1. Define fermi level for semiconductors.

Prove that the fermi level for intrinsic semiconductors at

T=0°K is at the middle of the band gap.

The Fermi energy is that energy for which the Fermi distribution function is equal to 1/2. The
probability that any state in the valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor at T=0°K is occupied by
electrons is 100%, for E<Ev. At higher temperatures, some of the electrons close to the top of the
valence band have been excited into the conduction band. As a consequence, the probability
function is slightly reduced at the top of the valence band for T>0°K.

No electrons are found at T=0°K in the conduction band. Thus, the Fermi function must be zero for
E>Ec. For higher temperatures, a small deviation from F(E)=0 near the bottom of the band is
expected.

So, the Fermi level is located in the center of the forbidden band

Proof: on a intrinsic semiconductor: Nc=Nv=ni, so:

𝐸𝑓 − 𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝑓
𝑁𝑐 exp ( ) = 𝑁𝑣 exp ( )
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇

Where: Nc is the holes concentration, Nv is the electrons concentration, Ev is the energy of the
valence band, Ec is the energy of the conduction band and Ef is the Fermi level.

By applying the natural logarithm to both sides of the equation, and solving for Ef:

𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑐 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑣
𝐸𝑓 = + 𝑙𝑛 ( )
2 2 𝑁𝑐

Finally, for T=0

𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑔
𝐸𝑓 = =
2 2

2. The optical transmission spectra of Al2O3 and CdSe are given in the following figure. Compare
the optical properties of these materials.
For Al2O3 the optical properties are as follows:

Transmission is high including on the visible spectrum, so the material is transparent to visible light
(it transmit a large part of the light), this explains why the material is transparent to the human
eye. The drop in transmittance at low wave lengths is explained by the band gap of the insulator.
Within the transparency range, the absorption coefficient is very small. The drop of the
transmittance on the IR region corresponds to vibrational absorption by the lattice.

In CdSe the sudden drop in the transmittance occurs on the near IR spectra, so the energy of the
band gap for this semiconductor is on this wavelength. The lattice absorption occurs at longer
wavelength than of Al2O3, the maximum transmission is at the range of around 60%, this is due to
the reflectivity of the surface. Since no visible light is transmitted, the sample will be seen with a
dark metallic color.
2. The reflectance spectra for Aluminium (Al), Silver (Ag) and Gold (Au) are given in the figure.
Explain the behavior of these metals during irradiation with electromagnetic radiation. Comment
about the application of these materials as reflectors.

The reflectance for Ag drops dramatically for a wavelength near 300nm, which correspond to the
plasma frequency. This is why Ag is opaque to the human eye. For Au, the plasma frequency shows
at near 500nm, which corresponds to the color yellow, and this is why Au is yellow to the human
eye. Al is a near perfect reflector for all wavelengths, in particular, it is a good reflector of the
infrared spectra.

The metals Au and Ag, absorb the visible light very well. So they can be used as reflectors of visible
light.

3. Explain the origins of magnetism in materials on the basis of the classical and quantum
mechanical concepts.

From classical mechanics, the magnetism in materials is originated by moving charges. A charge
carrier with charge q, and speed v will produce a magnetic field B, and the particle feels a force F
given by:

⃗⃗
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣⃗𝑥𝐵

So, a moving charge is an electric current, and the expression for the magnetic field B is given by
Biot-Savart’s Law:

𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝑑𝑙⃗ × 𝑟⃗
⃗⃗ =
𝐵 ∫
4𝜋 |𝑟⃗|2
On materials, the magnetic moment is given in terms of the angular momentum of the atom. The
magnetic dipole is given as:

𝜇𝑧 = −𝑔𝜇𝑏 𝑚𝑙

Where g is the orbital factor, 𝜇𝑏 is bohr magneton and ml is the azimutal quantum number.

Interactions from the spin of the electron are considered magnetic moment of spin, defined as:

𝜇𝑧 = −𝑔𝜇𝑏 𝑚𝑠

Where: g is the spin factor, and ms is the spin quantum number.

The interaction between the angular momentum and the spin of the electron is given by the total
angular momentum. The electron in the atom feels and internal magnetic field. The orientation of
the electron is determined by the angular momentum and the field produces a rotational impulse
over its magnetic moment of spin, whose orientation is determined by the momentum of spin. So:

𝐽⃗ = 𝐿⃗⃗ + 𝑆⃗

The movement must satisfy the conservation of the total angular moment

Diamagnetics: diamagnetic materials are those in which, the magnetic fields due to the
movements of electronic orbitation and rotation are nullified mutually. In diamagnetics, the
magnetic moment of spin is equal to zero. So an external magnetic field exerts very small influence
on the material. The magnetic susceptibility for these materials is lower than zero and is
independent of the temperature. Some examples: Na, Cl, diamond.

Paramagnets: materials which have positive magnetic susceptibility are called paramagnetic. The
magnetic induction is strengthen by the material. It occurs because the magnetic fields due to the
orbitation and rotation of electrons do not annihilate. This phenomena is dependent on
temperature. In the absence of an external magnetic field, the magnetization is zero. When in the
presence of an external magnetic field, the magnetization if a linear function of the magnetic
susceptibility. Examples: rare earths.

Ferromagnetic: it’s an spontaneous magnetization on small regions of a material. In the absence of

an external magnetic field, the magnetization still exists. They can be highly magnetized. When the
temperature is raised by the curie temperature, they behave like paramagnets. They behavior of
the magnetization is not a linear function of the magnetic susceptibility. The magnetization of the
material can be described by hysteresis curves. To determine the magnetic energy of a
ferromagnetic material, we use a magnetic dominion. A magnetic dominion is a region of the
material in which not all the magnetic moments are aligned. They appear due to the energy of a
big crystal is not a minimum. EuO, MnAs, MnBi.