi
Other common names. hophornbeam, American Figure 1—Ostrya virginiana, eastern hophornbeam:
hophornbeam, hornbeam, leverwood, ironwood. strobile
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. Three of the 8
species of the hophornbeam genus—Ostrya—are native to
the United States; of these, eastern hophornbeam is the most
common (Little 1979). It is a small deciduous tree that
attains a maximum height of about 18 m and occurs
throughout the eastern half of North America, ranging from
Nova Scotia and southeastern Manitoba in Canada south to
eastern Texas and northern Florida. It also occurs in the
mountains of Mexico, El Salvador, and Honduras (Little
1979). Small trees often occur in the understory on a wide
variety of sites ranging from deep, moist soils to dry and
gravelly or rocky slopes (Metzger 1990).
The heavy, hard, durable wood has been used for fence and Kirkman 1990; Sargent 1965). The fruits ripen from the
posts, tool handles, and other specialty items (Schopmeyer end of August in Michigan to October in the South. Nuts are
and Leak 1974). Eastern hophornbeam also provides food dispersed after ripening when the strobiles fall apart. The
and cover for many birds and some mammals. The seeds are buoyancy of the papery sacs aids dispersal by wind
a preferred food for sharp-tailed grouse (Pedioecetes (Metzger 1990). Trees do not produce seeds abundantly until
phasianellus) and wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), and they are about 25 years old (Schopmeyer and Leak 1974).
the buds and catkins are important winter foods for ruffed Seed production in the northern part of the range has aver-
grouse (Bonasa umbellus) (Metzger 1990). This tree is aged 124,000 seeds/ha (50,200/ac) (Metzger 1990).
sometimes planted as ornamental because of its attractive Collection, extraction, storage. The strobiles may be
foliage and fruit clusters (Brown and Kirkman 1990), but it hand-picked from the trees when they are a pale greenish
does not grow very rapidly. It was first cultivated in 1690 brown in color. At this stage, they are not yet dry enough to
(Rehder 1940). fall apart. When completely ripe, they are light gray to
greenish brown (Schopmeyer and Leak 1974). The fruits
Flowering and fruiting. The flowers are monoecious.
should be thoroughly dried before seeds are extracted by
Staminate catkins, 2.5 to 4 cm in length, develop on the
thrashing or rubbing the dried fruits over screens. Seeds can
branch tips in late summer and overwinter in a dormant
be separated from the chaff with air-screen cleaners or frac-
state. Pistillate catkins are small, inconspicuous, and 6 mm tionating aspirators or by fanning. One hectoliter of fruit
long; they appear with the leaves in the spring. Both flowers will yield about 2.5 kg of seed (1 bu yields 2 lb). The num-
mature and open in March and April in the South and May ber of seeds per weight (5 samples) ranged from 55,100 to
and June in the North (Brown and Kirkman 1990; Metzger 77,200/kg (25,000 to 35,000/lb), with an average of
1990). The fruit is a strobile, usually 2.5 to 7.5 cm long (fig- 66,100/kg (30,000/lb). Purities (percentages) in the high 90s
ure 1), consisting of involucres that each enclose a single nut are easily obtained with good cleaning. The proportion of
(figure 2) about 7 mm long and 4 mm in diameter (Brown sound seeds will vary widely, especially due to insect dam-
Ostrya • 759
Figure 2—Ostrya virginiana, eastern hophornbeam: longitudinal section through a seed (left) and intact seeds (right).
O
Figure 3—Ostrya virginiana, eastern hophornbeam: age, but 80% has been reported (Schopmeyer and Leak
seedling development at 2, 4, 23, and 27 days after 1974). There are no storage test data for eastern hophorn-
germination. beam, but the seeds have the ability to survive at least 1 year
in the soil and should have good storage potential.
Pregermination treatments and germination tests.
Seeds have a hard seedcoat and an internal dormancy that is
difficult to overcome. Warm incubation, followed by cold
stratification may be best. Three months of warm, followed
by 3 to 5 months of cold produced germination of 81 to
92% (Dirr and Heuser 1987). Germination is epigeal (figure
3). Tetrazolium staining can be used to estimate viability.
Official seed testing organizations do not include eastern
hophornbeam in their recommendations.
Nursery practice. Either fall- or spring-sowing is fea-
sible, but fall-sowing should take place soon after seeds are
collected. In Iowa, seeds collected when they were slightly
immature (August) and sown immediately germinated 100%
the following spring (Titus 1940). Seeds should be covered
with 6 mm (1/4 in) of firmed soil. Fall-sown beds should be
covered with burlap, straw, or other suitable mulch, and
uncovered when germination begins. Stratified seeds may be
sown in the spring as soon as the soil can be worked, and
the beds should be mulched or watered to keep them moist
until germination starts (Schopmeyer and Leak 1974).
References
Brown CL, Kirkman LK. 1990. Trees of Georgia and adjacent states. Rehder A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North
Portland, OR:Timber Press. 292 p. America. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan. 996 p.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- Sargent CS. 1965. Manual of the trees of North America (exclusive of
agation. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. Mexico). 2nd ed., corrected and reprinted. New York: Dover. 934 p.
Little EL Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). Schopmeyer CS, Leak WB. 1974. Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) K. Koch, eastern
Agric. Handbk. 451. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p. hophornbeam. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in
Metzger FT. 1990. Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) K. Koch, eastern hophornbeam. In: the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest
Burns RM, Honkala BH, tech. coord. Silvics of North America.Volume 2, Service: 564–565.
Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: Titus GR. 1940. So-called 2-year seeds germinated 1st year. American
490–496. Nurseryman 72(11): 22.
.
760 • Woody Plant Seed Manual
Ericaceae—Heath family O
Dr. Blazich is alumni distinguished graduate professor of plant propagation and and tissue culture at
North Carolina State University’s Department of Horticultural Science, Raleigh, North Carolina; Dr. Starrett is
associate professor at the University of Vermont’s Department of Plant and Soil Science, Burlington,Vermont
Oxydendrum • 761
Figure 1—Oxydendron arboreum, sourwood: seeds in longitudinal section (left) and external view (right).
O
Bailey LH. 1977. Manual of cultivated plants. New York: Macmillan. 1116 p. Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification,
Banko TJ, Stefani MA. 1989. In vitro propagation of Oxydendrum arboreum ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation and uses. 4th ed.
from mature trees. HortScience 24(4): 683–685. Champaign, IL: Stipes Publishing Co. 1007 p.
Barton SS, Bonaminio VP. 1985. Influence of light and temperature on Dirr MA, Heuser Jr CW. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop-
germination of sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum (L.) DC.). Journal of agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p.
Environmental Horticulture 3(3): 108–111. Duncan WH, Duncan MB. 1988. Trees of the southeastern United States.
Barton SS, Bonaminio VP. 1986. Influence of stratification and light on Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. 322 p.
germination of sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum (L.) DC.). Journal of Fordham AJ. 1960. Propagation of woody plants by seed. Arnoldia 20(6):
Environmental Horticulture 4(1): 8–11. 33–40.
Blazich FA. 1996. Unpublished data. Raleigh: North Carolina State Johnson H. 1978. Propagation of Oxydendrum arboreum (L.) DC. by seed.
University. Plant Propagator 24(2): 13.
Blazich FA, Warren SL,Thetford M. 1994. Growth response of sourwood as Olson Jr DF, Barnes RL. 1974. Oxydendrum, sourwood. In: Schopmeyer CS,
influenced by temperature, photoperiod, and media. Proceedings, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk.
Southern Nurserymen’s Association Research Conference, 39th Annual 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 566–567.
Report: 137. Radford AE, Ahles HE, Bell CR. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the
Bridwell FM. 1994. Landscape plants: their identification, culture and use. Carolinas. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 1183 p.
Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers. 560 p. Rehder A. 1986. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North
DeWolf Jr. GP. 1987. Taylor’s guide to trees. New York: Chanticleer Press. America. 2nd ed. Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press. 996 p.
479 p.
Oxydendrum • 763
P Fabaceae—Pea family
Dr. Parrotta is a research program leader at the USDA Forest Service’s Research and Development National
Office, Arlington,Virginia; Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s
Southern Research Station, Mississippi State, Mississippi
References
Desch HE. 1941. Manual of Malayan timbers,Volume 1. Kuala Lumpur: Little EL Jr, Wadsworth FH. 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the
Malayan Forestry Department. 328 p. Virgin Islands. Agric. Handbk. 249. Washington, DC: USDA Forest
Gerhards CC. 1966. Physical and mechanical properties of Molucca albizia Service. 548 p.
grown in Hawaii. Res. Pap. FPL-55. Madison, WI: USDA Forest Service, Parrotta JA. 1990. Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) Nielsen: batai, Moluccan sau.
Forest Products Laboratory. 9 p. Res. Note SO-ITF-SM-31. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern
Khullar P, Thapliyal RC, Beniwal BS,Vakshasya RK, Sharma A. 1992. Forest Forest Experiment Station. 5 p.
seed. Dehra Dun, India: Indian Council of Forestry Research & Education. Rock JF. 1920. The leguminous plants of Hawaii. Honolulu: Hawaii Sugar
409 p. Planters’ Association. 234 p.
Little EL Jr, Skolmen RG. 1989. Common forest trees of Hawaii (native and Wick HL, Walters GA. 1974. Albizia Durraz., albizia. In: Schopmeyer CS,
introduced). Agric. Handbk. 679. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk.
321 p. 450. Washington, DC: 203–205.
Paraserianthes • 765
P Fabaceae—Pea family
Parkinsonia L.
palo verde
Kristina F. Connor, Jane E. Rodgers, and Carol Miller
Dr. Connor is a research plant physiologist at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Auburn University, Alabama; Ms. Rodgers is now stationed at the Point Reyes National Seashore,
Point Reyes, California; Ms. Miller is a former propagationist at the Joshua Tree National Park,
Twentynine Palms, California
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. There are 3 The 3 species serve as shelter for animals and rodents
noteworthy species of Parkinsonia grown in the United (Dean and Milton 1991), and the leaves and legumes (pods)
States. Two of these—blue palo verde and yellow palo as browse for livestock, rodents, rabbits, other mammals,
verde—were formerly in the genus Cercidium but they are and many species of birds (Bainbridge and Virginia 1989;
now considered to be in Parkinsonia (table 1). Palo verde is Jaeger 1940; Little and Wadsworth 1964; Vines 1960). In
a thorny, green-barked shrub/small tree that can reach a the past, the legumes were a fairly important food for Native
height of 11 m (Vines 1960). The name is of Spanish- American inhabitants of the Sonoran Desert (Ebeling 1986;
Mexican origin and refers to the very noticeable green Felger and Moser 1985; Vines 1960). They were picked
(verde) color of the smooth trunk of this drought-resistant from July to August and dried; the beans were removed,
tree of the hot southern deserts (Jaegar 1940). The open- ground in mortars into flour, and used in mush or cakes
crowned trees have alternate, bipinnate leaves on slightly (Bean and Saubel 1972). The flowers of palo verde serve as
zig-zag green twigs (Little and Wadsworth 1964). The a primary source of forage for megachilid bees in India (Jain
species are widely distributed in tropical America and wide- and Kapil 1980; Sihag 1982), but the species is considered a
ly planted in the southwestern United States and the Old weed in Australia (Pearce 1984).
World tropics (Little 1979; Little and Wadsworth 1964). Flowering and fruiting. Palo verdes have fragrant
Palo verde was introduced into Puerto Rico from the south- 5-petaled, showy, yellow flowers that form in loose racemes
western United States and is now naturalized (Francis and 5 to 20 cm long (Little and Wadsworth 1964). Blossoms
Liogier 1991). Blue palo verde and yellow palo verde are 2 appear in late March to June and occasionally in August to
closely related species, commonly found on the edges of November after rains. In the past, these trees have been
washes, more occasionally in the washes, and scattered in referred to as fluvia de oro or “fountain of gold” by Spanish
the bajadas (Bainbridge and Virginia 1989). Both species Americans because of their incredible flower show after a
drop their leaves when drought-stressed and only the green, generous rainy season. The fruits are 5 to 10 cm long, point-
thorny branches remain. ed legumes that contain 1 to 8 oblong, glossy, yellow-brown
P. aculeata L. palo verde, Jerusalem-thorn, South to trans-Pecos Texas & S Arizona; widely
horsebean, retama, distributed in tropical America; Puerto Rico
palo de ray, palo rayo
P. florida (Benth. ex Gray) S.Wats blue palo verde SW US
Cercidium floridum Benth. ex Gray
P. microphylla Torr. yellow palo verde SW US
Cercidium mycrophyllum (Torr.)
Rose & I.M. Johnston
Sources: Bainbridge and Virginia (1989), Little (1979), Little and Wadsworth (1964).
Parkinsonia • 767
Figure 2—Parkinsonia aculeata, palo verde: longitudinal to the late planting date. Results of both trials showed that
P
section of a seed. seedlings in the 2-leaf stage are sensitive to both high winds
and freezing; the best time for direct seeding appears to be
in late January or early February. Subsequent trials suggest
that the use of remote-site irrigation systems—pitchers,
porous capsules, and wicks—can improve direct seeding
success.
References
Bainbridge DA,Virginia RA. 1989. Restoration in the Colorado Desert: Janzen DH. 1977. How southern cowpea weevil larvae (Bruchidae:
Species Notes. Unpublished manuscript prepared for the California Callosobruchus maculatus) die on nonhost seeds. Ecology 58(4): 921–927.
Department of Transportation. Johnson CD, Siemens DH. 1991. Expanded oviposition range by a seed
Bean LJ, Saubel KS. 1972. Temalpakh (from the earth): Cahuilla Indian beetle (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) in proximity to a normal host.
knowledge and usage of plants. Morongo Indian Reservation, CA: Malki Environmental Entomology 20(6): 1577–1582 [1992 Review of
Museum Press. 225 p. Agricultural Entomology 80: 3799].
Dean WRJ, Milton SJ. 1991. Patch disturbances in arid grassy dunes: ante- Little EL Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized).
lope, rodents and annual plants. Journal of Arid Environments 20(2): Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p.
231–237 [1992 Herbage Abstracts 62: 2115]. Little EL Jr., Wadsworth FH. 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the
Delorit RJ, Gunn CR. 1986. Seeds of continental United States legumes Virgin Islands. Agric. Handbk. 249. Washington DC: USDA Forest Service:
(Fabaceae). Park Falls, WI: F.A. Weber & Sons. 134 p. 180–181.
Ebeling W. 1986. Handbook of Indian foods and fibers of arid America. Pearce GA. 1984. Research on declared plants and other weeds. Journal of
Berkeley: University of California Press. 971 p. Agriculture of Western Australia 25(1): 34–36 [1985 Weed Abstracts
Everitt JH. 1983. Seed germination characteristics of two woody legumes 34: 608].
(retama and twisted acacia) from south Texas. Journal of Range Rodgers JE, Miller C. 1995. Unpublished data. Twentynine Palms, CA: USDI
Management 36(4): 411–414 [1984 Forestry Abstracts 45: 4409]. National Park Service, Joshua Tree National Park.
Felger RS, Moser MB. 1985. People of the desert and the sea.Tucson: Siemens DH, Johnson CD. 1995. Number of seeds per pod in three
University of Arizona Press. 435 p. species of perennial legumes: a compromise between ecological and
Francis JK, Liogier HA. 1991. Naturalized exotic tree species in Puerto Rico. physiological constraints? American Midland Naturalist 133: 197–205.
Gen.Tech. Rep. SO-82. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern Sihag RC. 1982. Effect of competition with Parkinsonia aculeata L. on polli-
Forest Experiment Station. 12 p. nation and seed production in Medicago sativa L. Indian Bee Journal
Francis JK, Rodríguez A. 1993. Seeds of Puerto Rican trees and shrubs: sec- 44(4): 89–90 [1986 Apicultural Abstracts 37: 1044].
ond installment. Res. Note SO-374. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
Southern Forest Experiment Station. 5 p. University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
Jaegar EC. 1940. Desert wildflowers. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Virginia RA. 1986. Soil development under legume tree canopies. Forest
Press. 322 p. Ecology and Management 16: 69–79.
Jain KL, Kapil RP. 1980. Foraging rhythm of megachilid bees in relation to Zodape ST. 1991. The improvement of germination of some forest species
the flowering of Medicago sativa L. and Parkinsonia aculeata L. Indian Bee by acid scarification. Indian Forester 117(1): 61–66 [1993 Seed Abstracts
Journal 42(2): 35–38 [Apicultural Abstracts 1973+]. 16: 2616].
Parthenocissus Planch.
creeper
John D. Gill, Franz L. Pogge, and Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Gill and Mr. Pogge retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Northeastern Forest Experiment Station;
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. About 10 small birds and mammals (Fisher and others 1935). The
species and many varieties of creepers are native to either creepers are also used for erosion control. Virginia creeper
eastern Asia or North America. Both of the species dis- was first cultivated in 1622 and Japanese creeper was first
cussed here (table 1) are adapted to climbing; Virginia imported about 1862 (Rehder 1949).
creeper may ascend to about 15 m above ground and Flowering and fruiting. The flowers are small and
Japanese creeper to about 18 m (Robinson 1960). In the greenish and are borne in rather inconspicuous, long-
1974 edition of this Manual, thicket creeper—P. inserta stemmed clusters. Flowers are usually perfect (bisexual), but
(Kerner) Fritsch—was treated as a separate species, but it is some vines have both perfect and unisexual flowers. The
now considered the same as Virginia creeper. Virginia and periods of flowering and fruiting are listed in table 2. Seed
Japanese creepers prefer soils that are moist but otherwise dispersal is largely effected by birds and mammals. Ripe
grow well in a wide variety of soil types. They are at least berries (figure 1) of both species are bluish black and usual-
moderately tolerant of shading but are most likely to occupy ly contain 1 to 4 seeds per fruit (Rehder 1949). Seeds have
places such as the edges of clearings, fence rows, old walls, small embryos (figures 2 and 3). Good seedcrops are borne
and other structures, and stream banks. Chief uses are as frequently.
ornamentals or for wildlife habitat. The creepers have attrac- Collection, extraction, and storage. After their color
tive bluish black fruits and handsome foliage that turns scar- has turned to bluish black, fruits can be hand-stripped from
let, crimson, or orange in the fall. They provide food for the vines. Leaves and other debris mixed with the fruits can
more than 39 species of wildlife as well as cover for many be removed by screening or blowing. Seeds can be extracted
P. quinquefolia (L.) Planch. Virginia creeper, Maine to Manitoba & Florida, to Texas
P. inserta (Kerner) Fritsch woodbine & Rocky Mtns, also California & Mexico
Pserda quinquefolia (L.) Greene
P. tricuspidata (Sieb. & Zucc.) Planch. Japanese creeper, Japan & Central China; escaped from
Ampelopsis tricuspidata Sieb. & Zucc. Boston ivy cultivation in Massachusetts & Ohio
Sources: Fernald (1950), Gill and Pogge (1974), Rehder (1949),Van Dersal (1938).
Parthenocissus • 769
Figure 1—Parthenocissus quinquefolia,Virginia creeper: by running the fruits, with water, through a macerator or a
P cluster of berries. hammermill and then floating off the pulp and empty seeds.
Seeds in small lots can be extracted with laboratory blenders
run at low speed. Extraction should be done carefully
because the seedcoats are often soft and easily injured. An
extraction method developed for the soft seeds of wild
grapes (Vitis spp.) may be satisfactory for creepers also. In
this method (Gill and Pogge 1974), the berries are placed in
bags made of 14-mesh soil screen and a solid stream of
water at a pressure of 2,800 kN (400 lb/in2) is directed onto
the berries. Most of the pulp and skins are washed through
the screen. The remaining fragments are floated off in a pail
of water, and the seeds are recovered from the bottom of the
pail. After cleaning, the seeds should be thoroughly dried
before storage. Soundness of cleaned seedlots has ranged
from 44 to 99% (Swingle 1939). If seed cleaning is not con-
Figure 2—Parthenocissus, creeper: seeds of P. quinquefolia, venient, whole berries can be dried and stored. Cleaned and
Virginia creeper (left) and P. tricuspidata, Japanese creeper dried seeds have been stored at room temperatures
(right). (Edminster 1947; Fisher and others 1935), but there are no
known studies of seed longevity. These seeds are almost cer-
tainly to be orthodox in storage behavior, however, so they
should keep well for several years at least if stored with low
seed moisture (<12%) and at low temperatures (1 to 5 °C).
Seeds of another species—Vitis riparia (Michx.)—in the
same family showed no germination loss after storage for
over 2 years in sealed containers at 5 °C (Gill and Pogge
1974).
Cleaned Virginia creeper seeds range from 21,600 to
57,800/kg (9,800 to 26,200/lb) and average 36,500/kg
Figure 3—Parthenocissus quinquefolia, Virginia creeper:
longitudinal section through a seed. (16,560/lb). No seed yield data on Japanese creeper are
available, but they are probably similar to those for Virginia
creeper.
Germination. Natural germination takes place during
the first or perhaps the second spring following dispersal
and is epigeal (Fisher and others 1935) (figure 4). The seeds
have an internal dormancy that can be overcome by moist
stratification for about 60 days at 5 °C (Gill and Pogge
1974). Outdoor stratification in winter, during which the
seeds become frozen, has also increased germination
(Adams 1927; Howard 1915). There are no official germina-
tion test prescriptions for creepers, but tests can be made in
sand flats at alternating temperatures of 20/30 °C. About 30
days is a sufficient test length for stratified seeds, but
untreated seeds may require >150 days (Gill and Pogge
1974). Results from a small number of tests suggest that
germination of stratified seeds should peak at about 15 days
and reach 70 to 80% by 30 days. For untreated seeds, germi-
References
Adams J.1927. The germination of the seeds of some plants with fleshy Heit CE. 1955. The excised embryo method for testing germination quality
fruits. American Journal of Botany 15 (8): 415–428. of dormant seed. Proceedings Association of Official Seed Analysts 1955:
Bailey LH. 1914. The standard cyclopedia of horticulture. 6 vol. New York: 108–117.
Macmillan. 3639 p. Howard WL. 1915. An experimental study of the rest period in plants:
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- seeds. Res. Bull. 17. Columbia: Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station.
agation: from seeds to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. 58 p.
Edminster FC. 1947. The ruffed grouse: its life story, ecology and manage- Rehder A. 1949. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. Rev. ed. New York:
ment. New York: Macmillan. 385 p. Macmillan. 1116 p.
Fernald ML. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. 8th ed. New York: American Robinson FB. 1960. Useful trees and shrubs: reference cards [a card file of
Book Co. 1632 p. data on hardy woody plants in common use as ornamentals].
Fisher PL, Briggs AH, Elkins WA, Roe EL. 1935. Propagation of game food Champaign, IL: Garrard Press. 427 cards.
and cover plants of the Lake States. St. Paul: USDA Forest Service, Lake Swingle CF, comp. 1939. Seed propagation of trees, shrubs, and forbs for
States Forest Experiment Station. 81 p. conservation planting. SCS-TP-27. Washington, DC: USDA Soil
Flemion F. 1948. Reliability of the excised embryo method as a rapid test Conservation Service. 187 p.
for determining the germinative capacity of dormant seeds. Van Dersal WR. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States: their ero-
Contributions of the Boyce Thompson Institute 15: 229–241. sion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Pub. 303. Washington, DC: USDA.
Gill JD, Pogge FL. 1974. Parthenocissus Planch., creeper. In: Schopmeyer CS, 362 p.
tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 568–571. University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
Parthenocissus • 771
P Scrophulariaceae—Figwort family
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi.
Other common names. paulownia, empress tree, Fruits per volume 8,800/hl 3,100/bu
princess tree. Seeds per fruit 2,033 —
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Royal paulown-
Seeds per volume of fruit 2.8 kg/hl 2.2 lb/bu
ia—Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) Sieb. & Zucc. ex
Seeds per weight 6,200/g 175,770/oz
Steud.—is a common sight along the sides of roads and rail-
road tracks, as well as near old house sites, in the Northeast Percent moisture
content (fresh weight) 7% —
and South. A native of eastern Asia, it has been widely
planted in North America from Montreal to Florida and west
Royal paulownia seeds are orthodox in storage behavior.
to Missouri and Texas, as well as in some western states
Carpenter and Smith (1979) reported that samples stored dry
(Bonner 1990). It was introduced for its ornamental value in
at 4 °C germinated 85% or more after 3 years but the rate of
the 19th century and has escaped from cultivation in many
germination declined somewhat. Long-term storage per-
localities. This deciduous tree reaches heights of 9 to 21 m
formance has not been studied and is therefore unknown.
at maturity. It has been planted extensively in the South for
Germination. Royal paulownia seeds exhibit little or
specialty wood products and for mine spoil reclamation in
no dormancy, but light is necessary for timely germination
surface mine areas (Tang and others 1980).
of fresh seeds (Borthwick and others 1964; Toda and
Flowering and fruiting. The showy, violet or blue,
Isikawa 1952). Moist stratification at 3 or 4 °C for up to 8
perfect flowers appear in terminal panicles up to 25 cm long
weeks effectively removes the light requirement (Barnhill
in April to May before the leaves emerge. The fruits are
and others 1982; Carpenter and Smith 1981). Fresh seedlots
ovoid, pointed, woody capsules about 3 to 4 cm long (figure
from the 1974 Arkansas collection mentioned above had a
1). They turn brown when mature in September and October
germinative capacity of 90% in 19 days (4 samples) when
and persist on the tree through the winter (Vines 1960). The
tested on moist Kimpak with alternating temperatures of
trees start bearing seeds at 8 to 10 years of age and are very
20 and 30 °C. Eight hours of light were supplied during the
prolific (Bonner 1990).
Collection, extraction, and storage of seed. The dry
Figure 1—Paulownia tomentosa, royal paulownia:
fruits can be collected and opened by hand anytime before capsule.
they disperse their seeds. They can also be collected when
still a little green but must be dried completely for seed
extraction. One proven extraction method is to place dried
capsules in burlap bags and then crush them. Seeds and cap-
sule fragments can then be separated by air (Carpenter and
Smith 1979). The tiny, winged, flat seeds are about 1.5 to 3
mm long (figures 2 and 3) and are easily disseminated by
wind when the capsules break open on the trees. Fruits col-
lected in southeast Arkansas yielded the following data that
appear to be typical for royal paulownia (Bonner and Burton
1974):
References
Barnhill MA, Cunningham M, Farmer RE. 1982. Germination characteristics Carpenter SB, Smith ND. 1981. Germination of paulownia seeds in the
of Paulownia tomentosa. Seed Science and Technology 10: 217–221. presence and absence of light.Tree Planters’ Notes 32(4): 27–29.
Beckjord PR. 1982. Containerized and nursery production of Paulownia Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop-
tomentosa. Tree Planters’ Notes 33(1): 29–33. agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p.
Bonner FT. 1990. Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) Sieb. & Zucc. ex Steud., Immel MJ,Tackett EM, Carpenter SB. 1980. Paulownia seedlings respond to
royal paulownia. In: Burns RM, Honkala BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North increased daylength.Tree Planters’ Notes 31(1): 3–5.
America.Volume 2, Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: Tang RC, Carpenter SB, Wittwer RF, Graves DH. 1980. Paulownia: a crop
USDA Forest Service: 501–502. tree for wood products and reclamation of surface-mined land. Southern
Bonner FT, Burton JD. 1974. Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) Sieb. & Zucc., Journal of Applied Forestry 4: 19–24.
royal paulownia. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants Toda R, Isikawa H. 1952. Effect of diffused light on the germination of
in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Paulownia seeds. Journal of the Japanese Forestry Society 34: 250.
Service: 572–573. Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
Borthwick HA,Toole EH,Toole VK. 1964. Phytochrome control of Paulownia University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
seed germination. Israel Journal of Botany 13: 122–133. Williams RD, Hanks SH. 1976. Hardwood nurseryman’s guide. Agric.
Carpenter SB, Smith ND. 1979. Germination of paulownia seeds after Handbk. 473. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 78 p.
stratification and dry storage.Tree Planters’ Notes 30(4): 4–6.
Paulownia • 773
P Scrophulariaceae—Figwort family
Penstemon Schmidel
penstemon, beardtongue
Susan E. Meyer
Dr. Meyer is a research ecologist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station,
Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus both geographically and ecologically. Many penstemons are
Penstemon comprises about 230 species of perennial herbs pioneer plants that occupy natural disturbances such as rock-
and subshrubs, most of which are found in western North slides, making them useful for erosion control along road-
America. Although most of the species are herbaceous, there sides and for mined land reclamation. They are used to some
are many more subshrubby species than are treated here. extent as browse by domestic and wild ungulates, and the
Several shrubby species from California that were formerly seeds are used by rodents, birds, and ants. But perhaps the
included in the genus Penstemon have been transferred to most important use for penstemons is in ornamental horti-
the closely related genus Keckiella Straw. In the previous culture. Many of the penstemons are among our most out-
edition of the Seed Manual, Hylton (1974) treated these standingly beautiful wildflowers, and the subshrubby species
species under the name Penstemon. are no exception (Nold 1999). They are easily grown in cul-
Subshrubby penstemon species occur in most vegetation tivation, and many species have found their way into garden
types of the western United States, from warm desert shrub- catalogues specializing in plants for low-maintenance land-
lands to alpine fell-fields (table 1). They are most often scapes. One named variety that is commercially available is
found on well-drained, rocky or sandy, infertile soils with shrubby penstemon ‘Purple Haze’. Some of the warm-desert
sunny exposure. Some species, such as Bridges penstemon, species are not hardy in cultivation in the North, although
are widely distributed and of wide ecological amplitude, some of these, for example, crevice penstemon, can be suc-
whereas others, such as crevice penstemon, are restricted cessfully grown in containers.
P. ambiguus Torr. moth penstemon, Sandy soil; desert shrubland, S Nevada to S Utah,
bush penstemon, pinyon–juniper Kansas, & Oklahoma
gilia beardtongue
P. fruticosus (Pursh) shrubby penstemon, Shallow soils; spruce–fir, N Rocky Mtns from
Greene bush penstemon lodgepole pine British Columbia to Idaho
P. leonardii Rydb. Leonard penstemon, Sagebrush–grassland SE Idaho to S Utah
Leonard’s beardtongue to aspen–conifer
P. linarioides Gray toadflax penstemon Sagebrush–grassland to Utah & Colorado to
ponderosa pine Arizona & New Mexico
P. petiolatus Brandeg. crevice penstemon, Limestone crevices; warm E Mojave Desert
petiole beardtongue desert shrubland
P. platyphyllus Rydb. sidehill penstemon, Mountain brush; aspen– Wasatch Mtns, N Utah
broadleaf beardtongue conifer
P. rostriflorus Kellogg Bridges penstemon Warm desert shrubland to Widespread in W US
P. bridgesii Gray alpine
P. sepalulus A. Nels. littlecup penstemon, Sagebrush–grasssland to Wasatch Mtns, N Utah
littlecup beardtongue aspen–conifer
Seeds/weight
Mean Range Mean %
Species /g /oz /g /oz viability Samples
Penstemon • 775
P Table 3—Penstemon, penstemon, beardtongue: germination data after 0 to 24 weeks of chilling*
Species 0 wk 4 wk 8 wk 12 wk 16 wk 24 wk Samples
P. ambiguus 35 21 19 10 16 31 3
P. fruticosus 6 19 14 19 40 83 4
P. leonardii 0 1 22 82 80 80 2
P. linarioides 0 0 1 6 12 10 2
P. petiolatus 100 — — 100 100 100 1
P. platyphyllus 1 55 66 99 97 100 7
P. rostriflorus 18 17 54 83 — 98 3
P. sepalulus 3 25 37 83 86 100 2
Sources: Kitchen and Meyer (1991), Meyer (2002), Meyer and others (1995).
* Germination percentage for seeds subjected to 0 to 24 weeks of chilling at 1 to 2 °C followed by 4 weeks of incubation at 10/20 °C.
The germination requirements of penstemon seeds gen- 15 or 10/20 °C in the light for 28 days. This second proce-
erally change very little in dry storage; dormancy status is dure is used to determine the size of the nondormant frac-
affected only by conditions during time spent in the imbibed tion.
state (Meyer and others 1995). For species and populations Tetrazolium staining is carried out by allowing the seeds
from middle elevations in the West, there is rarely a natural to imbibe water for 24 hours, piercing their seedcoats with a
dormancy-breaking treatment that will remove dormancy in needle, immersing them in 1% TZ for 12 hours at room tem-
all seeds of a lot. For those that respond positively to chill- perature, and then bisecting them longitudinally for evalua-
ing, this is manifest as a fraction that will not respond to tion. The embryo is a small, sausage-shaped body embedded
chilling of any duration. These seeds form a persistent seed- in the copious endosperm. Non-viable embryos usually do
bank under natural conditions, and it is not known how they not stain at all but remain a yellowish color. Even light pink
eventually become germinable. Treatment with gibberellic staining indicates a viable embryo, as evidenced by compar-
acid can remove seed dormancy or shorten the chilling isons with maximum germination percentages for numerous
requirement for many (but not all) species of penstemon seedlots (Kitchen and Meyer 1991). A simple cut test can be
(Kitchen and Meyer 1991). This method may or may not be used in place of TZ staining for recently harvested seeds, as
feasible in a production setting, depending on the degree to the presence of a firm, white, viable embryo is quite evident.
which gibberellic acid affects seedling quality. Penstemon Field planting and nursery practice. Most penste-
seeds germinate best at cool temperatures, and germination mon species can be established from direct seeding. Seeds
at temperatures higher than 20 °C may be completely sup- should be broadcast on a firm seedbed and lightly covered,
pressed, a fact to keep in mind when attempting to produce raked, or pressed in. Planting should take place in late fall or
plants from direct sowing in the greenhouse (Allen and early winter for most species, except in the summer rainfall
Meyer 1990). Light usually has little effect (Meyer and oth- areas of the Southwest, where seeds of nondormant species
ers 1995). should be sown just before summer rains. Nondormant
The quality of penstemon seeds may be evaluated using species may be spring-seeded in the North but may require
tetrazolium (TZ) staining, a germination test with chilling or supplemental water to establish. Penstemons are susceptible
gibberellic acid, or a combination of these. A general seed- to fusarium wilt diseases in cultivation and should not be
testing rule for the genus has been adopted by the Asso- fertilized or overwatered. They are more likely to survive in
ciation of Official Seed Analysts (Kitchen and others 1999). coarse, rapidly draining soils that have not previously been
This test calls for 2 separate procedures. In the first proce- used for agriculture. The young seedlings cannot survive
dure, seeds are placed on blotters saturated with 500 ppm heavy competition from weeds or aggressive perennial
gibberellic acid, chilled at 2 to 5 °C for 60 days, and incu- grasses.
bated at 15 or 10/20 °C for 14 days. Post-test viability of Penstemons may also be readily produced from seeds in
ungerminated seeds is then determined with TZ staining. container culture. They grow well in a coarse medium in
This procedure is used to determine total viability for the elongated containers such as those used to produce conifer
seedlot, and TZ staining on non-incubated seeds may be seedlings. Seeds of nondormant species may be direct-sown,
substituted. In the second procedure, seeds are incubated at whereas chilled seeds or germlings may be planted for those
References
Allen PS, Meyer SE. 1990. Temperature requirements for seed germination Meyer SE. 1992. Habitat-correlated variation in firecracker penstemon
of three Penstemon species. HortScience 25: 191–193. (Penstemon eatonii: Scrophulariaceae) seed germination response. Bulletin
Cronquist, A. Holmgren, AH, Holmgren NH, Reveal JL, Holmgren PK. 1984. of the Torrey Botanical Club 119: 268–279.
Intermountain flora.Volume 4, Subclass Asteridae (except Asteraceae). Meyer SE, Kitchen SG. 1994. Habitat-correlated variation in seed germina-
Bronx, NY: New York Botanical Garden. 573 p. tion response to chilling in Penstemon Section Glabri. American Midland
Hylton LO. 1974. Penstemon Mitch., penstemon. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. Naturalist 132: 349–365.
coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Meyer SE, Kitchen SG, Carlson SL. 1995. Seed germination timing patterns
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 574–575. in intermountain Penstemon (Scrophulariaceae). American Journal of
Kitchen SG, Meyer SE. 1991. Seed germination of intermountain penste- Botany 82: 377–389.
mons as influenced by stratification and GA3 treatments. Journal of Nold R. 1999. Penstemons. Portland, OR:Timber Press. 259 p.
Environmental Horticulture 9: 51–56. Stevens R, Jorgensen KR, Davis JN. 1981. Viability of thirty-two shrub and
Kitchen SG, Meyer SE, Stevens R, Wilson GR. 1999. Proposed rule: a gener- forb species through fifteen years of warehouse storage. Great Basin
alized rule for the genus Penstemon, beardtongues. Seed Technologist Naturalist 41: 274–277.
Newsletter 72(1): 52. Stevens R, Jorgensen KR,Young SA, Monsen SB. 1996. Forb and shrub seed
Meyer SE. 2002. Unpublished data. Provo, UT: USDA Forest Service, Rocky production guide for Utah. Logan: Utah State University Extension
Mountain Research Station. Service. 51 p.
Penstemon • 777
P Rosaceae—Rose family
Peraphyllum ramosissimum Nutt.
squaw-apple
Janene Auger and Justin G. Smith
Dr. Auger is assistant editor of Western North American Naturalist Monte L. Bean Museum, Brigham Young
University, Provo, Utah; Dr. Smith retired from the
USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station
Growth habit and occurrence. Squaw-apple— 1968; Smith 1974). On ranges grazed by cattle during late
Peraphyllum ramosissimum Nutt.— the sole member of its winter and very early spring, individual plants may be
genus, is an intricately and rigidly branched deciduous severely hedged (Smith 1974). Even though squaw-apple
shrub growing to 2 m tall from numerous, gray-barked basal grows slowly, Monsen and Davies (1985) suggest that it can
stems. Leaves are simple, linear-oblanceolate, entire or persist in native plant landscaping for arid environments.
minutely serrulate, and alternate but fascicled on secondary Flowering and fruiting. The regular, perfect flowers
growth at the ends of short lateral spurs. Squaw-apple with their pinkish, spreading, showy petals open in May and
occurs mainly in well-drained soils on dry foothill and June and appear singly or in clusters of 2 to 5. Data from
mountain slopes and is associated with several community Utah suggest that flowering intensity is greatest for individ-
types, including oak–sagebrush, mountain brush, ual plants larger than 1 m in both height and crown (Auger
pinyon–juniper, and the lower edges of ponderosa pine and others 1995). Squaw-apple is pollinated by a variety of
forests (Hitchcock 1961; Shaw and Monsen 2004; Welsh insects, and seed production does not appear to be pollen-
and others 1987). On a microhabitat scale, squaw-apple limited (Auger and others 1995). The fruits, which ripen
often grows in mixed-species clumps. The overall range dis- from late June to early August, are yellowish red, bitter-
tribution extends from Grant and Baker Counties in north- tasting pomes measuring 8 to 18 mm in diameter, each con-
central Oregon, south to northeastern California, and east taining 1 to 8 plump seeds (figure 1). Seeds consist of a
through Nevada, southern Idaho, Utah, western Colorado brown, leathery testa entirely filled with embryo (figure 2).
and northwestern New Mexico (Harrington 1954; Hitchcock At 1,070 m in northeastern Oregon, most of the fruits have
and others 1961; Welsh and others 1987). Dayton (1931) either dropped or been partially eaten by birds by mid-
reports an altitudinal distribution of 915 m in Oregon to August (Smith 1974). At 2,500 m in east-central Utah, initi-
2,740 m towards the southern range limit. ation of fruit removal precedes ripening, and again, most
Uses. Wildlife known to eat squaw-apple fruits and fruits usually have been consumed by mid-August (Auger
seeds or both in Utah include grouse and wild turkeys (fam- and others 1995).
ily Phasianidae), deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus), chip-
munks (Eutamias spp.), ground squirrels (Spermophilus Figure 1—Peraphyllum ramosissimum, squaw-apple: seeds.
spp.), and American black bears (Ursus americanus) (Auger
and others 1995). Deer (Odocoileus spp.) browse squaw-
apple lightly during the fall and winter (Shaw and others
2004; Smith 1974), and small birds use the intricately
branched shrubs as cover even when leaves are not present
(Shaw and Monsen 2004). Livestock also browse squaw-
apple, and opinions vary widely on its forage value. In cen-
tral Utah, squaw-apple is said to be almost worthless; in
western Colorado, it is considered poor to fair; in eastern
Oregon and northeastern California, it is commonly consid-
ered fair to moderately good sheep and cattle browse in the
spring; and finally, in southwestern Utah, squaw-apple ranks
as a valuable browse (Dayton 1931; Plummer and others
Peraphyllum • 779
P References
Auger J. 1994. Viability and germination of seeds from seven fleshy-fruited Monsen SB, Davies JN. 1985. Progress in the improvement of selected
shrubs after passage through the American black bear (Ursus western North American rosaceous shrubs. In: Carlson JR, McArthur
americanus) [MS thesis]. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 49 p. ED, eds. Range Plant Improvement in Western North America;
Auger J. 2002. Unpublished data. Reno: University of Nevada. Proceedings, 38th Annual Meeting of the Society for Range
Auger J, Black HL, Meyer SE. 1995. Seed dispersal ecology of squawapple Management; 1985 February 11–15; Salt Lake City, UT. Denver, CO:
(Rosaceae: Peraphyllum ramosissimum). Final report, 29 October 1995 on Society for Range Management: 201–220.
file. Provo, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Plummer AP, Christensen DR, Monsen SB. 1968. Restoring big-game range
Shrub Sciences Laboratory. in Utah. Pub. 68-3. Salt Lake City: Utah Department of Natural
Dayton WA. 1931. Important western browse plants. Misc. Pub. 101. Resources, Division of Fish and Game. 183 p.
Washington, DC: USDA. 214 p. Prag P, Prag R. 1996. Personal communication. Williams, OR: Forestfarm.
Harrington HD. 1954. Manual of the plants of Colorado. Denver: Sage Shaw N, Monsen SB. 2004. The rosaceous shrubs. In: Monsen SB, Stevens R,
Books. Shaw NL, eds. Restoring western ranges and wildlands. Gen.Tech. Rep.
Hitchcock CL, Cronquist A, Ownbey M, Thompson JW. 1961. Vascular RMRS–136. Fort Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain
plants of the Pacific Northwest. Part 3. Seattle: University of Washington Research Station.
Press. 614 p. Smith JG. 1974. Peraphyllum ramosissimum Nutt., squawapple. In:
Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United
States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
576–577.
Welsh SL, Atwood ND, Higgins LC, Goodrich S. 1987. A Utah flora. Great
Basin Naturalist Memoir 9: 1–894.
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Other common names. shorebay, swampbay, swamp- Figure 1—Persea borbonia, redbay: fruits.
bay persea.
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. There are about
150 species of Persea, almost all of which are tropical. The
best-known is avocado—P. americana P. Mill. Only 1
species, redbay—P. borbonia (L.) Spreng.—is native to the
continental United States (Little 1979). A variety of redbay,
swampbay—P. borbonia var. pubescens (Pursh) Little—is
considered by some to be a separate species (Brown and
Kirkman 1990; Little 1979). Redbay is found mainly along
streams and swampy sites, and occasionally dry woodlands,
in the coastal plain from southern Delaware south to the
Florida Keys and west to southern Texas and southwest
Arkansas (Little 1979; Sargent 1965). It is a small to
medium-sized tree that occasionally reaches heights of 18 to
21 m (Brown and Kirkman 1990). The wood is used locally Figure 2—Persea borbonia, redbay: cleaned seed.
for cabinets and boatbuilding. The fruits are eaten by birds,
and the leaves are widely used to flavor soups and meat
dishes (Brendemuehl 1990; Brown and Kirkman 1990). The
tree is also planted as an ornamental because of its fruit and
evergreen foliage.
Flowering and fruiting. Redbay’s small (6 mm long),
yellow, perfect flowers are borne in axillary panicles that
appear from May to June. The fruits are oblong, dark blue,
single-seeded drupes that are covered with a thin, fleshy tis-
sue; the endocarp is firm, but pliant (figure 1). Average fruit
size is 7 to 10 mm in diameter and 10 mm in length. Seed
size is 0.5 to 1 mm less than fruits (figures 2 and 3). The
fruits, which are borne on yellow-orange peduncles 12 to 25
mm long, mature in September to October (Brown and
Kirkman 1990; Radford and others 1968; Vines 1960). seeds are to be planted immediately. If they are to be stored
Collection, extraction, and storage. Redbay fruits temporarily, removal of this tissue may help avoid damage
can be easily collected by hand from the branches when the from pathogens. There are about 3,680 seeds/kg (1,670/lb)
exteriors of the fruits turn dark blue or purple. Even though (the sample came from Mississippi). Storage data are not
the fruits persist for a short while on the trees, early collec- available for redbay, so viability retention under typical stor-
tion may be necessary to prevent predation by birds. age conditions is unknown. Avocado, however, is considered
Removal of the fleshy exocarp should not be necessary if to be recalcitrant in nature and difficult to store (King and
Persea • 781
Figure 3—Persea borbonia, redbay: longitudinal section
P through a seed. References
Brendemuehl RH. 1990. Persea borbonia (L.) Spreng., redbay. In: Burns RM,
Honkala BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume 2,
Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
503–506.
Brown CL, Kirkman LK. 1990. Trees of Georgia and adjacent states.
Portland, OR:Timber Press. 292 p.
King MW, Roberts EH. 1980. Maintenance of recalcitrant seeds in storage.
In: Chin HF, Roberts EH, eds. Recalcitrant crop seeds. Kuala Lumpur:
Tropical Press: 53–89.
Little EL Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized).
Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p.
Radford AE, Ahles HE, Bell CR. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the
Carolinas. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 1183 p.
Sargent CS. 1965. Manual of the trees of North America (exclusive of
Mexico). 2nd. Ed., corrected and reprinted. New York: Dover. 934 p.
Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
Dr. Read retired from the USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station;
Dr. Zasada retired from the North Central Research Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Amur cork- Figure 1—Phellodendron amurense, Amur corktree: fruit
tree—Phellodendron amurense Rupr.—is native to northern cluster.
China, Manchuria, Korea, and Japan. This small to medium
deciduous tree—25 to 50 feet tall—has been cultivated in
the Far East and eastern Europe. It was introduced into the
United States around 1865, and its thick, corky bark and
massive, irregular branches have made it of special interest
for landscape and environmental plantings in the northern
and western United States (Blackburn 1952; Everett 1964;
Hoag 1965; Lewis 1957). In tests in Kansas, however, the
tree did not perform well and was not recommended for
general use (Hensley and others 1991). It is a potential
source of industrial cork (Izmodenov 1972; Ota and others
1965), important as a nectar-bearing species in bee-keeping
areas of the Russian Far East (Necaev and Pelemenev 1965),
and of possible importance for the insecticidal properties of
its fruit oils (Schechter 1943). In Byelorussia it is considered
a “soil builder” when mixed with Scots pine—Pinus
Figure 2—Phellodendron amurense, Amur corktree:
sylvestris L. (Letkovskij 1960). It tolerates a wide range of
soil conditions, pH, drought, and pollution; it is easily trans-
planted and generally free of pests.
Flowering and fruiting. The species is dioecious, and
female plants develop tend to have a bushier form than
males (Hensley and others 1991). Small, yellowish green
flowers, in large clusters of terminal panicles, appear in May
and June (Krecetova 1960; Rehder 1940; Schechter 1943).
Climate affects the time of day when flowers open, pollina-
tion, and the longevity of flowers (Starshova 1972).
Fruits are subglobose drupes about 1 cm in diameter
(figure 1), green to yellowish green, turning black when ripe
in September and October (Read 1974). They remain on the
terminal panicles long after the leaves have dropped. Fruits
are borne singly on short stalks (figure 1) and are very oily
and aromatic. Each fruit usually contains 2 or 3 full-sized Minimum seed-bearing age is 7 to 13 years, both within
seeds and 3 or 4 aborted seeds (Read 1974). Seeds are the natural range and where the species has been introduced
brown to black, 5 mm long, 2 mm wide, and about 1 mm (Atkimockin 1960; Gorokhova 1981; Maljcev 1950; Read
thick (figures 2 and 3); they have a moderately hard, stony 1974; Starshova 1972). No data are available on the frequen-
coat (Gorokhova 1981; Read 1974). cy of seedcrops. Severe drought had no marked effect on the
Phellodendron • 783
Figure 3—Phellodendron amurense, Amur corktree: Germination for a seedlot (for which the handling and stor-
P longitudinal section through 2 planes of a seed. age history was not described) was best following cold
moist, underground stratification for 166 days (Timm 1989).
In another study, seeds stratified for 8 weeks had a higher
germination rate and the same germination percentage as
seeds stratified 4 weeks; germination of unstratified seeds
was less than half that of stratified seeds (Mukai and
Yokoyama 1985). Based on the information available, it is
recommended that seeds be stratified if the history of collec-
tion, handling, and storage is not documented. Seeds of
other Phellodendron spp. vary in their requirements for
stratification (Dirr and Heuser 1987; Lin and others 1994).
Seeds germinate best at alternating temperatures. Both
Lin and others (1979) and Mukai and Yokoyama (1985)
reported germination of 3% or less at constant temperatures
and 75 to 90% at alternating temperatures. The best temper-
morphology of fruits and seeds, but appeared to reduce seed ature regimes were 35/5 °C and 35/15 °C (day length and
quality (Gorokhova 1986). high temperature for 8 hours).
Collection, extraction, and storage. The terminal Nursery practice and natural regeneration. In its
panicles of fruit may be harvested with pruning shears in natural range, natural regeneration sometimes occurs in
late September through October after leaf fall. After that, dense groups. Although the corktree has been reported to
although many fruits remain tightly on the tree, some will sucker from its roots (Dirr and Heuser 1987), this dense
have fallen. Fruits should be spread out in shallow layers to regeneration is believed to be from seeds present in the for-
prevent heating and mildew during air-drying. Fruits may be est floor (Soludukin 1977). Light fire or disturbances that
soaked in water and seeds squeezed from the fleshy matter result in drying and warming of the forest floor are believed
by hand; large lots can be run through a macerator and sepa- to promote this development. There was no indication
rated from the pulp by flotation. Fresh fruits weigh about regarding the longevity of the seeds in the forest floor envi-
57 kg/hl (44 lb/bu) and yield about 0.9 kg (2 lb) of cleaned ronment, however the endocarp is moderately hard and
seeds (Read 1974). Based on seeds from 2 different lots, might facilitate longevity under these conditions (Soludukin
1 kg contained 58,960 to 80,000 (26,800 to 36,363/lb) and 1977).
96,800 to 105,600 (44,000 to 48,000/lb) cleaned seeds In the nursery, untreated seeds may be sown in the fall
(Read 1974; Swingle 1939). Seeds collected from plants (Read 1974) or stratified through winter for spring-seeding
growing in the natural range had similar seed weights (Yerkes 1945). It is suggested that the best time for spring
(Gorokhova 1981). sowing is when the mean daily soil temperature has reached
Germination. Fresh seeds germinate well without 8 to 10 °C (Antonyuk 1987). Trees may also be propagated
pretreatment (Dirr 1990; Read 1974). However, there are a vegetatively by root cuttings or shoot cuttings (Bailey 1947;
number of reports of greatly improved germination follow- Dirr and Heuser 1987).
ing stratification. Stratification is recommended for seeds
stored any length of time (Dirr and Heuser 1987).
References
Antonyuk ED. 1987. Growth of seedlings in a polythene greenhouse in Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant culti-
relation to sowing times. Lesnoe Khozyaistvo 4: 36–37. vation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p.
Atkimockin NG. 1960. [in Russian:Trials with Phellodendron spp. at the Everett TH. 1964. New illustrated encyclopedia of gardening.Volume 8.
Forest-Steppe Experiment Station [abstract]. Byulleten Glavnogo New York: Greystone Press: 1455–1456.
Botanicheskogo Sada [Moskva] 37: 30–33. Gorokhova GI. 1981. Fruiting of far-eastern species of plants under condi-
Bailey LH. 1947. Standard cyclopedia of horticulture. 2nd ed. New York: tions of the forest steppe zone of western Siberia. Soviet Journal of
Macmillan. 1388 p. Ecology 12 (4): 219–222 [translated and published 1982].
Blackburn BC. 1952. Trees and shrubs of eastern North America. New Gorokhova GI. 1986. Effect of drought on the seed quality of exotic plants
York: Oxford University Press. 358 p. from the Soviet East [abstract]. Byulleten Glavnogo Botanicheskogo
Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, orna- Sada [Moskva] 139: 85–89.
mental characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. Champaign, IL: Hensley DL, Wiest SC, Long CE, Pair JC, Gibbons FD III. 1991. Evaluation
Stipes Publishing. 1007 p. of 10 landscape trees for the Midwest. Journal of Environmental
Horticulture 9(3): 149–155.
Phellodendron • 785
P Hydrangeaceae—Hydrangea family
Philadelphus L.
mock orange
Nancy L. Shaw, Emerenciana G. Hurd, and Peter F. Stickney
Dr. Shaw is a research botanist at the USDA Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station, Forestry
Sciences Laboratory, Boise, Idaho; Dr. Hurd and Mr. Stickney retired from the USDA Forest Service’s
Rocky Mountain Research Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The mock It exhibits wide ecological amplitude, growing in riparian
oranges—Philadelphus spp.—have been placed in several areas and on cliffs, talus slopes, and rocky hillsides from the
families: Saxifragaceae (Harrington 1954), Hydrangeaceae big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata Nutt.) zone to ponderosa
(Hitchcock and others 1961), and more recently, the pine (Pinus ponderosa Dougl.) and lodgepole pine (Pinus
Philadelphaceae (Hickman 1993). Hydrangeaceae, however, contorta Dougl.) forests at elevations from sea level to
is the most widely accepted placement (Cronquist and others 2,440 m (Hitchcock and others 1961; Hopkins and
1997; USDA NRCS 2001). There are about 50 to 65 species Kovalchik 1983).
of mock orange, occurring primarily in temperate and sub- Littleleaf mock orange is a smaller plant, ranging from
tropical areas of the Northern Hemisphere. Four or five 0.9 to 2 m in height and producing leaf blades 8 to 25 mm
species are native to the United States. Two of these—Lewis long. It is distributed from Utah to central Mexico (table 1)
mock orange (Philadelphus lewisii Pursh) and littleleaf and grows in pinyon–juniper, mountain brush, aspen
mock orange (P. microphyllus Gray)—occur in the western (Populus tremuloides Michx.), lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir
United States and are used in wildland as well as in orna- (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco), and white fir (Abies
mental plantings (table 1). Both western species are erect to concolor Lindl.) communities (Hitchcock 1943; Welsh and
rounded, multi-stemmed, deciduous shrubs with opposite, others 1987).
entire or nearly entire leaves and fragrant white flowers Both species furnish excellent cover and habitat for
(Hickman 1993; Munz amd Keck 1973; Welsh and others wildlife. Lewis mock orange provides good browse for deer
1987). (Odocoileus spp.) and elk (Cervus elaphus), especially on
Lewis mock orange, the state flower of Idaho, was some winter ranges (Kufeld 1973; Leege 1968; Marchant
named for Captain Meriwether Lewis, who collected the and Sherlock 1984; USDA Forest Service 1937). It is usual-
plant in 1806. It is an extremely variable plant, growing ly not grazed heavily by livestock, but in some areas it does
from 1.5 to 3 m tall and producing leaf blades that are 25 to receive fair amounts of use (Leege 1968; USDA Forest
75 mm long. The species is distributed from British Service 1937). Plants resprout and are often more palatable
Columbia to California and eastward into Montana (table 1). following fire (Leege and Hickey 1971; USDA Forest
Sources: Conquist and others (1997), Davis (1952), Hickman (1974), USDA ARS (2002),Welsh and others (1987).
* This common name, although widely used, creates some confusion, as it also the generic name of the lilacs, to which the mock orange bears some resemblance.
Philadelphus • 787
Collection, cleaning, and storage of seeds. Mock and incubated at 22 to 26 °C was 64% (Glazebrook 1941)
P
orange seeds are collected in late summer by hand-stripping and 52% (Mirov and Kraebel 1939). Without prechilling,
the capsules after they have turned dark brown and the germination of seeds from 4 Idaho and Oregon collections
valves have just begun to open (Stevens and others 2004). incubated at 15 or 20/10 °C (8/16 hours) for 28 days was
After drying, seeds are extracted by crushing the capsules 12% or less (Shaw 1995) (table 2). A 28-day prechill at 3 to
with a barley de-bearder, or if most capsules have opened, 5 °C improved germination with the increase greater when
seeds are separated from coarse debris using an aspirator or seeds were incubated at 15 °C compared to 20/10 °C
air-screen machine (Glazebrook 1941). Shaking or crushing (table 2).
the dried capsules and screen to remove debris cleans small Littleleaf mock orange is readily propagated from seeds
lots. The number of cleaned seeds of Lewis mock orange (Sutton and Johnson 1974; Swingle 1939). Germination of
was estimated at 11,600,000/kg (5,300,000/lb), with a range untreated seeds collected in New Mexico was 12 times
of 7,700,000 to 18,000,000 (3.5 to 8 million/lb) (Glazebrook greater when they were incubated at 15 compared to
1941; Hurd 1995; Mirov and Kraebel 1939; Swingle 1939). 20/10 °C (8/16 hours) for 28 days (Shaw 1995) (table 2).
Fill of cleaned seedlots varies with rigor of cleaning. Prechilling for 28 days at 3 to 5 °C improved germination if
Acceptable purity for commercial seed purchases is 95% seeds were subsequently incubated at 20/10 °C, but
and acceptable germination is 65% (Jorgensen 2004). decreased germination if they were incubated at 15 °C
Seeds of Lewis mock orange can be sown as soon as (table 2). Germination of both species is epigeal.
they are ripe or placed in storage for later planting. Reports Nursery practice. Bareroot stock of Lewis mock
of longevity vary, but the seeds appear to be orthodox in orange may be produced by fall-seeding untreated seeds or
storage behavior. Refrigerated storage has been recommend- by spring-seeding prechilled seeds (Stevens and others
ed (Marchant and Sherlock 1984). Taylor (1972) reported 2004). Uniformity of seed spacing may be improved by
that dry seeds could be stored in airtight containers in a cool diluting the small seeds with rice hulls. Seeds should be
place for 1 year. covered very lightly. Seedlings develop rapidly and can be
Germination. Seeds of Lewis mock orange reportedly transplanted as 1-year-old stock.
require light for germination (Dirr and Heuser 1987), but Container stock may be grown from seeds (Atthowe
exposure to continuous light or darkness may be inhibitory 1993). Seedlings should be provided with shade for the first
(Glazebrook 1941). Germination is enhanced by 20 to 75 month and not watered excessively, as they are fragile and
days of wet prechilling at 0 to 5 °C (Dirr and Heuser 1987; susceptible to damping-off (Taylor 1972). The 3-leaf stage
Marchant and Sherlock 1984; Stickney 1974). Germination should be attained before seedlings are transferred to larger
seeds from 2 sources that were chilled for 8 weeks at 5 °C containers.
P. lewisii
Banks, ID (830 m) 98 96 0 1 1
98 96 28 57 16
Craters of the Moon National 100 92 0 12 6
Monument, ID (1,680 m) 100 92 28 41 23
Grant Co., OR (1,020 m) 100 90 0 8 5
100 90 28 47 33
Idaho City, ID (1,650 m) 99 96 0 2 2
99 96 28 34 33
P. microphyllus
Sandoval Co., NM (2,380 m) 98 63 60 5
98 63 28 44 20
Philadelphus • 789
P Rosaceae—Rose family
Dr. Youngblood is a research forester at the USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Northwest Research Station,
LaGrande, Oregon; Dr. Gill and Mr. Pogge retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Northeastern Forest
Experiment Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus Ninebark species and cultivars generally are hardy, do
Physocarpus includes about 6 species of deciduous, spiraea- best in full sunlight or thin shade, and tolerate a wide vari-
like shrubs with exfoliating bark, alternate and lobed leaves ety of soil types (Krüssmann 1985). They are used primari-
resembling Ribes, and small white to pinkish flowers in ly as ornamentals in landscaping or for watershed protec-
corymbs. The common name, ninebark, probably refers to tion. Most of the species have been cultivated in the United
the use of the plant in a number of medicinal cures (Stokes States for nearly 100 years (table 1). In the wild, mallow
1981) or the numerous layers of bark that peel off ninebark sprouts prolifically from the root crown after
(Strausbaugh and Core 1978). Five species are native to spring and fall fires (Lea and Morgan 1993). Although the
North America, and one is introduced from Asia (table 1). genus is reported to be remarkably free from insects and
Three subspecies of dwarf ninebark—P. alternans ssp. alter- diseases (Everett 1981; Gill and Pogge 1974), at least 17
nans, P. a. ssp. annulatus J.T. Howell, and P. a. ssp. panam- flower-eating, 63 leaf-and-stem-eating, and 4 seed-eating
intensis J.T. Howell—are recognized (USDA NRCS 2001). insects have been identified on common ninebark, including
Although the genus is not wide-spread, certain species may the flower-specialist mirids Plagiognathus punctatipes
be locally abundant because of root sprouting. Atlantic Knight and Psallus physocarpi Henry and seed-specialist
ninebark and common ninebark, 2 varieties of opulifolius — torymids Megastigmus gahani Milliron and M. physocarpi
the specific epithet refers to Viburnum opulus, an introduced Crosby (Wheller and Hoebeke 1985).
species from Europe (Stokes 1981)—are the most common Flowering and fruiting. Flowers are complete, regu-
species in the eastern United States and are found along lar, and clustered together in terminal corymbs consisting of
streams, riverbanks, and moist hillsides. Atlantic ninebark a few in mountain and mallow ninebarks, 3 to 6 in dwarf
grows to 1.5 m, whereas common ninebark may be twice ninebark, and many in Pacific and common ninebarks.
that height. A dense, compact cultivar of Atlantic ninebark Flowers are from 0.5 to 1 cm in diameter, the corolla most-
named ‘Nugget’ produces golden yellow foliage in the ly white, sometimes pinkish to light pink in Pacific and
spring that matures to orange-bronze (Higginbotham 1990). mountain ninebarks. The 5 sepals are densely stellate
Of the western species, dwarf ninebark is found mostly in pubescent to tomentose, except in Pacific ninebark, where
rocky canyons and low-elevation forests of California and they are sometimes glabrous (Krüssmann 1985). Flowers of
grows to 1 m in height; mountain ninebark is found from Pacific ninebark appear in April through June, those of
foothill forests to mountain tops of the central and southern mountain ninebark appear in May through June, and those
Rocky Mountains and grows to 1 m in height; mallow of mallow and common ninebarks in June.
ninebark is found in rocky canyons and low-elevation open The fruits are small, firm-walled, inflated follicles (fig-
forests throughout the Rocky Mountains and grows to 2 m; ure 1); the generic name Physocarpus is derived from the
and Pacific ninebark is found in moist to wet lowlands or Greek physa (“bladder” or “bellows”) and karpos (“fruit”),
foothills mostly west of the Cascade Range and grows to 3 referring to the bladder-shaped follicles (Stokes 1981).
m. A prostrate and rhizomatous cultivar of Pacific ninebark Follicles range in size from 5 mm in dwarf ninebark to
named ‘Tilden Park’ grows to a height of 1.5 m (Straley 11 mm in Pacific ninebark. They are solitary in dwarf
1989). ninebark and sometimes mountain ninebark; paired in mal-
low ninebark and sometimes mountain ninebark; and
number 3 to 5 in Amur, Pacific, common, and Atlantic Figure 1—Physocarpus opulifolius, common ninebark:
ninebarks. When mature, the follicles tend to be brown, red- follicles (above) and seeds (below).
dish, or coppery in color, glabrous in common ninebark and
sometimes Pacific ninebark, otherwise stellate-pubescent.
Follicles burst open at both sutures when mature. They sel-
dom fall of their own weight but are easily dislodged by
wind or snow. Some fruits may persist until the end of win-
ter (Gill and Pogge 1974). Each follicle may contain several
seeds, which are shiny and pyriform (figures 1 and 2). Seed
ripening is indeterminate and does not always result in good
fill (Link 1993).
Collection, extraction, and storage. Ripe fruits can
be picked from the shrubs or shaken onto dropcloths, dried
either naturally or with artificial heat, and then threshed with
a hammermill, and cleaned. Seeds of common and Atlantic
ninebark are extracted by dry maceration followed by hand-
screening to remove debris and follicle fragments (Yoder 1,000 to 3,650 clean seeds/g (28,350 to 103,500/oz) for
1995). Yields are about 1,650 clean seeds/g (46,800/oz) for common ninebark (Gill and Pogge 1974). Viability is usual-
mallow ninebark (Link 1993), 1,550 clean seeds/g ly less than 50%. The seeds are orthodox and may be stored
(43,750/oz) for Pacific ninebark (USDA NRCS 2001), and for at least 5 years when cool and dry (Link 1993).
Physocarpus • 791
Figure 2—Physocarpus malvaceus, mallow ninebark: long- Nursery practices. Mallow ninebark seeds may be
P itudinal sections through a seed. planted in the fall or planted in the spring after 30 days of
prechilling (Link 1993). Seeds of common ninebark and
Atlantic ninebarks are sown in raised beds either in the fall
or in the spring after 60 days of prechilling (Yoder 1995).
Seeds are mixed one part seeds to three parts (by volume)
dry, sifted sawdust to provide bulk and facilitate even distri-
bution; sown at a depth of about 3 mm (1/8 in); and mulched
with a layer of sawdust about 6 mm (1/4 in) thick (Yoder
1995). The ninebarks are easily propagated by softwood cut-
tings planted under mist, or hardwood cuttings planted in the
field (Everett 1981; Dirr and Heuser 1987).
References
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- Strausbaugh PD, Core EL. 1978. Flora of West Virginia, 2nd ed. Grantsville,
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. WV: Seneca Books. 1079 p.
Everett TH. 1981. The New York Botanical Garden illustrated encyclopedia Stokes DW. 1981. The natural history of wild shrubs and vines. New York:
of horticulture. New York: Garland Publishing. 3601 p. Harper & Row. 246 p.
Gill JD, Pogge FL. 1974. Physocarpus, ninebark. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. Straley GB. 1989. A new cultivar of Physocarpus capitatus (Rosaceae).
coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Baileya 23(1): 51–53.
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 584–586. USDA NRCS USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service]. 2001.
Higginbotham JS. 1990. New plants for 1990. American Nurseryman PLANTS,Version 3.1 [database available at http://plants.usda.gov]. Baton
171(4): 26–40. Rouge, LA: National Plant Data Center.
Lea SM, Morgan P. 1993. Resprouting response of ninebark (Physocarpus Wheller AG, II, Hoebeke ER. 1985. The insect fauna of ninebark,
malvaceus) shrubs to burning and clipping. Forest Ecology and Physocarpus opulifolius (Rosaceae). Proceedings of the Entomological
Management 56: 199–210. Society of Washington 87(2): 356–370.
Link E, ed. 1993. Native plant propagation techniques for National Parks, Yoder WG. 1995. Personal communication. Licking, MO: George O. White
interim guide. East Lansing, MI: USDA Soil Conservation Service, Rose State Forest Nursery.
Lake Plant Materials Center. 240 p.
Krüssmann G. 1985. Manual of cultivated broad-leaved trees and shrubs.
Vol. II. Portland, OR:Timber Press.
Picea A. Dietr.
spruce
Andrew Youngblood and Lawrence O. Safford
Dr.Youngblood is a research forester at the USDA Forest Service’s Pacific Northwest Research Station,
La Grande, Oregon; Dr. Safford retired from the USDA Forest Service’s
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The spruce Members of the spruce genus grow on various soils and
genus—Picea—includes 40 to 50 species of evergreen at all elevations up to treeline in the more northern latitudes.
conifers native to the temperate and boreal regions of the In more southern latitudes, spruce species usually inhabit
Northern Hemisphere, occurring in Europe, Asia Minor, the cold, wet, or shallow soils of bogs or higher elevations on
Caucasus, Siberia, China, Japan, the Himalayas, and North mountain slopes. Shade-tolerant spruce species often replace
America (table 1). The genus evolved from primordial stands of birch (Betula), quaking aspen (Populus tremu-
ancestors in the northeastern mainland of Asia, with present- loides Michx.), or other pioneer species on disturbed areas
day Korean spruce likely the most primitive species. Most (Dallimore and Jackson 1967). Nursery and greenhouse cul-
North American species probably arose through eastward tivation currently provide seedlings and transplants of
migrated and mutation of Ezo spruce (Wright 1955). More 7 North American and 8 introduced species for forestry or
recent work suggests a strong relation between the Old horticultural purposes in the United States (table 1).
World Serbian spruce and the New World black spruce The strong, light-weight, light-colored, fine-grained,
(Fowler 1980). At least 12 species occur in China (Li and even-textured, long-fibered wood of Engelmann, white,
others 1990). Seven species are native in North America, black, red, and Sitka spruces result in high-value timber.
excluding the rare and localized occurrence of Chihuahua However, the restricted range, occurrence in inaccessible
spruce—P. chihuahuana Martinez—in northwest Mexico locations, and propensity for developing knots limits the
(Rushforth 1986; Patterson 1988). The genus name is commercial timber value of Brewer spruce (Thornburgh
derived from the Latin pix or picis, “pitch”, referring to the 1990). Specialty products have included violin faces and
resinous qualities of the trees (Everett 1981) or of a pitch piano soundboards from Engelmann, white, red, and Sitka
pine, probably Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) (Little 1979). spruces; aircraft parts from Engelmann and Sitka spruces;
The genus includes medium to tall conifers that range in and house logs from Engelmann and white spruces. The
height at maturity from 9 to over 70 m. Crowns of most occurrence of most species at high elevations and on steep
species appear conical in outline. The generally small slopes or wet soils makes them important watershed protec-
branches occur in whorls with common internodal branches. tors. The genus also provides important winter shelter for
The needle-like leaves are borne on peg-like projections wildlife in the higher latitudes. Although some animals such
(pulvini) on the twigs, have angled or flattened cross sec- as snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus), porcupine (Erethizon
tion, and persist for several years. Needles fall readily from dorsatum), and black bear (Ursus americanus) may some-
twigs on drying. The slender boles gradually taper along times browse on spruce foliage or inner bark, neither wild or
their entire length, sometimes from a buttressed base. The domestic animals prefer spruce as a food source (Alexander
thin and scaly bark sometimes has furrows at the base of old and Shepperd 1990; Blum 1990; Dallimore and Jackson
trees. The generally shallow root systems have many long, 1967; Harris 1990; Nienstaedt and Zasada 1990; Viereck
stringy, and tough rootlets. Open-grown trees retain live and Johnston 1990).
branches to the ground, and in black spruce and sometimes Tolerance of extreme exposure to wind and cold
Norway, Ezo, and white spruces, layering occurs when temperatures makes spruce especially well-suited to some
branch tips come in contact with moist soil, take root, and shelterbelt planting. White, Norway, blue, and Sitka spruces
develop into full-size trees (Nienstaedt and Zasada 1990; have been widely used for this purpose. The relatively shal-
Nikolov and Helmisaari 1992; Stone and McKittrick 1976; low root systems of Engelmann, white, blue, red, and Sitka
Viereck and Johnston 1990). spruces make these species susceptible to windthrow, how-
Picea • 793
P Table 1—Picea, spruce: nomenclature and occurrence of native and cultivated species in North America
ever, especially when growing on sites with moist soils or are planted as ornamentals. Many cultivars featuring varia-
high water tables. The conical form and dense, persistent tions or extremes in crown height, shape and symmetry, or
branches of spruce species make them highly desirable for thickness; rate of height growth; branch angle and degree of
environmental plantings. All 7 North American species and twig droop; and needle color exist (Everett 1981, Huxley
the introduced Norway, Ezo, dragon, and Serbian spruces 1992). In general, spruce species do not tolerate droughty
Picea • 795
(Diebel and Fechner 1988; Fechner 1985; Hanover 1975). also influences mineral nutrient content of seeds (Youngberg
P Provenance research in genetic variation of white spruce 1951) and early growth of seedlings in nursery beds (Heit
indicates that distinct populations have evolved within broad 1968). Seed source of Serbian spruce can affect the crown
ecological regions, thereby resulting in differences in rate of shape and susceptibility to frost (Dirr and Heuser 1987).
juvenile growth, response to calcium nutrition, wood densi- Flowering and fruiting. The reproductive cycle in
ty, late-season initiation of needle primordia, nuclear vol- spruce takes 2 years; timing of various processes has been
ume, DNA content, branch to bud morphology, optimal tem- studied in detail for Engelmann spruce (Harrison and Owens
perature for seed germination, terpene biochemistry, and 1983), white spruce (Owens and Molder 1977; 1984) (figure
isoenzymes (Alden 1985). A range-wide provenance study 1), and Sitka spruce (Owens and Molder 1976). Production
planted in Minnesota showed large differences for tree of cones and filled seed varies with (1) the number of cen-
height at ages 9 and 19 among populations with relatively tral or fertile ovuliferous scales formed in the cone-
poor performance by northern and western populations. Yet, primordium; (2) the success of pollination and fertilization;
no apparent geographic pattern existed in allozyme variation (3) the degree of self-pollination; and (4) the loss to seed-
due to high outcrossing rates and strong inbreeding depres- eating animals and disease organisms (Caron and Powell
sion (Furnier and others 1991). 1989). Male and female strobili arise in spring in axils of
Norway spruce, perhaps the most intensively studied elongating shoots, usually on different branches of the same
non-native species, shows strong latitudinal and elevational tree. Bisexual cones occasionally occur; in interior Alaska,
gradients. Seeds from northern latitudes and higher eleva- white spruce bisexual cones with the female portion at the
tions weigh less than seeds from southern latitudes and apex are more common than those with the male portion at
lower elevations (Heit 1968; Tyszkiewics 1968). Seed source the apex (Zasada and others 1978). The pendant, yellow,
Figure 1—Picea glauca, white spruce: reproductive cycle (from Owens and Molder 1984, used with permission of
the author and publisher).
Cinnamon brown
scale (microsporophyll) bears 2 pollen sacs (microsporan-
Purple–brown
Shiny brown
cone color
Pale brown
Pale brown
gia) and are spirally arranged on a central axis. Male strobili
dry out and fall off soon after pollen-shedding.
Brown
Brown
Brown
Brown
Brown
Brown
Brown
Ripe
The timing of female strobili differentiation is similar
—
for most species of spruce that have been studied; female
strobili become anatomically determined at the end of the
period of bud-scale initiation and the end of lateral shoot
Yellow-green
Bright green
cone color
Bluish black
elongation (Owens 1986). Female strobili arise near the
Preripe
Crimson
apex of shoots on upper branches in crowns of Engelmann,
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Sitka, and white spruces; the seed-cone zone in black spruce
—
—
occurs on the most vigorous 1-, 2-, and 3-year-old branches
Sources: Alden (1955), Alexander (1987), Alexander and Shepperd (1984), Edwards (1980), Fechner (1985), Nikolov and Helmisaari (1992), Safford (1974), Zasada and Viereck (1970).
at the top of the tree (Caron and Powell 1992). Initially the between large
female strobili are erect, yellowish green, crimson, or pur- seedcrops
ple; cylindrical; and 5 to 20 mm in diameter. The ovulifer-
2–13
—
2–4
—
2
2–6
4
12–13
—
3–4
3–8
—
4–13
1–3
Years
Sept–Oct
Sept–Oct
Aug–Sept
Oct–Nov
Sept–Apr
Aug–May
Oct–Mar
eter of the spirals as well as the length of the cones (Fogal
Oct*
and Alemdag 1989). The size of the preceding cone crop
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
and climatic conditions at the time of cone bud differentia-
tion influence the number of reproductive buds formed in
white spruce (Zasada and others 1978). Checking female
size (cm)
Table 2—Picea, spruce: height, seed-bearing age, and phenology of flowering and fruiting
3–5
8–13
—
10–18
—
3–6
6
5–8
—
2–4
—
—
10–18
7–10
Cone
Sept–Oct
Aug–Sept
Aug–Sept
Sept–Oct
Oct–Nov
—
—
—
—
—
May–June
May–June
Apr–June
Apr–June
Apr–May
Apr–May
May
May
—
—
—
—
—
—
10
—
40–60
—
20–30
15–40
—
20–25
—
20
30–50
20
20
15–30
30
18
30–45
9–27
—
30–60
45
25–30
25–30
30
21–50
21–30
18–73
61
Mature
P. smithiana
P. sitchensis
P. jezoensis
P. asperata
P. mariana
P. pungens
P. omorika
P. obovata
Species
P. rubens
P. glauca
P. glehnii
Picea • 797
Figure 2—Picea glauca, white spruce: diagrammatic and 0.95 (Winston and Haddon 1981; Zasada 1973) and a
P longitudinal section of a mature seed at dispersal, showing soft “spongy feel” of cones when squeezed in the fingers for
seedcoat, gametophyte, and fully developed embryo (from white spruce; or (6) dark brown or black testa and seeds that
Alden 1985, used with permission of the author and “snap” when cut with a sharp instrument. All of these indi-
publisher).
cate that cones are sufficiently ripe for harvest.
Morphological characteristics of seed maturity for white
spruce embryos show 75 to 95% complete embryo develop-
ment by the end of the growing season, depending on site
characteristics of the stand. Continued embryo development
in seeds of cones collected in high latitude forests at this
stage of seed maturity requires careful handling of the cones
(Zasada 1988). Changes in sugar content provide a biochem-
ical measure of maturity in ripening seeds of Norway and
Sitka spruces (Jensen and others 1967). Computation of
average daily temperature and growing degree-day summa-
tions also indicates seed maturity. Zasada (1973) recom-
mends 625 growing degree-days (above a threshold of 5 °C
and summed from pollination date) as a minimal time for
white spruce embryos in interior Alaska to fully develop;
good crop (Edwards 1986; Fechner 1985). Annual produc- this heat sum is reached in early August. Other optimal
tion of cones and seeds differs considerably, however, with growing degree-day sums include 912 for white spruce in
the intervals between good cone crops ranging from 2 years Ontario (Winston and Haddon 1981) and 955 for white
in Brewer spruce to as long as 13 years in white and spruce and 1,050 for black spruce in Newfoundland (Curran
Norway spruces (table 2). Between 1969 and 1994, and others 1987). Maximal cone maturity in blue spruce,
Engelmann spruce in central Colorado produced good cone measured as seed germinability, occurs 6 weeks before natu-
crops in 8 of the 26 years (Shepperd 1995). Between 1957 ral seed release for low-elevation trees and 4 weeks before
and 1978, irregular production of white spruce cones and natural seed release for high-elevation trees (Fechner 1974).
seeds in interior Alaska varied with environmental factors Recent work has expanded the understanding of seed
such as temperature during cone initiation; nutrient deficien- production in relation to crown structure and cone size.
cies; and losses to insects, diseases, and squirrels (Zasada Cones of black spruce on trees of intermediate crown class
1980; Zasada and Viereck 1970). initially produce almost twice as many seeds as those of
At maturity, the pendent cones open to shed seeds dur- either the dominant or the co-dominant trees, but disperse
ing autumn and winter (table 2). Persistent cone scales on their seeds at a much faster rate during the first 5 to 6 seed-
mature cones may have rounded, pointed, irregular, notched, bearing years (Payandeh and Haavisto 1982). The number of
or reflexed ends. Most species shed cones at the end of the black spruce seeds per cone and number of filled seeds per
season, but some cones may remain on the tree throughout cone relate to cone size: cones in New Brunswick averaged
the next growing season. Cones should be harvested before from 26 to 30 mm long with 10 to 37 filled seeds per cone
inclement weather reduces workers’ productivity or losses to (Caron and Powell 1989) and the most common size of
squirrels increase (Curran and others 1987). Cones may be black spruce cones in Ontario averaged 20 to 28 mm long
collected before they are fully ripe and, if artificially with potential yields of 74 to 94 seeds per cone and 38 to 44
ripened, release seeds with maximal germination capacity filled seeds per cone (Haavisto and others 1988). Cones of
(Edwards 1980). Cones may be collected from standing white spruce from Ontario averaged 39 to 47 mm in length
trees, slash, or animal caches, although cones that have been and contained an average of 46 to 62 filled seeds per cone;
in contact with the forest floor may acquire seed-killing regression models developed from these results estimate the
fungi. Seeds generally reach maturity before cones show number of sound seeds per cone as a function of seeds per
their characteristic ripe color (table 2). Time of ripening cone section, cone length, and cone diameter (Fogal and
varies among cones on an individual tree and among trees Alemdag 1989).
in a single stand (Fechner 1974; Jensen and others 1967; Attempts to enhance seed yields in seed orchard pro-
Zasada 1988). Various measures of estimating seed maturity grams have been hampered by the relatively long period of
have emphasized (1) physical attributes such as color and tree growth before flowering begins. Documented minimal
firmness of cones; (2) moisture content and specific gravity seed-bearing age (table 2) for most species ranges from 10
of cones; (3) color of testa and brittleness of seeds (Crossley to 60 years, although crops of sufficient quantity to warrant
1953; Edwards 1980); (4) a cone moisture content of 30% collection may not occur until much later. Efforts to stimu-
or less for Norway spruce; (5) specific gravity between 0.78 late flowering in younger trees have involved girdling of the
Picea • 799
(1976) reported that on a natural forest floor seedbed, black
P spruce seeds may lose viability completely after 16 months.
P. engelmannii, P. glauca, P. mariana, P. pungens, P. rubens, P. sitchensis
P. glauca
Larvae
Larvae
Larvae
Larvae
Larvae
Larvae
Larvae
Larvae
Larvae
Picea • 801
for 14 months showed only a slight loss of percentage ger-
P mination; under these conditions black spruce lost about
Additional directions
Prechill
Light
—
—
16
—
—
21
16
28
—
14
14
21
—
16
16
21
TB,P
TB,P
TB,P
TB,P
TB,P
TB
TB
TB
TB
TB
—
—
135,000–401,000
—
80,000–163,000
179,200–230,600
95,000–110,000
100,000–289,000
24,000–40,000
335,000–664,000
125,600–171,200
69,000–322,000
155,000–400,000
298,000–884,200
—
395,100–508,500
209,500–242,500
176,400–359,000
220,500–637,000
53,000–88,200
152,200–710,000
739,000–1,464,100
277,000–377,500
342,000–882,000
P. smithiana
P. sitchensis
P. jezoensis
P. asperata
P. mariana
P. pungens
P. omorika
Species
Picea • 803
emergence rate of white spruce seedlings, possibly through Ectomycorrhizae may play an important role in
P
induction of root elongation and the formation of lateral and seedling establishment, and a growing number of
adventitious roots (Chanway and others 1991). In nurseries researchers are investigating the formation of mycorrhizae
in the Great Lakes region, stunting of first-year white spruce on seedlings. Black spruce seedlings inoculated soon after
seedlings—described as early cessation of growth, purple emergence with fungal plugs of the ectomycorrhizae-form-
discoloration of foliage, and low foliage phosphorus concen- ing Laccaria bicolor (Maire) Orton or L. laccata (Fries)
tration without a soil phosphorus deficiency—may result Berkely & Broome showed more second-order lateral roots
from poor mycorrhizal development after soil fumigation and greater seedling dry weight and height (Thomson and
(Croghan and others 1987). others 1990).
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Dr. Starrett is associate professor at the University of Vermont’s Department of Plant and Soil Science,
Burlington,Vermont; Dr. Blazich is alumni distinguished graduate professor of plant propagation and tissue cul-
ture at North Carolina State University’s Department of Horticultural Science, Raleigh, North Carolina
Synonym. Andromeda floribunda Pursh. seed-set apparently gives the cultivar added vigor, as well as
Other common names. mountain pieris, fetterbush, improved flowering over mountain andromeda (Jaynes
mountain fetterbush. 1975).
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. Mountain Flowering and fruiting. Fragrant, white flowers are
andromeda—Pieris floribunda (Pursh) Benth. & Hook.—is a borne on upright panicles that open beginning in late March
broadleaf, evergreen, erect shrub 1 to 2 m in height and of and last until early May. Inflorescences are held well above
equal or greater spread (Kruse 1987). The plant forms a the leaves at the top of the shrub, where they can be seen
rounded or flat-topped shape when mature and is covered easily (Sabuco 1990). The floral display will last from 4 to 6
with dense medium green foliage (Sabuco 1990). This weeks. After flowering and a flush of new vegetative
species is indigenous to the Appalachian Mountains of the growth, the plant develops the inflorescences for the next
United States, extending from West Virginia southward into year. Decorative, greenish white flower buds are produced in
northern Georgia (Judd 1982). Mountain andromeda has a midsummer and stand out from the foliage during the fall
limited and scattered distribution along the Blue Ridge and winter (Hillier Nurseries 1994). These panicles of buds
Mountains in the southern Appalachians (Spongberg 1990). serve to extend the period of landscape interest of this shrub.
It is typically found on mountain balds at high elevations Flowers are pollinated by small bees (Gibson 1901). Fruits
and is hardy to USDA Zone 4 (Dirr 1990; Radford and oth- are globular, dry, 5-chambered, dehiscent, capsules borne in
ers 1968). clusters, each 1 about 3 mm in diameter (Bailey 1977).
The species is rare in cultivation, due in part to difficul- Seeds are 3 mm long and 1.5 mm wide, are flattened with
ties in propagation. This handsome, evergreen shrub has sev- 2 inconspicuous wings, and have a dark golden-yellow
eral desirable landscape attributes: a dense, compact growth color (figures 1 and 2).
habit; white, upright inflorescences; a tolerance of higher Collection of fruits, seed extraction, cleaning, and
soil pH (pH 7.5) than typical for species in the Ericaceae; a storage. Capsules and seeds ripen in mid- to late autumn
greater cold tolerance than shown by other species in Pieris and can be collected at that time (Kruse 1987). Capsules are
D. Don; and resistance to leaf damage by lacebug— removed from the plant, lightly beaten and rubbed to open
Stephanitis takeyai Drake and Maa. (Kruse 1987; Sabuco them completely (Dirr and Heuser 1987), and then shaken to
1990). The plant is best suited for landscape use in lightly loosen the seeds. Viability can be poor if seeds are not grad-
shaded sites with a well-drained soil high in organic matter ed rigorously. Use of an air column blower is recommended
(Kruse 1987). to remove chaff and empty seeds (Starrett and others 1992).
Geographic races and hybrids. There is only 1 When dried to a moisture content of 6% and cleaned, the
known interspecific hybrid of mountain andromeda—Pieris number of pure seeds was 7,500/g (210,000/oz) (Starrett and
× ‘Brouwer’s Beauty’. The hybrid resulted spontaneously others 1992).
when a plant of Pieris floribunda was pollinated by nearby Seeds of mountain andromeda are orthodox in storage
plants of Japanese andromeda—Pieris japonica (Thunb.) D. behavior. They can be stored at room temperature if used
Don ex G. Don (Jaynes and Dunbar 1976). The resultant within a year but can remain viable for several years if
hybrid has morphological characteristics that are intermedi- stored in a sealed container at 4.5 °C (Blazich and Starrett
ate between both parents (Jaynes 1975). The interspecific 1996).
hybrid has an increased numbers of flowers that may be Germination tests. There are no test methods pre-
attributed to the sterility of the plant (Jaynes 1975). Lack of scribed for official seed tests of mountain andromeda, but
Pieris • 807
Figure 1—Pieris floribunda, mountain andromeda: seeds. the seeds germinate readily without pretreatment (Kruse
P
1987). Seeds do not require light for germination, but daily
photoperiods as short as 1/2 hour will maximize germination
(Starrett and others 1992). A 30-day test of seeds from a
source in the Blue Ridge Mountains of western North
Carolina demonstrated that a daily photoperiod as short as
1/2 hour at 25 °C or an 8/16-hour thermoperiod of 25/15 °C
resulted in 90% germination (Starrett and others 1992).
Photoperiods of longer duration did not significantly
improve germination of seeds from this source, regardless of
temperature (Starrett and others 1992). The germination
study of Starrett and others (1992) utilized cool-white fluo-
rescent lamps as the light source, which provided a photo-
synthetic photon flux (400 to 700 nm) of 69 μmol/m2/sec
(5.3 klux). Germination is epigeal.
Nursery practice. Typically, a germination medium is
Figure 2—Pieris floribunda, mountain andromeda:
warmed to 24 °C via bottom heat (Bir 1987). Seeds are
longitudinal section of a seed.
sown on the surface of a steam-pasteurized medium such as
pine bark sifted through a 6-mm (1/4-in)-mesh screen and
irrigated slightly. The surface of the germinating medium
should never be allowed to dry completely (Bir 1987). Once
seeds have germinated, seedlings have very slow initial
growth. The authors have observed that seedlings will often
produce 1 true leaf above the cotyledons and then fail to
exhibit any further growth for several weeks. Current prac-
tice is to fertilize seedlings at the first-true-leaf stage with a
half-strength solution of a 15-45-5 (N:P2O5:K2O) complete
fertilizer (Bir 1987). After 2 weeks, nursery workers then
shift the seedlings to a full-strength fertilizer with weekly
application until they transplant the seedlings into liner flats
or pots (Bir 1987).
Mountain andromeda can also be propagated vegetative-
ly by rooting stem cuttings (Dirr and Heuser 1987) and by
micropropagation (Starrett and others 1993). However, stem
cuttings are reportedly difficult to root (Leach 1976).
References
Bailey LH. 1977. Manual of cultivated plants. New York: Macmillan. 1116 p. Judd WS. 1982. A taxonomic revision of Pieris (Ericaceae). Journal of the
Bir RE. 1987. Native plant production using a multidisciplinary approach. Arnold Arboretum 63(2): 103–144.
American Nurseryman 166(12): 74–83. Kruse K. 1987. Field note: Pieris floribunda. American Nurseryman 166(12):
Blazich FA, Starrett MC. 1996. Unpublished data. Raleigh: North Carolina 126.
State University. Leach DG. 1976. Successful rooting of cuttings of Pieris floribunda. Plant
Dirr MA. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, Propagator 22(2): 13–14.
ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation and uses. 4th ed. Radford AE, Ahles HE, Bell CR. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the
Champaign, IL: Stipes Publishing. 1007 p. Carolinas. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 1183 p.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- Sabuco JJ. 1990. Mid-sized models: Part 11. American Nurseryman 172(11):
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. 42–44, 46–51.
Gibson WH. 1901. Blossom hosts and insect guests. New York: Newson Spongberg SA. 1990. A reunion of trees. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
and Co. 197 p. University Press. 270 p.
Hillier Nurseries. 1994. The Hillier manual of trees and shrubs. 6th ed. Starrett MC, Blazich FA, Acedo JR, Warren SL. 1993. Micropropagation of
Newton Abbot, Devon, UK: David and Charles. 704 p. Pieris floribunda. Journal of Environmental Horticulture 11(4): 191–195.
Jaynes RA. 1975. ‘Brouwer’s Beauty’ pieris, a new interspecific hybrid. Starrett MC, Blazich FA, Warren SL. 1992. Seed germination of Pieris flori-
HortScience 10(2): 185–186. bunda: influence of light and temperature. Journal of Environmental
Jaynes RA, Dunbar D. 1976. Pieris ‘Brouwer’s Beauty’, a spontaneous hybrid Horticulture 10(2): 121–124.
of P. floribunda and P. japonica. American Nurseryman 143(2):15, 54–55.
Pinus L.
pine
Stanley L. Krugman and James L. Jenkinson
Dr. Krugman retired from the World Bank and the USDA Forest Service’s Washington Office;
Dr. Jenkinson, plant physiologist emeritus, retired from the USDA Forest Service’s
Pacific Southwest Research Station
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus Pinus are indigenous to Europe, North Africa, and the Near East;
comprises about 100 species and numerous varieties and and 12 are native to Asia.
hybrids. It is one of the largest of the conifer genera, and Most of these pines grow tall, but some do not, and a
one of the most important and widely distributed genera of few are shrubby in form (table 2). Eastern white, ponderosa,
forest trees in the Northern Hemisphere. Globally, the genus and sugar pines often surpass 61 m in height at maturity;
spans latitudes from Alaska to Nicaragua, Scandinavia to Parry and Mexican piñyons and Japanese stone pines, by
North Africa, and Siberia to Sumatra and inhabits a diversity contrast, rarely attain 9, 8, and 2.5 m in height, respectively.
of sites at altitudes ranging from sea level to timberline Pines are widely planted in the United States. Most sur-
(Critchfield and Little 1966). Various pines exemplify the vive and grow well in plantations within their areas of seed
extremes of coastal and subalpine habitats in different origin but largely fail outside their ranges. Nevertheless, suc-
regions of the world, including shore and whitebark pines in cessful plantations outside the native range have extended
western North America; Italian stone and Swiss stone pines the geographic distributions of many pines in the United
in Europe; and Japanese black and Siberian stone pines in States, particularly those of jack, slash, Rocky Mountain
Asia (table 1). ponderosa, Monterey, red, eastern white, loblolly, and
Some of the pines occur naturally over vast geographic Virginia pines (Fowells 1965; Harris and Harrar 1946;
ranges; others occur only in narrow or highly restricted Wright 1962). Still, abundant plantation experience has also
ones. Those of limited natural range include Canary Island shown that the eastern pines, and especially the southern
pine in the Canary Islands off the western coast of North ones, survive and grow poorly in the western United States,
Africa; Monterey pine in 3 distinct but quite small coastal and reciprocally, that western pines perform poorly in the
areas of central California; and Torrey pine, with its total eastern United States (Krugman and Jenkinson 1974;
population of a few thousand trees, in 2 isolated island and Schmitt and Namkoong 1965).
coastal areas of southern California. The natural range of Many exotic pines have been introduced into the United
Scots pine, the most widespread of all the pines, crosses States and, depending on region, have survived and grown
Eurasia, extending from Scotland and the Iberian Peninsula well. Some have regenerated extensively and at least 4—
to eastern Siberia and northern Mongolia. namely Japanese red and Japanese black pines from Asia
Evergreens of diverse heights, the pines supply major and Austrian and Scots pine from Europe—have naturalized
amounts of the world’s most valuable timber and wood in parts of New England and the Great Lakes region
fiber, continue to yield the bulk of naval stores, and produce (Krugman and Jenkinson 1974; York and Littlefield 1942).
seeds that are valuable food sources for humans and Many pine species have been successfully planted out-
wildlife. Pines are widely planted to protect watersheds, side their native range, in various regions and on other conti-
form shelterbelts and windbreaks, and provide wildlife habi- nents around the world. The best of a host of known thriving
tats; they also are being increasingly planted to improve introductions include the following species: Canary Island
environments in rural and urban areas. pine in North Africa and South Africa; Caribbean pine in
Sixty-seven species and varieties of pines are planted in Australia, Fiji, and South Africa; lodgepole, Austrian, east-
or are known to have potential in the United States (table 1). ern white, and Scots pines in Europe; slash, longleaf, mar-
Forty-three of these pines are native to the United States, itime, and loblolly pines in Australia, New Zealand, China,
and at least 13 of them are native to Mexico. Two are native and South Africa; Aleppo pine in South America; Khasi pine
solely to Mexico; one is native to the Caribbean region; 12 in East Africa; Merkus pine in Borneo and Java; bishop and
Pinus • 809
P Table 1— Pinus, pine: nomenclature and occurrence
P. arizonica Engelm. Arizona pine, Arizona Sierra Madre Occidental; NW Durango, central
P. ponderosa var. arizonica (Engelm.) Shaw ponderosa pine, Mexico, N into SE Arizona, SW corner New Mexico
Arizona yellow pine
P. armandii Franch. Armand pine Mid-high elevations of mtns in central China to
SW China, N Burma, E Tibet; Hainan,Taiwan;
Japan (N Ryuku Islands)
P. attenuata Lemmon knobcone pine Rocky slopes & ridges of Klamath Mtns, coastal ranges &
P. tuberculata Gord. Sierra Nevada in SW Oregon & California; Baja California
Norte
P. balfouriana Grev. & Balf. foxtail pine, Subalpine California; central, S Klamath Mtns,
Balfour pine S Sierra Nevada
P. banksiana Lamb. jack pine, scrub pine, Canada, NE US: S Mackenzie to central Alberta,
P. divaricata (Ait.) Dum.-Cours. banksiana pine, E through Ontario to Nova Scotia, S through
black/gray pine, Great Lakes region to SW Wisconsin, Michigan to
Hudson Bay pine NW Indiana; upstate New York, New Hampshire, Maine
P. brutia Tenore Calabrian pine Crete, Cyprus, Lebanon,W Syria,Turkey to NE Greece,
P. halepensis var. brutia (Ten.) Elwes & Henry Black Sea; Caucasus Mtns; N Iraq
P. canariensis C. Smith Canary Island pine, Dry slopes of Canary Islands (Hierro, La Palma,
Canary pine Tenerife, Gomera, & Gran Canaria), Spain
P. caribaea Morelet Caribbean pine W Bahamas;W Cuba, Isle of Pines; Caribbean
P. bahamensia Griseb. Central America, Belize S to Nicaragua
P. hondurensis Loock
P. cembra L. Swiss stone pine, High elevations in Alps & Carpathian Mtns; N Italy,
P. montana Lam. cembrian pine, SE France, Switzerland, Austria,W tip of Yugoslavia;
arolla pine Romania, SW Ukraine, NW [Czecho]slovakia
P. cembroides Zucc. Mexican piñyon, Semiarid, low elevations of Sierra Madre Oriental &
nut pine, pinyon Occidental; Puebla,Tlaxcala N in E,W Mexico to
SE Arizona, SW New Mexico, SW Texas; S Baja
California Sur, Mexico
P. clausa (Chapman ex sand pine, scrub pine, Sandy plains; throughout central Florida to coastal
Engelm.) Vasey ex Sarg. spruce pine NE & S Florida; also W Florida Panhandle W into
Baldwin Co., coastal Alabama
P. contorta var. bolanderi Bolander pine Coastal N California: acid podsol soils of
(Parl.) Vasey Mendocino White Plains in Mendocino Co.
P. contorta var. contorta shore pine, coast Pacific Coast mtns, low elevations down to sea level;
Dougl. ex Loud. pine, beach pine, California north coastal ranges N to Yakutat Bay,
lodgepole pine SE Alaska
P. contorta var. latifolia Rocky Mountain Rocky Mtns & intermountain region; Colorado &
Engelm. ex S.Wats. lodgepole pine, Utah N through W Canada to central Yukon; Black
black pine Hills, South Dakota
P. contorta var. murrayana Sierra Nevada Subalpine; Sierra Nevada–Cascade Ranges, transverse–
(Grev. & Balf.) Engelm. lodgepole pine, peninsular ranges; California to Baja California Norte,
tamarack pine W Nevada, Oregon N to SW Washington
P. coulteri D. Don Coulter pine, Mtns; California south coastal ranges S through
P. ponderosa ssp. coulteri (D. Don) E. Murr nut pine, big-cone pine transverse–peninsular ranges to N Baja California Norte
P. densiflora Sieb. & Zucc. Japanese red pine Mtns, low-mid elevations in Japan (Honshu to Kyushu),
South Korea, E North Korea to SE Manchuria,
adjoining Chabarovsk, Siberia
P. echinata P. Mill shortleaf pine, Coastal plains, Piedmont, Appalachian Mtns, Ozark
southern yellow pine, Plateau; tip SE New York S to NW Florida,W to E
oldfield pine Texas, E Oklahoma, SE Missouri, S Ohio
P. edulis Engelm. piñyon, Colorado Semiarid regions; Arizona, Utah, Colorado, New
P. cembroides var. edulis pinyon, nut pine, Mexico; crosses into W Oklahoma, SW Texas, &
(Engelm.) Voss two-needle pinyon SE California
P. elliottii var. densa Little & Dorman South Florida slash pine Sandy plains of central to S Florida, E & W Florida
coasts; lower Florida Keys
P. elliottii var. elliottii Engelm. slash pine, pitch pine, Coastal plains of lower South Carolina S to
P. caribaeu Morelet swamp pine, yellow slash pine, central Florida,W to S Mississippi, SE Louisiana
Honduras pine
P. engelmannii Carr. Apache pine, Sierra Madre Occidental; Aguascalientes, SW
P. latifolia Sarg. Arizona longleaf pine Zacatecas N through W Mexico into SE Arizona,
P. apacheca Lemmon SW corner of New Mexico
P. flexilis James limber pine, Rocky Subalpine; Sierra Nevada, Great Basin ranges,
Mountain white pine Rocky Mtns; New Mexico N to Alberta, Canada;W
in Idaho, Utah, Nevada, into S California
P. gerardiana D. Don chilgoza pine, Himalayas, dry valleys; E Afghanistan,
P. aucklandii Lodd. Gerard pine contiguous N Pakistan, N India
P. chilghoza Ehh.
P. glabra Walt. spruce pine, cedar pine, Coastal plains of E South Carolina to N Florida,
bottom white pine W to S Mississippi, SE Louisiana
P. halepensis P. Mill. Aleppo pine, Mediterranean region: E Spain, SE France, Italy, S Adriatic
P. alepensis Poir. Jerusalem pine Coast to Greece; NE Libya; Israel, Morocco to N Tunisia;
Pantalleria, Sicily;W Jordan N to extreme S central Turkey
P. heldreichii Christ Heldreich pine, High elevations of Balkan Peninsula, Albania to SW
P. heldreichii var. leucodermis (Ant.) Markgr. Balkan pine, Bosnian pine, Yugoslavia, extreme N Greece, SW to SW Bulgaria,
P. eucodermis Ant. graybark pine & SW Italy
P. nigra var. leucodermis (Ant.) Rehd.
P. jeffreyi Grev. & Balf. Jeffrey pine Sierra Nevada–Cascade & Klamath Mtns, coastal
P. ponderosa var. jeffreyi (Grev. & Balf.) & transverse–peninsular ranges of California
E. Murr. to SW Oregon, Baja California Norte,W Nevada
P. kesiya Royle & Gordon Khasi pine, High elevations of E India, SE Tibet, Burma, SW Yunnan
P. khasya Royle Benguet pine to N Thailand, Laos, S Vietnam,W Luzon, Philippines
P. insularis Endl.
P. koraiensis Sieb. & Zucc. Korean pine, Mtns of South Korea to North Korea through E
cedar pine Manchuria, S Chabarovsk, Siberia; Japan (central
Honshu & Shikoku)
P. lambertiana Dougl. sugar pine, Sierra Nevada–Cascade & Klamath Mtns, coastal &
piño real transverse–peninsular ranges of California to N
Oregon, Baja California Norte,W Nevada
P. leiophylla var. chihuahuana Chihuahua pine, Sierra Madre del Sur, trans–Mexico volcanic belt, Sierra
(Engelm.) Shaw yellow pine, Madre Occidental; Oaxaca,Vera Cruz W to Michoacán;
P. chihuahuana Engelm. piño real N in W Mexico to SE Arizona, SW New Mexico
P. merkusii Junghuhn & Merkus pine, Mtns, low elevations of SE Burma, N Thailand,
Vriese ex Vriese Tenasserim pine Cambodia, Laos,Vietnam, Hainan, N Sumatra,
Philippines (W Luzon & N Mindoro)
P. monophylla Torr. & Frém. singleleaf piñyon, Semiarid mtns of NW Arizona,W Utah to SE
P. cembroides var. monophylla nut pine, Idaho,W through Nevada to E California,
(Torr. & Frém.) Voss pinyon, piñon S to Baja California Norte
P. monticola Dougl. ex D. Don western white pine, Sierra Nevada, Cascade & coastal ranges; Klamath
Idaho white pine, & Rocky Mtns; California,W Nevada, Oregon through
silver pine Washington, N Idaho, NW Montana, Vancouver
Island, S British Columbia, SW corner Alberta
P. mugo Turra Swiss mountain Subalpine areas in central & S Europe: Pyrenees, Alps,
P. montana Miller pine, mugho Carpathian Mtns, Balkan Mtns; Austria, Switzerland,
(or mugo) pine, N Italy, E France; N to Germany, Czech Republic &
dwarf mountain pine Slovakia into S Poland, E into W Ukraine, Romania;
Yugoslavia to N Albania,W Bulgaria; central Italy;
S France, NE Spain
P. muricata D. Don bishop pine, Coastal mtns; California Coast Ranges, Santa Rosa &
P. remorata Mason prickle-cone pine, Santa Cruz Islands; Baja California Norte, Cedros
Santa Cruz Island pine Island, Mexico
P. nigra Arnold Austrian pine, S Europe, Mediterranean, Asia Minor; Spain to Corsica,
P. nigra var. austriaca (Hoess) European black Italy, Sicily;Yugoslavia to E Austria, SW Romania, Bulgaria,
Aschers. & Graebn. pine, black pine Albania, Greece,Turkey; Black Sea Coast in Ukraine,
Russia; Cyprus; NE Morocco; N Algeria
Pinus • 811
P Table 1— Pinus, pine: nomenclature and occurrence (continued)
P. sabiniana Dougl. ex Dougl. Digger pine, bull pine, Dry slopes, low-mid elevations; California, in S
gray pine Klamath Mtns, coastal ranges, Cascade
Mtns–Sierra Nevada
P. serotina Michx. pond pine, marsh SE US, coastal plains of central & N Florida N to
P. rigida var. serotina (Michx.) Clausen bay pine, pocosin pine lower New Jersey,W to central & SE Alabama
P. sibirica Du Tour Siberian stone pine Ural Mtns of Russia, E across central Siberia to
P. cembra var. sibirica Loud. Stanovoy Mtns, S through Sayan Mtns, Lake Baikal
region to N Mongolia
P. strobiformis Engelm. southwestern white Sierra Madre Occidental & Oriental; S Rocky Mtns;
P. flexilis var. reflexa Engelm. pine, border limber Durango, central Mexico N to E Arizona, SW San
P. reflexa (Engelm.) Engelm. pine, Mexican white pine Luis Potosi N to extreme W Texas,
P. ayacahuite var. brachyptera Shaw N through New Mexico to SW Colorado
P. strobus var. chiapensis Martínez Chiapas white pine Mtns of S Mexico (Chiapis) & Guatemala
P. sylvestris L. Scots pine, Eurasia: Scotland, Scandinavia, Germany, France,
Scotch pine & Spain E to Turkey, Caucasus Mtns; Central & E
Europe through Ural Mtns, N Kazakhstan, Siberia
to Sea of Okhotsk, N Mongolia, N Manchuria
P. taeda L. loblolly pine, Arkansas Coastal Plains, Piedmont; Delaware S to central
pine, North Carolina Florida;W through Georgia, S Tennessee, Gulf
pine, oldfield pine Coast states to SE corner Oklahoma, E Texas
P. thunbergiana Franco Japanese black pine Maritime Japan (Honshu to N Ryukyu Islands),
P. thunbergii Parl. South Korea (Cheju Island)
P. torreyana Parry ex Carr. Torrey pine, Soledad Maritime S California (NE Santa Rosa Island) &
pine, Del Mar pine coastal bluffs of San Diego County
P. virginiana P. Mill Virginia pine, scrub Piedmont & Appalachian Mtns; Long Island, New York to
pine, Jersey pine, Chesapeake Bay, S to N Georgia, central Alabama; W to
spruce pine Ohio, S Indiana,W Kentucky,Tennessee, NE Mississippi
P. wallichiana A.B. Jacks. blue pine, Himalayas, mid-high elevations: NE Afghanistan,
P. excelsa Wall. Bhutan pine, N Pakistan, N India E through Nepal, Bhutan, NE
P. griffithii McClelland Himalayan pine India, S Tibet to N Burma, NW Yunnan
P. nepalensis de Chambr.
P. washoensis Mason & Washoe pine W edge of Great Basin; E slope Mt Rose,W Nevada;
Stockwell Bald Mtn Range in N Sierra Nevada; S Warner Mtns,
NE California
Sources: Critchfield and Little (1966), Gardner and Berenson (1987), Griffin and Critchfield (1976).
ponderosa pines in Australia and New Zealand; Mexican grow for a longer time during the growing season, and are
weeping pine in South Africa; and Monterey pine in more prone to winter freezing damage and less prone to
Australia, New Zealand, Spain, South Africa, and South damage from hard frosts in late spring and early autumn
America. Nine of these 17 pines are native to North America than are trees from northern sources (Krugman and
(Leloup 1956; Magini and Tulstrup 1955; Mirov 1967; Jenkinson 1974; Squillace and Silen 1962; Wells 1969;
Wright 1962). Wright 1962).
Geographic races. Abundant field experience and Detailed data on geographic races are ample for some
provenance research have shown that genetic adaptation pines and still lacking for many others. In some cases, our
mandates sowing seeds and outplanting seedlings grown knowledge of races in pines native to the United States
from seeds from the proper source. Seed origin critically derives from species introduction trials and provenance tests
controls a species’ ability to survive and grow in a particular in other countries. We have recapped the knowledge on geo-
environment. Pines that have extensive natural ranges (and graphic variation for the following 52 pines, all of those for
even some with highly restricted ones) have evolved geo- which sufficient information was available.
graphic races that are distinct both morphologically and Pinus aristata—Bristlecone pines in western and eastern
physiologically (Callaham 1963). The resultant genetic— parts of the range differ sufficiently in chemical composition
that is, seed-source—differences make each race the best and morphological traits that some suggest calling western
suited for growth and survival in a particular environment. populations P. longaeva D.K. Bailey and eastern populations
As a general rule, seeds from pines growing in moist P. aristata (Bailey 1970; Zavarin and Snajberk 1973). This
regions are smaller than those from sources in dry regions very low crossing ability between western and eastern popu-
and seeds from moist regions normally produce seedlings lations supports the naming of 2 distinct species (Critchfield
that are faster growing and less deeply rooted than those 1977).
from dry regions. Seeds from southern sources differ from Pinus attenuata—For knobcone pine, differences in
those from northern sources. Seeds from northern sources nursery and morphological traits tend to define 2 major
often require longer moist chilling times than seeds from groups, 1 north and 1 south of the Monterey County–San
southern ones to release seed dormancy and enable germina- Luis Obispo County line in California. Seed weight general-
tion. Trees from southern sources grow faster, are able to ly increases from north to south. Seeds with northern origins
Pinus. • 813
P Table 2 —Pinus, pine: mature tree height, earliest cultivation, seed bearing age, and interval between large cone crops
Sources: Altman and Dittmer (1962), Bailey (1970), Bates (1930), Britton and Shafer (1908), Carlisle and Brown (1968), Cooling (1968), Dallimore and Jackson (1967),
Day (1967), den Ouden and Boom (1965), Dimitroff (1926), Duff (1928), Fowells (1965), Fritts (1969), Goor (1955), Harlow and Harrar (1950), Iroshnikov (1963), Iroshnikov
and others (1963), Jacaline and Lizardo (1958), Krugman and Jenkinson (1974), Little EL (1941a, 1950), Loock (1950), Luckhoff (1964), Magini and Tulstrip (1955), McIntyre
(1929), Mirov (1956), NBV (1946), Otter (1933), Pearson (1931), Poynton (1961), Pravdin (1963), Rehder (1940), Rohmeder and Loebel (1940), Rossi (1929), Sargent (1905,
1965), Sudworth (1908),Troup (1921),Veracion (1966),Wahlenberg (1946),Wakeley (1954),Wakeley and Barnett (1968),Wappes (1932),Wellner (1962).
Note: See table 3 for cone ripening and seed dispersal dates and table 4 for cone ripeness criteria.
require longer stratification times (3 weeks or more) than tests follows a largely clinal pattern that is linked to environ-
seeds with southern origins (less than 3 weeks). Seedlings mental gradients of latitude and length and temperature of
from northern sources tend to be more frost resistant than the growing season at seed origin (Rudolph and Laidly
seedlings from southern sources. Trees in the northern part 1990; Rudolph and Yeatman 1982).
of the species’ range are somewhat larger than those in the Pinus brutia—Calabrian pine has 2 known varieties,
southern part. The source differences appear to be clinal and both in the northernmost parts of its range. The var. pithyusa
largely reflect the species’ latitudinal distribution (Brown Stev. occurs along the north central and northeast shores of
and Donan 1985; Newcomb 1962). the Black Sea and var. eldarica Medw. occurs in the central
Pinus balfouriana—Foxtail pine seeds of northern ori- Caucasus Mountains (Magini and Tulstrup 1955). Trees
gin in California (Lake Mountain, in the eastern Klamath from an Afghanistan source related to var. eldarica outgrew
Mountains) are longer than those of southern origin trees of var. pithyusa, had good form, and were both frost
(Mineral King, in the southern Sierra Nevada). Seeds of and drought hardy in California (Harris and others 1970;
northern origin have persistent wings, and seeds of southern Krugman and Jenkinson 1974). Altitudinal variation in a
origin have detachable wings (Mastrogiuseppe 1968). number of seed and seedling traits is manifested in Greece
Pinus banksiana—Jack pine seeds from various sources and in Turkey (Isik 1986; Panetsos 1986).
differ in seed size, cone traits, seedling and tree growth, tree Pinus canariensis—Canary Island pine is native only to
form, and susceptibility to insect and disease damage (King the Canary Islands, where it is found at 640 to 2,195 m
1971; Yeatman 1974). Cone serotiny in Minnesota changes above sea level (Magini and Tulstrup 1955). Seedlings
from closed cones in the north to chiefly open cones in the grown from seeds from the various islands and an array of
south (Rudolph and others 1959). Seeds tend to be larger elevations showed marked differences in winter cold hardi-
from trees growing in warmer parts of the range (Fowells ness when grown at the USDA Forest Service’s Institute of
1965), and seedlings from lower latitudes show less winter Forest Genetics nursery near Placerville, California.
needle coloration than those from higher latitudes Seedlings from a seed source at 1,220 m on Tenerife Island
(Stoeckeler and Rudolf 1956). In Canada, height growth was showed more cold damage than those from a source at 1,890
greater for seeds from areas with longer growing seasons; m there. Seedlings from a source from 1,890 m on Palma
height growth of selections moved north was better than that Island, however, were badly damaged, suggesting that
of those moved south (Holst 1962). Growth in provenance
Pinus • 815
sources on different islands differ in their susceptibility to northern-most California. Its cones are heavier and more
P
cold (Krugman and Jenkinson 1974). reflexed than those of any other race and often are seroti-
Pinus caribaea—Caribbean pine has 3 geographic vari- nous. The var. murrayana produces the largest seeds, and
ants. The var. caribaea, native to Cuba and the Isle of Pines, var. latifolia has seeds that germinate twice as fast at 10 to
has persistent seed wings. The others do not. The var. 20 °C as those of coastal origins (Critchfield 1957). In
bahamensis Barr. & Golf., in the Bahama Islands, has the provenance tests in northern Europe, seedlings of var. con-
smallest seeds, and var. hondurensis (Seneclauze) W.H.G. torta grew faster but were less winter hardy and more
Barret & Golfari has the largest. In tests in South Africa, var. branchy than those of var. latifolia from the Rocky
caribaea outgrew var. hondurensis from mainland Central Mountains and interior British Columbia (Edwards
America (Luckhoff 1964; Styles and Huges 1983). 1954–55).
Pinus cembra—Swiss stone pine has several recognized Seed-source differences exist within varieties. Seeds
cultivars (Dallimore and Jackson 1967; den Ouden and from high-elevation populations in central British Columbia
Boom 1965). No distinct geographic races have been germinated fastest at 20 °C; those low-elevation populations
described, but there is genetic variation in needle width and germinated faster at temperatures above 20 °C (Haasis and
in height growth (Holzer 1975) Thrupp 1931). Trees from southern seed sources commonly
Pinus cembroides—Mexican piñyon has 2 known vari- grow faster than those from northern sources (Critchfield
eties at the species’ northernmost limits. The var. bicolor 1980).
Little occurs in southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Pinus coulteri—Coulter pine has no known races but
Mexico. The var. remota occurs on the Edwards Plateau of grows in isolated stands on fertile to very poor soils at alti-
southwestern Texas and has very thin seedcoats (Little tudes ranging from 152 to 2,134 m in central California to
1968). northern Baja California. Seeds from the species’ northern-
Pinus clausa—Sand pine has 2 geographic races that are most populations, at Mount Diablo, the north end of the
distinguished primarily on the basis of cone characteristics southern coastal range, are judged to have the poorest form,
(Brendemuehl 1990). The wider ranging var. clausa (Ocala with greater branching than those from any other source
sand pine) occurs in central and eastern Florida and bears (Zobel 1953).
closed cones. The var. immuginata Ward (Choctawhatchee Pinus densifloria—Japanese red pine is widely planted
sand pine) occurs in the western Florida Panhandle and and shows hardy growth in the Great Lakes region, New
bears cones that ripen in September and shed seeds in England, and southern Ontario (Krugman and Jenkinson
October (Krugman and Jenkinson 1974; Little and Dorman 1974). Cultivars have been described (Ouden and Boom
1952a). The varieties differ in important physiological traits. 1965).
Seedlings grown from Choctawhatchee seed sources show Pinus echinata—Shortleaf pine shows wide geographic
higher survival rates after planting, better growth form, and and racial variation (Dorman 1976; Lawson 1990). Tree
greater resistance to root rot (Burns 1975). growth and survival in a rangewide seed source test in the
Pinus contorta—Lodgepole pine has 5 highly differenti- southern United States showed that seeds from sources east
ated geographic races that differ morphologically and eco- of the Mississippi River were superior to northern sources
logically (Critchfield 1980; Lotan and Critchfield 1990). and that those from northern sources should be planted in
The races include 4 recognized varieties—bolanderi, contor- the northernmost parts of the species’ range (Little 1969;
ta, latifolia, and murrayana—and 1 poorly known race (not Wells 1969, 1973, 1979; Wells and Wakeley 1970). Import-
named). The var. bolanderi (Bolander pine) is restricted to ant differences in tree height, bole diameter at breast height,
the narrow strip of highly acid podsol soils (the Mendocino and stem volume were found among the various sources
White Plains) that parallels the coast in Mendocino County planted in Oklahoma (Tauer and McNew 1985). An
in northern California and bears serotinous cones similar to Arkansas source performed the best in an Oklahoma test,
those of the interior var. latifolia (Rocky Mountain lodge- surpassing even a local source (Posey and McCullough
pole pine). Both the var. contorta (shore pine) and the var. 1969).
murrayana (Sierra Nevada lodgepole pine) bear cones that Pinus edulis—Piñyon has 2 forms (Ronco 1990). The
open at maturity or shortly thereafter. The open cones of single-needle form, var. fallax Little, ranges near 1,830 m in
var. contorta persist indefinitely, whereas those of var. the mountains of central and eastern Arizona, in the Grand
murrayana do not. The fifth race is endemic to ultramafic Canyon, and in parts of New Mexico. Seeds of var. fallax
soils in the low coastal mountains in Del Norte County in tend to be larger and have a thicker seedcoat than seeds of
Pinus • 817
Pinus leiophylla var. chihuahuana—Chihuahua pine northern sources maintained better growth rate and form
P shows both good and poor growth forms. Trees of good than trees of southern sources (Fielding 1961).
form grow up to 24 m in height. Trees of poor form have Pinus nigra—Austrian pine has an extensive, disjunct
short, crooked boles and many branches (Magini and distribution; the species encompasses a host of recognized
Tulstrup 1955). varieties and cultivars (Magini and Tulstrup 1955; Rafn
Pinus merkusii—Merkus pine shows distinct races on 1915; Van Haverbeke 1990; Vidacovic 1991). The var. cara-
the Asian mainland and on Sumatra. Seeds of mainland ori- manica (Loudon) Rehder in Cyprus, Turkey, and the Crimea
gins are larger than seeds of Sumatra origins. Trees of main- tends to have the largest seeds, 38,500 to 45,760/kg (17,500
land origins pass through a grasslike stage and tend to devel- to 20,800/lb); var. corsicana (Loudon) Hyl. in Corsica has
op a straight, cylindrical bole, but they do not grow so tall as the smallest seeds, 61,600 to 79,000/kg (28,000 to
trees of Sumatran origins. Sumatran origins tend to sinuous 36,000/lb). The Corsican variety has notably better wood
growth and may reach 61 m in height (Cooling 1968). Some than typical Austrian pine, the var. austriaca (Hoess)
classify these races as 2 distinct species, placing P. merku- Aschers. & Graebn. in the eastern Alps and on the Balkan
siana Jungh & Vriese on the Asian mainland and P. merkusii Peninsula. Planted stands of the var. calabrica C.K. Schneid.
on Sumatra (Cooling and Gaussen 1970). in Belgium are believed to represent one of the more cold-
Pinus monophylla—Singleleaf piñyon grows over a hardy varieties. Other distinct varieties include the var.
wide geographic and altitudinal range, and differences in cebennensis (Godr.) Rehder in the Pyrenees of France, the
growth form, foliage color, and cone production are com- var. hispanica in Spain, and the ssp. mauritanica (Maire &
monly observed among trees on identical sites (Meeuwig Peyerimh.) Heywood in Morocco and Algeria. Physiological
and others 1990). No variety has been named, but variants traits delimit 3 regional seed source groups (Magini and
have partly or mostly 2 needles per fascicle, rather than the Tulstrup 1955): (1) Western sources in France and Spain
typical 1 needle per fascicle (Little 1968). have often proved to be both drought resistant and indiffer-
Pinus monticola—Western white pine varies by geo- ent to soil type. (2) Central sources in Corsica and Italy
graphic region and elevation of seed origin. Seeds of north- grow well and have good form, but all need high humidity
ern Idaho sources are smaller than seeds of Washington and and grow poorly on limestone soils. (3) Eastern sources in
California sources, and progenies of high-elevation sources the Balkan and Crimean regions appear to grow well on
grow faster at high elevation than those of low-elevation poorer limestone soils.
sources (Squillace and Bingham 1958; USDA Forest Service In provenance tests in the north central United States,
1948). Idaho populations differ from California populations, trees grown from seed sources in the eastern half of the
but populations in northern Idaho differ little from those in species’ natural range were the fastest growing and most
coastal Washington and western British Columbia (Rehfeldt winter hardy, but those from western Europe were more sus-
and others 1984; Steinhoff 1981). Adaptation to different ceptible to frost damage (Wheeler and others 1976). A dis-
geographic, climatic, topographic, and edaphic conditions ease-resistant seed source from Yugoslavia had the fastest
reflects phenotypic plasticity more than selective genetic dif- growing trees in a provenance test in eastern Nebraska
ferentiation (Graham 1990; Rehfeldt 1979; Steinhoff 1979). (Read 1976; Van Haverbeke 1986b).
Pinus mugo—Swiss mountain pine has many horticul- Pinus palustris—Longleaf pines of different geographic
tural varieties, with growth forms ranging from the sprawl- origins differ in seedling survival, height growth, and cold
ing shrubs of var. pumilio (Haenke) Zenari to the small trees resistance. Southeastern and central Louisiana seed sources
of var. rostrata (Antoine) Hoopes (den Ouden and Boom performed poorly and southern Florida sources failed out-
1965; Vidacovic 1991). Varieties differ in seed size and ger- side their area of seed origin. Trees from central Gulf Coast
mination capacity (Rafn 1915), and seedlings of sources seed sources grow well throughout the Gulf Coast region
from low elevations are not cold hardy at high elevations and are expected to outgrow those from other sources on
(Wappes 1932). coastal plains sites from Louisiana to northern Florida and
Pinus muricata—Bishop pine populations north of Fort Georgia (Boyer 1990; Fowells 1965; Snyder and others
Ross in the northern coastal range of California differ from 1977; Wells 1969). Longleaf pines grown from seed sources
those south of Fort Ross in tree growth form, foliage color, west of the Mississippi River are more susceptible to brown
and cone shape. Trees of northern sources tend to grow larg- spot needle blight than are those from Gulf Coast sources
er and have fuller, more compact crowns than trees of south- east of the Mississippi River (Dorman 1976; Lantz and
ern sources (Duffield 1951). In tests in Australia, trees of Kraus 1987).
Pinus • 819
plantations (Callaham and Liddicoet 1961; Conkle 1973; Pinus rigida—Pitch pine lacks distinct races but exhibits
P Echols and Conkle 1971; Namkoong and Conkle 1976). differences between populations in cone serotiny, tree
Elevational differentiation in growth also exists in Idaho growth, and form (Kuser and Ledig 1987; Ledig and Fryer
populations (Rehfeldt 1986a). New Zealand provenance 1974; Little and Garrett 1990). In a test of Atlantic Coastal
tests confirm and elaborate the complex combination of dif- Plain provenances, trees from southern seed sources grew
ferences between discrete races and clinal variation, particu- faster than trees of northern sources, but adaptation of all
larly for the Pacific and North Plateau races and show that sources decreased with distance from seed origin.
the patterns of differentiation vary according to the traits Throughout most of the species’ range, pitch pine promptly
assessed (Burdon and Low 1991). opens cones and sheds seeds at maturity, but in southern
Pinus pungens—Table Mountain pine has no distinct New Jersey, pitch pine mostly bears closed cones that open
races. Seed weight and cone length and width appear to only at irregular intervals. The latter populations developed
decrease with increase in seed source elevation and decrease in areas that have a history of wild fire (Andresen 1963;
in source latitude. Stands in which most cones open the first Fowells 1965).
and second year after they ripen are found in the northern Pinus roxburghii—Chir pine has no reported varieties,
end of the species range. Cone serotiny is commonest in the but seeds from sources in different regions of India show
southern part of the range (Della-Bianca 1990; Zobel 1969). differences in tree growth, wood quality, and oleoresin yield
Pinus radiata—Monterey pine, native to just 5 limited and quality (Dogra 1987).
areas, is the most widely introduced of all pines (Critchfield Pinus sabiniana—Digger pine has no distinct races or
and Little 1966; McDonald and Laacke 1990). Rapid growth varieties but shows genetic differences between populations
and valuable timber and pulp qualities have made it a major and geographic regions in cone shape and size, seed size and
timber species in plantation forestry in Australia, New germination traits, seedling growth traits, and adaptation to
Zealand, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Spain, South Africa, highly infertile (serpentinite) soil (Griffin 1962; Powers
and Kenya. The varieties from native mainland sources— 1990). Larger cones are more frequent in the northern
Año Nuevo, Monterey, and Cambria—situated on the central coastal ranges and Klamath Mountains than in the Sierra
California coast are faster growing than the 2-needled var. Nevada. Seeds from stands in milder climates germinate
binata (S. Wats.) Lemm., isolated on Cedros and Guadalupe faster after cold, moist stratification than seeds from stands
Islands, Mexico, in the Pacific Ocean west of Baja in colder climates. Seedlings of southern origins grow for a
California Norte. longer time during the growing season than those of north-
Cambria populations have the largest cones and seeds, ern origins (Griffin 1964, 1965, 1971).
and Monterey populations the smallest ones (Forde 1964). Pinus serotina—Pond pine has no distinct races
Seedlings from Año Nuevo and Monterey seed sources grew (Bramlett 1990). Slight differences were found between
better than those from Cambria sources in Australia trees from the coastal plain and trees from drier inland areas.
(Fielding 1961). Moran and others (1988) found little genet- Cone serotiny is greater in southern and coastal populations
ic differentiation among the native populations, which indi- than in northern and Piedmont populations (Smouse 1970).
cates that most of the genetic variation occurs within stands. Pinus sibirica—Siberian stone pine showed important
Cedros and Guadalupe Island populations are more resistant growth and morphological differences in a series of seed-
to western gall rust than those on the mainland, and Año source studies in Russia (Pravdin and Iroshnikov 1982).
Nuevo populations are more resistant than the Monterey and Differences in growth rate, branching habit, and seed fat
Cambria ones (Old and others 1986). content between certain populations have also been reported.
Pinus resinosa—Red pine is one of the least variable No varieties are recognized, but distinct forms exist: the
pines and one of the most widely planted species in the form coronans has a wide, dense crown, is fairly drought
northern United States and Canada. It has no described vari- resistant, and extends from sea level to 2,012 m; the form
eties or subspecies, yet northern and southern races may humistrata is a dwarf form found on mountain summits and
exist (Rudolf 1990; Wright and others 1972). Differences in ridges; and the form turfosa grows on peat (Pravdin 1963).
height growth, tree form, and wood quality appear among Pinus strobus—Eastern white pine in Canada and the
sources in the Great Lakes region, New England, and West United States is the typical var. strobus. One of the more
Virginia. Seeds usually are smaller, lammas frequency is wide ranging and widely planted American trees, it is geo-
less, and frost resistance is higher in northern sources than graphically variable and is separated by a discontinuity of
in southern ones (Fowler and Lester 1970; Wright 1962). more than 1,932 km from its variant in southern Mexico and
Pinus • 821
that of the planting site generally yield the best survival and frequently in Louisiana and east Texas and is the best-
P
growth rates. Southern seed sources produce fast-growing known southern pine hybrid (Baker and Langdon 1990;
trees on southern sites but on northern sites these trees grow Chapman 1922). Most natural hybrids occur infrequently in
slowly and suffer winter injury (Dorman 1976; Genys 1966; the overlaps of their parent species’ ranges. Some of the
Genys and others 1974). Genetic variation in growth rate, better-known examples include the following:
stem form, wood traits, and monoterpene content in
Kentucky and Tennessee occurs mainly among and within • P. contorta var. murrayana × banksiana in western
stands, rather than among geographic origins (Carter and Canada (Zavarin and others 1969)
Snow 1990). • P. ponderosa × jeffreyi, P. jeffreyi × coulteri, and P.
Pinus wallichiana—Blue pine ranges through the radiata × attenuata in California (Critchfield and
Himalayan region in discontinuous distribution from eastern Krugman 1967; Mirov 1967)
Afghanistan to eastern-most India, north Burma, and adjoin- • P. flexilis × strobiformis in north central Arizona and
ing China. Although no distinct varieties have been reported, north central New Mexico (Steinhoff and Andresen
at least 7 broad provenances have been proposed, including 1971)
4 in the western Himalayas and 3 in the eastern Himalayas • P. taeda × echinata in east Texas
(Dogra 1987). • P. taeda × serotina throughout the species’ common
Pinus washoensis—Washoe pine ranges in limited areas range in southern United States (Critchfield 1963;
along the western edge of the Great Basin in western Smouse 1970; Wright 1962)
Nevada and northern California, notably on the east slope of
Mount Rose in the Carson Range in Nevada, in the Bald The hybrid P. densiflora × thunbergiana, natural in
Mountain Range in the northern Sierra Nevada, and in the Japan, has formed spontaneously in plantations of its parent
South Warner Mountains and several intervening areas in species in Michigan (Krugman and Jenkinson 1974). In
northeastern California (Critchfield 1984; Critchfield and Europe, Scots pine crosses occasionally with Austrian pine
Allenbaugh 1965; Niebling and Conkle 1990; Smith 1981). and with mugo pine where the species are planted near one
Closely related in appearance to and often wrongly identi- another (Wright 1962), and Austrian pine crosses with
fied as Pacific ponderosa pine, this rare pine ranges at higher Heldreich pine var. leucodermis where they overlap in
altitudes than ponderosa pine, the same as Jeffrey pine. Herzegovina (Vidacovic 1991).
Washoe pine flowers in July, and its male and developing Several pine hybrids have been produced in relatively
second-year female cones are purple to purplish black. The large numbers by controlled pollination methods. They
latter mature in August–September, turn to a dull purple, include P. rigida × taeda in Korea where the hybrid is
purplish brown, or light brown, and open in September. important in plantation forestry (Hyun 1962), and P. attenu-
Cones are assessed and processed like those of Pacific pon- ata × radiata, tested in California and Oregon (Griffin and
derosa pine. Stored seeds germinate quickly after 60 days of Conkle 1967). Many other pine hybrids have been produced
moist, cold stratification (Jenkinson 1980; Krugman and in small numbers and tested for fitness in various parts of
Jenkinson 1974). the United States (Burns and Honkala 1990).
Hybrids. Pine hybrids are myriad. More than 260 Flowering and fruiting. Reproductive structures in
first- and second-generation hybrids—as well as backcross- certain pines first form when the trees are 5 to 10 years old,
es, crosses between varieties of the same species, and cross- as in knobcone, jack, sand, lodgepole, and Monterey pines,
es that involve 3 or more different species—either occur nat- among others (table 2). In other pines, reproductive struc-
urally or have been produced artificially (Critchfield 1963, tures form when the trees are 25 to 30 years old (as in Swiss
1966a, 1977, 1984; Critchfield and Krugman 1967; stone and Siberian stone pines; piñyon; and Apache and
Krugman and Jenkinson 1974; Little and Righter 1965; Chihuahua pines) or 40 years old (as in sugar pine).
Mirov 1967; Vidacovic 1991; Wright 1962). We provide no Pines are monoecious. Male and female “flowers”—
yield statistics for hybrids because such data are highly vari- properly strobili (microsporangiate and megasporangiate
able. Yields of sound seeds depend on species and individual strobili)—are borne separately on the same tree. Male stro-
trees, as well as on the environmental conditions under bili predominate on the basal part of new shoots, mostly
which the cross is made. those on older lateral branches in the lower crown. Female
Natural hybrids are common, and we list but few of the strobili occur most often in the upper crown, chiefly at the
many known. P. palustris × taeda (Sonderegger pine) occurs apical ends of main branches in the position of subterminal
Pinus • 823
P Table 3—Pinus, pine: phenology of flowering and fruiting (continued)
Sources: Andreev (1925), Britton and Shafer (1908), Carlisle and Brown (1968), Cocozza (1961), Cooling (1968), Critchfield (1966b), Dallimore and Jackson (1967),
Dimitroff (1926), Dorman and Barber (1956), Duffield (1953), Fowells (1965), Goor (1955), Jacaline and Lizardo (1958), Krugman and Jenkinson (1974), Lamb (1915),
Letourneux (1957), Little EL (1938a & b, 1940), Little S (1941, 1959); Loiseau (1945), Loock (1950), Luckhoff (1964), Mikhalevskaya (1960), Mirov (1962), NBV (1946),
Ohmasa (1956), Pearson (1931), Rehder (1940), Rohmeder and Loebel (1940), Sargent (1905), Snow (1960), Sudworth (1908),Tkachenko (1939),Troup (1921),Veracion
(1964),Vines (1960),Wahlenberg (1946).
or lateral buds. Exceptions to this general scheme are com- and Jackson 1967; Fowells 1965; Pearson 1931; Sudworth
mon. Trees of knobcone, jack, sand, and Monterey pines are 1908). At the time of pollination, they are nearly erect and
multinodal in the bud, and female strobili occasionally arise range from 10 to 38 mm long and sometimes longer. After
in secondary whorl positions. Trees of knobcone, Monterey, pollination, the female strobili close their scales, begin a
and Virginia pines usually produce female strobili in all slow development, and grow to nearly one-eighth to one-
parts of the crown. In temperate climates, the earliest stages fifth the length of mature cones at the end of their first
of male and female strobili can be detected in the develop- growing season. Cone development continues through the
ing buds in summer or fall. Male strobili appear from 1 to winter where temperatures are favorable, as in knobcone and
several weeks before the female strobili (Fowells 1965; ponderosa pines at low elevations in the Sierra Nevada of
Gifford and Mirov 1960; Krugman and Jenkinson 1974; California and south Florida slash pine (Krugman and
Mirov 1967). Jenkinson 1974; Wakeley 1954).
Male and female strobili of the southern and tropical Fertilization occurs in spring or early summer, about 13
pines emerge from buds in late winter, as in slash pine × var. months after pollination, and the young cones begin to grow
densa and var. elliottii) and spruce and longleaf pines (table rapidly. New shoot growth leaves the developing cones in a
3). Strobili of other pines emerge from the winter bud in lateral position. As they mature, the developing cones gradu-
early spring or in late spring and early summer. ally change color from green or purple to yellow, light
Male strobili are arrayed in indistinct spirals in clusters brown, reddish brown, or dark brown (table 4).
that range from 13 to 51 mm in length (Dallimore and Cones and seeds of most pines mature rapidly in late
Jackson 1967; Pearson 1931; Shaw 1914; Sudworth 1908). summer or fall of the second year (table 3). Cones of a few
Immature male strobili are green or yellow to reddish pur- pines mature in late winter of the second year or in early
ple; mature male strobili at the time of pollen shed are light spring of the third year, as in knobcone, Calabrian, and
brown to brown. In most pines, male strobili fall soon after Merkus pines (Boskok 1970; Cooling 1968; Krugman and
ripening. Jenkinson 1974). Seeds of knobcone and Calabrian pines
Female strobili emerge from the winter bud shortly after mature in fall, about 16 to 18 months after pollination, but
the male strobili and are green or red to purple (Dallimore their cones do not develop fully until late winter (Boskok
Pinus • 825
P Table 4—Pinus, pine: cone ripeness criteria (continued)
Sources: Bailey (1939), Barnett and McLemore (1967b), Britton and Shafer (1908), Cerepnin (1964), Cooling (1968), Dallimore and Jackson (1967), den Ouden and
Boom (1965), Fowells (1965), Jacaline and Lizardo (1958), Krugman and Jenkinson (1974), Little EL (1940, 1950), Lizardo (1950), Loock (1950), Luckhoff (1964), McIntyre
(1929), McLemore (1961a&b), Pravdin (1963), Rehder (1940), Sargent (1965), Sudworth (1908),Troup (1921),Wahlenberg (1946),Wakeley (1954).
Note: See table 2 for intervals between large cone crops and table 3 for cone ripening and seed dispersal dates.
Figure 1A —Pinus, pine: mature cones, collected before Figure 1B —Pinus, pine: mature cones, collected before
seed dispersal, of P. albicaulis, whitebark pine (upper left); seed dispersal, of P. monophylla, singleleaf piñyon (upper
P. aristata, bristlecone pine (upper center); P. attenuata, left); P. arizonica, Arizona pine (upper center); P. ponderosa
knobcone pine (upper right); P. banksiana, jack pine (cen- var. scopoulorum, Rocky Mountain ponderosa pine (upper
ter left); P. cembroides, Mexican piñyon (center middle); right); P. rigida, pitch pine (center left); P. pungens,Table
P. clausa, sand pine (center right); P. engelmannii, Apache Mountain pine (center middle), P. serotina, pond pine
pine (bottom left); P. flexilis, limber pine (bottom center); (center right); P. strobiformus, southwestern white pine
P. leiophylla var. chihuahuana, Chihuahua pine (bottom (bottom left); P. sylvestris, Scots pine (bottom center);
right). P. virginiana,Virginia pine (bottom right).
A B
1970; Krugman and Jenkinson 1974). Seeds and cones of Mature cones of pines vary greatly in size (figure 1). At
Italian stone and Chihuahua pines require 3 years to ripen one extreme, cones of mugo pine range from 2.5 to 5.1 cm
(Dallimore and Jackson 1967; Little 1950). Seeds of Torrey in length and weigh about 1.7 g. At the opposite extreme,
pine are said to take 3 years to mature, but evidence sug- cones of sugar pine range from 30 to 64 cm in length and
gests that the seeds of this pine mature in 2 years, whereas weigh from about 0.45 to 0.91 kg. Cones of Digger and
the cones require 3 years (Krugman and Jenkinson 1974). Coulter pines, the California big-cone pines, often weigh
Intervals between large cone crops vary and apparently more than 0.91 kg (Dallimore and Jackson 1967; den Ouden
depend on species and environment (table 2). Some pines and Boom 1965; Sudworth 1908).
consistently produce large cone crops. Others show cyclic or Mature cones consist of overlapping woody scales, each
erratic patterns of 2 to 10 years between large crops. bearing 2 seeds at the base on its upper surface. In most
Pinus • 827
Figure 3—Pinus ponderosa, ponderosa pine: longitudinal modified wings may stay attached to the cone scale when
P section through a mature seed. the seeds are shed. In pines such as whitebark, Armand,
Swiss stone, limber, chilgoza, Korean, Japanese stone,
Siberian, and southwestern white pines, seedwings are rudi-
mentary or nonexistent (Mirov 1967; Shaw 1914; Sudworth
1908; Troup 1921; Uyeki 1927).
Cone collection. Cones should be collected from trees
that are free of disease and have superior growth and form
characteristics. Larger cones generally contain more seeds,
but normally all cones are collected except those with obvi-
ous disease and insect damage. Dominant, widely spaced
trees with full crowns produce the most seeds per cone,
given that other trees supply sufficient amounts of viable
pollen. Seed yields tend to be low when trees are isolated
and incur limited amounts of pollen from other trees.
Spacing among trees in seed orchards is regulated to pro-
duce large crowns and plenty of pollen. With proper irriga-
tion and fertilization, 20-year-old loblolly pine orchards in
the South can average around 100 kg of seeds/ha (88 lb/ac)
ever, may retain opened cones on the trees for up to 5 years of orchard (Bonner 1991). Most pines growing in dense,
or indefinitely (Fowells 1965; Sudworth 1908). young stands produce few or no seeds. Pines that commonly
Mature seeds vary widely in size, shape, and color (fig- form fire thickets, such as knobcone, jack, sand, pitch, and
ure 2). De-winged seeds vary from 1.6 to 2.5 mm in length pond pines, are prominent exceptions (Fowells 1965).
for jack pine and range up to more than 19 mm long for Ripe cones can be collected from standing trees, newly
Digger pine. Seeds are cylindric in shape for chilgoza pine, felled trees, and animal caches. To avoid large yields of
ovoid for Balkan pine, convex on the inner side and flat on immature seeds, collections from animal caches should be
the outer side for Italian stone pine, pear-shaped for made in late fall, after seeds have matured (Schubert and
Japanese stone pine, variously triangular for Table Mountain others 1970). Because the mature cones of most pines open
pine, and ellipsoid for Monterey pine (Dallimore and and shed seeds promptly, collections from standing trees
Jackson 1967; den Ouden and Boom 1965; Uyeki 1927). should begin when cones are ripe and just cracking.
Mature seedcoats may be reddish, purplish, grayish brown, Collections from closed-cone pines can be safely delayed,
or black, and are often mottled. Depending on species, the and such delay is often desirable. Although the seeds may be
seedcoats can be thin and papery, or thick and hard, or even mature, closed cones are difficult to open and added matura-
stony (Dallimore and Jackson 1967; Shaw 1914; Sudworth tion on the tree facilitates both cone opening and seed
1908). extraction (Boskok 1970; Krugman and Jenkinson 1974).
The seedcoat of the mature seed encloses a whitish To avoid extensive collections of immature or empty
food-storage tissue—female gametophyte tissue, the conifer seeds, it is wise to check seed ripeness in small samples of
analog of endosperm—which in turn encases the embryo cones from a number of typical individual trees. Mature
(figure 3). A brown papery cap, the remnant of the nucellus, seeds have a firm, white to yellow or cream-colored
is attached to the micropylar end of the food-storage tissue. “endosperm,” or female gametophyte tissue, and a white to
A thin, brown, membranous skin, the remnant inner layer of yellow embryo that nearly fills the endosperm cavity
the ovules integument, covers the papery cap and the food- (figure 3). This simple visual check is useful for most pines,
storage tissue. and critical for some.
Seeds of most pines have a membranous seedwing (fig- Cone ripeness in some pines can be usefully estimated
ure 2). Seedwings detach readily in the hard pines (except by change in cone color (table 4). In Pacific ponderosa pine,
for Canary Island, Italian stone, and Chir pines) but adhere for example, cones are mature when their color changes
firmly in the soft pines (except bristlecone and certain from green or yellow-green to brownish green, yellow-
sources of foxtail pine). In nut pines such as Mexican, sin- brown, or russet brown. In red pine, cones are mature when
gleleaf, and Parry piñyons and chilgoza pine, the wings or they turn from green to purplish with reddish brown on the
Pinus • 829
P Table 6—Pinus, pine: cone processing schedules and safe times to cold- or freeze-store dry, mature seeds
P. albicaulis‡ 0 15–30 0 — 8
P. aristata 0 2–8 0 — 9
P. arizonica 0 — 60 43 —
P. armandii 0 15 0 — —
P. attenuata 15–30 1–3 48 49 16
P. balfouriana 0 2–8 0 — 16
P. banksiana 0 — 2–4 66 17–18
10–30 3–10 0 — —
P. brutia 0 3–20 0 — 3
0 — 10 54 —
P. canariensis 0 2–10 0 — 18
P. caribaea — — — — 3
P. cembra‡ — — — — >1
P. cembroides§ 0 2–8 0 — —
P. clausa 10–30 1 2–4 63 5
P. contorta
var. contorta 0 2–20 0 — 17
0 — 96 49 —
var. latifolia II 30–60 2–30 0 — 20
0 — 6–8 60 —
var. murrayana 0 2–20 0 — 17
P. coulteri 0–120 3–15 0 — 5
0 — 72 49 —
P. densiflora 0–30 3–4 0 — 2–5
P. echinata 0 — 48 41 35
P. edulis § 0 2 0 — —
P. elliottii
var. densa 0 — 8–10 49 —
0 4 0 —
var. elliottii 0 — 8–10 49 50
0 42 0 — —
P. engelmannii 0 — 60 43 —
P. flexilis 0 15–30 0 — 5
P. gerardiana 0 15 0 — —
P. glabra 0 — 48 38 >1
P. halepensis 0 — 10 54 10
0 3–10 0 — —
P. heldreichii 0 5–20 0 — —
P. kesiya 0 5–20 0 — —
P. jeffreyi 0 — 24 49 18
0 5–7 0 — —
P. lambertiana 0 — 24 49 21
0 5–7 0 — —
P. merkusii 0 5–7 0 — 7
P. monophylla § 0 2–3 0 — —
P. monticola 0 — 4 43 20
0 5–7 0 — —
P. mugo 0 — 48 49 5
P. muricata 0 — 48 49 —
P. nigra 0 — 24 46 >10
0 3–10 0 — —
P. palustris 0 — 48 38 5–10
P. parviflora 0 5–15 0 — —
P. patula 15–30 1–2 48 46 21
P. pinaster 0 — — 46 11
0 4–10 0 — —
P. pinea — — — — 18
P. ponderosa
var. ponderosa 0 — 3 49 18
0 4–12 0 — —
var. scopulorum 0 — 2 74 >15
0 4–12 0 — —
P. pumila‡ — — — — —
P. pungens 0 — 72 49 9
0 30 0 — —
P. quadrifolia§ 0 2–8 0 — —
P. radiata 60–120 0 48–72 49 21
60–120 3–7 0 — —
P. resinosa 0 — 13–20 54 30
P. rigida¶ — — — — 11
P. roxburghii 0 — — — >4
P. sabiniana 0 — 48 49 5
P. serotina 0 — 48 41 —
P. sibirica‡ — — — — >2
P. strobiformis 0 14 0 — —
P. strobus 0 — 15–20 54 10
P. sylvestris 0 — 10–16 49 15
0 3–7 0 — —
P. taeda 0 — 48 41 >9
P. thunbergiana 0–30 5–20 0 — 11
P. torreyana 0 5–20 0 — 6
P. virginiana 0 — 2 77 >5
P. washoensis 0 4–12 0 — 8
Sources: Barnett (1969, 1970), Barnett and McLemore (1967a&b), Bonner (1990), Church and Sucoff (1960), Dent (1947), FAO (1993), Goor and Barney (1968), Heit
(1967b), Jones (1962, 1966), Kamra (1967), Karschon (1961), Krugman and Jenkinson (1974), LeBarron and Roe (1945), Little and Dorman (1952a), Lizardo (1950), Luckhoff
(1964), McLemore (1961b), Mirov (1946), Nather (1958), NBV (1946), Nyman (1963), Ohmasa (1956), Schubert (1952), Schubert and Adams (1971), Simak and others
(1961), Steinhoff (1964), Stoeckeler and Jones (1957), Swingle (1939),Troup (1921),Wakeley (1954),Wakeley and Barnett (1968).
* Air drying temperatures are 15.6 to 32.2 °C. Kiln drying, if used, should follow air drying. Recommended air drying time is 3 to 7 days, where none is listed.
† Seed germination was at least 50% after storage. Seeds of most pines were stored at 0.5 to 5 °C or –15.6 to –18.8 °C. Freezing is preferred. Seed moisture contents
were between 5 and 10%.
‡ Cones of P. albicaulis, P. cembra, P. pumila, and P. sibirica must be broken up to free and extract the seeds.
§ An alternate extraction method for P. cembroides, P. edulis, P. monophylla, and P. quadrifolia is to shake the trees mechanically and collect shed seeds from cloths spread on
the ground.
II Time needed in boiling water is estimated. Reported treatment was 5 to 10 minutes in water at 64 °C or higher.
¶ Cones were soaked in water overnight and dried in a warm room.
Large numbers of seeds of certain other pines, such as When most of the crop is on the netting, it is rolled up and
piñyon and singleleaf and Parry piñyons, are harvested by the seeds recovered. The recovered seeds are usually very
shaking or beating the tree crowns and gathering extracted moist and trashy, so they must be carefully dried and
seeds from the ground (Krugman and Jenkinson 1974). This cleaned. If this is properly done, the seed quality is not dam-
technique has been expanded with the net retrieval system aged (Bonner and Vozzo 1986a). The net retrieval system
that is used in many seed orchards of loblolly, Virginia, and can be used only where an orchard mix of families is
eastern white pines (Bonner 1991). The system, originated desired for seedling production. If families are to be kept
in the early 1970s by the Georgia Forestry Commission separate for site-specific planting, as is becoming increas-
(Wynens and Brooks 1979), employs large rolls of ingly common for loblolly pine, cones must be collected by
polypropylene netting (carpet backing) spread out beneath hand from each tree.
the trees. As the cones open naturally on the trees, seeds fall Cone processing and seed extraction. In general,
onto the netting, usually aided by light mechanical shaking. cones should be dried quickly after collection to avoid inter-
Pinus • 831
nal heating, mold development, and rapid seed deterioration cool conditions may not open properly during kiln drying.
P
(table 6). Cones may be dried in 2 to 60 days by immedi- Such cones first should be soaked in water for 12 to 24
ately spreading them in thin layers on dry surfaces in the hours and then kiln-dried to open satisfactorily (Stoeckeler
sun or on trays in well-ventilated buildings, or by hanging and Slabaugh 1965). In the South, most producers place
them in sacks from overhead racks protected against rain their storage containers in the open, where the alternating
(Schubert and others 1970; Stoeckeler and Jones 1957; wetting and drying in natural weather patterns facilitates
Stoeckeler and Slabaugh 1965; Wakeley 1954). Cones cone opening (Bonner 1991).
should be dried slowly to avoid “case hardening.” After ini- Serotinous cones normally can be opened by dipping
tial drying, cones can be stored temporarily in well-ventilat- them in boiling water for 10 seconds to 2 minutes (table 6).
ed bags or trays. Ripe cones of many pines open quickly Immersion times of up to 10 minutes in boiling water have
under such conditions, but those of others may require addi- been needed to open some lots of serotinous cones
tional drying in either a heated shed or a cone-drying kiln. (Krugman and Jenkinson 1974). This procedure melts the
In large-scale collections of cones of the southern pines, resins bonding the cone scales, fully wets the woody cone,
cones are frequently stored in burlap bags or 704-liter and causes maximum scale reflexing (LeBarron and Roe
(20-bu) wire-bound boxes for as long as several months 1945; Little and Dorman 1952a). If serotinous cones are par-
before going into heated kilns to complete drying. During tially open, dipping them in boiling water may damage the
this storage period, significant amounts of cone moisture are seeds (Belcher 1984). To avoid this, the cones should be
lost (thereby reducing fuel costs in later drying) and seeds in sprayed with water to close the scales, then dipped. Cones
cones that were picked a little early complete the maturation of sand pine are sometimes opened by quick exposure to
process (Bonner 1991). There are species with “sensitive” live steam, a process that may be safer than dipping in boil-
seeds, such as longleaf and eastern white pines, that are ing water (Bonner 1997).
more easily damaged during cone storage, and a maximum Once opened, cones are shaken to extract the seeds.
of 1 week is suggested for bulk storage of these cones. For Most seeds are extracted by placing the opened cones in a
loblolly, slash, shortleaf, and Virginia pines, cone storage in large mechanical tumbler or shaker for large lots, or in a
bags or boxes for 3 to 5 weeks appears to benefit seed yield small manual shaker for small lots. Seeds from the extractor
and quality (Bonner 1991). still must be separated from cone fragments, dirt, and other
Properly air-dried cones may open amply after just a debris. Seeds are cleaned by rapid air movement, vibration,
few hours in a kiln, or they may take several days, depend- or screening or by a combination of these methods (Tanaka
ing on species. With the exception of the white pines and 1984). Extracted seeds are de-winged by using machines of
perhaps others, cones must reach moisture contents of 10% various types, by flailing them in a sack, or by rubbing.
for maximum seed release (Belcher and Lowman 1982).
Seeds of most trees are killed at temperatures around 66 °C.
Table 7—Pinus, pine: flotation liquids used to separate
Many kilns operate at temperatures of 32 to 60 °C. empty seeds from full seeds
Maximums of 43 °C and lower have been recommended for
Species Flotation liquid for empty seeds
most species (Tanaka 1984), but such temperatures are not
always effective. Cones of most pines open at a kiln temper- P. brutia Water
ature of 54 °C or lower and relative humidity near 20% P. coulteri Water
P. echinata 95% ethanol
(table 6). Cones of a few pine species, including jack, sand, P. echinata Water
and Rocky Mountain ponderosa pines, need temperatures P. elliottii var. elliottii Water
P. glabra 95% ethanol
higher than 54 °C to open (Schubert and others 1970; P. halepensis 95% ethanol
Stoeckeler and Jones 1957; Stoeckeler and Slabaugh 1965). P. nigra 95% ethanol
For all species, however, kiln temperatures will depend on P. palustris Pentane
P. pinaster 95% ethanol
initial cone moisture content, relative humidity, kiln load, P. pinea Water
and the type of kiln in use. The common types of cone kilns P. sabiniana Water
P. strobus 100% ethanol
are rotating tumbler driers, progressive kilns, and tray kilns P. sylvestris Petroleum ether
(Bonner 1991). For additional information on kilns, see P. taeda Water
chapter 3.
Sources: Barnett (1970), Goor (1955), Karschon (1961), Krugman and
Cones that have been stored in containers long enough Jenkinson (1974), Lebrun (1967), McLemore (1965), NBV (1946), Stoeckeler and
Jones (1957),Wakeley (1954).
to dry without opening and cones that have been dried under
Southern species, except for longleaf pine, are de-winged in Longleaf pine must be de-winged dry. In a few pines, de-
mechanical de-wingers that spray a fine mist of water on the winging can be simplified by first wetting the seeds and then
seeds as they slowly tumble; capacities are about 90 kg/hr. drying them. Proper redrying precludes loss in seed quality
The seeds and wing fragments must be dried for separation, (Wang 1973). The loose seedwings can be fanned out
and if seed moisture goes above 10% during the process, (Stoeckeler and Slabaugh 1965; Wakeley 1954). Mechanical
additional drying may be necessary (Bonner 1991).
Pinus • 833
P Table 8—Pinus, pine: cone and seed yields (continued)
P. ponderosa
var. ponderosa — 20–70 .3–1.0 .8–2.6 .6–2.0 15–51 7–23 26 12 185
var. scopulorum Black Hills 39 .6 1.93 1.5 22–34 10–15 29 13 74
P. pumila — — — — — — — 24 11 11
P. pungens West Virginia 30 .45 .52 .4 68–84 31–38 75 34 3
P. quadrifolia California — — — — 1.8–2.6 0.8–1.2 2.1 1.0 3
P. radiata California 9 .14 .39 .3 23–35 10–16 29 13 7
P. resinosa Lake States 10–20 1.5–.3 .64–1.0 .5–.8 66–166 30–76 115 52 529
P. rigida Pennsylvania/
New York 20–30 .3–.45 1.03 .8 94–181 42–82 136 62 10
P. roxburghii India — — — — 6.8–25 3–11 12 25 36
P. sabiniana California — — — — 1.2–1.4 0.5–0.6 1.3 0.6 3
P. serotina SE US — — .52 .4 104–139 47–63 119 54 4
P. sibirica Siberia — — — — 3.5–4.6 1.6–2.1 4.0 1.8 >10
P. strobiformis Arizona 80 11.2 3.5 2.7 5.5–6.4 2.5–2.9 6.0 2.7 10
P. strobus — 20–30 .3–.45 .4–2.2 .3–1.7 39–117 17.5–53 58 26 300
P. sylvestris Europe, E US 20 .3 .5–0.8 .4–.6 74–245 33.8–111 165 75 >346
P. taeda — 20–30 .3–.45 .8–1.7 .6–.63 27–58 12–26 40 18 652
P. thunbergiana Japan, Korea, NE US — — .26–1.0 .2–.8 57–110 26–50 75.0 34 50
P. torreyana California — — — — 8.8–17.6 .4–.8 11.0 0.5 7
P. virginiana — 30 .45 .64–1.2 .5–.9 101–201 46–91 122 55 30
P. wallichiana India — — — — 16–23 7–10 20 9 163
Sources: Barnett and McLemore (1967b), Cooling (1968), Curtis (1955), Debazac (1964), Delevoy (1935), Eliason (1942), Heit (1963, 1969), Karschon (1961), Krugman
and Jenkinson (1974), Letourneux (1957), Luckhoff (1964), Magini and Tulstrup (1955), Miller and Lemmon (1943), Mirov (1936), Nather (1958), NBV (1946), Ohmasa
(1956), Poynton (1961), Pravdin (1963), Rafn (1915), Read (1932), Sen Gupta (1936), Steinhoff (1964), Stoeckeler and Jones (1957), Sudworth (1908), Swingle (1939),
Takayama (1966),Troup (1921), Wappes (1932).
de-wingers can cause severe damage to seeds if they are not age increases in storage (Bonner 1997). If plain water is
used properly. Seeds of 3 pines—bristlecone (Krugman and used to float off empty seeds, the retained seeds should be
Jenkinson 1974), longleaf (Wakeley 1954), and Scots pine dried to moisture contents between 5 and 10% before they
(Kamra 1967)—are highly susceptible to such damage and are stored. Seedlots of some pines, notably lodgepole pine,
demand careful de-winging. De-winged seeds are cleaned can be upgraded with the IDS (incubation-drying-separa-
by using air-screen cleaners, aspirators, or fanning mills to tion) method developed in Sweden (Simak 1984) (see chap-
remove the broken wings, pieces of cone scale, and other ter 3). Cleaned seeds per weight are known for 65 species
impurities. The increasing use of family lots of known and varieties, and cone and seed yields are available for
genetic identity has increased the use of small tumblers, de- many of them (table 8).
wingers, and cleaners and decreased the use of large equip- Seed storage. Pine seeds are orthodox in storage
ment for many species. behavior, and seeds of most species can be stored easily for
After de-winging and cleaning are completed, empty extended periods of time without serious losses in viability
seeds of many pines can be separated from the filled ones (table 6). Seeds of red pine that had been stored for 30 years
with gravity tables or aspirators (see chapter 3). This separa- still produced vigorous seedlings in the nursery, as did seeds
tion can also be done by simple flotation in water for many of shortleaf and slash pines that were stored for 35 years
species, such as loblolly, Coulter, and Italian stone pines. It (Krugman and Jenkinson 1974; Wakeley and Barnett 1968).
is also possible to use organic liquids of suitable specific Lots of slash and shortleaf pine seeds stored for 50 years
gravity on small lots of other species (table 7), but immers- still germinated at 66 and 25%, respectively (Barnett and
ing seeds in an organic liquid like ethanol, pentane, or petro- Vozzo 1985). Seeds of many pines are now routinely stored
leum ether may reduce seed viability. Such reduction can be for 5 to 10 years and more. They should be dried to a mois-
minimized by using a short immersion time and evaporating ture content between 5 and 10% and stored in containers
all traces of the organic liquid from the seeds retained before that prevent absorption of ambient moisture. For long-term
use (Barnett 1970). Seeds sorted in organic solvents should storage of most pine seeds, temperatures of –18 to –15 °C or
be used right away and not stored, as the potential for dam-
Pinus • 835
P Table 10—Pinus, pine: seed germination test conditions and results
P. albicaulis + 8 A, P 30 20 28 — — — —
+ 0 pe, s 21 10 365 — — 30 2
P. aristata 0 A, P 30 20 14 — — — —
24 P 32 21 22 75 7 91 74
0 pe, s 35 20 30 — — 86 >7
P. arizonica 0 P, pl — 24 20 52 10 75 8
P. attenuata + 24 A, P 22 26 30 79 5 92 1
8 s 30 20 120 69 10 85 4
P. banksiana 8 A, P 30 20 14 86 10 87 14
+† 8 s 30 20 8 54 5 69 29
8 s 30 20 23 72 9 75 6
P. canariensis + 0 A — 20 28 58 20 74 9
8 A 20 20 21 63 7 76 4
P. caribaea >8 P 30 20 21 — — 72 3
P. cembra + 0 P, s 30 20 28 — — — —
+ 0 A 30 20 90 21–42 17–37 37 8
+ 0 s 22 20 60 55 28 62 1
P. cembroides 0 B, P — 20 28 — — — —
P. clausa 8 K 20 20 21 86 14 90 19
8 s+v 21 16–18 30 85 20 90 —
P. contorta
var. contorta + >8 A, P, v 30 20 28 — — 60 3
0 pe, s 30 20 50 — — 80 29
var. latifolia + 8 A, P 30 20 21 73 10 80 10
+ 0 s 28 14 62 — — 73 9
–† 0 s 28 14 62 — — 65 12
var. murrayana 10 s 26 26 30 — — 75 3
P. coulteri + 0 P, s 30 20 28 — — — —
+ 8 s, v 30 20 28 — — 37 7
P. densiflora 8 A, P 30 20 21 — — — —
0 s 30 20 30 75 15 87 3
+ 0 s 30 20 24–60 54 15 83 4
0 A — 24 30 — — 74 20
P. echinata >8 A, P 30 20 28 — — — —
8 s+v 22 22 28 88 14 90 139
+ 8 pl + s 22 22 27 81 10 90 148
P. edulis + 0 A 30 20 28 — — — —
+ 0 P 32 21 16 80 7 96 4
P. elliottii
var. densa >8 s+v 22 22 32 30–79 7–11 32–82 30
16 K 22 22 28 86 7 87 28
var. elliotti >8 A, P 30 20 28 — — — —
16 K 22 22 26 80 10 89 392
+ 16 K 22 22 26 75 9 84 83
P. engelmannii 0 P 32 21 16 70 4 88 4
P. flexilis + 0 B, P 30 20 21 — — — —
+ 8 A 30 20 21 — — — —
8 s+v 22 22 27 — — 42 1
+ 8 A 30 20 30 69 14 82 1
P. gerardiana 0 A — 21 30–60 — — 47 2
P. glabra + 8 A, P 30 20 21 — — — —
+ 16 s+v 22 22 30 85 13 98 25
16 s+v 22 22 30 46 30 98 30
P. halepensis 0 A, P — 20 28 — — — —
0 A — 20–22 30 50–66 20 79 5
0 A — 18–19 30 65–80 16–20 89 12
P. heldreichii + 8 A, P 30 20 28 — — — —
+ 8 A 30 20 40 — — 72 14
— A — 21 40 — — 69 1
P. jeffreyi + 8 A, P, s 30 20 28 — — — —
+ 24 P 22 26 30 95 5 99 1
0 v 30 20 21 — — 79 5
P. kesiya 8 A 30 20 28 82 14 86 1
P. koraiensis + 0 s 30 20 60 14 25 18 1
+ >8 P 30 20 28 — — 85–95 4
P. lambertiana + 0 P, s 30 20 28 — — — —
+ — v 30 20 28 — — 59 5
+ 24 P, s 22 26 30 49 21 55 1
P. leiophylla var.
chihuahuana 0 pl — 24 22 60 6 70 3
P. merkusii 8 A 30 20 21 — — 59 1
8 A 20 20 21 — — 67 1
P. monophylla 24 pl 75 21 35 39–50 7 86–90 2
P. monticola + 0 P, s 30 20 28 — — — —
+ 8 pl + s 22 22 71 39 11 44 11
P. mugo 8 A, P 30 20 14–21 — — — —
0 A — 20 30 25 10 45 30
8 A 30 20 20 76 10 80 30
P. muricata 0 A 30 20 35 — — — —
+ 0 v 30 20 21 — — 38 5
+ 24 P 22–26 — 30 70 7 85 1
P. nigra 8 A, P 30 20 14 91 10 92 49
0 A 30 20 30 54 10 86 49
P. palustris 16 P 20 20 21 — — — —
16 s+v 22 22 30 90 10 95 100
P. parviflora 0 P 22 18 10–14 — — — —
+ 8 s 30 20 28 71 35 — —
+ >8 A 25 25 28 — — 80 1
P. peuce + 0 s 30 20 28 — — — —
0 A 20 22 30 — — 69 4
P. pinaster 8 A 20 20 35 — — — —
+ 8 A, P 20 20 28 41 7 79 8
+ 0 A — 20 30 70 20 83 5
P. pinea + 0 s — 20 21 — — — —
+ 8 A 20 20 21 30 7 81 4
0 A — 18 22 88 14 98 3
P. ponderosa
var. ponderosa + 8 A 30 20 21 — — — —
+ >8 A 30 20 21 — — 67 100
0 pe, s 29 18 30–60 14–87 7–29 59 186
var. scopulorum 16 K 22 22 30 84 11 86 4
0 s 20 30 30–60 50 19 64 40
P. pumila + >8 A 30 20 21 — — 77 9
P. pungens 0 pe + s — 21–29 45–60 — — 55 3
0 pe, s — 24 40 — — 65 9
P. quadrifolia + 24 A 22–26 — 30 46 9 69 1
P. radiata + 8 A 30 20 28 — — — —
>8 P 20 20 25 16 7 81 9
>8 v 30 20 28 — — 67 15
P. resinosa 0 A, P 30 20 14 69 10 83 23
0 s 30 20 30 25–75 7–25 75 551
P. rigida 8 A, P 30 20 14 77 10 86 6
+ 0 A 30 20 30 24 10 47 6
8 A 30 20 45 60 18 70 19
Pinus • 837
p Table 10—Pinus, pine: seed germination test conditions and results (continued)
P. roxburghii 0 A — 20–22 30 — — 83 5
0 s — — 30 79 10 81 135
P. sabiniana + 0 s — 22 30 — — 76 3
+ 24 A 22–26 — 30 — — 13 1
P. serotina 8 pl + s 22 22 21 90 10 73 1
P. sibirica + 0 s 20 30 60 — — 7 1
0 A 20 22 >60 — — 40 4
P. strobiformis 0 A 30 20 35 — — 94 8
0 pl — 24 46 — — 39 31
P. strobus + >8 A, P 30 20 21 — — — —
+ >8 K 30 20 40 33 8 100 20
+ >8 K 22 22 40 — — 93 28
P. sylvestris 8 A, P 30 20 14 78 10 81 99
8 A 30 20 30 46 10 59 99
24 s 22–25 — 50 — — 89–99 36
8 A 20 20 30 18–99 14 21–99 18
P. taeda >8 A, P 30 20 28 — — — —
16 pl + s 22 22 30 90 17 90 481
P. thunbergiana >8 A, P 30 20 21 50 10 75 4
>8 A 24 24 30 69 10 76 19
+ 0 A 25 21 28 — — 85 100
P. torreyana + 0 pe, s 27 18 60 — — 81 21
P. virginiana >8 A 30 20 21 — — — —
>8 K 22 22 28 87 10 90 29
0 pe, s 30 20 30 — — 65 5
P. wallichiana >8 A, P 30 20 28 — — — —
0 A 24 21 60 44 20 64 12
Sources: Andresen (1965), Asakawa (1957), AOSA (1965, 1996), Graber (1965), Heit (1958, 1963), Heit and Eliason (1940), ISTA (1966), Kamra (1969), Krugman and
Jenkinson (1974), Luckhoff (1964), Magini (1955), McIntyre (1929), McLemore (1961a), Nather (1958), Ohmasa (1956), Rafn (1915), Rohmeder and Loebel (1940), Rossi
(1929), Sen Gupta (1936), Simak and others (1961).
Note: The + symbol shows that the seeds were pretreated, usually by moist chilling. Letters show the seed germination media that were used, as follows: A = absorbent
paper (filter, blotter), B = blotters supporting and covering seeds, K = Kimpak, P = absorbent medium in covered petri dish, pe = peat, pl = perlite, s = sand or soil,
v = vermiculite.
* Alternating periods of high and low temperatures typically were 8 and 16 hours (8/16).The light period normally coincided with the warmer temperature.Temperatures
of 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 °C equal 50, 59, 68, 77, 86, and 95 °F, respectively.
† Seeds were extracted from old cones.
pines, but extended cold stratification, 6 to 9 months of of Official Seed Analysts (AOSA 1996), International Seed
moist chilling, is much more effective (Heit 1968b; Testing Association (ISTA 1996), and regional organizations
Krugman 1966). In any case, acid scarification is not recom- such as the Western Forest Tree Seed Council (WFTSC
mended for pine seeds (Krugman and Jenkinson 1974). 1966). Extensive research and abundant practical experience
Seeds of some pines, including Swiss stone pine, have developed reliable test conditions and germination data
Korean, Japanese white, and Siberian pine, may have imma- for seeds of 61 species and varieties (table 10).
ture embryos at the time of cone collection. Seed germina- Seed germination can be effectively tested in any medi-
tion has been increased by placing seeds first in moist, warm um or container that provides adequate aeration and mois-
stratification for several months and then in cold stratifica- ture. Seeds of a few pine species need light for reliable tests.
tion for several more months (Asakawa 1957; Krugman and Light, when used, usually is supplied by cool white fluores-
Jenkinson 1974). cent lamps operated for 8 or 16 hours in each 24-hour peri-
Germination tests. For reliable tests of seed viability, od. Several different temperature regimes are employed, but
seeds are germinated in near-optimum conditions of aera- the commonest are a constant 20 °C and an alternating
tion, moisture, temperature, and light. Standardized tests for 30/20 °C. Alternating regimes typically maintain the higher
many of the pines have been established by the Association temperature for 8 hours and the lower one for 16 hours.
Pinus • 839
P Table 11—Pinus, pine: nursery practices
Seed sowing Seedbed mulch Planting stock
Seed chill Density† Depth‡ Depth Yield
Species (days) Season (/ft2) (mm) Material (mm) (%) Type§
Sources: Claveria (1953), Derr (1955), Goor (1955), Heit (1968a), Krugman and Jenkinson (1974), Letourneux (1957), Magini and Tulstrup (1955), NBV (1946), Schubert
and Adams (1971), Shoulders (1961), Stoeckeler and Jones (1957), Stoeckeler and Rudolf (1956), Stoeckeler and Slabaugh (1965),Troup (1921),Veracion (1964, 1966).
Pinus • 841
All pines can be vegetatively propagated by rooting or years, but for many species, production costs for vegetative
P
grafting (Krugman and Jenkinson 1974; O’Rourke 1961; propagules still cannot compete with seedling production
Ticknor 1969). Rooting success for most pines, however, (Greenwood and others 1991). Selected trees of many pines
decreases rapidly when scions are taken from trees older are cloned by rooting cuttings. Grafting is routinely used to
than 5 years. A few, such as Monterey, knobcone, Japanese propagate rare materials and to clone selected superior forest
red, and Japanese black pines, are relatively easy to root, but trees, particularly in orchards designed to supply genetically
only Monterey pine is widely propagated by rooting cuttings improved seeds for intensive forest management programs
under nursery and greenhouse conditions (Thulin and Faulds (Krugman and Jenkinson 1974).
1968). Considerable progress has been made in the last 20
References
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Pinus • 847
P Fabaceae—Pea family
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Nomenclature. Pithecellobium is a genus of about Collection, extraction, and storage. Legumes may
110 species, mostly native to Asia and tropical America. The be picked from the trees or from the ground, and air-dried in
taxonomy of this genus has been changed in recent years, the sun. Seeds can be removed by hand-flailing or by use of
and the names of some species are still in debate. a macerator, and pod fragments can be removed with
Pithecellobium saman (Jacq.) Benth., which was included in screens. There are no long-term seed storage data for
the 1974 edition of this work (Walters and others 1974), guamúchil, but these are typical hardseeded legumes with
became Albizia saman (Jacq.) F. Muell., then Samanea orthodox storage behavior. The seeds should be easy to store
saman (Jacq.) Merr. In the current book, it is included in at low moisture contents (<10%) and low temperatures (any
Albizia. Texas ebony (P. flexicaule (Benth.) Coult.) is now refrigeration) for a number of years.
Ebenopsis ebano (Berl.) Barneby & Grimes and appears Germination. Official seed testing organizations do
under that name in this book. not include guamúchil in their prescriptions for testing, but
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Guamúchil, also tests with a single seedlot in Costa Rica found that germina-
known as Madras thorn and monkeypod, is valued primarily
for its fuelwood, fodder, and ornamental properties (Parrotta
1991). It is found on the Pacific slopes of Mexico and south-
Figure 1—Pithecellobium dulce, guamúchil: flowering twig,
ern California, south to Colombia and Venezuela. Guamúchil leafy twig, legumes, and seeds (from Little and Wadsworth
has been planted in Florida, Puerto Rico, and Hawaii (Little 1964).
and Wadsworth 1964) and has been introduced to India and
Pakistan as a hedge plant (Khatra and others 1994). The
species has become naturalized where planted and is now
considered a pest in Florida (Morton 1976). It is a medium-
sized tree that reaches heights of 22 m.
Flowering and fruiting. Guamúchil’s white flowers
are umbels, about 3 cm in length, that are borne in panicu-
late clusters on branch ends (figure 1). The species flowers
primarily from December to May but is known to fruit
throughout the year in Puerto Rico (Parrotta 1991). Fruits
are linear, curved legumes (pods) that range in length from
10 to 13 cm (figure 1). They turn from green to brown or
black when they ripen in February to August. The legumes
may contain 5 to 12 seeds each, and they are dehiscent
(Parrotta 1991). The seeds are reddish brown to black, ellip-
tical, beanlike, and about 1 cm in length. As the legumes
split open, the seeds often hang down partially enclosed in a
pulpy aril that may be 2 cm long (figure 2). Seeds vary
widely in size, ranging from 6,000 to 26,000/kg (2,720 to
11,800/lb) (Little and Skolmen 1989; Parrotta 1991).
References
Castro KL. 2000. Estudios de germinación en Jaúly Cenízaro. Boletín- Little EL Jr, Wadsworth FH. 1964. Common trees and shrubs of Puerto
Mejoramiento Genético y Semillas Forestales. 24: 1–5 [Seed Abstracts Rico and the Virgin Islands. Agric. Handbk. 249. Washington, DC: USDA
24:3606, 2001]. Forest Service. 548 p.
Gunn CR. 1984. Fruits and seeds of genera in the subfamily Mimosoideae Morton JF. 1976. Pestiferous spread of many ornamental and fruit species
(Fabaceae).Tech. Bull. 1681. Washington, DC: USDA Agricultural in South Florida. Proceedings, Florida State Horticultural Society 89:
Research Service. 194 p. 348–353 [Weed Abstracts 28(5): 1618; 1979].
Khatra LM, Nasir MKA, Saleem R,Valhari MU. 1994. The fatty acid composi- Parrotta JA. 1991. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth, Guamúchil, Madras
tion of Pithecellobium dulce seed oil. Pakistan Journal of Scientific and thorn. SO-ITF-SM-40. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service, Southern
Industrial Research 37: 216. (Seed Abstracts 18(11): 3554. 1995). Forest Experiment Station. 5 p.
Little EL Jr, Skolmen RG. 1989. Common forest trees of Hawaii (native and Walters GA, Bonner FT, Petteys EQP. 1974. Pithecellobium Mart., blackbead.
introduced). Agric. Handbk. 679. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. Seeds of woody plants in the United
321 p. States. Agric. Handbk. 450. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service:
639–640.
Pithecellobium • 849
P Platanaceae—Planetree family
Platanus L.
sycamore
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Growth habit, occurrence, and uses. Sycamores— growth (Ferguson and others 1977) and disease resistance
genus Platanus—are deciduous trees that range from 24 to (Cooper and others 1977) to justify tree improvement pro-
43 m in height at maturity. Two native and 1 introduced grams.
species are included in this manual (table 1). American Flowering and fruiting. The minute monoecious
sycamore is a large and valuable timber species in the east- flowers of sycamores appear in the spring (table 2). The
ern United States and has been widely planted in the dark red staminate flower clusters are borne on branchlets of
Southeast for fiber production, wetlands restoration, and the previous year’s growth, and the light green pistillate
mine spoil reclamation (Haynes and others 1988; Wells and flowers are found on older branchlets (Vines 1960; Wells
Schmidtling 1990). California sycamore is valued for water- and Schmidtling 1990). Sycamore fruiting heads are usually
shed protection and wildlife food, whereas oriental planetree solitary, but California sycamore may have 2 to 7 heads
is primarily planted for ornamental purposes. London grouped on a single stem (Bonner 1974) (figure 1).
plane—P. × aceriolia (Ait.) Willd.—a hybrid between Fruit heads are greenish brown to brown at maturity in
sycamore and oriental planetree, is also widely planted as an the autumn (table 2). Those of sycamore are 25 to 40 mm in
ornamental in the United States because of its tolerance of diameter, and those of the other species are closer to 25 mm.
air pollution and alkali (Little 1961; Dirr and Heuser 1987). The true fruits are elongated, chestnut-brown, single-seeded
No geographic races of these species are recognized, but achenes with a hairy tuft at the base (figure 2). They are
there is sufficient variation within American sycamore for closely packed, with their bases anchored in a hard central
Platanus • 851
lessened when the operation is carried out in the open. The 10% and temperatures of 0 to 5 °C are suitable for short-
P
distributor can be loaded with fruits and pulled along with term storage of up to 5 years. For longer storage periods,
ejection gates closed, or a powered belt can be attached to a sub-freezing temperatures (–18 °C) at the same moisture
jacked-up wheel. With the jacked-up wheel arrangement, content are recommended (Bonner 1979). The upper limit of
clean seeds will work out through the gates, while fruit storage potential for sycamore is not yet known, but current
cores and fluffs of the hairs will collect at the top. research suggests that it will be far beyond 10 years under
Dust, fine hairs, and large trash can also be removed optimum conditions (Bonner 1994). To maintain low seed
from seedlots with air-screen cleaners or aspirators. Studies moisture in moist surroundings, the dried seeds must be
with sycamore have shown that a 3 × 19 mm (7/64 × 3/4 in) stored in moisture-proof containers, such as polyethylene
oblong-hole screen will remove twigs, leaves, and fruit bags or fiber drums with plastic liners (Bonner 1979).
cores, while dust, hairs, and small trash can be removed Several species of Aspergillus fungi have been identified as
with 1.2 mm (1/21) round-hole screens (Bonner 1979). If pathogens that harm viability of sycamore seeds in storage
the seedlot is especially trashy, 2 runs through the air-screen (Fakir and others 1971), but they have never been a major
cleaner may be needed. The smaller cleaners can clean 5 to problem.
7 kg of seeds/hour, and purities of greater than 99% are pos- Pregermination treatments. Moist stratification for
sible. Electrostatic seed cleaners can also do a good job 60 to 90 days at 5 °C in sand, peat, or sandy loam has been
cleaning sycamore. In a test by Karrfalt and Helmuth reported as beneficial for germination of California
(1984), purity was increased from 88 to 99%. Louisiana and sycamore (Bonner 1974). The other sycamores have no dor-
Mississippi collections of sycamore yielded 9 to 14 kg of mancy, and pregermination treatments are usually not
seed/hl of fruitheads, and 55 to 66 kg of seeds/100 kg of required for prompt germination (Bonner 1972a; Webb and
fruitheads (Briscoe 1969). Some representative seed weight Farmer 1968). Germination rate of sycamore can be
data for sycamore are listed in table 3. increased by treating with gibberellin (GA3) at 100 to 1,000
Sycamore is noted for its low proportion of filled seeds, mg/liter, but this increase seems to be simple growth stimu-
a condition due to poor cross-pollination and self-incompati- lation that is not involved in seed dormancy (Bonner 1976).
bility in isolated trees (Beland and Jones 1967). Effective Germination tests. Germination can be easily tested
control of bed density in nurseries can be severely hampered on wet paper or sand or even in shallow dishes of water
by this condition, so upgrading of seedlots by mechanical (table 4). Official testing prescriptions call for alternating
means is highly desirable. Such operations are possible with day/night temperatures of 30/20 °C on the top of moist blot-
gravity separators, aspirators, and electrostatic separators ters for 14 days (AOSA 1993). A large percentage of the
(Bonner 1979; Karrfalt and Helmuth 1984). For exmaple, a sound seeds will usually germinate, but the great variation in
single pass on a gravity separator upgraded a sycamore number of sound seeds among lots will result in varied ger-
seedlot from 27% filled seeds to 56% (Bonner and Switzer mination percentages. Surface sterilization of the seeds with
1974). a 30-second dip in a 1% commercial bleach solution is often
Storage of seeds. Seeds of all sycamore species are beneficial to laboratory germination (Mullins 1976). Rapid
orthodox in storage behavior and can be easily stored for viability tests can also be made on sycamore with tetrazoli-
long periods in cold, dry conditions. Storage tests with um staining and x-radiography (Bonner 1974).
sycamore have shown that seed moisture contents of 5 to
Cleaned seeds/weight
Range Average
Species Place of collection /kg /lb /kg /lb Samples
References
AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 1993. Rules for testing seeds. Ferguson RB, Land SB Jr, Cooper DT. 1977. Inheritance of growth and
Journal of Seed Technology 16(3): 1–113. crown characters in American sycamore. Silvae Genetica 26: 180–182.
Beland JW, Jones L. 1967. Self-incompatibility in sycamore. In: Proceedings, 9th Garrett HE. 1975. Root initiation and development in sycamore seedlings
Southern Conference on Forest Tree Improvement; 1967 June 8–9; and cuttings.Tree Planters’ Notes 26(3): 19–20, 29.
Knoxville,TN. Spons. Publ. 28. Macon, GA: USDA Forest Service, Eastern Haynes RJ, Allen JA, Pendleton EC, Grau GA. 1988. Reestablishment of
Tree Seed Laboratory: 56–58. bottomland hardwood forests on disturbed sites: an annotated bibliogra-
Bonner FT. 1972a. Laboratory germination testing of American sycamore. phy. Biol. Rep. 88(42). Washington, DC: USDI Fish and Wildlife Service,
Proceedings of the Association of Official Seed Analysts 62: 84–87. Research and Development. 104 p.
Bonner FT. 1972b. Maturation of sweetgum and American sycamore seeds. Karrfalt RP, Helmuth RE. 1984. Preliminary trials on upgrading Platanus occi-
Forest Science 18: 223–231. dentalis with the Helmuth electrostatic seed separator. In: Murphy PM,
Bonner FT. 1974. Platanus L., sycamore. In: Schopmeyer CS, tech. coord. comp.The challenge of producing native plants for the Intermountain
Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handbk. 450. area. Proceedings, Intermountain Nurseryman’s Association; 1983
Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service: 641–644. August 8–11; Las Vegas, NV. Gen.Tech. Rep. INT-168. Ogden, UT: USDA
Bonner FT. 1976. Effects of gibberellin on germination of forest tree seeds Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station:
with shallow dormancy. In: Hatano K, Asakawa S, Katsuta M, Sasaki S, 79–81.
Yokoyama T, eds. Proceedings, Second International Symposium on Little EL Jr. 1961. Sixty trees from foreign lands. Agric. Handbk. 212.
Physiology of Seed Germination; 1976 October 18–30; Fuji, Japan.Tokyo: Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 30 p.
Government Forest Experiment Station: 21–32. Little EL Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized).
Bonner FT. 1979. Collection and care of sycamore seeds. Southern Journal Agric. Handbk. 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 375 p.
of Applied Forestry 3(1): 23–25. Mullins JA. 1976. Variation in seed quality of American sycamore (Platanus
Bonner FT. 1994. Predicting seed longevity for four forest tree species with occidentalis L.) [MSc thesis]. Starkville: Mississippi State University, School
orthodox seeds. Seed Science and Technology 22: 361–370. of Forest Resources. 57 p.
Bonner FT, Switzer GL. 1974. Mechanical separation of full and empty Swingle CF (comp.). 1939. Seed propagation of trees, shrubs, and forbs for
sycamore seeds. In: 1974 Southeastern Nurserymen’s Conferences; 1974 conservation planting. SCS-TP-27. Washington, DC: USDA Soil
July 17–18; Nacogdoches,TX and August 6–8; Gainesville, FL. Atlanta: Conservation Service. 198 p.
USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Area State & Private Forestry: Vande Linde F. 1960. Nursery practice for growing sycamore seedlings.
95–100. Tree Planters’ Notes 41: 15–16.
Briscoe CB. 1969. Establishment and early care of sycamore plantations. Vines RA. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Southwest. Austin:
Res. Pap. SO-50. New Orleans: USDA Forest Service. Southern Forest University of Texas Press. 1104 p.
Experiment Station. 18 p. Webb CD, Farmer RE Jr. 1968. Sycamore seed germination: the effects of
Cooper DT, Filer TH Jr, Wells OO. 1977. Geographic variation in disease provenance, stratification, temperature, and parent tree. Res. Note SE-
susceptibility of American sycamore. Southern Journal of Applied 100. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Forest
Forestry 1(4): 21–24. Experiment Station. 6 p.
Dirr MA, Heuser CW Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant prop- Wells OO, Schmidtling RC. 1990. Platanus occidentalis L., sycamore. In:
agation: from seed to tissue culture. Athens, GA:Varsity Press. 239 p. Burns RM, Honkala BH, tech. coords. Silvics of North America.Volume
Engstrom HE, Stoeckeler JH. 1941. Nursery practice for trees and shrubs. 2, Hardwoods. Agric. Handbk. 654. Washington, DC: USDA Forest
Misc. Pub. 434. Washington, DC: USDA. 159 p. Service: 511–517.
Fakir GA, Welty RE, Cowling EB. 1971. Prevalence and pathogenicity of Williams RD, Hanks SH. 1976. Hardwood nurseryman’s guide. Agric.
fungi associated with achenes of sycamore in the field and in storage. Handbk. 473. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 78 p.
Phytopathology 61: 660–668.
Platanus • 853
P Cupressaceae—Cypress family
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi; Mr. Brand is a research forester at the USDA Forest Service’s North Central
Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, Minnesota
Synonym. Thuja orientalis L., T. acuta Moench., Figure 1—Platycladus orientalis, oriental arborvitae:
Platycladus stricta Spach., Biota orientalis (L.) Endl. seeds.
Other common names. Chinese arborvitae, biota.
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Oriental
arborvitae is native to northern and western China and
Korea (Vidakovic 1991). This species was previously includ-
ed in the genus Thuja (Schopmeyer 1974), but it has now
been placed in Platycladus, a monotypic genus. It is a medi-
um-sized tree (approximately 12 m tall) that is widely culti-
vated as an ornamental in the United States. Many ornamen-
tal cultivars have been developed (Dirr and Heuser 1987;
LHBH 1976). The foliage of oriental arborvitae is not as
aromatic as that of Thuja species, and its cones are rather
fleshy (Rushforth 1987). It can be planted in many different
soils and will tolerate drier soils than northern white-
Figure 2—Platycladus orientalis, oriental arborvitae:
cedar—Thuja occidentalis L. Oriental arborvitae should be longitudinal section through a seed.
restricted to regions where the minimum temperature is
above –24 °C (Rushforth 1987).
Flowering and fruiting. Flowering occurs in the
spring, and the cones mature in the fall of the same year.
The cones range from 1.5 to 2.5 cm in length and typically
have 4 fertile scales. The seeds are dark reddish purple and
wingless (figures 1 and 2) (Schopmeyer 1974).
Extraction, cleaning, and storage of seeds. Cones
are usually collected by hand from the branches after they
turn yellow or brown but before they open. Cones will open
partially with only air-drying in the sun or inside at room
temperature, but auxiliary heating is needed for complete
extraction. Most cones should open in 24 to 36 hours when
heated at 30 °C (Dirr and Heuser 1987). Seeds can be shak-
en from the cones with small cone tumblers or similar
devices, then scales and trash can be removed with screens
or seed blowers. If large numbers of empty seeds are pres-
ent, seedlots can be upgraded with the careful use of seed Seeds of this species are orthodox in storage behavior. If
blowers. Oriental arborvitae seeds range from 44,100 to dried to moisture contents of 5 to 10% and stored at near-
55,125/kg (20,000 to 25,000/lb) (Schopmeyer 1974). freezing (0 to 5 °C) temperatures, viability should be main-
Platycladus • 855
P Salicaceae—Willow family
Populus L.
poplar, cottonwood, aspen
Gary W. Wyckoff and John C. Zasada
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The Salicaceae, the most widespread range of any North American tree
the family that includes poplars, cottonwoods, and aspens species, can form large monospecific stands of 40 to 50 ha
(Populus spp.) and willows (Salix spp.), is the most wide- consisting of only one clone. In fact, an aspen clone in
spread group of woody plants in North America. The poplar Colorado is reputed to be the largest living organism known
genus—Populus—is subdivided into 5 sections (Aigeros, (Mitton and Grant 1996). Quaking aspen clones in the Great
Leucoides, Leuce, Tacamahaca, and Turanga) and comprises Lakes region, Alaska, and adjacent Canadian provinces,
30 species, under the common names of poplar, cottonwood, however, are generally small, seldom greater than .03 to 1.5
and aspen. The taxonomy of the genus is complex because ha (Barnes 1966, 1969; Kemperman 1976; Kemperman and
natural variation and hybridization are common among Barnes 1976; Parkerson 1977; Steneker 1973). Aspen in
some sympatric species. In addition, species have been pure and mixed stands covers thousands of hectares in north
introduced from Europe, and both planned and natural temperate and boreal forests. Although some poplar species
hybrids have been produced for use in forestry and horticul- may have fairly large geographic ranges, they are restricted
ture (Barnes 1961; Brayshaw 1966; Ceulemans 1990; in occurrence and often exhibit their best development in (or
Dickmann and Stuart 1983; Eckenwalder 1977, 1980; are restricted to) riparian areas. Plains cottonwood, for
Einspahr and Benson 1964; Little and others 1957; Pregitzer example, occurs primarily in riparian areas in the Great
and Barnes 1980; Rehder 1940; Schreiner and Stout 1934; Plains and occupies little of the dry upland area (Burns and
Spies and Barnes 1982; Stettler and others 1996; Viereck Honkala 1990; Friedman and others 1997; Rood and others
and Foote 1970). The nomenclature and occurrence of the 1995; Stromberg 1993).
North American species and some of the exotic species and Species of the poplar genus occur mainly in early suc-
cultivars are presented in table 1. A thorough coverage of cessional plant communities. They can quickly colonize
the nomenclature, distribution, genetics, evolution, after natural or human disturbances and grow rapidly where
hybridization, biology, and ecology of the genus can be light, exposed mineral soil, and moisture are readily avail-
found in Burns and Honkala (1990), Ceulemans (1990), able. Depending on the species and site, they are usually
Dickmann and Stuart (1983), Dickmann and others (2001), replaced by more shade-tolerant species in 60 to 100 years.
Einspahr and Winton (1977), FAO (1980), Hyun and others However, stands of some species have remained intact for
(1984), Schreiner (1971), Smith (1943), Stettler and others more than 200 years in boreal forest environments in the
(1996), and Stout and Schreiner (1933). Rocky Mountains. In areas with fire return intervals of 50 to
The genus is wide ranging in North America (Burns and 100 years, single clones of a species like aspen may persist
Honkala 1990). There are some unique aspects to the distri- for many centuries or, as some theorize, thousands of years
bution of the poplar genus. Balsam poplar has the northern- (Barnes 1966; Burns and Honkala 1990; Mitton and Grant
most (and westernmost) range of any tree in North America, 1996). Although poplars are often viewed as being replaced
as it grows in the foothills transition from the Brooks Range by more tolerant trees, stands in the western Great Plains are
to the Arctic coastal plain in northern Alaska and in the replaced by grassland communities if they are not disturbed
Mackenzie River delta in the Yukon (Viereck and Little by periodic flooding (Friedman and others 1997).
1972). These northernmost stands are associated with ripari- Utilization and value of the genus can be considered in
an areas. The distribution of poplar species within their nat- relation to their use in intensive culture and agroforestry
ural ranges varies considerably. Quaking aspen, which has plantations and in naturally occurring forests. Natural stands
P. x acuminata Rydb. (pro sp.) lanceleaf cottonwood, S Alberta, Montana,W North Dakota,
P. accuminata var. rehderi (Sarg.) lanceleaf poplar, smooth-bark Wyoming,W Nebraska, E Colorado,
cottonwood, & Andrews poplar & New Mexico
P. alba L. white poplar, abele Central & S Europe to W Siberia &
Central Asia
P. angustifolia James narrowleaf cottonwood, S Saskatchewan & Alberta S to Arizona,
narrowleaf poplar, black cottonwood, W Nebraska, & trans-Pecos Texas;
mountain cottonwood, álamo also in N Mexico (Chihuahua)
P. balsamifera L. balsam poplar, tacamahac poplar, Alaska to Labrador, S to New York
cottonwood, hackmatack, tacamahac & Oregon
P. balsamifera L. spp. trichocarpa black cottonwood, California S Alaska & S Yukon to S California
(Torr. & Gray ex Hook.) Brayshaw poplar, cottonwood, balsam & W Nevada; local in Wyoming, SW
P. trichocarpa Torr. & Gray cottonwood, western balsam poplar North Dakota, & Lower California
P. x canescens (Ait.) Sm. (pro sp.) gray poplar Europe & W Asia
P. deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh. eastern cottonwood, Quebec to North Dakota, S to Texas &
eastern poplar Florida
P. deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh. plains cottonwood, plains SW Utah, Nevada, to N California, S
ssp. monilifera (Ait.) poplar, cottonwood,Texas to Arizona & New Mexico, NW Mexico
P. deltoides var. occidentalis Ryb. cottonwood
P. deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh. ssp. Rio Grande cottonwood, Rio S Colorado, S Utah, New Mexico,W
wislizeni S.Wats. Grande poplar, cottonwood, Texas, & N Mexico
P. fremontii var. wislizeni S.Wats. valley cottonwood,Wislizenus
cottonwood, álamo
P. euphratica Olivier Euphrates poplar, bahan, Spain & W Morocco to Kenya, E to
Gharab-Palk-Saf-Saf Central Asia
P. fremontii S.Wats. Fremont cottonwood, Fremont SW Utah, Nevada, to N California,
poplar, cottonwood, Arizona S to Arizona & New Mexico, NW Mexico
cottonwood, Macdougal cottonwood,
álamo
P. grandidentata Michx. bigtooth aspen, largetooth Nova Scotia to NE North Dakota, S to
aspen, aspen, poplar, popple Iowa & Pennsylvania, & along
Appalachian Mtns to North Carolina
P. heterophylla L. swamp cottonwood, swamp Coastal plain from Connecticut & SE
poplar, cottonwood, black New York to Georgia & NW Florida,
cottonwood, river cottonwood, W to Louisiana, N in Mississippi
downy poplar Valley to Indiana, Ohio, & S Michigan
P. laurifolia Lebed. laurel poplar Siberia
P. maximowiczii A. Henry Japanese poplar NE Asia & Japan
P. nigra L. black poplar, European black poplar Europe & W Asia
P. x petrowskiana R.I. Schrod. ex Regel Petrowsky poplar, Russian poplar Europe
P. sieboldii Miq. Siebold aspen, Japanese aspen Japan
P. simonii Carriere Simon poplar NW China to Korea
P. tremula L. European aspen, tremble, Europe, North Africa, & NE Asia
Zitterpappel
P. tremuloides Michx. quaking aspen, quaking asp, Labrador to Alaska, S to Pennsylvania,
aspen, golden aspen, mountain Missouri, N Mexico, & Lower
aspen, trembling aspen,Vancouver California
aspen poplar, popple, alamo blanco
of aspen, in particular, but other species too, are the basis vested stand. Poplars have provided lumber for various uses
for the pulp and paper industry in the north central United and are important in the manufacture of reconstituted board
States and western Canada (Einspahr and Wyckoff 1990). products. Throughout human association with these species,
Their ability to rapidly reoccupy a site by root suckering virtually every part of the tree has been used for purposes
following harvest makes management of the species rela- that range from medicines to livestock feed to providing
tively easy. There is essentially no regeneration cost provid- bark for carving art objects. Pure and mixed forests are
ed that care is taken to protect the root system of the har- important wildlife habitat. In the Great Plains areas of the
Populus • 857
western United States and Canada, where they are the only Poplars are ideal for short-rotation, intensive-culture
P
tree cover, cottonwoods provide critical habitat for some management systems because (a) species and hybrids can
species (Friedman and others 1997; Rood and others 1995; be produced easily and propagated vegetatively, (b) juvenile
Stromberg 1993). They provide bark and male flowerbuds growth is rapid, (c) response to cultural treatments is rapid,
for specialist species such as beaver (Castor canadensis) and and (d) coppicing following harvest is prolific (Mitchell and
ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) as well as forage for gener- others 1992; Stettler and others 1996). Poplar species are
alist browsers such as moose (Alcea alcea), elk (Cervus ela- also readily propagated from tissue culture (Ostry and Ward
phus), and deer (Odocoileus spp.) (Burns and Honkala 1990; 1991). Indeed, the first tree derived from tissue culture with
Dickmann and Stuart 1983; Dickmann and others 2001; both a shoot and attached root was a quaking aspen clone
Graham and others 1963; MacKinnon and others 1992; (Winton 1968a). Tree growth models are available for exam-
Peterson and Peterson 1995; Viereck 1987). ining and predicting growth of poplar clones under different
Poplars have long been important as ornamentals and in cultural regimes (Isebrands and others 1990; Stettler and
horticulture (tables 1 and 2). They were commonly used for others 1996).
amenity plantings in urban areas as ornamentals and land- In addition to classic tree breeding, advances have
scaping. In rural areas, they have been used in shelterbelts occurred due to the development of new genotypes using
and as ornamentals. The most rapidly increasing use of the molecular genetics techniques (FAO 1980; Mitchell and
species today is in intensive culture for wood fiber and bio- others 1992; Stettler and others 1996).
mass for energy in such diverse climates as the lower Despite the large geographic range of the Salicaceae and
Mississippi Valley, western and eastern Washington, and the huge variation in growth form, there is remarkable uni-
western Minnesota. Shortages of fiber due to regulation of formity in many aspects of the seed biology, dispersal, and
harvesting to protect critical wildlife habitat and old-growth germination. Thus information for willows, Salix spp.
forests, declining traditional forest land base, and concerns (Zasada and others 2005)—particularly those dispersing
about effects of carbon dioxide (CO2) from combustion of seeds during the summer—is relevant to poplar,
fossil fuels have renewed interest in intensive culture. Populus spp.
Table 2—Populus, poplar, cottonwood, aspen: height at maturity, first cultivation, minimum seed-bearing age, and seed
crop frequency
Minimum Years
Height at Year first seed-bearing between large
Species maturity* (m) cultivated† age (yr) seedcrops
Populus • 859
P Table 3—Populus, poplar, cottonwood, aspen: phenology of flowering and fruiting
marized below, but for more detail refer to Einspahr and • Branches or grafted material from female clones are
Benson (1964), Farmer and Nance (1968), Gladysz (1983), brought into a controlled environment after cold
Johnson (1945), Larsson (1975), Stanton and Villar (1996), requirements have been satisfied. This is usually timed
Stettler and others (1980, 1996), Wettstein (1933), and to be several days after male branches are collected or
Wyckoff (1975). after pollen has been extracted. The best length for cut
branches is about 1 m. The cut stems are treated as
• Branches with flower buds are collected from male described above for male branches. Alternatively, graft-
clones in late winter after cold requirements for dor- ed or rooted cuttings have been recommended for
mancy have been satisfied. The branches are incubated species with large catkins or with longer flowering and
in a controlled environment in water-filled containers. seed maturation periods such as occur in eastern cot-
(Water should be changed 2 to 3 times per week. tonwood.
Before branches are placed in water and each time the • As the female flowers begin to elongate, pollen is
water is changed, their ends should be recut. This applied with a brush or atomizer. Pollen is sometimes
removes 1 to 2 cm of wood and exposes fresh xylem to applied to flowers over several days to ensure good
maintain water uptake.) Pollen is usually produced in 1 pollination and seed yield. Small quantities of viable,
to 2 weeks, depending on species and temperature con- select pollen are often mixed with heat-killed pollen to
ditions. Pollen can be collected and stored in a desicca- extend the amount available. To make crosses between
tor for 1 to 2 months at about 0 to 1 °C and low individuals with poor compatibility, irradiated or other-
humidity. For longer storage, the pollen should be kept wise sterile pollen (mentor pollen) from a compatible
under vacuum at –20 °C according to the procedure source is mixed with the desired viable pollen (Stettler
described by Hermann (1969). and Guries 1976). It may be necessary to remove a sig-
Populus • 861
Flowering of 24- to 36-year-old grafted clones of big- The distance traveled by poplar seeds during primary
P
tooth aspen (3 female and 7 male) was also followed in the dispersal equals or exceeds that for any tree species in North
above-mentioned Wisconsin arboretum. The female clones America. If seeds should land in a river, the distance of
flowered in 35% of the years in a 20- to 25-year observation secondary dispersal can also be great. Aspen seed rain
period and the males in 18% of the years. Flowering of indi- and seedling establishment have been observed in significant
vidual female clones occurred in from 29 to 40% of the quantities at distances of 5 to 10 km from the nearest seed
years; male clones flowered in 0 to 50% of the years source (Dyrness and others 1988; Zasada 1996; Zasada and
(Wyckoff 1996). Densmore 1979). Large quantities of seeds are deposited in
Mature catkins are made up of many capsules, each the parent stand too. The dispersal unit—seed plus hairs,
developed from an individual flower (figures 1 and 2). The also referred to as “cotton” and “coma” (Fechner 1972;
number of viable seeds per capsule has been reported to Fechner and others 1981; Roe and McCain 1962)—is very
vary from 2 to 7 for quaking aspen (Brown 1989; Henry and buoyant and ideally suited for both vertical and horizontal
Barnes 1977; Nagaraj 1952; Spies 1978); 2 to 10 for big- long distance movement by wind and air turbulence. The
tooth aspen (Henry and Barnes 1977); 2 to 4 for hairs are an outgrowth of epidermal cells of the ovule and
bigtooth–quaking aspen hybrids (Henry and Barnes 1977); are attached to the seed near the radicle (Fechner 1972). The
about 1 for white poplar (Spies 1978); 1 to 2 for white deployment of these hairs has been described by Lauten-
poplar hybrids with bigtooth aspen (Spies 1978); and 8 to 15 schlager (1984) and Lautenschlager and Lautenschlager
(Nagaraj 1952), 32 (Bessey 1904), and 40 to 60 for eastern (1994) for Willow and briefly summarized by Zasada and
cottonwood (Farmer and Nance 1968). Estimates of seed others (2005).
production per catkin for quaking aspen have varied consid- Estimating seed rain in the Salicaceae is more difficult
erably among studies and locations: 500 in central Alberta than in other trees because of the small size and short life of
(Brown 1989), 77 in northern Wisconsin (Rudolph 1978) seeds and the type of dispersal unit. Water-filled seed traps
280 to 290 in southern Michigan, (Henry and Barnes 1977; and germination seed traps have proved useful (Walker and
Spies 1978), and 150 to 300 in central Wisconsin (Einspahr others 1986; Zasada 1996; Zasada and Densmore 1979), as
and Benson 1964). Henry and Barnes (1977) reported 500 have traps that use sticky substances. Water is a particularly
seeds per catkin for bigtooth aspen. Spies (1978) reported good medium in which to catch seeds because once the dis-
about 11 seeds per catkin for white poplar, 281 for quaking persal unit lands on water it remains and because Salicaceae
aspen, and 102 for the hybrid P. × rouleauiana Boivin. seeds germinate in water, allowing an assessment of
viability.
Figure 2—Populus, poplar: catkins consisting of mature A seed consists of an embryo surrounded by a thin
but unopened capsules.—P.deltoides ssp. monilifera, plains
transparent seedcoat. Seeds are very small, measuring but a
cottonwood (top); P. fremontii, freemont cottonwood
(middle); P. freemontii ssp. wislizeni, Rio Grande cottonwood few millimeters in length and width (figures 3, 4, and 5).
(bottom). There may be a rudimentary endosperm, but it apparently
contributes nothing to the vigor of seeds during germination
(Simak 1980). Nagaraj (1952) reports that the endosperm is
completely consumed by the developing embryo in both
quaking aspen and eastern cottonwood. The dry seeds tend
to be tan to straw-colored in some species and green in oth-
ers. Seed weights can vary substantially within a species and
among sympatric species. For example, quaking aspen seeds
were reported to weigh 0.127 g/1,000 seeds (223,200/oz)
(Spies 1978), 0.133 g/1,000 seeds (212,000/oz) (Benson
1972), and 0.035 g/1,000 seeds (818,000/oz) (Henry and
Barnes 1977) and bigtooth aspen, 0.091 g/1,000 seeds
(312,000/oz), 0.093 g/1,000 seeds (306,000/oz), and 0.021
g/1,000 seeds (1,350,000/oz), respectively, for seeds of the
2 species collected in different years. The seed size of
hybrids may be intermediate or smaller than that of their
parents (Henry and Barnes 1977; Spies 1978). Tables 4 and
Populus • 863
P Table 4—Populus, poplar, cottonwood, aspen: seed weights by soil sieve size (20 to 50 mesh)*
Seeds (millions)/weight
20-mesh 28-mesh 40-mesh 50-mesh
Species /g /oz /g /oz /g /oz /g /oz
species, for example cottonwood, requires larger mesh Figure 5—Populus, poplar: longitudinal section through
screens (Einspahr and Schlafke 1957). Nests of sieves rec- the embryo of a seed.
ommended for aspen are 20-, 28-, 40-, and 50-mesh soil
screens from top to bottom (Harder 1970). Seeds were col-
lected on the 40- and 50-mesh screens, with the best seeds
on the 28- and 40-mesh screens for aspen and 20- to 28
mesh screens for cottonwood (Fung and Hamel 1993;
Harder 1970; Rudolph 1978). Larger quantities of seeds may
be cleaned efficiently in a rotating drum with or without a
fan to blow the seeds through the wire seed screen; the cot-
ton will remain in the drum. Small quantities of seeds can be
separated from the cotton by rubbing them over a wire soil
screen with suitably small mesh, by hand, or with a heavy
brush (Faust 1936; Maisenhelder 1951). However, only
about 20% of the seedlot can be extracted by this method
(Maisenhelder 1951). Simak (1980) stresses that dried seeds
can be brittle and damaged with rough handling during the
extraction process.
Debris can be partially removed from poplar seedlots by
carefully applying low-pressure air to seeds placed in a
500-ml Erlenmeyer flask held at a 30 to 45% angle. A high-
ly efficient technique used routinely by the University of
Minnesota’s Aspen and Larch Genetics Cooperative employs 1980), although Wang (1982) reported good long-term stor-
a vacuum seed sorter built after the one described by age at 11 to 15% moisture content (dry-weight basis). Seed
Edwards (1979). Seedlots cleaned by this technique are vir- viability is maintained at lower moisture contents, but there
tually free of contamination, an important consideration is an indication that seedling vigor is reduced under these
when seeds are to be sown mechanically in containers. conditions (Simak 1980). Recommendations for drying time
Storage of seeds. Under natural conditions, poplar to achieve these approximate moisture contents have varied:
seeds have been reported to maintain viability from 2 weeks for example, 2 to 3 days at 21 °C (Moss 1938); 3 to 8 days
to a month, varying with species, season, and microenviron- at 24 °C (Faust 1936); air-drying for 7 days (Tauer 1979); 1
ment. There is some evidence that poplar seeds may have a day at 35 to 40 °C, and 1 day of drying over calcium chlo-
longer lifespan under apparently adverse conditions such as ride (CaCl2) (Simak 1980). If achieving a specified moisture
in colder soils (Graham and others 1963; McDonough 1979; content is important, a method should be used that attains
Moss 1938; Trappe 1964; Zasada and Densmore 1977). the desired content as quickly as possible while not affecting
Poplar seeds are one of the best examples of seeds with seed viability.
a short life-span (microbiotic seeds) among tree species. A number of research trials have compared storage
However, with proper drying and storage at subfreezing under vacuum and with various desiccants to storage in
temperatures in sealed containers, the viability of seeds of sealed containers; unfortunately, the results are not defini-
eastern cottonwood (Tauer 1979, 1995; Wang 1982), and tive. In some cases, they work and in others they seem to be
quaking and bigtooth aspen (Benson and Harder 1972, of no benefit or may even have a negative effect on viability.
1996; Wang 1982) have been maintained at fairly high levels Benson and Harder (1972) compared 4-year germination
for 10 to 12 years. Loss in viability during these relatively results from 40-mesh aspen and aspen hybrid seeds stored
long storage periods varies among species and trees within over calcium chloride in a desiccator at 4.4 °C and –24 °C.
species (Asakawa 1980; Benson and Harder unpublished Freezer storage maintained higher levels of viability in each
data; Fechner and others 1981; Simak 1980; Tauer 1979, of the 4 years with the exception of 2 hybrids of bigtooth
1995; Wang 1982; Zasada and Densmore 1977, 1980). For aspen during the first year. By year 4, all seedlots stored at
example, Tauer (1995) found that percentage germination 4.4 °C were either nonviable or had considerably reduced
varied from 3 to 53% among individual trees after 12 years germination. Freezer-stored seeds maintained a high level of
of storage, whereas initial germination ranged from 47 to germinative ability at the end of 4 years, with the exception
100%. of gray poplar hybrids. Benson and Harder’s study (1977,
There is no single method of storage found to be gener- 1996) indicates that germination of freezer-stored seed of
ally acceptable for all species (Simak 1980). There are sev- quaking aspen dropped from an average of 98% to 65% over
eral elements that are important for maintaining long-term a 10-year period. Hybrid seeds and 50-mesh seeds generally
viability. Prestorage drying during capsule opening and had lower germination than quaking aspen and 40-mesh
immediately after extraction is essential for successful stor- seeds after 10 years of freezer storage. Seed viability of 3 of
age (Simak 1980). The desired moisture content for several 4 open-pollinated cottonwood seedlots stored at –24 °C over
species seems to lie between 6 and 10% (dry weight basis) calcium chloride did not decrease during 8 years of storage.
(Simak 1980; Tauer 1979; Zasada and Densmore 1977,
Populus • 865
Hellum (1973) found that balsam poplar seedlots stored 1979; Schreiner 1974; Simak 1980).
P
in sealed containers without desiccant at 7 °C and 21 to 24 Poplar seeds do not exhibit dormancy; they germinate at
°C rapidly lost viability after 130 days at both temperatures. temperatures ranging from 2 to 40 °C (figure 7). Simak
Cold-stored seedlots retained viability longer (40 vs 5% at (1980) provides a thorough description of abnormal germi-
200 days) but viability dropped to 5% at 245 days. nation in Salicaceae. Average time required for aspen seeds
Simak (1980) reported that storage of European aspen to achieve various stages of germination under greenhouse
seeds with a desiccant reduced viability because it dried conditions are indicated in hours and days (Wyckoff 1996).
seeds to a sub-optimal moisture content. Simak (1980) con- Optimum temperatures for germination may vary with
cluded that, when using desiccants, the desired moisture species and possibly within widely distributed species like
content of the seeds should be known and the type and quaking aspen, but they appear to be in the range of 20 to
quantity of desiccant should be selected to achieve the 30 °C. Germination rate increases with temperature but
desired conditions. For example, seeds will equilibrate at the appears to be fairly uniform above 15 to 20 °C and may
desired moisture content in an atmosphere of 10 to 30% rel- decline slightly above 30 to 35 °C (figure 7). Temperatures
ative humidity, and thus the desiccant should be selected above 35 °C caused a large decline in germination in aspen
that provides these conditions (Simak 1980). The optimum but had little effect on eastern cottonwood (Farmer and
rate of drying is not known. Tauer (1979, 1995) reported Bonner 1967; Faust 1936; Moss 1938; McDonough 1979;
that there was no difference in viability between cottonwood Zasada and Densmore 1980; Zasada and Viereck 1975).
seeds stored with and without a vacuum at –22 °C after Seeds germinate fully in complete darkness, but rate of ger-
about 6 years. However, after 12 years, seeds from different mination may be less than in light (Asakawa 1980;
families stored in a vacuum germinated at 10 to 99%, McDonough 1979).
whereas those without vacuum germinated at 3 to 53%. Germination occurs on a wide variety of substrates.
The one aspect of storage about which there seems to be Some Populus species appear to have fairly exacting require-
no question is temperature conditions for long-term storage. ments for germination whereas others are less affected.
Seeds should be extracted and placed in subfreezing storage Substrates with a steady supply of water during germination
as soon as possible. Seeds from boreal and Arctic species and early seedling development and a neutral or slightly
and those from warm climate species all seem to have the acidic to slightly basic pH provide conditions for maximum
same general requirements. Temperatures from –5 to –24 °C germination (Dickmann and Stuart 1983; Farmer and
seem acceptable and easy to achieve and maintain (Benson Bonner 1967; Faust 1936; Fechner and others 1981;
and Harder 1972; Fechner and others 1981; Moss 1938; McDonough 1979; Segelquist and others 1993). Seeds ger-
Simak 1980; Tauer 1979; Wang 1982; Zasada and Densmore minate while floating in water or when fully submerged
1977, 1980). Seeds can be stored at 0 to 5 °C, but longevity (Hosner 1957; Krasny and others 1988). Substrates with
is shorter and high levels of abnormal germination may high salt concentrations appear to reduce germination poten-
occur sooner than at sub-freezing temperatures. tial (Faust 1936; Krasny and others 1988; McDonough
Germination tests. The criteria used to define germi- 1979; Shafroth and others 1995).
nation are important when evaluating germination in the At the University of Minnesota’s Aspen and Larch
Salicaceae. The standards proposed by Simak (1980) for Genetics Cooperative, seeds are germinated on damp filter
Salix and Populus germination provide a basis for assessing paper in petri dishes for viability checks. However, for esti-
germination (figure 6). The work of Simak (1980) illustrates mates of germination and vigor of seedlots to be used in
convincingly that use of criteria that do not include all of the nursery beds and containers, seeds are sown in clay saucers
stages leading up to appearance of a “normal” seedling may filled with commercial soil-less mix. This technique is more
be suspect. Development of the hypocotyl hairs—or “coro- important for seedlots with germination less than 70 to 80%
net” as described by Fechner and others (1981)—and attach- because it gives a more accurate prediction of cell occupan-
ment of these hairs to the substrate is a departure from the cy in containers and seedlings per area in seedbeds
usual pattern of epigeal germination (other species do not (Wyckoff 1996).
have these specialized hairs) and should be an assessment Aspects of germination outlined above apply to newly
criteria for germination. The average time elapsed to achieve collected seeds. Results may vary for the following reasons:
the various stages of development under greenhouse condi-
tions are shown in figure 6; they will, however, vary depend- • Seeds stored for varying lengths of time may germinate
ing on temperature and water availability (McDonough slowly and exhibit poorer germination than would be
Populus • 867
density of 265 viable seeds/m2 (25/ft2) to produce 42 to 63 (3- to 4-inch) tall seedlings are transplanted into seedbeds at
P
plantable seedlings/m2 (4 to 6/ft2) at lifting. The beds are densities of 43 to 54 seedlings/m2 (4 to 5 seedlings/ft2) and
lightly watering again after sowing, then covered with grown for one season. On average, it requires 1.5 to 2 viable
1.3-cm (1/2-in) mesh hardware cloth and 50% shadecloth seeds to produce 1 container seedling with a minimum
(Wyckoff 1996). Sowing is often done by hand: enough 5-mm (0.2-in) root collar diameter; 5 to 6 viable seeds to
seeds to cover a given area of bed space are weighed out produce a bareroot seedling with a minimum 7-mm (0.3-in)
and sprinkled from vials with small holes drilled in the caps. root collar diameter; and 2.7 seeds to produce a plug+1
Mechanical sowing is used where seeders capable of han- bareroot seedling with a minimum 7-mm (0.3-in) root collar
dling such small seeds are available. diameter. Seedlings grown in the plug +1 regime attain
Seedbeds are watered from an overhead irrigation sys- heights of 1 m (3.2 ft) in a single growing season (Wyckoff
tem as needed during the first 3 weeks to maintain a moist 1996).
surface without runoff or standing water; the seedbed covers The following features are common to all growing
are left in place during irrigation. The shadecloth is removed systems:
at 3 weeks, having served primarily to reduce surface drying
and allowing irrigation without removal of seedbed covers. • Sowing is most efficient when seeds are separated from
The hardware cloth is left in place until seedlings begin to the hair, which makes it easier to control seeding den-
reach it, for it can serve as protection against hail. Seedlings sity and distribution in nursery beds and containers.
are lifted in the fall after leaf drop, then graded and placed • It is necessary to determine seedlot viability prior to
in polyethylene lined boxes for storage at –2 to –4 °C. sowing; this is particularly important for seeds that
Packing material such as sphagnum moss, shredded wet have been stored for several or more years.
newsprint, and hydromulch have been used to keep roots • Covering seeds with more than a few millimeters of
from desiccating during storage. The same technique has soil may significantly reduce germination
also been used successfully with cottonwood, balsam poplar, (Maisenhelder 1951; McDonough 1979; Richter 1936).
and poplar hybrids (Wyckoff 1996). • Maintaining adequate water content of the seedbed sur-
Containers of different sizes and shapes have been used face is critical for germination and establishment.
to produce aspen seedlings. However, plug-type containers Application of a fine spray of water causes less flood-
with cavity volumes of 350 to 450 cm3 (21 to 27 in3) pro- ing of the seedbed and less seed movement, resulting
vide sufficient growing space to produce a large seedling in more rapid seedling establishment and more effi-
with 5 to 7 mm (0.2 to 0.3 in) root collar diameters and 60 cient use of seeds.
cm (2 ft) heights in 1 growing season (Burr 1985; Wyckoff • Shading may be beneficial during germination, but
and others 1995). The containers are typically sown by hand seedlings will grow most rapidly in full light (Burns
or with precision mechanical seeders, germinated in a green- and Honkala 1990).
house, then moved outside for the remainder of the growing • Use of a fungicide may be necessary because of the
season. Seedlings are planted in the same year that they are continuous high moisture levels during early develop-
grown or stored for planting the following year. The time of ment (Shea and Kuntz 1956). This may be more criti-
planting will determine the sowing schedule, provided cal in greenhouse production where temperature and
greenhouses can be heated (Carlson and Fung 1996). relative humidity are more conducive to development
A third technique, using both greenhouse and nursery of damping-off fungi.
beds to produce plug+1 bareroot aspen seedlings, combines
the advantage of seed-use efficiency of greenhouse contain- Seedling production is important in breeding and clone
ers with the production of a high number of large-diameter development, but once desirable clones have been identified
seedlings from seedbeds (Wyckoff 1996). Typically, seeds for use in intensively managed biomass and energy planta-
are mechanically sown into horticulture bedding flats with tions they are propagated exclusively by vegetative repro-
cavity volumes of 15 to 25 cm3 (0.9 to 1.5 in3) and 1,280 duction. For a discussion of various aspects of vegetative
cavities/m2 (119/ft2). These are kept under greenhouse con- reproduction see Dickmann and Stuart (1983), FAO (1980),
ditions for 8 to 9 weeks. At the end of this time, 8- to 10-cm Stettler and others (1996), and Dickmann and others (2001).
Andrejak GE, Barnes BV. 1969. A seedling population of aspens in Einspahr DW, Benson MK. 1971. Sex ratio and flowering in quaking aspen.
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Bartr. [PhD dissertation]. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, School seed.Tree Planters’ Notes 51: 17–18.
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Kay CE. 1993. Aspen seedlings in recently burned areas of Grand Teton decline of riparian cottonwoods along the St. Mary River, Alberta.
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Kemperman, JA. 1976. Aspen clones: development, variability, and identifica- Rudolph TD. 1978. Seed yield and quality in Populus tremuloides with
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Populus • 871
P Fabaceae—Pea family
Prosopis L.
mesquite
Franklin T. Bonner
Dr. Bonner is a scientist emeritus at the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station,
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. Mesquites—the mesquites occurs generally from late March to September in
genus Prosopis—are deciduous, thorny shrubs or small trees the Southwest (Sargent 1965; Vines 1960). In Hawaii,
native to the tropical or subtropical regions of the Western mesquite begins to flower at ages of 3 to 4, and although
Hemisphere, Africa, the Middle East, and India (Sargent flowering can occur throughout the year, it is most frequent
1965). Three native and 1 naturalized species are considered in January to March (Skolmen 1990). The fruit is an inde-
here (table 1); all are small trees, rarely exceeding heights of hiscent legume (pod) that ripens from August to September
15 m. Mesquite wood is an excellent source of fuel and (figure 1) (Martin and Alexander 1974). Ripe legumes are
charcoal and enjoys heavy local use for fenceposts, typically yellowish in color, although legumes of velvet
crossties, and furniture. Mesquite legumes make high-quali- mesquite may also be a mottled red and black at maturity
ty forage for livestock and wildlife, and the seeds were (Ffolliott and Thames 1983). Legumes of mesquite, honey
widely used by native American peoples in the Southwest mesquite, and velvet mesquite are flat in shape and vary
(Davis and others 1975; Martin and Alexander 1974; Vines from 10 to 30 cm in length. Those of screwbean mesquite
1960). The crude protein contents of honey and velvet are coiled and may be as long as 70 cm. The flat, tan or
mesquite seeds are 31 and 24%, respectively (Becker and brown seeds range from 1.5 to 7 mm in length (Ffolliott and
Grosjean 1980), and the legumes of honey mesquite are high Thames 1983; Sargent 1965) (figure 2).
in carbohydrates (Harden and Zolfaghari 1988). Mesquite
flowers are a source of excellent honey, especially in Hawaii
(Skolmen 1990). The tree is a hardy nitrogen-fixer and has Figure 1—Prosopis juliflora, mesquite: legume.
been planted for erosion control in Hawaii, as well as for
highway landscaping and mine spoil reclamation in the
Southwest (Day and Ludeke 1980).
Flowering and fruiting. Mesquite’s tiny, perfect
flowers are greenish white or greenish yellow in color. They
are 2 to 3 mm in diameter and are borne in spike-like axil-
lary racemes some 3 to 10 cm long. Flowering of the
P. glandulosa Torr. honey mesquite E Texas & Oklahoma to Utah, S California, & N
Mexico
P. chilensis var. glandulosa (Torr.) Standl.
P. juliflora var. glandulosa (Torr.) Cockerell
P. juliflora (Sw.) DC. mesquite, kiawe (Hawaii) Mexico, S to Brazil & Peru
P. pubescens Benth. screwbean mesquite, Trans-Pecos Texas to Utah & S California
screwbean, tornillo
P. velutina Woot. velvet mesquite, SW New Mexico, central Arizona, NW Mexico
P. juliflora var. velutina (Woot.) Sarg. mesquite
Prosopis • 873
P Table 2—Prosopis, mesquite: germination test conditions and results
Prunus L.
cherry, peach, and plum
Ted J. Grisez, Jill R. Barbour, and Robert P. Karrfalt
Dr. Grisez retired from the USDA Forest Service’s Northeastern Forest Experiment Station; Ms. Barbour is a
germination specialist at and Mr. Karrfalt is the director of the USDA Forest Service’s National Tree Seed
Laboratory, Dry Branch, Georgia
Growth habit, occurrence, and use. The genus necessary to grow the rootstocks and in breeding programs.
Prunus—often called the stone fruits—is one of the most The most important rootstock species and their scion combi-
important genera of woody plants. Its 5 well-marked sub- nations include almond rootstock for almonds and plums;
genera include the plums and apricots (Prunophora), the apricot for apricots; mazzard cherry for sweet cherries;
almonds and peaches (Amygdalus), the umbellate cherries mahaleb cherry for sweet and sour cherries; peach for
(Cerasus), the deciduous racemose cherries (Padus), and the peaches, almonds, apricots, and plums; American plum for
evergreen racemose or laurel cherries (Laurocerasus). Plums plums in cold climates; Bessey cherry for dwarf peaches;
can be distinguished from peaches and almonds by lack of a bullace plum (St. Julien types) for plums; myrobalan plum
terminal bud, multiple flowers from a bud, and an elongated (mariana types) for almonds and plums; and myrobalan
pedicel (Janick and Moore 1996). Plums can be distin- plum (myrobalan types) for plums (Cochran and others
guished from cherries by the lack of a terminal bud, the 1961; Sudworth 1908). Certain strains of peach, mahaleb
presence of a suture, a waxy bloom on the fruit, and a flatter cherry, and myrobalan plum are preferred for use as root-
pit. stocks because of their resistance to pests or for other quali-
Nearly 200 species—ranging from prostrate shrubs to ties (Cochran and others 1961; Hedrick 1915).
trees over 30 m tall—are found in the Northern Temperate Black cherry is the most important timber-producing
Zone, with a few in Central and South America (Harlow and species in the genus, but several others that attain sufficient
Harrar 1958; LHBH 1978; Rehder 1940). By far the greatest size, such as mazzard cherry and mahaleb cherry in Europe
number of species of cherries occur in eastern Asia (Hedrick and Japanese flowering cherry (P. serrulata Lindl.) in Japan,
1915), but most of the long-cultivated food-producing are used for wood products. Minor products include drugs,
species originated in Europe and western Asia (table 1). cordials, flavorings, honey, and perfume oil (Edlin 1967;
Over 100 species have been brought under cultivation, most- Hedrick 1915). Probably all wild species are useful to
ly as food crops or ornamentals (Rehder 1940), and 32 of wildlife as food. Birds and mammals eat the fruit, rodents
the more important species for planting in the United States eat the seeds, and deer (Odocoileus spp.) and beaver (Castor
are described in table 1. canadensis) use the leaves, twigs, and bark (Grisez 1974;
Many of the stone fruits have been cultivated since Martin and others 1951; Van Dersal 1938). Several thicket-
ancient times for their edible fruits and a few for edible forming species of plums and cherries provide cover.
seeds (almonds). Wild species have also been a source of Livestock feed on several species but others can be poison-
food for Native Americans and early European settlers in ous (Van Dersal 1938). Several species are used for erosion
this country and are still used to some extent. Many selec- control and in shelterbelts (Engstrom and Stoeckeler 1941;
tions of wild plums have been propagated for fruit produc- Grisez 1974). In addition to those indicated in table 1, sour
tion. Several species are useful as ornamentals because of cherry, European bird cherry, and sloe are used for erosion
their showy flowers, variety of growth habits, relatively fast control in Russia; and the same species plus mazzard cherry,
growth and ease of cultivation, and adaptability to a wide apricot, myrobalan plum, garden plum, and pin cherry are
variety of soils and climates (Hedrick 1915; Olson and used in shelterbelts (Al’benskii and Nikitin 1956; Koreisho
Nagle 1965; Rehder 1940; Strausbaugh and Core 1964). and Morozov 1955).
Trees for fruit production and many ornamentals are Geographic races and cultivars. Very few racial dif-
propagated by budding or grafting, but seed production is ferences affecting seed characteristics have been recognized.
Prunus • 875
P Table 1—Prunus, cherry, peach, and plum: nomenclature, growth habit, and occurrence
Differences in seed size, germination percentages, and other have large stones and little flesh, while the pits are smaller
characteristics have been recognized, but these are likely to and there is more flesh with the opposite extremes in envi-
be treatment differences or simply random variations. For ronment.” The weights of black cherry seeds increase with
example, the moisture content of seeds (which is seldom latitude (Pitcher 1984), ranging from 7 g in Florida to 14 g
reported) and tree-to-tree variation can have more effect than in northern Michigan. There is a significant negative corre-
place of origin on numbers of seeds per weight (Grisez lation (r = –0.35) between seed size and germination in that
1974). According to Hedrick (1915), “Cherries of any vari- smaller seeds have better germination (Pitcher 1984).
ety grown on poor soils or in uncongenial climates tend to
There often are great differences among cultivars or intermediate (Tukey 1927). The final stage of fruit develop-
groups within each of the domesticated fruit species, partic- ment is the rapid growth of the pericarp, and in early ripen-
ularly in the percentage of viable seeds. In mazzard and ing cultivars of these species and peach, this stage begins
sour cherries, the late-ripening cultivars, which require 80 before the embryo reaches full size (Tukey 1936). Garden
days from flowering to fruit ripening, produce seedcrops plum also shows wide variation in germination capacity
with nearly 100% sound seeds. On the other hand, early among cultivars tested under identical conditions (Suszka
cultivars, which require 60 days or less to ripen, produce 1967). Immature embryos have been brought to a ger-
almost no sound seeds. Those ripening in 60 to 75 days are minable stage by (1) growing excised embryos in artificial
Prunus • 877
culture, (2) storing whole fruit (Hesse and Kester 1955), and 1969; Knuth 1906–09; Rehder 1940). The developed endo-
P
(3) not picking until the fruit is over-mature (Zielinski carp and seed are commonly called the stone or pit. Dates of
1958). Current technology allows the successful culture of flowering and fruiting are listed in table 2. Seeds are distrib-
ovules as small as 0.6 mm (Janick and Moore 1996). Only uted mainly by birds and mammals (Grisez 1974). Fruit
32% of embryos <10 mm long produce plants, compared to diameters of most species are between 5 and 25 mm, but
78% for larger embryos (Ramming 1990).
Non-viability of apparently normal seeds derived from Figure 1—Prunus, cherry, peach, plum: seeds of P. ameri-
crossbreeding cherries or plums has been a problem cana, American plum (upper left), P. angustifolia, Chickasaw
plum (upper middle); P. armenica, apricot (upper right);
(Cochran and others 1961). The Duke cherries—hybrids of
and P. persica, peach (bottom).
mazzard cherry and sour cherry—often have empty seeds
(Hedrick 1911).
Flowering and fruit-ripening dates vary among cultivars
of a species grown in the same location (Hedrick 1911,
1915; Kester 1969). Individual trees of black cherry vary in
a similar manner (Grisez 1974), and the same variation can
be expected in other wild species. The food quality of fruit
varies greatly among wild plants of Bessey cherry and the
plums. Selections of 15 species of plums have been grown
under cultivation for their fruit (Hedrick 1911, 1915).
American plum seeds from northern Minnesota germi-
nate much better at a temperature of 10 °C than at higher
temperatures, whereas those from Nebraska germinated as
well and more rapidly at 21 °C (night) to 27 °C (day)
(Grisez 1974).
In apricots, the variety called Russian apricot is hardier Figure 2—Prunus, cherry, peach, plum: seeds of P. avium,
than the typical form (Grisez 1974). Mazzard cherry culti- mazzard cherry (top left); P. padus, European bird cherry
vars require 5 to 6 days longer to begin germination in strat- (top right); P. pumila var. besseyi, Bessey cherry (second
ification than wild mazzard cherry (Suszka 1967). row left); P. pensylvanica, pin cherry (second row right);
P. cerasus, sour cherry (third row left); P. pumila, sand
In a provenance study of black cherry, Cech and
cherry (third row right); P. marginata, bitter cherry
Kitzmiller (1968) found that the pattern of variation for seed (fourth row left); P. serotina, black cherry (fourth row
traits is random throughout most of its range. However, right); P. mahaleb, mahaleb cherry (fifth row left); P. virgini-
seeds from the southern and southwestern parts of the range ana, common choke cherry (fifth row right); P. subcordata,
in the United States were characteristically lighter in weight Klamath plum (bottom left); and P. umbellata, hog plum
and smaller in diameter as well as having thinner endocarps (bottom right).
than seeds from other areas. Geographic locations and moth-
er trees contributed about equally to the variability in total
germination.
Flowering and fruiting. The flowers of nearly all
species are bisexual. They normally have 5 white or pink
petals and 15 to 20 or more stamens. In general, the pistil
matures 3 or 4 days before the stamens (Hedrick 1915). The
flowers are solitary, in umbel-like clusters or racemes, and
usually appear before or with the leaves. The flowers are
insect-pollinated. Except for plums and sweet cherries, most
species are self-fertile and thus a tree will set fruit without a
cross-pollinator (Janick and Moore 1996).
Of the 2 ovules, only 1 normally develops, resulting in
a 1-seeded drupe. The drupe is thick and fleshy (except in
the almonds) and has a hard, bony endocarp surrounding the
seed itself (figures 1–3) (Fernald 1950; LHBH 1976; Kester
Sources: Altman and Dittmer (1962), Bailey (1976), Bonner (1975), Fernald (1950), Grisez (1974), Hedrick (1911), Hedrick (1915), Hitchcock and others (1961), Kester
(1969), Koreisho and Morozov (1955), Long (1923), McMinn (1959), Mirov and Kraebel (1937, 1939), Munz and Keck (1959), Pane (1966), Petrides (1958), Radford and oth-
ers (1964), Rehder (1940), Sudworth (1908),Van Dersal (1938).
* Collecting dates.
† Average dates of height of bloom for one to several cultivars.
those of almonds, apricots, plums, and peaches are larger the fruits are picked prematurely (Tukey 1927). Height,
(table 3). seed-bearing age, seedcrop frequency, and fruit descriptions
Collection of fruits. Prunus fruits should be collected of 24 species are listed in table 3. Color and condition of the
when fully mature (Al’benskii and Nikitin 1956; Swingle fruits indicate maturity. For those species in which the ripe
1925; Zielinski 1958); doing so facilitates cleaning and is fruit color is nearly black, the preripe color is red. In red-
more likely to result in good germination (Grisez 1974; fruited species, the preripe color may be yellowish or partly
Huntzinger 1968). It is especially important in certain culti- green and red (Grisez 1974). Almonds are ready to harvest
vars when the seeds are in a critical stage at the time the when the husks (mesocarps) of fruits in the inner parts of
fruits are ripe and may not develop to a sound condition if the tree crown have split (Kester 1969).
Prunus • 879
Figure 3—Prunus persica, peach: longitudinal section Cleaning is done by macerators or hammermills with water
P through a seed showing no endosperm. Seven species of to float off or screen out the pulp (Defler 1937; Dorn and
Prunus have seeds without endosperm and 20 species have Flick 1969; Grisez 1974; Hartman and Kester 1959;
seeds with endosperm.
Huntzinger 1968; Steavenson 1940; Stoeckeler and Jones
1957). Hammermills should have worn or rounded hammers
and be run at low speed (Mugford 1969). Small quantities
may be cleaned by soaking and rubbing the fruits over a
screen (Haut 1938; Jones 1963; Paton 1936) or by use of a
household food blender (Huntzinger 1968).
Fermentation has been used to soften fruit to facilitate
cleaning (Engstrom and Stoeckeler 1941; Grisez 1974;
Rudolf 1961), but it is risky because the germination capaci-
ty of seeds may be severely reduced if seeds are allowed to
become too warm or ferment too long (Cochran and others
1961; Engstrom and Stoeckeler 1941; Fogle 1958; Heit
1967). Fruits that are badly infested with brown rot should
be discarded because this disease can spread through the
seedlot (Janick and Moore 1996).
There is little need to separate out sound seeds in most
species because the percentage of sound seeds is usually 96
to 100%, but it may be desirable in certain cultivars of com-
mercial fruits. Separation of sound seeds of sour cherry has
Fruits are collected by hand-stripping or by spreading been done with 95% ethyl alcohol, density 0.8114 (Tukey
sheets of suitable material under trees to catch the natural 1927). A 17% salt solution (density 1.176) has been used to
fall or fruits that are shaken or beaten off the tree (Grisez separate the heavy seeds of mazzard cherry, mahaleb cherry,
1974; Huntzinger 1968; Stoeckeler and Jones 1957). Small and pin cherry, but the method is not always reliable
quantities can be picked from the ground (Huntzinger (Cummings and others 1933). Seeds that float in water can
1971). Black cherry fruits may be collected from trees be removed in the cleaning process, but some seeds that sink
felled in logging, but when fruits have reached the dead-ripe are not viable (Swingle 1925; Tukey 1927). The same meth-
stage, a high proportion of them will be knocked off during ods should not be used with dried seeds because included air
felling (Huntzinger 1968). Mechanical tree shakers are used spaces can cause good seeds to float.
in many commercial fruit orchards (Kester 1969; Miller Seed yields and weights are listed in table 4. Additional
1960). There is even a machine to pick prunes (certain culti- data include the following weights per volume of fruit: sour
vars of garden plum) from the ground (Miller 1960). cherry nested in water, 77 kg/hl (60 lb/bu) (Tennes and oth-
Fruits may be carried in bags in small quantities—or in ers 1968); black cherry, 72 kg/hl (56 lb/bu) (Stoeckeler and
large quantities if they are to be processed immediately Jones 1957); and Manchu cherry, 77 to 85 kg/hl (60 to 66
(Huntzinger 1971)—but boxes or baskets provide better lb/bu) (Grisez 1974). A bushel of black cherry fruit yields
protection against bruising and spoilage (Al’benskii and 5 kg (11 lb) of seed (Stoeckeler and Jones 1957).
Nikitin 1956). Commercial cherries are often transported in Storage. Early experiences suggested that excessive
water (Tennes and others 1968). Although this method was drying for storage was detrimental (Cochran and others
designed to protect the fruit, it could also be used to prevent 1961; Engstrom and Stoeckeler 1941; Fogle 1958; Grisez
spoilage and fermentation until the seeds are cleaned. 1974; Huntzinger 1968; Olson and Nagle 1965; Stoeckeler
Extraction of seeds. Although satisfactory results and Jones 1957); however, what was excessive was not
have been obtained in a few cases by handling and sowing defined. Very early ripening female parents may not produce
whole fruits (Engstrom and Stoeckeler 1941; Huntzinger fruits with fully mature embryos and these fruits should not
1968), it is generally desirable to clean the seeds of all pulp be allowed to dessicate (Janick and Moore 1996). Apricot
and juice (Heit 1945; Huntzinger 1968; Marcet 1951; seeds can be dried to 6% moisture, mazzard cherry to 9 to
Nyholm 1951; Robertson 1948–49; Shumilina 1949). 11%, and mahaleb cherry to 8% for storage without impair-
Sources: Bailey (1976), Everett (1957), Fernald (1950), Giersbach and Crocker (1932), Grisez (1974), Gysel and Lemien (1964), Hedrick (1911, 1915), Huntzinger (1971),
Kester (1969), Koreisho and Morozov (1955), Munz and Keck (1959), Peck (1961), Petrides (1958), Rehder (1940), Strausbaugh and Core (1964), Van Dersal (1938).
* Minimum commercial seed-bearing age.
† Ages are for seedling stock; grafted or budded stocks bear seeds 1 or 2 years younger (Wright 1966).
ing their germination (Suszka 1964). Seeds to be sown or ly requires only a few hours (Huntzinger 1968). The mois-
stratified immediately need not be dried at all. Seeds to be ture content of black cherry seeds has been reduced from
used within a few weeks or months should only be surface- about 14% to 5% by drying at 32 °C for 3 hours
dried; apparently, excessive drying of seeds to be used with- (Huntzinger 1971).
in a year of collection is often harmful (Grisez 1974; Sealed containers are preferred for Prunus seeds if the
Huntzinger 1968). For storage of 1 year or more, it is desir- moisture content is to be closely controlled. Seeds of maz-
able to reduce the moisture content of seeds below the zard cherry were dried to a moisture content of 11% and
surface-dry condition. For mazzard cherry, the optimum stored in sealed bottles at 1 °C for 4 1/2 years. During this
moisture content is 9 to 11%, with optimum temperatures of period, viability decreased from 93% to 84% (Suszka 1970).
–1 to 3 °C for storage up to 3 years and –10 °C for longer Plastic bags have been satisfactory for storage of black
storage (Suszka and others 1996). The results of several cherry seeds for at least 3 years at cold temperatures
storage studies are reported in table 5. In most cases, drying (Huntzinger 1971). Cloth sacks may serve for short periods
is done at room temperatures or lower. Surface drying usual- in cool temperatures (Suszka 1967). Maheleb cherry and
Prunus • 881
P Table 4—Prunus, cherry, peach, and plum: seed data
Seed weight/45 kg
(100 lb) of fruit Cleaned seeds/weight
Range Average Range Average
Species kg lb kg lb /kg /lb /kg /lb Samples