Sage ( Salvia Officinalis)- A review on sage essential oil

obtaining, composition and therapeutic effects

Authors: A. Constantin, E. D. Crăciun, A. Dobeanu, D. Jugănaru, D. Străuneanu

Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science,
University Politehnica of Bucharest
Key words: Salvia Officinalis, Sage, essential oil, composition, effects, antibacterial,
antifungal, antimicrobial.
Abstract: Salvia officinalis (Sage) is a plant in the family of Labiatae/Lamiaceae. It is native to
Middle East and Mediterranean areas, but today has been naturalized throughout the world. In
folk medicine, S. officinalis has been used for the treatment of different kind of disorders
including seizure, ulcers, gout, rheumatism, inflammation, dizziness, tremor, paralysis, diarrhea,
and hyperglycemia. In recent years, this plant has been a subject of intensive studies to
document its traditional use and to find new biological effects.
This review provides comprehensive information about Salvia Officinalis, Salvia Officinalis
essential oil, composition and its obtaining methods. It also provides information about S.
Officinalis therapeutic effects such as antibacterial, antifungal, antimicrobial and antioxidant.
1. Introduction
Salvia officinalis L. (Sage) is a perennial round shrub in the family of Labiatae/Lamiaceae.
Salvia is the largest genus of this family and includes near 900 species. Plants of this genus grow
all over the world and the specie of S. officinalis is native to Middle East and Mediterranean
areas. Today's, it has been naturalized throughout the world particularly in Europe and
America.[1]

Fig.1 Fig.2 Fig.3

The plants are mostly aromatic and perennial [Fig. 1,2 and 3], with flowers in different
colors. Many species of Salvia, including Salvia officinalis (common sage), are native to the
Mediterranean region and some of the Salvia species have been used worldwide as flavoring
spices as well as traditional herbal medicine.[2,3]
The leaves of Salvia Officinalis are well known for their antioxidative properties. [4-10] Its
leaves are used in the food processing industry, but are applicable also to the area of human
health. [11] Sage tea has been traditionally used for the treatment of digestive and circulation
disturbances, bronchitis, cough, asthma, angina, mouth and throat inflammations, depression,
excessive sweating, skin diseases, and many other diseases.[12,13] Salvia essential oils have been
used in the treatment of a wide range of diseases like those of the nervous system, heart and
blood circulation, respiratory system, digestive system, and metabolic and endocrine diseases. In
addition, sage essential oil has been shown to have carminative, antispasmodic, antiseptic, and
astringent properties.[14,15]
The aerial parts of S. officinalis shrub have a long history of use in cookery and traditional
medicine. Because of its flavoring and seasoning properties, this plant has been widely used in
preparation of many foods. In folk medicine of Asia and Latin America, it has been used for the
treatment of different kind of disorders including seizure, ulcers, gout, rheumatism,
inflammation, dizziness, tremor, paralysis, diarrhea, and hyperglycemia. In traditional medicine
of Europe, S. officinalis has been used to treat mild dyspepsia (such as heartburn and bloating),
excessive sweating, age-related cognitive disorders, and inflammations in the throat and skin.
In recent years, many research studies have been conducted to document the traditional uses
of S. officinalis and to find new biological effects for this plant. These studies have revealed a
wide range of pharmacological activities including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-
nociceptive, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antimutagenic, antidementia, hypoglycemic, and
hypolipidemic, effects. [4-8]
2. Sage Essential Oil - Chemical Composition

The essential oil of Salvia species has various compositions depending on the genetic,
climatic, seasonal, and environmental factors.[16] Some chemical compounds like flavonoids,
terpenoids, and essential oils are present in different species of Salvia. Essential oils are very
important sources for the screening of anticancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and free radical
scavenging agents.[17] S. officinalis (common sage) is considered to have the highest amount of
essential oil compared to the other species of Salvia.[5,12]
The major phytochemicals in flowers, leaves, and stem of S. officinalis are well identified. A
wide range of constituents include alkaloids, carbohydrate, fatty acids, glycosidic derivatives
(e.g., cardiac glycosides, flavonoid glycosides, saponins), phenolic compounds (e.g., coumarins,
flavonoids, tannins), poly acetylenes, steroids, terpenes/terpenoids (e.g., monoterpenoids,
diterpenoids, triterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids), and waxes are found in S. officinalis. Structure of
main flavonoids and terpenes/terpenoids isolated from S. officinalis is shown in Fig.4 and Fig. 5,
respectively. Most of the phytochemicals which are reported from S. officinalis have been
isolated from its essential oil, alcoholic extract, aqueous extract, butanol fraction, and infusion
preparation. More than 120 components have been characterized in the essential oil prepared
from aerial parts of S. officinalis. [1]
Fig.4
 Fig.5

In all analyzed samples of S. officinalis, the major components, although present in

different concentrations, are: 1,8-cineole, camphor, borneol, bornyl acetate, camphene, α and β-
thujone, linalool, α and β-caryophyllene, α-humulene, α and β-pinene, viridiflorol, pimaradiene,
salvianolic acid, rosmarinic acid, carnosolic acid, ursolic acid, etc.[7,12] Studies have shown that
some biological properties of the essential oil of Salvia depend on camphor, 1,8-cineole,
α‑thujone, and β-thujone.[9] The essential oil of sage contains about 20% camphor, and as the
leaves expand, the camphor content also increases.[13] In a study, the most powerful scavenging
compounds were reported to be α-thujone and β-thujone, bornyl acetate, camphor, menthone,
and 1,8‑cineol in the essential oil.[17] In the same study, the essential oil of Melissa officinalis and
S. officinalis showed better antioxidant activities than some other Lamiaceae plants.[17]
Sage is also a natural source of flavonoids and polyphenolic compounds (e.g., carnosic acid,
rosmarinic acid and caffeic acid) possessing strong antioxidant, radicalscavenging, and
antibacterial activities.[14] The majority of the phenolic acids in Salvia species are derivatives of
caffeic acid which is the building block of a variety of plant metabolites.[15] Caffeic acid plays a
central role in the biochemistry of the Lamiaceae plants, and occurs mainly in a dimer form as
rosmarinic acid.[15] Carnosic acid and rosmarinic acid, which are present at high concentrations in
the extract of sage plants, have shown strong antioxidant properties.[16] Ursolic acid, also a
component of sage, has strong antiinflammatory properties, and in sage preparations, it is
considered as a quality control measurement for the antiinflammatory effects of different
solutions.[17]

Compound* S. S.
officinalis**officinalis***
(1R)-(+)-α-Pinene 3.70 4.50
(−)-Camphene 2.60 5.00
β-Pinene 6.00 5.20
Sabinene - 0.30
β-Myrcene 3.00 3.50
α-Terpinene - 0.40
(R)-(+)-Limonene - -
1,8-Cineole 62.0 55.0
γ-Terpinene 0.30 0.50
P-Cymene 0.60 0.60
Terpinolene - 0.20
(−)-α-Thujone 1.38 1.80
β-Thujone 0.72 1.50
Camphor 8.0 10.0
(−)-Linalool 0.80 0.80
Linalyl acetate 0.60 0.30
(−)-Trans-caryophyllene 2.00 1.00
Monoterpene 1.26 1.10
(+)-Menthol - -
Borneol 5.00 4.50
α-Terpineol 0.20 -
Geranyl acetate 0.30 -
Geraniol 0.10 0.25
Phytol 0.18 -
Thymol 0.80 0.70
Carvacrol 0.20 0.40
Farnesol 0.20 -
Trans, trans-Farnesol 0.06 0.15
Total components 45 30
*Compounds of essential oil extracted from fresh green leaves and flowering top; **S. officinalis
L. collected at 100 m above the sea level; ***S. officinalis L. collected at 500 m above the sea
level

In the commonly known form sage of S. officinalis, a total of 28 components were

identified [Fig. 6]. The principal components in the sage oil were 1,8-cineole, camphor,
α-thujone, β-thujone, borneol. The chemotypes of sage were not determined in the investigated
samples. The concentrations of the main compounds in the drugs obtained from different type of
sage and at different location varied about the same range as the concentrations of these
compounds in the oils of drugs obtained from other countries. The comparatively high
concentration of toxic thujones seems to be characteristic of sage leaves cultivated in different
locations as well. [3,7,12,17]

3. Pharmacological activities

Experimental and clinical studies on pharmacological properties of S. officinalis are

presented and discussed in the following sections. Table 1 summarizes clinical studies on
S. officinalis.
Table 1. Clinical studies of the pharmacological effects of S. officinalis.
Category Study design Subjects Dosage Effects References
Randomized Patients with 60 drops/day Improvement 18
placebo- Alzheimer's of alcoholic of cognitive
controlled disease extract for functions
trial week 16
Randomized Healthy young 300–600 mg Improvement 19
placebo- participants encapsulated of mood and
controlled dried leaf cognitive
trial functions after
single dose
Effects on Randomized Healthy old 167–1332 mg Improvement 20
memory and placebo- participants of ethanolic of memory and
cognitive controlled extract was attention
functions trial administrated
1, 2.5, 4 and
6h before
assessment
Randomized Healthy adults 5 drops of Improvement 19,20
controlled participants essential oil of prospective
trial were placed memory and
into the testing cognitive
cubicle performance
 Randomized Patient with 15% spray Reduction of 21
controlled pharyngitis containing the throat pain
trial 140 μl of the intensity
plant extract
per dose
Randomized Infusion of the The 22
controlled plant was antinociceptive
trial Patients administrated effect was not
undergoing as an oral more powerful
Effects on tonsillectomy rinse 4–8 h than the
pain or following benzydamine
adenoidectomy surgery and hydrochloride
then 6 times a
day
Randomized 500 mg Reduction of 23
placebo- encapsulated the blood
controlled Patients with hydroalcoholic levels of total
trial newly extract every cholesterol,
diagnosed 8 h for 2  triglyceride,
primary months LDL and
hyperlipidemia VLDL;
Increase of
HDL level
Randomized Hyperlipidemic 500 mg Reduction of 24
placebo- type 2 diabetic encapsulated the blood
controlled patients hydroalcoholic levels of
trial extract every glucose,
8h for HbA1c, total
3 months cholesterol,
triglyceride,
and LDL;
Increase of
HDL level
Randomized Type 2 diabetic 150 mg sage Reduction of 24
placebo- patients extract 3 times 2h
controlled a day for 3 postprandial
trial months glucose and
total
cholesterol;
No effect on
fasting
glucose,
Effects on HbA1c,
glucose and triglyceride,
lipids LDL and HDL
 A pilot study Healthy 300 mL of Reduction of 25
sage tea total
cholesterol and
LDL; No
effect on
fasting
glucose;
Increase of
HDL level

3.1.Anticancer and antimutagenic effects

Potential antitumor activity of S. officinalis has been studied on several cancerous cell
lines and on animal models of cancer. It has been reported that sage tea drinking prevented
initiation phases of colon carcinogenesis.[27] Extracts of this plant showed pro-apoptotic and
growth-inhibitory effects on cell lines of breast cancer (MCF-7), cervix adeno carcinoma (HeLa),
colorectal cancer (HCT-116, HCT15, CO115, HT29), insulinoma (RINm5F), laryngeal
carcinoma (Hep-2), lung carcinoma (A549), melanoma (A375, M14, A2058, B16), and oral
cavity squamous cell carcinoma.[26] In addition to antiproliferative action, S. officinalis has
antimigratory and antiangiogenic effects.[28] The S. officinalis extract enhances TNF-α and nitric
oxide release from macrophages therefore increasing its cytotoxic effect.[28] These effects may be
related to the presence of several cytotoxic and anticancer compounds in S. officinalis. Among
terpenes and terpenoids isolated from S. officinalis, the caryophyllene and α-humulene have
been shown to inhibit growth of MCF-7 and HCT-116 tumor cells.[28] Manool, a diterpene,
induces selective cytotoxicity on human cervical adenocarcinoma and human glioblastoma. [30]
Also, ursolic acid, a pentacyclic triterpenoid, inhibits angiogenesis, neoplastic proteases, and
invasion of melanoma cells.[31] Among flavonoids of S. officinalis, rosmarinic acid has been
extensively studied for its anticancer effects. It inhibits the growth of various human cancer cells
including breast adenocarcinoma, colon carcinoma, chronic myeloid leukemia, prostate
carcinoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, and small cell lung carcinoma.[32] In animals studies,
rosmarinic acid was able to prevent the formation of skin tumors in mice model of
dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-induced skin carcinogenesis and to prevent bone metastasis from
breast carcinoma.[33] The anticancer effects of this flavonoid seem to be due, at least in part, to
the inhibition of Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase/Extracellular Signal-regulated Kinase
pathway, the suppression of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nuclear transcription factor-
kappa B, and the reduction of pro-inflammatory gene cyclooxygenase-2 expression.[34] It also
inhibits several phases of angiogenesis (proliferation, migration, adhesion and tube formation) in
endothelial cells.[35]
 There is increasing evidence that S. officinalis can act as inhibitor of mutagenesis. Its
essential oil has been shown to reduce UV-induced mutations in Escherichia coli and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae.[36] Its tea infusion reduces the frequency of mutations induced by
methyl methanesulphonate in Drosophila melanogaster. [36] Its methanolic extract shows
protective effect against cyclophosphamide-induced genotoxicity in rats. [36] This plant also
reduces hydrogen peroxide- and dimethoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone-induced oxidative DNA damage
in HepG2 cells. [37] Antimutagenic effect of S. officinalis is mainly attributed to its monoterpene
compounds such as thujone, camphor, limonene, and 1,8-cineole. [36] The protective effect of
S. officinalis on DNA could be explained by its antioxidant activity. [37]

3.2.Antioxidant activities
Oxidative stress plays an important role in the initiation and progression of several
diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular disorders, diabetes, and neurological diseases.38
Enhanced oxidative stress occurs when the generation of ROS by mitochondrial electron-
transport chain, NADPH oxidase, uncoupled nitric oxide syntheses, and xanthine oxidase,
exceeds the potential of antioxidant defenses including catalase, glutathione per oxidase, and
superoxide dismutase activities. [39] Natural antioxidants protect cells against ROS over
production and therefore can counteract oxidative stress-mediated tissue damage. Evidence from
several studies suggests that S. officinalis has potent antioxidant activities. Enriching the
drinking water of rats with S. officinalis extract increases resistance of rat hepatocytes against
oxidative stress. [39] It protects hepatocytes against dimethoxy naphthoquinone- and hydrogen
peroxide-induced DNA damage through elevation of glutathione peroxidase activity. [37] The
most effective antioxidant constituents of S. officinalis are carnosol, rosmarinic acid, and
carnosic acid, followed by caffeic acid, rosmanol, rosmadial, genkwanin, and cirsimaritin. [40]
The radical scavenging effect of carnosol is comparable to that of α-tocopherol. [41] The
superoxide scavenging activity of the rosmarinic acid derivatives are 15–20 times more than
trolox, a synthetic water-soluble vitamin E. In streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats, rosmarinic
acid increases activities of pancreatic catalase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione-S-transferase,
and superoxide dismutase. [42] In addition to rosmarinic acid, other flavonoids of S. officinalis
particularly quercetin and rutin have strong antioxidant activities. [42] For example, in our
previous work we showed that rutin reversed hexachlorobutadiene-induced elevation of lipid
peroxidation and depletion of thiol content in the kidney. [43]

3.3.Anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive properties

Inflammation and pain are the two main symptoms which are occur in response to tissue
damage. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are still a key component of the pharmacological
treatment of these symptoms. However, the clinical uses of these drugs are accompanied with
unpleasant side effects such as gastrointestinal and cardiovascular complications. [44] Therefore,
the search for new anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive agents with lesser unwanted actions
remains an attractive subject. Pharmacological studies have shown that S. officinalis has anti-
inflammatory and antinociceptive effects. [44] For example, it has been shown that this plant
helps to control neuropathic pain in chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy. [44] Among
different extracts of S. officinalis, the chloroform one shows more anti-inflammatory action,
while the methanolic extract and essential oil demonstrate low action. [45] Flavonoids and
terpenes are the compounds that most likely contribute to the anti-inflammatory and
antinociceptive actions of the herb. [44] Mansourabadi et al reported that flavonoids extracted
from S. officinalis reduce inflammation in the mouse carrageenan model and induce analgesic
effect in a dose-dependent manner. [45] Osakabe et al showed that topical application of
rosmarinic acid inhibits epidermal inflammation. [45] Manool, carnosol, and ursolic acid are of
the terpenes/terpenoids with anti-inflammatory potential. [44] The anti-inflammatory action of
ursolic acid is twofold more potent than that of indomethacin[44] This action of S. officinalis
constituents may be responsible for its antinociceptive effect in patient with pharyngitis. [45]
However, this effect of S. officinalis is not more powerful than the benzydamine hydrochloride
in controlling postoperative pain after tonsillectomy or adenoidectomy. [45]

3.4.Antiseptic effects

Several lines of evidence support antimicrobial effects of S. officinalis. The essential oil and
ethanolic extract of S. officinalis show strong bactericidal and bacteriostatic effects against both
Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Among Gram-positive pathogens, Bacillus cereus,
Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus faecalis, Listeria monocytogenes, and
Staphylococcus epidermidis show high sensitivity to S. officinalis. [46] Effects of S. officinalis
on Gram-negative bacteria depend on the type of extract used. While essential oil of
S. officinalis has significant inhibitory effect on the growth of Aeromonashydrophila,
Aeromonassobria, E. coli, Klebsiella oxytoca, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas morgani,
Salmonella anatum, Salmonella enteritidis, Salmonella typhi, and Shigellasonei, effect of
ethanolic extract on E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and S. enteritidis is weak. [46]

In addition to antibacterial action, S. officinalis has been reported to induce antifungal,

antiviral and anti-malarial effects. [46] The antifungal activity has been reported against Botrytis
cinerea, Candida glabrata, Candida albicans, Candida krusei, and Candida parapsilosis.46
Antimicrobial effects of S. officinalis are attributed to terpens and terpenoids compounds found
in this plant. It has been shown that camphor, thujone, and 1,8-cineole have antibacterial effects
against Aeromonas hydrophila, Aeromonas sobria, B. megatherium, B. subtilis, B. cereus, and
Klebsiella oxytoca. [47] Also, oleanolic acid and ursolic acid, two triterpenoids of S. officinalis,
have inhibitory action on growth of multidrug-resistant bacteria such as vancomycin-resistant
enterococci, penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumonia, and methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus. The effect of ursolic acid on Enterococcus faecium and multidrug-
resistant bacteria is stronger than that of ampicillin. [47] Carnosol, a diterpenoid, and its related
compound carnosic acid are two other antibacterial compounds obtained from S. officinalis.
These compounds potentiate the effects of aminoglycosides on methicillin-resistant S. aureus. [47]
The antiviral activity of S. officinalis is most probably is mediated by safficinolide and sage one,
two diterpenoids which are found in its aerial parts. [47]

3.5.Cognitive- and memory-enhancing effects

There is increasing evidence to suggest that S. officinalis has cognitive- and memory-
enhancing effects. In animal studies, it has been shown that ethanoic extract of S. officinalis
increases memory retention of passive avoidance learning in rats.48 Hydroalcoholic extract from
S. officinalis and its main flavonoid rosmarinic acid improve cognition in healthy rats and
prevent learning and memory deficits induced by diabetes. [48] Also, S.  officinalis hydroalcoholic
extract attenuates morphine-induced memory impairment. [48]

Clinical trials confirm the results of animal studies and demonstrated that S. officinalis
enhances cognitive performance both in healthy participants and patients with cognitive
impairment or dementia. [48] Moss et al reported that the aroma of S. officinalis essential oil could
enhance prospective memory performance in healthy adults. [48] Also, Scholey et al showed that
ethanolic extract of this plant improved memory and attention in healthy older subjects. [48] A
randomized controlled trial by Akhondzadeh et al showed that a 4-month treatment with
hydroalcoholic extract of S. officinalis improved cognitive functions in patients with mild to
moderate Alzheimer's disease. [48]

With regards the mechanisms responsible for cognitive- and memory-enhancing effects of
S. officinalis, a potential interaction with cholinergic system has been suggested. Eidi and
coworkers found that activation of muscarinic and nicotinic receptors by pilocarpine and
nicotine, respectively, potentiated memory-enhancing effects of S. officinalis. On the other hand,
blockade of muscarinic and nicotinic receptors by scopolamine and mecamylamine, respectively,
attenuated this effect. In addition, S. officinalis has been reported to inhibit acetylcholinesterase
activity. To date, inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase are the leading therapeutics of Alzheimer's
disease and S. officinalis might be a promising source for developing therapeutic agents for this
disease. [48]

3.6.Metabolic effects

Experimental and clinical studies have confirmed the beneficial effects of some medicinal
plants on body metabolism particularly glycemic status, serum lipids, lipolysis, and
adipogenesis. Recent pharmacological investigations demonstrated that different extracts of
aerial parts of S. officinalis are able to decrease blood glucose in normal and diabetic conditions.
The mechanisms suggested for hypoglycemic effect of S. officinalis include an inhibition of
hepatocyte gluconeogenesis and decrease of insulin resistance through stimulation of peroxisome
proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ). Recently, one study group reported that S. officinalis
extract increased plasma insulin in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. However, in their
previous work they observed that the extract did not affect insulin releasing from the pancreas of
normal or diabetic rats. Therefore further studies required to elucidate whether stimulation of
insulin release mediates hypoglycemic effect of S. officinalis. [49]

Pharmacological studies also revealed that different extracts of S. officinalis reduces serum
lipids. Hernandez-Saavedra et al Reported that infusion prepared from this plant reduced serum
triglycerides, total cholesterol, and low density lipoproteins (LDL) levels in diet-induced obese
rats. It also decreased body weight and abdominal fat mass in these animals. The beneficial
effects of S. officinalis on lipid profile have been also shown in diabetic animals. It could
decrease the level of triglyceride, cholesterol, urea, uric acid, creatinine, aspartate amino
transferase (AST), and alanine amino transferase (ALT) in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.
In clinical trials, extract of S. officinalis leaf could lower the blood levels of triglyceride, total
cholesterol, LDL, very low density lipoproteins (VLDL) and 2 h postprandial glucose in patients
with hyperlipidemia and diabetes. The beneficial properties of S. officinalis tea consumption on
serum lipid profile have been also reported on non-diabetic healthy volunteers. Because
hyperlipidemia is a common metabolic disorder contributing to mortalities and morbidities due
to cerebrovascular and cardiovascular diseases, S. officinalis may be valuable for the
management of dyslipidemia in high risk patients like those with diabetes mellitus or
hypercholesterinemia. The beneficial action of S. officinalis on dyslipidemia may be related to
flavonoids present in the plant. For example, rosmarinic acid treatment reduces the levels of
triglycerides and cholesterol in serum of high fat diet- and streptozotocin-induced type 2 diabetic
rats. Also, administration of rutin reduces adipose tissue mass and body weight in high-fat diet-
induced obese rats. In addition, this flavonoid increases mitochondrial size, mitochondrial DNA
content, and gene expression related to mitochondrial biogenesis (e.g., PPARγ coactivator-1α,
nuclear respiratory factor-1, transcription factor A, and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-
dependent deacetylase) in skeletal muscle. [49]

4. Toxicological studies

A number of clinical trials have reported that consumption of S. officinalis does not
induce severe side effects. [50] However, in the case of prolonged use or following overdose of
ethanolic extract and volatile oil of S. officinalis (corresponding to more than 15 g of the leaves)
some unwanted effects such as vomiting, salivation, tachycardia, vertigo, hot flushes, allergic
reactions, tongue swallowing, cyanosis, and even convulsion may occur. [51] The proconvulsant
action of S. officinalis oil is due to its direct effect (at doses more than 0.5 g/kg) on nervous
system. [50] Camphor, thujone, and terpene ketones are considered as the most toxic compounds
in S. officinalis. These compounds may induce toxic effects on the fetus and newborn. Therefore
consumption of S. officinalis is not recommended in pregnancy and lactation. Results from
animal studies have demonstrated that the LD50 of S. officinalis oil (when consumed orally) and
the methanolic extract (when injected intraperitoneally) is 2.6 g/kg and 4 g/kg, respectively. It
has been reported that S. officinalis tea enhances CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity in mice. However,
in clinical studies no hepatotoxic effects were reported. [51]

5. Cosmetic properties
The cosmetics are the articles intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled or sprayed on,
introduced into, or otherwise applied to the human body or any part thereof for cleansing,
beautifying, promoting attractiveness or altering the appearance, and articles intended for use as
a component of any such articles; except that such term shall not include soap.
The main objective of the cosmetic application is decorative to enhance the general appearance
of face and other body parts to minimize the skin defects to a considerable extent. It is applied to
maintain or improve the status of skin and hair. It greatly helps men and women to look more
impressive, beautiful and smart to a considerably extent. Although the aim is not always
achieved depending upon the selection of the quality product based on the type of skin ( oily
skin, dry skin, normal skin and combined skin) and hair and also due to lack of artesian skill. It
requires adequate expertise and artistic skill, which could be achieved through practice.
The other objectives of cosmetic application are Psychological, Social and Clinical.
Psychological effect of cosmetic application is an important value, which yield mental
satisfaction to user. The skillful use of cosmetics can often disguise or minimize the facial and
skin defects and improve the mental level of sufferers towards the life. As regards to clinical
effects of cosmetics, there exist different opinions for action of creams and other preparations on
the skin. Their application generally check the skin cracking, skin wrinkling, pre-mature ageing,
minimizing effects of wind burn, sun burn, bacterial infection, etc.
Herbal cosmetics are the preparations, which represent cosmetics associated with active
bioactive ingredients or pharmaceuticals. The use of phytochemicals from a variety of botanicals
have dual function, they serve as cosmetics for the care of body and its parts and the botanical
ingredients present influence biological functions of skin and provide nutrients necessary for the
healthy skin or hair. In general, botanicals provide different vitamins, antioxidants, various oils,
essential oils, dyes, tannins, alkaloids, carbohydrates, proteins, terpenoids and other bioactive
molecules.[52]
These are also topically applied and considered more preferred with compare to cosmetics.
Personal care industry is now more concentrated on herbal based cosmetics as it is a fast growing
segment with a vast scope of manifold expansion in coming years.
Their exist hundreds of botanicals which contain bioactive phytochemicals for their novel action
to improve the skin conditions to considerable extent without any side effects. No other
ingredient can serve this purpose as well as botanicals. These become now part of every product
in the market form of cosmetics. They are also well-known for their action to control scabies,
itching, skin disorder, pimples, dermatitis, ringworm, skin erruptions, acne, allergic rashes, warts
and other problems. Their antioxidant action has resulted their use in numerous formulations.
There is no doubt there exists hundreds of plants for skin and hair care system, some of which
are not commercially feasible as regard to their easy availability and cost constraints.
Salvia officinalis has been cultivated since ancient times. Greeks used to consider it a panacea.
Before tooth paste was invented, people used to rub fresh sage leaves on their teeth in order to
keep them white and shining. Decoction of 20 g sage leaves for 3 minutes was traditionally used
as a mouth wash to prevent gum-bleeding and tooth decay.
Sage is a popular medicine to treat anxiety, irritability, dyspepsia, hepatobiliary dyskinesia and
menopause-related problems; it is used as an appetizer, to reduce lactation and limbs sweating
and to treat diabetes. Common sage and red sage are used for mouth wash, douche (leucorrhea)
and baths to treat dermatological conditions. It is usually applied on infected wounds, aphthae
and torpid ulcers.[53], [54]
5. 1. Cosmetic product with purifying and antiseptic activity
Differently from sage essential oil, sage tincture prepared from the leaves, showed antibacterial
activity against Staphylococcus aureus and S.pyogens. The antimicrobial activity is mainly due
to the thujones in the essential oil and, to a lesser degree, to other oil components such as
pinenes, camphor, 1,8-cineol, borneol, caryophyllene and its bitter principle picrosalvin. Recent
research evidenced the relevance of rosmarinic acid in sage antimicrobial activity
Sage extract is useful to formulate cosmetic products with purifying and antiseptic activity due to
its antimicrobial activity.
5. 2. Cosmetic products for the protection of skin and hair against oxidative processes
S.officinalis leaves have a well-known antioxidant activity based on their phenolic compounds
content. The phenolic diterpenes showing the strongest antioxidant activity are: carnosic acid,
carnosol, rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid, rosmanol and genkwanin. Thus, sage extract is useful to
formulate cosmetic products for the protection of skin and hair against oxidative processes.[55]
5.3. Cosmetic products with anti-perspirant activity
Externally applied thujones seem to have antihydrotic activity, since they block the nerve
terminals in sweat glands and act on the thermoregulatory center of the bulb, all of which makes
these compounds useful to treat bromhidrosis. An open clinical study with 80 patients suffering
idiopathic bromhidrosis demonstrated the beneficial effects of sage extract (leaves infusion
equivalent to 4.5g/day), during a 4 weeks-treatment, which reduced secretion by a bit less than
50%. A clinical study with 30 menopausal women showed that administration of sage and alfalfa
(Medicago sativa) reduced flushes and nocturnal sweat in 20 of them. In principle, this activity is
attributed to a central anti-dopaminergic action.
Therefore, sage extract is recommendable to formulate cosmetic products with anti-perspirant
activity.
5.4. Cosmetic products with anti-irritant activity
It has been approved the topical use of sage leaves to treat inflammations in the nose and throat
mucosa by the Commision E. ESCOP recommends sage to treat inflammations such as
stomatitis, gingivitis and pharyngitis, as well as hyperhydrosis. The German Standard License
recommends sage leaves infusion to treat inflammations in the mouth and throat mucosa. Thus,
sage extract is useful to formulate cosmetic products with anti-irritant activity.
5.5. Cosmetic products for hair care
S.officnalis is one of the best plants to darken and strengthen the hair. To this end, infusion of
sage leaves is used. Sage is also used to treat alopecia. This plant is a good hair tonic. Used as a
lotion, sage infusion gives shine to the hair. Sage is particularly beneficial to dark hair,
strengthening it and boosting its natural color.
Therefore, sage extract is useful to formulate hair care cosmetic products.
5.6. Cosmetic products with astringent and wound healing activity
S.officinalis astringent activity is due to its tannin content. Tannin-containing products act on the
basis of tannins’ affinity for protein molecules. On topical applications, they coat the outermost
layers of skin and mucosa, thus protecting deeper layers. They also act as vasoconstrictor agents
on the small superficial blood vessels. Since they reduce fluid loss and prevent environmental
damages, tannins promote tissue regeneration in superficial wounds and burns.
Therefore, sage extract is useful to formulate cosmetic products with astringent and wound
healing activity. [56]
The reference publication Plants preparations used as ingredients of cosmetic products. Vol I.
(Council of Europe, 1994) includes a monograph on the dry hydroalcoholic extract, the fluid
aqueous extract and the glycolic extract of S.officinalis leaves, which mentions the following
cosmetic effects and recommended concentrations: tonic, deodorant, purifying, reactivating, anti-
perspirant and anti-dandruff ,up to 1% dry extract , up to 5% glycolic and fluid extracts, when
used in stimulating and purifying hair lotions, tooth pastes, greasy and opaque skin products,
deodorants and anti-perspirants. , up to 10% in bath and shower gel and shampoo.
5.7. Cosmetic applications

6. Properties in human nutrition

Salvia, this fresh, bitter, but slightly spicy flavor plant has been used for hundreds
ofyears in Italian cuisine, but has been borrowed over time by chefs around the world.
This spice that is part of the mente family can be used in a variety of ways, not just for
the preparation of tea, poultry or stuffing. It supports warmth well, so it should not be added to
the end just like other flavored herbs. If you have sage in pots, find out that the inflorescence can
sprinkle over salads or make jelly or syrup from it. Vegetable sausages are even more flavourful
with a little sage, and the combination of sage, rosemary and thyme will anonymously remove
any preparation.
Use it carefully because it can dominate the flavor of the rest of the ingredients. Use
salvia for tomatoes, potatoes, green vegetables, minced meat.
 7. Precautions and contraindications

Salvia is rich in enzymes, vitamin B1 and C, flavonoids and estrogenic substances.

Generally, we can say that this plant is capable of stimulating the body and, due to its proprietary
stimulating properties of gastric juice secretion, is an excellent digestion.
It is indicated in cases of abscess and gingivitis, as these are excellent healing
properties. It acts against infections that affect the respiratory tract, fight against water retention,
headaches and anti-rheumatism.
In addition, salvia is indicated in the treatment of menopausal syndromes and in the
reduction of painful menstrual symptoms. It helps the states of asthenia and low moods, is
especially indicated in case of physical exhaustion and to help memory.
Salvia can reduce blood glucose levels and is beneficial even in cases of diabetes.
These are excellent anti-dusting properties and help keep your skin alive, being used in
cosmetics.
The preparations in this plant are effective against cough, and oily substances are
remarkable antiseptic and balsamic effects. They can also be used in case of breast and cold pain,
following the instructions on the packaging.
We must pay close attention to the use of essential sage oil as its use continues in
normal doses or the use of excessive doses can cause manifest neurotoxicity.
Toxicity can also occur from topical preparations such as cream and massage oil, which are
absorbed by the skin or mucous membranes. Salvia is not recommended in patients with renal
impairment.
It should also be borne in mind that it should not be used during pregnancy and lactation
because it can stop lactation.

You have to be very careful when you start a sage cake. This plant is contraindicated to
epileptics, breastfeeding mothers, pregnant women, stomach susceptible persons. Also, sage
volatile oil is not given to children under the age of 10, and diabetics should keep blood sugar
under close supervision if they start a sage cure.

That means the uses for Sage essential oil may be helpful as long as you pay attention
and respect a few safety guidelines:

 Sage essential oil should never be used by pregnant or lactating women.

 Epileptic people should also avoid using Sage oil.

 Sage oil is not recommended to children either.

  Don’t take risks if you suffer from any type of sensitization or allergies.

 Never use Sage essential oil undiluted! Be safe and mix the essential oil with
any vegetable oil you have.

 Don’t even think to take Sage oil internally. Unless, of course, you’ve
consulted a doctor first.
 Sage essential oil is not recommended to people who take anticoagulants,
because it contains vitamin K. Sage oil may also interact with anti-depressant
medications.
 Never go above the recommended dose. Go to the doctor the moment you
experience any nausea, vomiting, disorientation or convulsions.

Volatile oils are never used internally, they are only used for external
application.Before using volatile oils, perform a test on a small piece of skin with a diluted
amount.

Aromatherapy is a science that combines essential oils to achieve a calming effect,

hormonal and emotional balancing, stress release, energizing, regeneration, etc. These oils can be
extracted from: fruit, flowers or plant leaves. Essential oils can be used for massage, bath,
vaporization and inhalation.
Salvia contains thujone essential oils. Thujone consumed in large canits is pointitor.
Even when it is not pointitor, used in large quantities, it can regularly cause severe nervous
system damage. [57]
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