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Despite their high prevalence, asso- of medical complications in EDNOS are explosive physical and cognitive devel-
ciated morbidity and mortality, and similar to full-threshold disorders.15 opment that occurs during this period
available treatment options, eating Although female patients account for lends itself to substantial differences
disorders (EDs) continue to be under- most ED diagnoses, males have ac- in the presentation of EDs in children
diagnosed by pediatric professionals. counted for 10% of ED cases over the and adolescents; pediatricians are fre-
Many adolescents go untreated, do not past years,4 with some studies report- quently the front-line providers diag-
recover, or reach only partial recovery. ing up to 25% of cases being male.16 nosing these disorders. An ED should be
This article provides an update of the Furthermore, younger patients diag- suspected in a patient of any weight who
current ED literature in children and nosed with EDs are more likely to be presents with weight loss, unexplained
adolescents. Anorexia nervosa (AN), boys, with a female to male ratio of 6 growth stunting or pubertal delay, re-
bulimia nervosa (BN), and other EDs are to 1, compared with a 10 to 1 ratio in strictive or abnormal eating behaviors,
presented. The epidemiology, etiology adults.3,17 Dieting behaviors are a risk recurrent vomiting, excessive exercise,
and pathogenesis, clinical presenta- factor for developing an ED and are trouble gaining weight, or body image
tion, and diagnosis of EDs are reviewed. highly prevalent; ∼50% of girls and concerns. Younger patients are likely to
New diagnostic criteria from the Di- 25% of boys report dieting during the have atypical presentations; instead of
agnostic and Statistical Manual, 5th past year.18 Moreover, 30% of girls and rapid weight loss, they may present with
edition (DSM-5), updates on complica- 15% of boys had disordered eating failure to make expected gains in weight
tions of EDs, and advances in their behaviors severe enough to warrant or height and may not endorse body
evidence-based treatment are high- medical evaluation, and 9% of girls and image concerns or engage in binge
lighted, as is the role that primary care 4% of boys reported daily self-induced eating or purging behaviors.17,24 Boys
providers (PCPs) have in positively af- vomiting.19 and children and adolescents who
fecting treatment outcomes and the are overweight or obese are at risk
prevention of EDs in children and ado- for delayed diagnoses and significant
lescents. ETIOLOGY complications3,25,26; these populations
The exact etiology of EDs is unknown; require heightened vigilance by pro-
there is thought to be an interface viders. Adolescents with chronic ill-
EPIDEMIOLOGY between genetic and biological pre- nesses, especially insulin-dependent
Pediatric EDs are more common than dispositions, environmental and socio- diabetes mellitus, are also at higher
type 2 diabetes, and the epidemiology is cultural influences, and psychological risk of developing ED behaviors and
changing, with higher rates of EDs in traits. Evidence continues to increase should be screened regularly.27–31
younger children, boys, and minority that EDs are heritable, with relatives of Screening tools, such as the brief SCOFF
groups.1–3 The lifetime prevalence of ED patients having 7 to 12 times greater questionnaire,32 although only vali-
AN is between 0.5% to 2%,4 with a peak risk of developing an ED.20–22 Twin dated in adults, are used in the primary
age of onset of 13 to 18 years.5 AN has studies have estimated heritability of care setting for ED screening in ado-
a mortality rate of at least 5% to 6%,6,7 AN between 33% and 84% and BN be- lescents (Table 1). In addition, pro-
the highest mortality rate of any psy- tween 28% and 83%.4,22 Research is viders should evaluate all patients for
chiatric illness.8 The lifetime preva- ongoing to identify specific chromo- high-risk behaviors, such as dieting or
lence of BN is higher at between 0.9% somes, genes, and proteins that may excessive exercise, and follow their
and 3%,9,10 with an older age of onset of play a role in the development of AN growth trajectories and BMI to assess
16 to 17 years.11 Although mortality and BN.4 There are also neurobiological
rates in BN are estimated to be ∼2%,12 factors being studied in EDs, but it is
the risk of lifetime suicidality and sui- uncertain whether they contribute to TABLE 1 The SCOFF Questionnairea
cide attempts in BN are much higher.6 the development of EDs or result from 1. Do you make yourself Sick because you feel
On the basis of the criteria from the the physiologic alterations caused by uncomfortably full?
fourth edition of the DSM, most ado- EDs.23 2. Do you worry you have lost Control over how
much you eat?
lescents were diagnosed with EDs not 3. Have you recently lost more than One stone
otherwise specified (EDNOS), a group (14 lb/6.3 kg) in a 3-month period?
of heterogeneous disorders composed CLINICAL PRESENTATION 4. Do you believe yourself to be Fat when others say
you are too thin?
primarily of subthreshold AN or BN.13 Adolescence is a critical period of de- 5. Would you say that Food dominates your life?
The estimated lifetime prevalence of velopment and a window of vulnera- a One point for every “yes”; a score of $2 indicates a likely
EDNOS in adolescents is 4.8%.14 Rates bility during which EDs can develop. The case of anorexia nervosa or bulimia.
TABLE 3 Differential Diagnosis of EDs binge in secret. The frequency of re- Patients with chronic purging are at
Endocrine disorders current episodes of binge eating was risk for cardiomyopathy, and up to one-
Hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism decreased in the DSM-5 similar toBN.33,38 third of hospitalized patients with AN
Diabetes mellitus have mitral valve prolapse and pericar-
Hypercortisolism
Additional new categories in the DSM-5
Adrenal insufficiency with likely impact are avoidant restric- dial effusion.41,43,46,51 Several small stud-
Gastrointestinal disorders tive food intake disorder, other speci- ies have demonstrated almost complete
Inflammatory bowel disease
fied feeding and EDs, and unspecified reversibility of both structural and
Celiac disease
Infectious diarrhea feeding and ED. “Avoidant restrictive functional derangement,43,51 although
Immunodeficiency or chronic infections (ie, HIV, food intake disorder is not uncommon ipecac abuse can lead to an irrevers-
tuberculosis) in children35,39 and comprises a variety ible cardiomyopathy.52–55 Serious car-
Psychiatric disorders diac complications are not unique to
Depression of restrictive eating behaviors (ie, swal-
Obsessive compulsive disorder/anxiety lowing phobias, textural aversions) AN but are also seen in other normal-
Substance abuse that do not involve a fear of weight gain weight EDs, particularly atypical AN
Other disorders and BN.15,56–62
Superior mesenteric artery syndrome
or distorted cognitions but lead to
Malignancies significant physical and emotional im-
Central nervous system tumors (ie, pairment. Other specified feeding and
prolactinoma) Gastrointestinal
EDs refers to atypical AN (normal-
Pregnancy
weight AN), subthreshold BN, purging Gastrointestinal complications may oc-
Excessive exercise/energy imbalance
Rheumatologic disease disorder, and night eating syndrome. cur secondary to malnutrition, vomit-
Wilson’s disease Unspecified feeding and ED comprises ing, or binge eating. Complications
Porphyria secondary to malnutrition include de-
any other clinically significant EDs that
do not fit the aforementioned catego- layed gastric emptying,63 constipa-
ries.33,39 tion, mild transaminitis, dyslipidemias,
criteria but are not required if the
and superior mesenteric artery syn-
patient persistently fails to recognize
drome.48,64–66 Patients who vomit risk
the seriousness of his or her low body Complications esophagitis, and in severe cases, esoph-
weight.
EDs can affect every organ system, ageal rupture and pneumomediastinum.
The hallmark of BN is recurrent episodes and complications can occur at any They may present with reflux, hema-
of binge eating accompanied by in- weight.16,24,40,41 It is important for pro- temesis or parotid swelling.67,68 Patients
appropriate compensatory behaviors. viders to act quickly and decisively with AN typically report abdominal
An objective binge episode involves when they suspect an ED in all patients bloating, nausea, and postprandial
eating more food in a discrete period of to avoid complications and the poten- fullness. Patients with binge eating
time than most people would eat, cou- tial for chronicity. behaviors are at risk for gastric di-
pled with feeling a loss of control. DSM-5 lation or rarely gastric rupture and
criteria for BN require objective binge pancreatitis.69,70
episodes andsubsequent compensatory CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
behaviors at least once per week for 3 Cardiac complications are common15,40,42;
months. Patients with BN may be of any patients with EDs often present with bra- Electrolytes
weight and often have frequent weight dycardia, hypotension, arrhythmias, and Electrolyte disturbances occur in pa-
fluctuations from fluid shifts. Caregivers changes in heart rate variability.15,40,43–46 tients who engage in vomiting, laxative
or peers may notice the development of Hypotension and postural changes in abuse, or diuretic use, with hypokale-
mood swings, surreptitious behaviors heart rate and blood pressure can mia and hypophosphatemia being the
(ie, increased time in the bathroom after result from decreased cardiac mass most common.71,72 Hypochloremic met-
meals, hiding food), or periods of fasting leading to systolic dysfunction, in addi- abolic alkalosis may develop in pa-
or excessive exercise.9,33 tion to volume depletion and autonomic tients who vomit, and hyperchloremic
The distinguishing feature between BED dysfunction.16,24,42–44,47,48 Associated phys- metabolic acidosis may develop in
and BN is that episodes of binge eating ical symptoms may include headache, those who abuse laxatives.73 Patients
are not associated with inappropriate presyncope, syncope, and exercise in- with malnutrition are at risk for refeed-
compensatory behaviors. Patients with tolerance, although patients are fre- ing syndrome during treatment, which
BED and BN display marked distress quently asymptomatic even in the face includes hypophosphatemia,74 hypokale-
regarding binge eating and will often of profound vital sign instability.16,24,48–50 mia,73,75,76 and hypomagnesemia.77
TABLE 4 American Academy of Pediatrics Criteria for Inpatient Hospitalization in Eating Disorders
Hematologic
Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia Nervosa
Bone marrow hypoplasia is seen in low-
Heart rate ,50 beats/min daytime; , 45 beats/min Syncope
weight EDs, primarily leukopenia and nighttime
anemia, with rare cases of thrombo- Systolic blood pressure ,90 mm Hg Serum potassium ,3.2 mmol/L
cytopenia. Leukopenia is not thought to Orthostatic changes in pulse (.20 beats/min) or Serum chloride ,88 mmol/L
blood pressure (.10 mm Hg)
increase infection risk, and all dys- Arrhythmia Esophageal tears
crasias resolve with the reversal of Temperature ,96°F Cardiac arrhythmias including prolonged QTc
malnutrition. It is important to evaluate ,75% ideal body weight or ongoing weight loss Hypothermia
despite intensive management
for iron and vitamin B12 deficiency in
Body fat ,10% Suicide risk
anemic patients because these are Refusal to eat Intractable vomiting
easily reversed with supplementation. Failure to respond to outpatient treatment Hematemesis
Finally, when evaluating for systemic Failure to respond to outpatient treatment
thought to develop maladaptive eating syndrome to which their disorder is conducted over a 6- to 12-month time
behaviors in part because of overly most similar.122 Children with textural period.114 Whereas in traditional treat-
controlling caregivers. This approach aversions or swallowing phobias may ments, fewer than half of AN patients
focuses on developing insight into the also benefit from targeted occupa- fully recover within 2 to 5 years, a third
etiology of the disorder in psychody- tional therapy.123,124 Finally, transla- partially recover, and 20% develop
namically informed individual treat- tional research is underway targeting chronic illness,126 50% to 60% of pa-
ment and/or cognitive behavioral known deficits in neurocognitive pro- tients in FBT achieve full remission
therapy (CBT). These therapies focus on cesses, neurotransmitters affected in within 1 year, another 25% to 35%
the patient’s distorted body image and EDs, and neuroanatomic changes found partially recover (showing improve-
undue influence of weight and shape on imaging studies to tailor treatment ment but not full remission), and only
with a drive for thinness. A newer and improve treatment response in 15% are nonresponsive to treatment.
paradigm takes into account the bi- patients with EDs.88–101 Thus, FBT is emerging as a first-line
ological and genetic contributions to treatment in pediatric EDs.113
EDs and views caregivers as critical The role of the PCP during FBT is im-
Family-Based Treatment
allies in treatment.112 In this approach, portant to the success of treatment.127
nutritional rehabilitation is considered In FBT an agnostic view is taken and the The PCP can serve as a consultant to
an important factor in improving cog- focus is not on the etiology of the dis- both the caregiver(s) and the FBT pro-
nitions and is the primary initial focus order. Caregivers are not blamed but vider, in addition to providing ongoing
of treatment rather than causation, instead empowered to refeed their comprehensive medical assessments
with age-appropriate insight develop- child back to health. The therapist and and monitoring. It is essential for the
ing over time. This corresponds with any other providers are considered PCP to support the FBT provider in
the tenets of family-based treatment consultants to caregivers in this work. explaining the seriousness of the
(FBT).113,114 Siblings are also supported in this medical complications and prognosis
treatment because they frequently have of the ED and the importance of early
Evidence for effective treatments in EDs
numerous concerns about their sick and aggressive treatment, in addition
in children and adolescents is growing
brother or sister.125 Additionally, the to removing blame for the ED from ei-
but remains limited. Primary treatment disorder is externalized from the child
modalities in pediatric AN are individual ther the caregiver(s) or the child. Fi-
to release blame toward the child nally, it is imperative that the PCP
therapy, CBT, and FBT. FBT has the for their disorder.114 FBT progresses support complete weight restoration
largest evidence base of any treatment through 3 phases that target the goals in the adolescent and full remission of
of efficacy in adolescent and young of treatment in children and adoles- the ED. Skills learned by the PCP in
adult AN populations with multiple cents with EDs: physical, behavioral supporting FBT are useful regardless
clinical trials; there is also growing and psychological recovery. Phase I of of the modality chosen for ED treat-
evidence that it is useful for children FBT focuses on coaching the caregivers ment because they help PCPs align with
under age 12 with restrictive EDs.113–116 to refeed their child to recovery and remain respectful of caregivers.113
FBT is superior to other currently through specific therapeutic interven-
available treatment methods, but its tions. Food exposures are commonly
use is limited by a paucity of qualified used to target anxieties and aversions Pharmacotherapy
practitioners. Although some differ- to certain foods or food groups; care- Pharmacologic agents are often used in
ences between FBT and individual givers are encouraged to incorporate patients with EDs, despite few studies
treatment diminished at long-term foods their children used to enjoy be- demonstrating efficacy. There have
follow-up, FBT was more protective fore the ED rather than to practice been no published randomized con-
against relapse.115 CBT has been stud- avoidance. Once the child is weight- trolled trials (RCTs) for antidepressant
ied in adolescents with BN and shows restored, FBT progresses to Phase II, treatment in AN conducted in children
promise, but there is growing evidence which focuses on gradually trans- and adolescents, and selective seroto-
that FBT is also effective9,117–120; addi- ferring developmentally appropriate nin reuptake inhibitors and tricyclic
tional research is needed comparing control of eating back to the child or antidepressants have not been shown
the 2 methods. CBT has also demon- adolescent. Phase III works on relapse to be better than placebo in weight gain
strated efficacy in BED.121 In subthresh- prevention and any other remaining or improvement in ED symptoms in
old disorders, it is recommended that developmental considerations, and then adult AN. There are also no large RCTs on
the patient be treated based on the full treatment termination. FBT typically is the use of atypical antipsychotics in the
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http://classic.pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/collection/nutrition_s
ub
Eating Disorders
http://classic.pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/collection/eating_dis
orders_sub
Psychiatry/Psychology
http://classic.pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/collection/psychiatry
_psychology_sub
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Pediatrics is the official journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics. A monthly publication, it
has been published continuously since . Pediatrics is owned, published, and trademarked by the
American Academy of Pediatrics, 141 Northwest Point Boulevard, Elk Grove Village, Illinois,
60007. Copyright © 2014 by the American Academy of Pediatrics. All rights reserved. Print
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Pediatrics is the official journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics. A monthly publication, it
has been published continuously since . Pediatrics is owned, published, and trademarked by the
American Academy of Pediatrics, 141 Northwest Point Boulevard, Elk Grove Village, Illinois,
60007. Copyright © 2014 by the American Academy of Pediatrics. All rights reserved. Print
ISSN: .