ES 67

COURSE NAME:
ELEMENTS OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND
ENGINEERING
LESSON 2
– Strong, ductile
– high thermal & electrical conductivity
– opaque, reflective.
• Covalent bonding  sharing of e’s
– Soft, ductile, low strength, low
density
– thermal & electrical insulators
– Optically translucent or transparent.
• ionic bonding (refractory) – compounds of metallic & non-metallic
elements (oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides)
– Brittle, glassy, elastic
– non-conducting (insulators)
SEMICONDUCTORS
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atomic Structure
 Why study Atomic Structure and
Bonding?
• Atomic Structure and Bonding can determine
properties
– Physical Properties
e.g. Density, Mass, Texture, Shape, Permeability,
Moisture content susceptibility, Specific gravity,
Color
– Chemical Properties
e.g. Resistance to deterioration, Oxidation, Solubility
– Biological Properties
– Electromagnetic Properties
e.g. Conductance
 Atomic Structure
-Atomic number Z – number of protons in the nucleus
-Atomic Mass – sum of masses of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom
-Isotopes – elements that have 2 or more atomic masses,
same proton but different neutrons (N)
-atomic weight – weighted average of atomic masses of an
atom’s naturally occurring isotopes
-atomic mass unit (amu) – 1/12 of atomic mass of the most
common isotope carbon carbon 12
-1 amu/atom (or molecule) = 1 g/mole
 Quantum Mechanics

– a set of laws and principles that governs

systems of atomic and subatomic entities
• Quantum Mechanics is a field of study that uses energy levels,
motion analysis, and probability theories to study atoms.
• In Quantum Mechanics electrons behave in a wavelike fashion
rather than individual particles. Waves can be diverted by
reflection or diffraction.
• The location of the electron is described by energy levels
rather than by individual positions. The higher the energy
level the further away from the nucleus.
Atomic Models
Electrons are assumed to revolve
around the atomic nucleus in discrete
orbitals

Energies of the electrons are

quantized-permitted to have only
specific values of energy

Energy levels or states

Position- more or less well-defined in

terms of its orbitals
Wave-mechanical model
 Atomic Models
• Wave-mechanical model
• Electrons are considered to exhibit both wave-
like and particle-like characteristics
• - not just a particle moving in discrete orbital;
rather position is considered to be a probability
of an electron’s being at various locations around
the nucleus
• Position- probability distribution or electron
cloud
 Quantum Levels
• Electrons exist in orbits around the nucleus. More than one electron can
be in each orbit due to alternating spins.
• Energy levels appear at predictable intervals in disctict orbits or shells,
e.g., 1s (2 electrons), 2s (2 electrons) and 2p (6 electrons), 3s, 3p, etc.
• s, p, f, and d are Quantum Levels 1, 2, 3, and 4
• Vertical groupings in periodic table are based upon similar electron
configuration and similarities in both chemical and physical properties
– Group 1A alklai metals; Group IIA are alkaline-earth metals
– Group B subgroups- transition elements
– Group IIIA through VA and VIIA are mostly non-metals
– Group VIII- Noble or Inert Gases
– Octet rule- accept/give electrons to fill s and p orbitals (2+6=8)

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Quantum Numbers
 Orbitals
• The s orbital set (any number in the electron configuration
followed by an "s") contains a single orbital, and by Pauli's
Exclusion Principle, a single orbital can hold a maximum of 2
electrons, so each s orbital set can hold 2 electrons.
• The p orbital set contains 3 orbitals, and thus can hold a total
of 6 electrons.
• The d orbital set contains 5 orbitals, so it can hold 10
electrons.
• The f orbital set contains 7 orbitals, so it can hold 14
electrons.
PERIODIC TABLE
 Periodic Table
• Invented by Dmitri Medeleyev in the late 1800’s
• Many of the elements in the table were not discovered until long
after the table was invented
• All elements are in their most basic form and cannot be simplified
• Table lists the atomic number and atomic mass
• The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus or the
center of the atom
• The atomic mass is the sum of the masses of the protons and
neutrons. Electrons weigh about 1/2000 as a proton.
• Carbon (C) has atomic number 6 because there are 6 protons in the
nucleus.

32
 Periodic Table
Properties

• As you proceed to the left in a period or as you proceed down within a

group:
– The metallic strengths increase (non-metallic strengths decrease).
– The atomic radius of atoms (distance from the nucleus to the outermost occupied
region) increases. Atomic radii are the distance between the outermost occupied
probability region of an atom and its nucleus.
– The ionization potential (energy required to remove an electron from an atom)
decreases. Ionization Potential is energy required to remove electron from atom.
– The electron affinity (energy released as electron is picked up by an atom) decreases.
– The electronegativity (the electron attracting ability of an atom) decreases.
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 Periodic Table
IA IIA ….Groups… IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA
Atm # 1
Symbol H
Wgt 1.01
B Groups

Lanthanides

Actinides

Excellent Reference: http://www-tech.mit.edu/Chemicool/ 34

Remember the order of the letters with this mnemonic:
Sober Physicists Don't Find Giraffes Hiding In Kitchens.
 Primary Bonds
• Types of primary bond
– 1. Ionic - transfer of electrons
Na Cl
• Metallic and non metallic elements
• Sodium chloride salt

H H
– 2. Covalent - sharing with adjacent atoms
• Polymeric materials
• Hydrogen gas Metal ions
Electron cloud + + + +
+ + +
+ + + +
– 3. Metallic - mass sharing of electrons + + +
+ + + +
• All metal
CE 336
 Ionic Bonds

• Electrons transferred

• Strong attractive forces

between atoms

• Solids at room temps

• High melting temperature

CE 336
 Bonding

• Ionic bonding (ceramics, e.g., salt and clay)

– Nondirectional
– Forms when an atoms that has a strong tendency to give up electrons (a metal)
is in close proximity to an atom that has a strong tendency to accept electrons
(nonmetal).
• Transfer of one or more electrons from the outer shell of one atom to the outer
shell of the other atom depending on the valence of the atoms.
• Results in an electron arrangement when many ions (+ and -) are in close proximity,
e.g., NaCl, that has a polar arrangement of the ions similar to a magnet.
• Forms crystalline structure
Metal cation Non-metal anion
e- e- e- e- Na+ Cl-
e- Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl-
e- e-
e- Cl e- Cl-
e- e- e- e- Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+
e- e-
e- Na+
Na Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ 45
Cl-
atoms ions
 Ionic Bonding (I)
Mutual ionization by electron transfer Metal cationNon-metal anion
(remember electronegativity table) Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl-
• Anion = negatively charged atom
• Cation = positively charged atom Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+

Ions are attracted by strong coulombic interaction Na+ Cl-

Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl-
• Oppositely charged atoms attract
• An ionic bond is non-directional
Example: NaCl
Na has 11 electrons, 1 more than needed for a full outer shell (Neon)

11 Protons Na 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S1 donates e-

10 e -
left
11 Protons Na 1S 2S 2P
+ 2 2 6
Cl has 17 electron, 1 less than needed for a full outer shell (Argon)

17 Protons Cl 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P5 receives e-

18 e-
17 Protons Cl- 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 46
 Covalent Bonds

• Electrons are shared in

joint orbital

• Can lead to small

molecules with polarity

CE 336
 Covalent Bonds

• Gases, liquids, (mech.

weak substances)

• Can lead to long extended

networks

• Polymer chains (weak

between chains)

CE 336
 Bonding
• Covalent bonding (most important for plastics)
– Highly directional sharing of valence electrons.
– Ethylene monomer goes to polyethylene polymer with 1,000 to 10,000
repeating units

H H H H H H H H
…
C C C C C C C C
Heat, Pressure,
Initiator H H H H H H
H X

– Table 2.2. Bond Energies of Representative of the C-C, C-H, C-O bonds. These
can be measured in the FTIR lab.
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 Carbon Chain Polymers
• Homopolymers
– Simplest plastic containing one basic structure
– If X = H then Polyethylene
– If X = Cl the PVC
– If X = CH3 then PP
– If X = Benzene Ring then Polystyrene

• Through Addition Polymerization from monomer

H H H H

C C Heat, Pressure, C C
Initiator
H X H X
n 51
 Co-ordinate Covalent Bond
» A bond formed between two atoms when the
shared pair of electrons is donated by one of the
bonded atoms is called Co-ordinate Covalent Bond.
» Atom which donates pair of electron called donor
atom
» Atom which accepts pair of electron called
accepter atom
» e.g. bonding b/w BF3 & NH3.
 Covalent Bonding (II)

Example: Carbon Zc = 6 (1S2 2S2 2P2)

N’ = 4, 8 - N’ = 4  can form up to four covalent bonds
ethylene molecule:

polyethylene molecule:

ethylene mer

diamond:
(each C atom has four covalent
bonds with four other carbon
atoms)
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 Covalent Bonding (III)

2-D schematic of the “spaghetti-like” structure

of solid polyethylene

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 Metallic Bonds
+ + + + + + +

+ + + + + +
• Metal – “element
+ + + + + + +
with 1, 2, or 3,
+ + + + + +
valence electrons” + + + + + + +

+ + + + + +
• No clearly defined
molecules
• Equilibrium of
• Electron cloud & repulsive forces
Electronic bond
CE 336
 Metallic Bonding
♦Metallic Bonding is found in metals and their alloys.
♦Metallic atoms have one ,two or three valence
electrons.
♦These valence electrons are not bound to any
particular atoms in metals.
♦They are more or less free to drift thought the entire
metal.
 Bonding
• Metallic bonding
– Occurs when two metal atoms are in close proximity.Both atoms have tendency
to give up electrons. Electrons are free to move about entire atoms structure
– Releasing electrons yields a lower energy state.
– The metal atoms approach each other and give up electrons when in close
proximity to a sea of electrons.
– Charged metal ions cancel the repulsive forces due to the electron movement.
– Crystal structures can form in some atoms but the forces are not as strong as
ionic bonds in ceramics.
– Metallic alloys can form when each gives up electrons and form a positively
charged ion.
Metal cations Sea of electrons
Fe atome- e- e- e- e-
e- Fe atom Fe++ Fe++ Fe++ Fe++
e- e- e- e-
Fe Fe e- e- e- e- e-
e-
Fe++ Fe++ Fe++ Fe++
e- e- e- e-
e- e- e- e- e- e-
Fe++ Fe++ Fe++ Fe++
e- Fe++ e-
Fe++ e- e- e- e-
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Electrons (free to move)
 Metallic Bonding

Valence electrons are detached from atoms

Spread in an 'electron sea'
that "glues" the “ions” together

Metallic bond is non-directional  atoms pack closely

Electron cloud from valence electrons
ion core

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Secondary Bonds - van der Waals Bonds
• Weak compared to primary bonds
• Result from dipoles - electrostatic attraction
– Dipole occurs when have separation of positive and
negative portion of atom or molecule

Cl H

+        -
H

– Causes gasses to liquefy O

105°
• Water also a dipole
H
CE 336
 Secondary Bonding
• Secondary bonding: weaker than ionic, metallic, covalent
– Hydrogen bonding
• Occurs between the positive end of a bond and the negative end of
another bond.
• Example, water the positive end is the H and the negative end is O.
– van der Waals
• Occurs due to the attraction of all molecules have for each other, e.g.
gravitational. Forces are weak since masses are small
– induced dipole
• Occurs when one end of a polar bond approaches a non-polar
portion of another molecule.

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END