Music Therapy Perspectives Advance Access published February 28, 2016
Music Perception Training for Pediatric Cochlear
Implant Recipients Ages 3 to 5 Years: A Pilot Study
SOO JI KIM, PHD, MT-BC
EUN YEON KIM, PHD
GA EUL YOO, MME, MT-BC
Appropriate sensory input is critical for young children with
cochlear implants (CIs) and facilitates brain plasticity of the popula-
tion (Giraud, Price, Graham, & Frackowiak, 2001; Lazard, Giraud,
Gnansia, Meyer, & Sterkers, 2012). In addition to the research sup-
porting the existence of a sensitive period for successful cochlear
implantation, a growing number of studies also emphasize the
need for early intensive auditory rehabilitation (Abdi, Khalessi,
Khorsandi, & Gholami, 2001; Yucel, Sennaroglu, & Belgin, 2009).
The literature consistently indicates that capacity to process audi-
tory information can affect not only cognitive and language skills,
but psychosocial needs and quality of life for young children and
adolescents (Stacey, Fortnum, Barton, & Summerfield, 2006).
Perception of temporal features of speech in which words with
similar phonetic features but of different lengths are discriminated
was found to be significantly related to the rhythm task perfor-
mance of seven-year-old children with CIs (Yucel & Belgin, 2006).
The ability to process pitch direction information was found to
affect the ability to recognize speech prosody and the intended
emotion of speakers (Hopyan, Gordon, & Papsin, 2011; Luo, Fu,
& Galvin, 2007). Furthermore, timbre perception was found to
relate to word recognition in quiet environments (Won, Drennan,
Kang, & Rubinstein, 2010), recognition of CNC (consonant–vowel
nucleus–consonant) words in noisy environments (Gfeller et al.,
2002), and decoding of emotions conveyed by speech prosody
(Thompson, Shellenberg, & Husain, 2004).
Along with these developmental issues related to music
perception, the effects of music perception training have been
increasingly investigated as a means to facilitate the development
of music perception and speech language skills of children with
CIs who were prelingually deafened (Chen et al., 2010; Petersen,
Mortensen, Hansen, & Vuust, 2012). Although young children
with CIs engage in music-related activities, including music lis-
tening during TV watching, similarly to their peers with normal
hearing, incidental exposure to music does not lead to enhanced
perceptual accuracy (Gfeller, Witt, Spencer, Stordahl, & Tomblin,
1999). Meanwhile, recent research demonstrated that structured
music training improved music perception–related skills of young
children with CIs. After training, perception of pitch intervals of
preschool children with CIs was improved (Chen et  al., 2010;
Yucel et al., 2009). More recent studies reported that although
poor perception of timbre by CI users is attributed to limitations
in CI technology, individuals with CIs can benefit from structured
Address correspondence concerning this article to Ga Eul Yoo, MT-BC, Ewha
Womans University, Helen Hall 312, Ewhayeodaegil 52, Seodaemun gu, Seoul
03760, Korea. E-mail: bbird27@hotmail.com. Phone: 82-10-5692-8845.
© the American Music Therapy Association 2016. All rights reserved.
For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com
doi:10.1093/mtp/miw009
1
Ewha Womans University
Myongji University
Ewha Womans University
timbre perception training (Driscoll, 2012). After training, they
may develop their own strategies to make coherent judgments by
relying on the specific attributes (e.g., short attack time, as in per-
cussive instruments) of different sounds that they can effectively
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perceive (Fujita & Ito, 1999; Pressnitzer, Bestel, & Fraysse, 2005).
Given the variability in the contextual musical environment
and in the developmental features of preschool children with
CIs, the application of age-specific interventions and accom-
modations is recommended. These differ from those used not
only with adults with CIs, but also with school-age children
with CIs (Gfeller, Driscoll, Kenworthy, & van Voorst, 2011).
Children with CIs who received music training at less than
six years of age showed a stronger correlation between dura-
tion of training and pitch perception skills than children who
received music training at an older age (Chen et  al., 2010).
This indicates that clinical outcomes for auditory rehabilita-
tion and auditory plasticity may differ depending on the age
of participation in the intervention. Also, considering the age
of the population, the opportunity to experience success and
enjoyment in a familiar musical environment has been sug-
gested to be an important factor for maintaining engagement
in music perception tasks (Gfeller et al., 2011; Hsiao & Gfeller,
2012) and developing music preferences (Hwang, 2011).
These findings indicate that age-specific structured training
would maximize expected improvement in concert with posi-
tive changes in perceptual acuity and attitude toward music
in young children with CIs (Chen et al., 2010; Nakata et al.,
2005; Trehub, Vongpaisal, & Nakata, 2009). However, there
has been fairly limited application of structured task-specific
interventions for preschool children ages three to five years
that intensively target and assess music perception skills (Abdi
et al., 2001). Therefore, this study aimed to develop an age-
specific music training program that assists young children
with CIs to develop the ability to process musical information.
This study examined the potential effectiveness of this training
program, answering the following question: Are there differ-
ences in music perception skills of pediatric CI recipients after
receiving intensive music perception training?
Method
Participants
Pediatric CI recipients ages three to five years were recruited
from an otorhinolaryngology department in a hospital located
in Seoul that they visited for follow-up examination and
habilitative intervention. Children with CIs were assessed and
referred to the program by a speech language pathologist who
2 Music Therapy Perspectives
Table 1.
Demographic Information of Participants
Participant Gender Age (yrs)
1 M 5.4
2 F 5.8
3 M 3.5
4 F 2.8
5 M 4.8
6 M 3.9
had more than 10  years of experience with CI recipients in
the area of intensive auditory rehabilitation. Caregivers of six
children with CIs voluntarily agreed to participate in this study.
The mean age of the participants was 4.4  years (SD  =  1.2),
and they had 1.8 years (SD = 1.4) of CI experience before par-
ticipation in this study (see Table 1). They were reported to be
exposed to musical stimuli on a daily basis, in both their home
and preschool environments, but had limited prior music
training for language development. Ethical issues with regard
to all relevant procedures were reviewed, and informed con-
sent was obtained from parents of all participants.
Music Perception Training
The music perception training was developed for this study
and targeted three- to five-year-old children who had at least one
month of cochlear implant use. Individual attributes of music
including rhythm, melody, and timbre and the skills to perceive
and process these attributes were targeted in terms of detection,
discrimination, and identification. Details about the tasks and
materials used during the training are presented in the Appendix.
Sound detection.  The ability to detect the presence of sound
is a prerequisite to attending to auditory input and to developing
skills to process more complex auditory stimuli (Fritz, Elhilali,
David, & Shamma, 2007). Repetitive or successful intentional
attention to sounds leads to further processing of information.
For the purpose of training sound-detection skills, children were
instructed to perform an age-appropriate task, such as moving to
music, playing an instrument, or operating a small object (e.g.,
shaking scarves or putting small pebbles in a basket), in response
to hearing music. The balanced use of various instruments made
from different materials (e.g., wood, metal, plastic, and skin) was
considered when selecting instruments based on the literature
indicating that for normal development, exploration of a variety
of sounds establishes the base upon which the ability to discrim-
inate different sound qualities is developed (Lee, 2006).
Rhythm perception.  In consideration of the age and devel-
opmental stage of preschool children, rhythm perception–
related training in this study was primarily based on changes in
the frequency of beat to be played within the four-beat rhythm
patterns. Participants were encouraged to attend to the number
of beats (i.e., one to four beats) played and then imitate, dis-
criminate, and identify the rhythm patterns through instrumen-
tal playing (see Table 2). The utilization of movements or visual
aids matching the number of beats to be played facilitated
understanding of the abstract concept of changes in rhythm.
Presentation of discrete beats was required in the selection of
instruments, since long resonance after playing would interfere
with accurately recognizing the interval between beats.
Age at CI (yrs) CI use (yrs) Implant devices
4.3 1.0 Freedom
2.3 3.4 N5
1.9 1.6 Freedom
1.6 1.2 N5
1.4 2.5 Freedom
3.9 0.1 N5
Table 2.
Examples of Target Rhythm Patterns Depending on the
Level of Training
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Table 3.
Examples of Melodic Patterns Used in a Melodic Contour Training
Melody perception.  In this program, melodic contour and
pitch discrimination were targeted. With regard to percep-
tion of melodic contour, five-note and eight-note sequences
of basic melodic contours (i.e., rising and falling) with notes
between C4 (262 Hz) and C5 (534 Hz) played at 80 bpm were
used (see Table 3). For pitch discrimination, broader intervals
such as the interval of 12 semitones (e.g., C4 and C5) were
presented initially, and the smaller interval was targeted once
the children were confirmed to discriminate the larger interval
successfully. Matching to different pitches, movements (e.g.,
standing and crouching while pointing to the toes) were also
applied to demonstrate the concept of high and low. A set of
instruments in which a different pitch was attributed to a differ-
ent length or height of each component (e.g., step bells, reso-
nator bells, and other adaptive instruments) were also used to
facilitate the children’s processing of the relevant information.
Based on a previous study showing that a relatively simpler
spectral structure of timbre of the organ increased discrimina-
tion and identification performance (Galvin, Fu, & Shannon,
2009), the timbre of MIDI-generated organ was used to pre-
sent the task of discriminating or identifying pitch information.
Timbre perception. Considering that exposure to more
variety of sound characteristics would contribute to gener-
alization of timbre perception to different environments and
Music Perception Training for Pediatric Cochlear Implant Recipients Ages 3 to 5 Years: A Pilot Study 3

stimuli, traditional Korean instruments, along with Western Procedure

instruments, were used in this study. Traditional Korean instru-
ments from three instrumental families (i.e., string, woodwind,
and percussion) were selected because of their cultural sig-
nificance and because of their distinctive differences in sound
features with regard to distributions of fundamental and higher
harmonics and attack time in sound production (Nam, 2008).
In order to facilitate the pediatric CI recipients’ development
of their own strategy to rely on timbral cues, instrumental
groups showing greater differences in saliency in their sound
features (e.g., percussive instruments with a rapid and strong
attack time versus woodwind instruments that reach their peak
amplitude in a relatively longer time) were presented initially.
Singing skills. This singing-based training targeted the abil-
ity to perceive and imitate pitch and rhythmic information
from familiar songs with repetition of simple patterns and
This pilot study was conducted using a one-group pre-
test-posttest design. Two or three children were assigned to
a training group based on their age and level of language
development; children received the music perception
training in these small groups. One of the investigators,
a board-certified music therapist with clinical experiences
with this population, implemented the program in a quiet
room within the hospital where participants were recruited.
The music perception training was conducted weekly for
30 to 40 minutes during 24 weeks following the outline
of the training program (see the Appendix), and pretest
and posttest were administered at the first and 24th week,
respectively. During training, the period of implementation
for each level depended on how accurately a child per-

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formed the tasks without additional prompts at a certain
fewer changes in rhythmic and melodic sequences, appropri- level (see Figure 1). Considering that the participants were
ate for the developmental age of a child. The initial exposure young children, parents’ involvement was also encouraged
to a targeted song consisted of the original recording of the by giving them a CD that included musical stimuli and
song. Movement or playing of instruments to the recorded song songs used during training to help them actively engage
encouraged the children to become familiar with the musical in the children’s habilitative process. Feedback from par-
environment. Once the children with CIs became familiar with ents was obtained to ascertain the extent to which hav-
the song, a part of the song was introduced with live accom- ing music resources at home facilitated their observing
paniment emphasizing limited target words, salient rhythm, or responses from their children and monitoring changes in
melodic pattern within the song. Then targeted aspects were their children.
expanded to process and produce the entire song. The visual
representation of target words, rhythmic pattern, pitch infor-
mation, and/or melodic contour was also utilized in order to
present the multisensory cues that facilitate this population to
integrate the presented information (Hsiao & Gfeller, 2012).
Internal validity. In order to evaluate the validity of the
constructed training program for intervening with pediatric
CI recipients, six relevant professionals assessed the content
validity of the training, including age-appropriateness, goal-
specificity, and applicability; assessors included two speech
language pathologists with an average of 10 years of clinical
practice with children with CIs, two otorhinolaryngologists
with an average of five years in treatment, and two audiolo-
gists with an average of 11 years of clinical practice. The con-
tent validity index computed was .93 (Kappa = .85), indicating
the program has sufficient validity. Figure 1.  Outline of training process.

Table 4.
Subtest Items in Music Perception Measurement

Category Test content

Discrimination
 Rhythm To discriminate whether two rhythm patterns (modified from PMMA items) are the same or different
  Pitch (Melodic pattern) To discriminate whether two melodic patterns (modified from PMMA items) are the same or different
 Timbre To discriminate whether two instrumental timbres (from different instrumental families of traditional
Korean instruments) are the same or different
Identification
 Rhythm To identify the presented beat pattern (one to four beats) by selecting the corresponding picture that
visually presents the beat pattern
  Pitch (Melodic contour) To identify the presented melodic contour (ascending or descending) by selecting the corresponding
picture that visually presents the beat pattern
 Timbre To identify the presented instrument timbre (one of hand-percussion instruments) by selecting the
corresponding instrument
 Song To identify the recorded children’s song by selecting the picture that visually presents the title of the song
4 Music Therapy Perspectives

Table 5.
Changes in Discrimination Task Performance After Training

Discrimination task performance (%)

Pitch Timbre
Rhythm (Melodic pattern) (Korean instruments)
Participant Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post
1 20.0 50.0 30.0 100.0 33.3 67.0
2 40.0 50.0 60.0 60.0 50.0 50.0
3 30.0 80.0 50.0 50.0 25.0 50.0
4 40.0 60.0 20.0 50.0 67.0 50.0
5 30.0 50.0 40.0 60.0 33.3 67.0

Measures

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Seven subtests were administered at pretest and posttest. Each
child was instructed to discriminate whether two presented musi-
cal stimuli (pertaining to each musical attribute, such as rhythm,
pitch, and timbre) were the same or different and to identify the
presented musical stimuli (pertaining to each musical attribute,
such as rhythm, pitch, timbre, and song). To minimize the test-
retest effect, the test items were constructed to be different from
what was used during the training. For the pitch and rhythm dis-
crimination tests, lower levels of 10 test items from each pitch
and rhythm subtest of the Primary Measures of Music Audiation
(PMMA, Gordon, 1979) were selected, given the age and level
of development of the participants. The other subtest items were
constructed by the investigator to examine the children’s per-
formance on targeted perception-based skills. All the musical
stimuli were prerecorded instead of using live musical stimuli.
This served to increase the reliability of the measurements with
regard to sound recognition; control the confounding variables,
especially related to visual cues (e.g., gestures of evaluators that
may indicate the auditory source); and generalize the effect of
training to the environment most characteristic of daily living.
The test measures are summarized in Table 4.
Data Collection and Analysis
At pretest and posttest, one professional music therapist and
one music therapy graduate student observed and evaluated
the task performance of each participant. The two assessors
received three hours of training, and more than .90 inter-
observer reliability was obtained prior to engagement in the
evaluation of participants. During pretest and posttest, the task
performance rates of each participant were evaluated on each
test. The inter-observer reliability between the two trained
observers was .96, indicating a high level of agreement. The
task performance rates of the group at pretest and posttest
were compared by conducting the Wilcoxon signed-rank test.
Results
A total of six children with CIs participated in this study, and
seven subtests for discrimination and identification of individ-
ual musical components were administrated for each partici-
pant. The task performance (%) during each test was measured
at pretest and posttest. The data from one of the participants
(Participant 6)  were excluded from further analysis due to
insufficient length of CI use. Results of the changes in music
perception test measures by the remaining five participants
Figure  2.  Performance rate for discrimination tests at pretest and
posttest.
showed the increases in overall performance rate with regard
to discrimination of rhythm, pitch, and timbre at posttest com-
pared to pretest (see Table  5 and Figure  2). Increased perfor-
mance on the identification tests was also observed at posttest
(see Table 6 and Figure 3). Analyses using the Wilcoxon signed-
rank test showed that statistical significance was achieved only
for the rhythm-related tests (p = .039 for rhythm discrimination
test and p = .041 for rhythm identification test). Changes in the
pitch, melodic contour, timbre, and song recognition tests did
not reach statistical significance (see Table 7).
Participant 1 showed the greatest improvement in pitch-
related perception. He discriminated the presented two
melodic patterns accurately for all of the test items at post-
test. He also showed high levels of melodic pattern identifica-
tion. The child’s mother reported that, after participation in the
program, he showed increases in distinguishing the different
intonation between asking a question and stating a declara-
tive phrase while she read a children’s book to him. With
regard to discrimination, Participant 2 showed slight improve-
ment in rhythm-related task performance, while changes in
other subtests were minimal. Feedback from the child’s car-
egiver showed that their reciprocal engagement in music (i.e.,
singing together) increased after the training. Participant 3
showed the greatest improvement in rhythm discrimination
task performance. For identification tasks, his performance
rates increased in all subtests. The child’s mother reported
Music Perception Training for Pediatric Cochlear Implant Recipients Ages 3 to 5 Years: A Pilot Study
Table 6.
Changes in Identification Task Performance After Training
Identification task performance (%)
Pitch
Rhythm (Melodic contour)
Participant Pre Post Pre
1 62.5 87.5 50.0
2 62.5 100.0 87.5
3 50.0 75.0 50.0
4 50.0 62.5 12.5
5 62.5 100.0 50.0
Figure  3.  Performance rate for identification tests at pretest and
posttest.
that his attempts to imitate the words of others increased after
participation in the program. Participant 4 showed increased
performance on all subtests except timbre discrimination.
According to the child’s mother, the child engaged more in
singing and the child’s attitude toward music was deemed
more positive after participating in the training. Participant
5 showed increased performance in all subtests except the
timbre identification test, in which he already showed a high
level of performance. His mother reported that after participat-
ing in the program, he began to request that his mother read
a storybook that included buttons to activate sounds to him
and his attempts to imitate the words of others also increased.
Discussion
In this pilot study, the potential effectiveness of music per-
ception training for pediatric CI recipients was examined. After
training, participants showed increased task performance rates
on all subtests in terms of discrimination and identification
of musical elements. This implies that pediatric CI recipients
could benefit from intensive music perception–based training
for specific musical attributes when presented in an age-appro-
priate context. Particularly, it points to the potential applica-
bility of a structured music perception training program for
young CI recipients who need early and continuous interven-
tion along with follow-up treatment in medical settings.
A notable finding is that improvements were found on
the rhythm-related subtests for both discrimination and
5
Timbre
(Western instruments) Song recognition
Post Pre Post Pre Post
87.5 50.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
87.5 75.0 87.5 100.0 100.0
87.5 25.0 62.5 50.0 75.0
62.5 37.5 87.5 25.0 50.0
62.5 100.0 100.0 50.0 75.0
identification tasks. Although participants also showed
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increased performance on other subtests, significant changes
were observed only in rhythm perception. This supports research
findings showing that rhythm perception was improved in indi-
viduals with CIs more than other areas after music perception
training (Innes-Brown, Marozeau, Storey, & Blamey, 2013).
The research also conforms to the research finding that rhyth-
mic cues could be a primary factor in successful processing
of sound information when multiple cues exist, as in familiar
melody recognition tasks (Galvin, Fu, & Nogaki, 2007). Young
children with CIs can successfully rely on rhythmic information
when reproducing remembered songs (Nakata, Trehub, Mitani,
& Kanda, 2006), while pitch patterns are not successfully pro-
cessed. These findings indicate that rhythm perception plays an
important role in auditory information processing in pediatric
CI recipients. Results from this study also support that rhythm
perception may be facilitated or developed initially among
music perception–related skills, presenting clinical implica-
tions for the utilization of rhythmic aspects for successful per-
formance of related music perception for this population.
For increased effectiveness of pitch and timbre perception
training, more controlled application of the stimuli should
be the target of future studies. In terms of pitch information,
large intervals between notes should be presented in order
to avoid smaller intervals being conveyed via a single elec-
trode, which are more difficult for individuals with CIs to
differentiate. Spectral information of the timbre that a child
needs to differentiate or identify should also be considered
in order to modulate the complexity of the stimulus more
systematically.
Although the results of this study should be confirmed via
larger studies, this study presents clinical implications with
regard to materials to be used for music perception train-
ing. Integrative application of musical elements (e.g., sing-
ing) and multisensory cues (e.g., visual and kinesthetic cues)
may provide contextual cues for young children with CIs to
attend to the presented auditory information more accurately.
In this study, there was an increase in pitch discrimination
performance in the PMMA pitch subtest with a combina-
tion of diverse pitches and melodic patterns, not limited to
single pitch or basic melodic contour. Also, increased song
recognition was observed, even in the song recognition sub-
test, which included new children’s songs not targeted during
the training program. These results indicate that the structured
program facilitates pediatric CI recipients to rely on specific
informational cues and pair the cues with what they have
6 Music Therapy Perspectives

Table 7.
Comparison of Task Performance Rates During Each Subtest at Pretest and Posttest

Pretest Posttest
Subtest performance rate M SD M SD Z p
Discrimination test
 Rhythm 32.0 8.4 58.0 13.0 –2.060 .039*
  Pitch (Melodic pattern) 40.0 15.8 64.0 20.7 –1.604 .109
  Timbre (Korean) 41.7 16.8 56.8 9.3 –1.473 .141
Identification test
 Rhythm 57.5 6.8 85.0 16.3 –2.041 .041*
  Pitch (Melodic contour) 50.0 26.5 77.5 13.7 –1.841 .066
  Timbre (Western) 57.5 30.1 87.5 15.3 –1.841 .066
 Song 65.0 33.5 80.0 20.9 –0.816 .414

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a. Wilcoxon signed-rank test
* p < .05

remembered when required to process a song with multiple
cues (Galvin et al., 2007). Also, the use of ethnic instruments
could be considered for development of both general and cul-
ture-dependent music preferences in young populations with
CIs (Hwang, 2011; Kim, Cho, Kim, & Yoo, 2015).
The results, however, should be considered with caution
because of the lack of a control group. Along with the baseline
data in terms of developmental level of speech and language,
the inclusion of a larger sample may corroborate the applicabil-
ity of this program with regard to how systematic music-based
interventions should operate in facilitating and improving skills
to process musical information. Intervening at an early age in
cases of cochlear implantation is strongly correlated with lan-
guage performance (Dettman, Pinder, Briggs, Dowell, & Leigh,
2007; Geers, Tobey, Moog, & Brenner, 2008), and additional
music training may promote age-appropriate development in
efficient ways. Structural elements in music may be effectively
used to facilitate the perception of temporal and spectral infor-
mation of auditory and language input (See, Driscoll, Gfeller,
Kliethermes, & Oleson, 2013). Also, it would enhance the
developmental process, leading to more successful processing
of auditory and speech information (Yucel et al., 2009). Future
studies are needed to examine how direct and specific music
perception and speech perception training outcomes generalize
to areas that were not directly trained, such as more complex or
novel stimuli. Further investigation is needed to determine how
the structured intervention facilitates not only successful engage-
ment in and processing of music-related tasks, but also general
enjoyment of the musical environment for children with CIs.
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Appendix. Outline of Tasks and Instruments Used Depending on Level of Training

Level Target Primary task Materials used

1 Rhythm discrimination
Melodic pattern discrimination
Singing
2 Rhythm discrimination
Melodic pattern discrimination
Timbre discrimination
Singing
3 Rhythm discrimination
Melodic contour discrimination
Pitch discrimination
Timbre discrimination
Singing
Playing one to four beats with cues Percussive instruments with
less resonating sounds such as
woodblock or hand drum
Exploring rising and falling patterns Pitched instruments with a
different color or size for each
note such as hand bells or step
bells
Making movements to recorded children’s song Recorded music of children’s
familiar songs
Discriminating one from two to four beats Percussions with less resonating
sounds such as woodblock or
hand drum
Discriminating eight-note rising and falling patterns Pitched instruments
Discriminating the percussion timbres Percussion made of different
materials
Learning target words of a selected song Guitar or keyboard as
accompaniment instruments
Learning basic and subdivided beat patterns Percussive instruments with less
resonating sounds
Discriminating 5-note rising and falling patterns Recording of melodic patterns
played by the organ
Discriminating two pitches over 7-semitone intervals Recording of single pitches
played by the MIDI-generated
organ
Exploring traditional Korean instrument timbres Recordings of the gayageum
(string), daegeum (woodwind),
and janggu (percussion)
Learning target words and rhythm of a song Guitar or keyboard as
accompaniment instruments
accompaniment instruments
8 Music Therapy Perspectives
Level Target
4 Rhythm identification
Melodic contour identification
Pitch discrimination
Timbre discrimination
Singing
5 Rhythm identification
Melodic contour identification
Pitch discrimination
Timbre identification
Singing
Appendix  Continued
Primary task Materials used
Identifying basic beat and subdivided beat patterns Percussion with less resonating
sounds
Identifying rising and falling patterns Recording of 5-note melodic
patterns played by the organ
Discriminating two pitches under 7-semitone intervals Recording of single pitches
played by the organ
Discriminating traditional Korean instrumental timbres Recordings of the gayageum
(string), daegeum (woodwind),
and janggu (percussion)
Learning the melody of the song Accompaniment instruments
Identifying/imitating different beat patterns Percussion with less resonating
sounds
Downloaded from http://mtp.oxfordjournals.org/ at AMTA Member Access on December 31, 2016
Identifying rising and falling patterns Recording of 5-note melodic
patterns played by the organ
Discriminating two pitches under 7-semitone intervals Recording of C4 to C5 played by
the organ
Identifying traditional Korean instrumental timbres Recordings of the gayageum
(string), daegeum (woodwind),
and janggu (percussion)
Singing the learned song independently Accompaniment instruments