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The Neuroscience of
Improvisation
Abstract: Current research in the neuroscience of musical creativity reveals prom-
ising implications for the value of learning to improvise. This article outlines the
neuroscientific literature on musical improvisation and relates these findings to the
benefits of musical creativity. We begin by describing the neural substrates of flow
with respect to the mechanisms of improvisation. We then discuss how neuroscien-
tific literature supports the argument that musical improvisation is a powerful means
to express oneself and communicate with others, facilitating self-actualization and
deeper connections with peers. Music educators can use these discoveries to bolster
their advocacy for the use of creativity in music education and support their use of
improvisation in the classroom.
Keywords: brain research, creativity, discoveries, flow, improvisation, improvise,
neuroscience
Andrew T. Landau is a PhD candidate in the Program in Speech and Hearing Bioscience and Technology at Harvard University,
Boston, Massachusetts. He can be contacted at atlandau@g.harvard.edu. Dr. J. Charles Limb is the Francis A. Sooy Professor
at the UCSF Medical Center’s Department of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery, San Francisco, California. He can be
contacted at Charles.Limb@ucsf.edu.
NAfME is glad to offer one hour of professional development recognition to you for reading this article.
Copyright © 2017 National Association
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http://bit.ly/NeuroscienceOfImprovisation DOI: 10.1177/0027432116687373
http://mej.sagepub.com
www.nafme.org 27
elusive phenomenon. Despite the inher- Flow and the Deactivated Brain during improvisation compared to con-
ent challenges of conducting scientific trol conditions only implies that this area
investigations of something defined by Improvisation is a remarkably complex is less active during improvisation. For
novelty and unpredictability,6 a series activity. Musicians are tasked with spon- example, one study found that despite
of experiments using complementary taneously selecting and executing actions overall reductions in DLPFC activity, it
methodologies has begun to reveal that are both novel and appropriate for showed stronger functional connectivity
unique aspects of the creative process.7 the current musical context throughout with other motor areas during improvisa-
There has been an increase in advo- the course of every improvised perfor- tion than for memorized performance.21
cacy for the use of creativity in music mance. Based on these observations, This implies that cognitive control is not
education programs over the past few one may expect that the brain areas entirely disengaged during improvisation
decades. 8 This advocacy has been involved in higher-order motor plan- but used in a frugal and efficient manner
justified by the results witnessed by ning and cognitive control would show and relatively suspended in comparison
music teachers who use creativity in an increase in activity when improvis- to memorized control conditions.
their classrooms as well as psychology ing. However, the dorsolateral prefron- Reductions in cognitive control may
studies that consistently support wide- tal cortex (DLPFC), a brain region that be a neural correlate of flow, a state
ranging benefits of musical creativity.9 sits just behind the forehead and is cen- that musicians commonly report enter-
While human creativity manifests itself tral to cognitive control,14 shows strong ing during improvisation.22 As described
through myriad disciplines beyond art, deactivations during musical improvisa- by researcher Mihály Csíkszentmihályi,
engaging in musical creativity provides tion (Figure 1). Intriguingly, these deac- “flow is an almost effortless yet highly
a unique array of benefits that appear tivations become more pronounced focused state of consciousness,” which
to be more difficult or impossible to when the experimental design allows he often refers to as optimal experience.23
achieve by participating in other activi- higher levels of musical freedom and Entering a flow state during improvi-
ties. Engaging in musical creativity complexity. 15 For example, in studies sation can have a profoundly positive
through improvisation and composition requiring musicians to produce impro- impact on the experience.24 Decreases
is an effective way to gain skill at an visations that are constrained by mel- in self-monitoring and top-down con-
instrument,10 develop divergent thinking ody or rhythm on a five- or twelve-note trol may result in the disappearance of
ability, 11 enhance communication and keyboard (e.g., improvising any melody self-consciousness and reduced worry
trust between musicians, 12 and facili- over a fixed rhythm), the DLPFC has of failure, a key component of flow,
tate self-actualization.13 Neuroscientific either become deactivated or showed thus creating a more immediate connec-
research approaches this topic from a no change in activity during improvisa- tion with the music.25 According to this
biological perspective that supports and tion.16 Two studies that allowed higher argument, an experimental design that
complements these views. levels of musical freedom and complex- requires active self-monitoring should
How do neuroscientific findings jus- ity by removing melodic and rhythmic demonstrate an increase in DLPFC activ-
tify the beneficial impact of creativity constraints, used a thirty-five-note chro- ity. As expected, one study that incor-
within music education programs? First, matic keyboard, and recruited experi- porated self-monitoring by requiring
we explain how widespread deactiva- enced improvisers found widespread musicians to remember their improvisa-
tions in the prefrontal cortex, an area deactivations of the DLPFC. 17 On the tions and reproduce them at a later time
involved in cognitive control and self- other hand, a highly restrictive study showed an increase in DLPFC activity,
monitoring, may facilitate an individual’s requiring musicians to produce rhythmic likely reducing the possibility of expe-
entry into a “flow state,” the psychologi- patterns with a single percussive sound riencing flow. 26 Flow states are most
cal correlate of getting in the groove. showed an increase in DLPFC activity often entered during activities with clear
Second, we discuss potential roles of relative to the control condition.18 goals and immediate feedback,27 both of
the medial frontal cortex in coordinat- The reduction of cognitive con- which are present in musical improvi-
ing the production of a cohesive musical trol during an extremely complex task sation. Producing music that “works,”
narrative during improvisation. Third, we allows rapid selection and execution of so to speak, can lead to an enhanced
describe how the activation of different novel musical material.19 Without the sense of achievement and confidence
brain areas during solo and interactive interference of monitoring processes in music, and this achievement can be
improvisation support meaningful com- that insert a temporal delay into the realized in real time because aural feed-
munication through music. We conclude execution of actions, 20 musicians are back is provided instantly.28 The cor-
by arguing that neuroscience research able to spontaneously generate musi- relation between musical freedom and
clearly supports the use of creativity cal ideas in a timely fashion. It should DLPFC deactivation also relates to the
in music education programs and that be noted that deactivations of cognitive requirement of a challenge-skill balance
music educators can use these findings to control regions during improvisation do during flow states.29 For example, musi-
bolster their advocacy efforts and enrich not indicate an absence of all cognitive cians report that they only experience
their use of creativity in the classroom. control. A relative reduction of DLPFC flow when playing with other musicians
Crafting a Cohesive Narrative in novel combinations. The medial or mediate the generative processing
The DLPFC is a part of a larger network frontal cortex (MFC)—a cortical brain required for playing repeated patterns
of brain regions called the prefrontal region encompassing several areas such like arpeggios. 43 Furthermore, MFC
cortex (PFC). The PFC often becomes as the presupplementary motor area activity is almost exclusively present
activated to guide the flow of neural (pSMA), the supplementary motor area when there is conflict between compet-
activity to fit the needs of a current (SMA), and the anterior cingulate cortex ing motor representations 44 and when
task,35 especially when that task is not (ACC)—has been strongly implicated in actions must be internally generated,
yet learned. As behaviors like impro- the selection and sequencing of musical both of which are true during improvi-
visation become more automated, the plans during improvisation (Figure 1). sational contexts.45 The MFC may also
brain regions activated to implement The MFC has become activated dur- be involved in shaping a cohesive nar-
them shift from prefrontal control areas ing every imaging experiment that has rative during improvisation. It is exten-
to lower-order regions that store motor reported neural activity during musical sively connected with auditory areas,
programs in long-term memory such improvisation.39 Different areas of the cognitive regions important for higher-
as the premotor area and the cerebel- MFC are selectively activated during order motor control, and limbic regions
lum.36 These brain areas are important preparation and execution phases of involved in emotional processing.46 This
for transforming a musical plan into a motor tasks.40 It is consistently activated confluence of anatomical connectiv-
motor program that can be executed by for the coordination of complex sequen- ity allows the MFC to integrate current
the primary motor cortex. 37 However, tial behaviors41 and likely plays a role musical context, structural rules related
improvisations cannot be fully auto- in the generation of compound action to harmony and form, and the emotional
mated since musicians must decide what patterns. 42 These findings implicate state of the musician to guide the selec-
to play extemporaneously. Even if musi- the MFC in the sequential planning of tion of an optimal musical idea through
cians improvise with automated motor musical ideas during improvisation. For improvisation.
programs stored in long-term memory,38 example, the MFC may be recruited to Transitioning from DLPFC-mediated
the creative element of improvisation coordinate playing a particular harmony cognitive control to MFC-mediated
comes from linking these ideas together at the precise moment of a key change automated integrative processing brings
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about a qualitative shift in a musician’s represent someone’s unique musical right hemisphere homologues during
experience of improvisation and is nec- voice.52 Furthermore, the rPFC is a criti- spontaneous musical interaction (Figure
essary for a range of benefits associated cal brain region for value-based guid- 1). These areas are strongly involved in
with improvisation. Educators can ena- ance of actions, supporting the idea that the production and comprehension of
ble this shift through focused training of expressing oneself through improvisa- both language and music.61 The IFG is
musical structure and by encouraging tion is intrinsically rewarding.53 important for syntactical processing,62
extensive practice outside the classroom. Although there has only been one and the pSTG is important for audi-
The more prepared a student is for a study that reports rPFC activation during tory working memory,63 suggesting that
musical situation, the more likely it is that improvisation,54 this observation strongly these areas work together during inter-
they will be able to call on their auto- supports psychological and pedagogi- active improvisation to track what the
mated resources and fluidly complete cal observations that improvisation is a other musician is playing and “reply”
an improvisation while telling a musi- rewarding behavior and can facilitate with an appropriate musical response,64
cal story in the process. Learning how expression and communication. 55 The such as when one musician transposes
to produce meaningful improvisations correlation between musical freedom, or expands on a motive just performed
can facilitate a higher understanding deactivations of the DLPFC that imply the by the other to engage in meaningful
of musical structure, enhanced musical experience of flow, and activations of the musical dialogue.65 A statistical analysis
awareness, and greater comfort commu- rPFC that support self-expression is most of the music improvised in Donnay et
nicating through music,47 often result- likely not a coincidence. Flow and crea- al. showed that the musicians used simi-
ing in heightened self-confidence and tivity are intimately connected in musical lar notes, rhythms, and melodies when
motivation to play music.48 Conferring improvisation. Studies have shown that improvising, confirming that they were
this ability to students is critical to their the degree of flow experienced when truly interacting with one another.
engagement with music and can serve to composing or improvising music is cor- Musicians commonly report feel-
empower the student’s musicality. related with how creative the result is ing strongly connected to others when
and how much personal significance is improvising together, and this can lead
Expression and Communication attached to the experience.56 Flow is also to a heightened sense of connection
through Improvisation impeded when a musician cannot take and empathy toward the other musi-
ownership of their music or if the musical cians.66 In this regard, it is notable that
We now discuss the results of two setting is too easy for their skill level.57 the musicians in Donnay et al. showed
papers with experimental designs that The best explanation for why the rPFC deactivations of the angular gyrus, an
provide a window into unique aspects has not been activated during other stud- area involved in semantic and con-
of the creative process. 49 Limb and ies is methodological differences58; some ceptual processing.67 Musical commu-
Braun found focal activation of a brain studies may not have provided musicians nication devoid of semantic content
region just above the eyes called the with sufficient freedom to generate com- suggests an immediate, raw connection
rostral prefrontal cortex (rPFC) in pro- plex musical expressions.59 However, between musicians,68 which may explain
fessional jazz musicians when improvis- designing an experiment that reliably why music is such a powerful medium
ing with high levels of musical freedom promotes creative self-expression is very for developing social bonds and feel-
and little constraint (Figure 1). Activ- challenging,60 especially when the musi- ing connected to peers. Furthermore,
ity in the rPFC has been linked to the cians must perform inside an fMRI scan- this finding may relate to the notion of
production of internally generated ner. More research must be done to clarify music as a “universal language” in that
thoughts and actions and the integra- what role the rPFC plays in improvisation. no involvement of semantic vocabulary
tion of higher-order goals with current While Limb and Braun’s study sup- appears to be necessary for musical
task rules.50 For example, a study that ports the psychological benefits of solo interaction to occur.
required subjects to extemporaneously improvisation, the findings of Donnay These studies have clear implica-
produce autobiographical narratives in and colleagues strongly corroborate the tions for the music educator. The neu-
English and sign language found that notion that musicians can have mean- ral signature of improvisation strongly
the rPFC was active in both cases.51 The ingful interactions through improvi- suggests that musicians can effectively
activation of the rPFC during speech sation. The musicians in the study express themselves and communicate
and sign language, two highly differ- improvised four-bar segments back and with their peers through musical creativ-
ent modes of communication, indicate forth with one another, allowing the ity. Emphasizing this aspect of improvi-
that its function is fundamental to the authors to image the brains of musi- sation, rather than the technical skills
core feature of the task, autobiographi- cians when interacting through music. required for it, will demonstrate that
cal expression. These findings suggest The results showed enhanced activation students can personalize their improvi-
that rPFC activity during improvisation of Broca’s area (inferior frontal gyrus; sations, making it a more rewarding
supports the production of personally IFG), Wernicke’s area (posterior supe- and valuable experience. Students aim-
motivated musical expressions that may rior temporal gyrus; pSTG), and their ing to express themselves and connect
www.nafme.org 31
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