Fans Reference Guide

Fans 9501 Covers 1/8/01 10:12 AM Page 3
Fans
Reference Guide
4th edition, 2001
First Edition, September 1993

Second Edition, October 1997
Third Edition, August 1999
Fourth Edition, January 2001
Coordinated by:
Scott Rouse, P.Eng., MBA.
Ontario Hydro 1997
Revised by:
Richard Okrasa, P. Eng., MBA.
Ontario Hydro
Written by:
Ralph G. Culham, P. Eng.
Consulting Engineer
for Technology Services Department, Ontario Hydro, 1993
Neither Ontario Hydro, nor any person acting on its behalf, assumes any
liabilities with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from the use of, any
information, equipment, product, method or process disclosed in this guide.
Making Energy Savings Good Business
Printed in Canada
Copyright © 1993, 1997, 1999, 2001 Ontario Power Generation
Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:35 AM Page c
FANS
Reference Guide
3rd Edition, 1999

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TA B L E OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................1
DEFINITIONS ...........................................................................3
Fans ...............................................................................................3
Blowers .........................................................................................3
Velocity Pressure...........................................................................4
Static Pressure ...............................................................................4
Total Pressure................................................................................4
Fan Total Pressure Rise .................................................................4
Fan Velocity Pressure ....................................................................4
Fan Static Pressure ........................................................................5
Fan Duty .......................................................................................5
Fan Output Power ........................................................................5
Fan Efficiency................................................................................5
System Curve................................................................................5
Performance Curve .......................................................................5
Fan Static Efficiency......................................................................5
FAN TYPES ..............................................................................7
Centrifugal Fans............................................................................7
Airfoil .............................................................................................9
Backward-inclined ........................................................................11
Radial ..........................................................................................11
Forward-curved ............................................................................12
Axial Fans....................................................................................12
Propeller.......................................................................................16
Tubeaxial.....................................................................................16
Vanaxial ......................................................................................20
Special designs ............................................................................21
i
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Bifurcated Fans.............................................................................21
Centrifugal Inline Fans .................................................................21
Centrifugal Roof Exhausters ..........................................................25
Utility Fans ..................................................................................25
Fan Designation and Arrangements ...........................................25
Class Limits for Fans...................................................................31
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION .....................................................33
Centrifugal Fans..........................................................................34
Axial Fans....................................................................................36
FAN PERFORMANCE CURVES ....................................................39
FAN LAWS .............................................................................43
Limitations ..................................................................................43
Compressibility Factor................................................................44
FAN FORMULAE .....................................................................47
Density........................................................................................47
Fan Flow Rate .............................................................................48
Head and Pressure ......................................................................49
Velocity Pressure.........................................................................49
Total Pressure..............................................................................50
Fan-System-Effect Factor ............................................................50
Fan Power and Efficiency ...........................................................50
Fan Motor Power........................................................................52
Example 1....................................................................................53
AIR SYSTEMS .........................................................................59
Example 2....................................................................................60
FAN AND SYSTEM INTERFACE ..................................................65
System Effect Factors..................................................................65
Fan Outlet Conditions................................................................66
ii
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Fan Inlet Conditions ...................................................................68

FAN SELECTION .....................................................................69
Pressure Definitions....................................................................70
Parallel Fan Selection ..................................................................72
Series Vs Parallel Operation........................................................74
FAN NOISE ............................................................................77
Fan Sound Power........................................................................78
Example 3....................................................................................81
FAN DUTY CONTROL .............................................................85
VIBRATION ISOLATION............................................................89
ELECTRIC MOTOR FAN DRIVE .................................................91
Flywheel Effect............................................................................91
AC Motors ..................................................................................92
DC Motors..................................................................................93
ENERGY CONSUMPTION ANALYSIS ...........................................95
Constant-Volume Fans ...............................................................96
Variable-Volume Fans .................................................................97
Example 4..................................................................................102
APPENDICES ........................................................................109
Appendix A – Density Calculations .........................................109
Appendix B – Drive Loss Calculations.....................................115
Appendix C – Fan Outlet Loss Coefficients.............................119
CONVERSION TABLES ...........................................................127
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS ..............................................131
BIBLIOGRAPHY .....................................................................135
GLOSSARY ...........................................................................139
iii
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LIST OF FIGURES
1. Operating Point .........................................................................6

2. General Configuration and Component Terms
for Centrifugal Fans ...................................................................8
3. Airfoil .........................................................................................9
4. Typical Characteristics of Airfoil Fans.....................................10
5. Typical Characteristics of Backward-inclined Fans.................13
6. Typical Characteristics of Radial Fans.....................................14
7. General Configuration and Component
Terms for Axial Fans ................................................................15
8. Typical Characteristics of Propeller Fans.................................17
9. Typical Characteristics of Tubeaxial Fans ...............................18
10. Typical Characteristics of Vaneaxial Fans................................19
11. Configuration of Bifurcated Fans ............................................22
12. Typical Characteristics of Centrifugal Inline Fans...................23
13. Typical Characteristics of Centrifugal Roof Exhausters..........24
14. Typical Characteristics of Forward-curved Utility Fans..........26
15. Typical Characteristics of
Backward-inclined Utility Fans ...............................................27
16. Drive Arrangements for Axial Fans
with or without Diffuser and Outlet Box ...............................28
17. Drive Arrangements for Centrifugal Fans ...............................29
18. Drive Arrangements for Centrifugal Fans ...............................30
19. Outlet Velocity Vector Diagram for
Backward-inclined Blades........................................................35
20. Outlet Velocity Vector Diagram for Radial Blades..................35
21. Outlet Velocity Vector Diagram for
Forward-curved Blades ............................................................35
iv
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LIST OF FIGURES
22. Velocity Vector Diagram for an Axial Fan without

Inlet Guide or Diffusion Vanes near the Impeller Hub ...........36
23. Velocity Vector Diagram for an Axial Fan without
Inlet Guide or Diffusion Vanes at the Blade Tip .....................36
24. Fan Test-rig Setup ....................................................................41
25. Compressibility Factor ............................................................45
26. Operating Point and System Curve.........................................53
27. Fan Static-pressure Design Curve at 1,475 rpm
Intersecting Design Point A and Fan Static-pressure
Curve at 983 rpm Intersecting Point B ....................................56
28. Fan Static Pressure Curve Intersecting the Design Point A
and the Maximum Design Point D .........................................63
29. Deficient Fan and System Performance ..................................66
30. Fan-outlet Velocity Profiles......................................................67
31. Design Operating Point Selection Range on a Typical
Centrifugal Fan Performance Curve ........................................72
32. Pressure Flow Curves ..............................................................73
33. Series Fan Operation................................................................75
34. Outlet Damper Fan Control ....................................................86
35. Throttle Control of a Fan with a Two-speed Motor...............87
36. Inlet Vane Control of a Fan......................................................88
v
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LIST OF FIGURES
C1. Plane Asymmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet

Without Ductwork ................................................................119
C2. Pyramidal Diffuser at Fan Outlet Without Ductwork ..........120
C3. Plane Symmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork.....121
C4. Plane Asymmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork...122
C7. Pyramidal Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork................125
vi
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LIST OF TA B L E S
1. Fan Laws ..................................................................................46

2. Typical Manufacturer's Performance Data
for a 24-in. AFSW Centrifugal Fan at 70˚F and
Standard Atmospheric Pressure...............................................54
3. Typical Number of Fan Blades ................................................79
4. Specific Sound Power Levels and Blade
Frequency Increments .............................................................80
5. Sound Correction Factors........................................................81
6. Summary for Example 3 ..........................................................83
7. Typical VAV-fan Constants....................................................104
8. Motor Load Efficiencies.........................................................105
9. The Solution to Example 4 ....................................................105
10. Summary of Example 4 .........................................................107
vii
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LIST OF TA B L E S
A1. Standard Atmospheric Data for

Altitudes to 3,000 m .............................................................114
A2. Density Calculations .............................................................114
C1. Plane Asymmetric Diffuser at Fan
Outlet Without Ductwork.....................................................119
C2. Pyramidal Diffuser at Fan Outlet
Without Ductwork ................................................................120
C3. Plane Symmetric Diffuser at Fan
Outlet With Ductwork ..........................................................121
C7. Pyramidal Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork................125
viii
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
• Fans and blowers are the largest single type of user of electricity
in industry. Applications in all industries include: boiler
combustion air supply, dust and exhaust removal (pneumatic
conveying), “bag” house, sewage aeration, drying, cooling
industrial processes, and ventilation. Issues such as indoor air
quality and pollution control create a continuous demand for
well-designed, efficient and cost-effective ventilation and
blower systems.
• Selecting the right size and type of fan and blower is
fundamental to an energy-efficient system.
• The first step in any fan application is defining the needs of the
system being supplied.
• Enhancing the performance of an existing air system with a
new, energy-efficient electronic control system offers significant
potential for energy savings. In some cases, retrofitting with a
more efficient fan or blower and interconnecting ductwork will
be the most appropriate way to reduce energy consumption.
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:35 AM Page 2
• This guide contains the information required to select an

industrial or commercial fan and blower system. Supporting
handbooks and reference material are identified in the
Bibliography.
• Chapter 7 provides the formulae necessary to determine the
energy consumption of a heating and ventilating fan system,
particularly variable-volume fans.
• Because the personal computer is a popular design tool, the
formulae in this guide were designed to be used in a spread-
sheet program. Hourly analysis programs determine energy use
more accurately, and some of these programs can be used for
system design and selection.
• This guide demonstrates how to use the American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE) Modified Bin Method on a spread-sheet program to
determine annual energy consumption when fan power is a
function of outdoor air temperature. This procedure is
reasonably accurate relative to the time required to perform the
analysis.
• Once the annual energy consumption is determined, a life-cycle
costing analysis of a proposed system can be done. This guide
excludes life-cycle costing techniques as they are well
documented in texts such as the ASHRAE Handbook, 1991
HVAC Applications Volume.
2 Fans Reference Guide

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CHAPTER 2
DEFINITIONS
FAN
• Device that causes flow of a gaseous fluid by creating a
pressure difference by exchanging momentum from the fan
blades to air/gas particles.
• The fan impeller converts rotational mechanical energy into
both static and kinetic energy within the gaseous fluid.
• The proportion of static versus kinetic energy created and the
inherent energy conversion efficiency depends on the type of
fan (blade design).
• The gaseous fluid transported by a fan is most often air and/or
toxic fumes, whereas blowers may transport a mixture of
particulate and air.
B LOWER
• Similar to a fan, except it can produce a much higher static
pressure. Sometimes higher pressure is achieved by a multistage
impeller arrangement.
• Engineering practice distinguishes fans and blowers for low
pressure and centrifugal compressors for high pressure.
Chapter 2: Definitions 3
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• The demarcation between blowers and compressors is set at a

7% increase in the density of the air from blower inlet to
blower outlet.
• Fan and blower definitions and formulae, assuming
incompressibility, apply below this demarcation with
insignificant errors.
V ELOCITY P RESSURE
• That pressure at a point in an airstream existing by virtue of the
air density and its rate of motion.
S TATIC P RESSURE
air density and its degree of compression, and is independent of
the rate of motion of the air.
T OTAL P RESSURE
air density and the degree of compression and rate of motion of
the air; hence it is the sum of the static and velocity pressure
(also called stagnation pressure).
FAN T OTAL P RESSURE R ISE

• The fan total pressure at outlet, minus the fan total pressure at
inlet. Note: when moving air enters a closed area, it converts
velocity pressure to static pressure.
FAN V ELOCITY P RESSURE
• The pressure corresponding to the average velocity determined
from the volume flow rate and fan outlet area.

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FAN S TATIC P RESSURE

• The fan total pressure rise diminished by the fan velocity
pressure.
FAN D UTY
• The range of operating points, giving the fan inlet volume flow
at a rated fan pressure.
FAN O UTPUT P OWER

• The fan output power or the useful power, delivered by a fan to
an incompressible fluid, is equal to the product of the fan flow
rate and the fan total pressure divided by a constant depending
on the units.
FAN E FFICIENCY
• The fan total or mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of
fan air power to fan-shaft input power.
S YSTEM C URVE
• The set of operating points defined by the duct friction, bends,
and other pressure losses that make up the connected system
the fan must serve.
P ERFORMANCE C URVE
• The set of operating points defined by a particular fan design,
size, and speed. Where the system and performance curves
meet is the fan’s operating point.
FAN S TATIC E FFICIENCY
• This is not a true efficiency but has been used traditionally in
the fan industry. It is equal to the fan total efficiency times the
ratio of fan static to fan total pressures
Chapter 2: Definitions 5
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Fan Total
Fan
Pressure
Performance
or
Curve
Fan Static System Curve
Pressure
P Operating Point
Volume Flow
V
Figure 1: Operating Point

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CHAPTER 3
FAN TYPES
• The two general classifications of fans – centrifugal and axial –

are established according to the direction of flow through the
impeller.
- Axial fans have high volume capability for large duct size
ventilation applications.
- Centrifugal fans have high pressure capability for applications
such as boilers, baghouses, conveyors, and sewage aerators.
• These general classifications are subdivided into groups with
inherent performance characteristics to suit a specific
application.
• All other fans fall under a special design classification, including
mixed-flow fans.
C ENTRIFUGAL FANS
• Centrifugal fans are divided into four main subclassifcations
according to impeller type: airfoil, backward-inclined, radial and
forward-curved.
Chapter 3: Fan Types 7

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Figure 2: General Configuration and Component Terms for

Centrifugal Fans
Reprinted with permission from the Air Movement
and Control Association from Publication 201–90

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Airfoil
• The most efficient centrifugal fan design, but the most expensive.
• Airfoil (AF) have an impeller with typically 10 to 16 blades of
airfoil contour (see Figure 2), curved away from the direction of
rotation.
• Air leaves the impeller wheel at a velocity of less than its tip
speed, and relatively deep blades allow for efficient air
expansion within the blade passages.
• For a given duty, these fans rotate at the highest speed.
• The fan is in a scroll-type housing designed to efficiently
convert velocity pressure to static pressure.
• To achieve high static-pressure efficiency, a close tolerance
between the wheel and the housing inlet cone must be
maintained.
• Due to the high operating speed, the airfoil blades and the close
tolerances, an AF fan is the most expensive to construct and
repair.
• It is the most efficient centrifugal fan design at approximately
90%.
Rotation
Figure 3: Airfoil

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24 in. AFSW Centrifugal

1,170 rpm
5 100
static pressure (sp) / horsepower (hp)
surge
4 80
static efficiency (se)

3 60
hp
2 40
se
1 20
sp
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
cfm x 1,000
Figure 4: Typical Characteristics of Airfoil Fans

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APPLICATION
• Usually commercial heating, ventilating and air-conditioning

(HVAC) systems and clean-air industrial applications where the
power savings can be significant.
• Best suited to applications that require low-to-medium static
pressure and a large flow volume.
Backward-inclined
• Backward-inclined (BI) or backward curved fans have an
impeller with typically 10 to 16 blades of uniform thickness
incllined or curved away from the direction of rotation.
• The fan is in the same scroll-type housing as an AF fan.
• BI fans are slightly less efficient than AF fans at approximately
80%.
APPLICATION
• In systems that require low-to-high static pressure, specifically

in commercial HVAC systems with moderate flow volume.
Also used in industrial systems that require some tolerance to a
corrosive or erosive environment. They are being used
increasingly in industrial process ventilation with wear liners.
Radial Fans
• Radial (R) fans have an impeller wheel of high mechanical
strength with typically six to 10 blades of heavy gauge material
radiating out from the hub.
• The blades can be either straight radial or modified radial with a
slight curve. They are often equipped with removeable wear
plates to extend the useful life of the fan impeller.
• For a given duty, R fans operate at medium speed.

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• They are the least efficient fan at 50% to 60%, but they do not
clog and are easily repaired.
APPLICATION
• Primarily in industrial systems in a corrosive or erosive

environment, such as material handling of airborne particulate
or where high static pressure is required.
Forward-curved
• Forward-curved (FC) fans have an impeller wheel made of light
gauge material, with typically 24 to 64 shallow blades with
both the heel and the tip curved forward.
• Air leaves the blade at a velocity greater than the tip speed, and
primarily kinetic energy is transferred to the air.
• These fans are the smallest of the centrifugal type and, for a
given duty, rotate at the slowest speed.
• The fan housing is a scroll design similar to the other centrifugal
fan housings, except the tolerance between the inlet cone and
the wheel is not as critical allowing lighter gauge material to be
used.
• FC fans are less efficient than AF and BI fans at approximately
70%.
APPLICATION
• Generally in packaged and built-up, commercial and residential

HVAC systems with low-to-medium static pressures and low
air volumes. (See Figure 14, p. 26.)
A XIAL FANS
• Divided into three subclassifications according to impeller type:
propeller, tubeaxial and vaneaxial.

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24 in. BISW Centrifugal

1,170 rpm
5 100
surge
4 80

hp
3 60
2 40
1 20
se
sp
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
cfm x 1,000
Figure 5: Typical Characteristics of Backward-inclined Fans

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22 in. Radial
1,170 rpm
hp
10 100

8 80
6 60
sp
4 40
se
2 20
surge
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
cfm x 1,000
Figure 6: Typical Characteristics of Radial Fans

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Figure 7: General Configuration and Component Terms

for Axial Fans
and Control Association from Publication 201–90.

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Propeller
• Have an impeller with two or more BI blades that are usually
made from single, light-gauge material attached to a small
diameter hub.
• Because primarily kinetic energy is transferred to the air with
little static energy, these fans are limited to low-pressure
applications.
• The efficiency of these fans is low.
• The fan housing can be a simple ring or circular guard, an
orifice plate, or an inlet cone with close tolerance to the blade
tips to create a venturi for optimum performance.
APPLICATION
• Low static-pressure, high volume, commercial and industrial

systems.
Tubeaxial
• Have an impeller with typically four to eight blades attached to
a hub that is usually less than half the diameter of the wheel.
• The blades can be AF construction or single thickness.
• Because the greatest portion of the work transferred to the air is
static energy, these fans can be used in applications where there
is resistance to flow, e.g., ductwork systems.
• Tubeaxial fans are more efficient than propeller fans.
• The housing is a cylindrical tube with a close tolerance to the
impeller blade tips; this results in higher performance than
propeller fans.

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24 in. Propeller
870 rpm
5 100
4 80

surge
3 60
2 40
se
1 20
hp
sp
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
cfm x 1,000
Figure 8: Typical Characteristics of Propeller Fans

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24 in. Tubeaxial
1,770 rpm
5 100
4 80

3 60
hp
2 40
surge
se
1 20
sp
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
cfm x 1,000
Figure 9: Typical Characteristics of Tubeaxial Fans

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Figure 10: Typical Characteristics of Vaneaxial Fans

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APPLICATION
• Low and medium static-pressure, commercial, ducted systems

where the axial arrangement saves space and the downstream
flow pattern is not critical.
• Industrial systems where airborne contaminants collect on the
impeller blades and require periodic cleaning.
Vaneaxial
• Usually have short AF blades radiating from a hub greater than
half the diameter of the impeller.
• The blades are either fixed, adjustable or controllable (variable
pitch-in-motion).
• The discharge from the impeller has a rotative component,
unless inlet guide vanes are used.
• Because stationary diffusion vanes downstream of the impeller
convert rotary energy produced by the blades into static
pressure (as in an axial blower or compressor), primarily static
energy is transferred to the air.
• Vaneaxial fans are the most efficient axial fan.
• The housing is a cylindrical tube with a close tolerance to the
impeller blade tips.
• The housing may include a set of inlet guide vanes and/or
downstream diffusion vanes equal in number to the impeller
blades and preferably of the AF type.
APPLICATION
• Low to high static-pressure, commercial HVAC systems, and

industrial ventilation systems where the axial arrangement
saves space, and the downstream flow patterns and efficiency
are important.

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S PECIAL D ESIGNS
Bifurcated Fans
• Air flows around the motor mounted directly on the fan shaft
(see fig 11).
• Essentially axial fans with a special casing that allow the driving
motor to be removed from the airstream while maintaining a
direct-drive arrangement.
• In corrosive environments, the casing may be plastic or coated.
• The mating flanges at each end of the casing are identical, but
the casing diameter is increased in barrel fashion to allow
passage of a similar cross section of air, concentric with the
motor enclosure.
APPLICATION
• Generally used to extract sticky, corrosive or volatile fumes in

industrial applications where it is critical to protect the motor
from the airstream.
Centrifugal Inline Fans

• Have a direct-drive or a belt-driven AF or BI impeller mounted
perpendicular to a rectangular or tubular casing with ample
clearance around the blade tips.
• The air discharged radially from the blade tips must turn
through 90 degrees to pass through the fan exit, which is in line
with the impeller inlet.
APPLICATION
• Commercial applications where high efficiency, low sound

levels and space are prime considerations.

Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:35 AM Page 22
Figure 11: Configuration of Bifurcated Fans

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24 in. Centrifugal Inline

870 rpm
5 100
4 80

surge
3 60
hp
2 40
1 20
se
sp
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
cfm x 1,000
Figure 12: Typical Characteristics of Centrifugal Inline Fans

Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:35 AM Page 24
24 in. Centrifugal Roof Exhauster

870 rpm
5 100
surge
4 80

3 60
2 40
hp
se
1 20
sp
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
cfm x 1,000
Figure 13: Typical Characteristics of Centrifugal Roof Exhausters

Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:35 AM Page 25
Centrifugal Roof Exhausters

• Have a direct-drive or a belt-driven AF or BI impeller mounted
in a multicomponent housing comprising of a curb cap with an
integral inlet venturi, a fan shroud with drive-mounting
support, and a weatherproof motor hood.
• The impeller has an inlet cone that allows mixed flow through
the impeller-blade passages, and air exits radially from the blade
tips through a concentric discharge passage.
• The fan shroud redirects the air - either discharging it down or
blasting it up.
APPLICATION
• The down-discharge configuration is used for exhausting

relatively clean air, while the up-blast configuration is used for
hot and/or contaminated air.
Utility Fans
• Utility fans are self-contained units consisting of either an FC or
BI irnpeller, a motor, and a direct (or belt-driven) drive.
APPLICATION
• Commercial and industrial ventilation applications requiring

low-to-medium air volumes and pressures.
FAN D ESIGNATION AND A RRANGEMENTS

• The Air Moving and Conditioning Association, Inc (AMCA) has
devised standard designations for fan rotation, discharge
orientation, motor position for belt or chain drive, inlet box
position, and drive arrangements for both centrifugal and axial
fans.

Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:35 AM Page 26
22 in. FCSW Utility

500 rpm
5 100
hp
surge
4 80

3 60
2 40
se
1 20
sp
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
cfm x 1,000
Figure 14: Typical Characteristics of Forward-curved Utility Fans

Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:35 AM Page 27
22 in. BISW Utility

1,170 rpm
5 100
4 80
surge

se
3 60
hp
2 40
sp
1 20
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
cfm x 1,000
Figure 15: Typical Characteristics of

Backward-inclined Utility Fans

Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:35 AM Page 28
Optional on all
arrangements
Inlet box
Diffuser
Arr. 1 Arr. 1 two-stage
For belt drive or direct connection. Impeller overhung. Two bearings located either upstream or downstream of impeller
Arr. 3 Arr. 4 Arr. 4 two-stage

For belt drive or direct connection. Impeller between bear- For direct connection. Impeller Impeller overhung on motor
ings that are on internal supports. Drive through inlet. shaft. No bearings on fan. Motor on internal supports.
Arr. 7 Arr. 8 one-or two-stage

For belt drive or direct connection. Arr. 3 plus common For belt drive or direct connection. Arr. 1 plus common base
base for prime mover. for prime mover.
Arr. 9 motor on casing Arr. 9 motor on integral base

For belt drive. Impeller overhung. Two bearings on internal supports. Motor on casing or on integral base. Drive through belt fairing.
Note: all fan orientations may be horizontal or vertical
Figure 16: Drive Arrangements for Axial Fans with or without

Diffuser and Outlet Box

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SW- Single Width

SI- Single Inlet
DW- Double Width
DI- Double Inlet
Arrangements 1,3,7
and 8 are also available
with bearings mounted
on pedestals or base
set independant of the
fan housing
Arr. 1 SWSI For belt drive or direct Arr. 2 SWSI For belt drive or direct con-
connection impeller overhung. Two nection. impeller overhung. Bearings in
bearings on base. bracket supported by fan housing
Arr. 3 SWSI For belt drive or Arr. 3 DWDI For belt drive or Arr. 4 SWSI For direct drive.
direct connection. One bearing direct connection. One bearing Impeller overhung on prime
on each side and supported by on each side and supported by mover shaft. No bearings on
fan housing. fan housing. fan. Prime mover base mounted
or integrally directly connected.
Arr. 7 SWSI For belt drive or Arr. 7 DWDI For belt drive or Arr. 8 SWSI For belt drive or
direct connection. Arrangement direct connection. Arrangement direct connection. Arrangement
3 plus base for prime mover. 3 plus base for prime mover. 1 plus extended base for prime
mover.
Arr. 9 SWSI For belt drive. Impeller Arr. 10 SWSI For belt drive.
overhung, two bearings, with prime Impeller overhung, two bearings,
mover outside base. with prime mover inside base.
Figure 17: Drive Arrangements for Centrifugal Fans


Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:36 AM Page 30
SW- Single Width SI- Single Inlet DW- Double Width DI- Double Inlet
Arr. 1 SWSI with Inlet Box For belt drive Arr. 3 SWSI with Independent Pedestal
or direct connection. Impeller overhung, For belt drive or direct, connection fan.
two bearings on base. Inlet box may be Housing is self-supporting. One bearing on
self-supporting each side supported by independant
pedestals.
Arr. 3 SWSI with Inlet Box and Arr. 3 DWDI with Independent Pedestal
Independent Pedestals For belt drive or For belt drive or direct connection fan.
direct connection fan. Housing is self-support- Housing is self-supporting. One bearing on
ing. One bearing on each side supported by each side supported by independant
independent pedestals with shaft extending pedestals.
through inlet box.
Arr. 3 DWDI with Inlet Box and Independent Arr. 3 SWSI with Inlet Box For belt drive or
Pedestals For belt drive or direct connection direct connection. Impeller overhung, two bear-
fan. Housing is self-supporting. One bearing on ings on base plus exended base for prime
each side supported by independent pedestals mover. Inlet box may be self-supporting.
with shaft extending through inlet box.
Figure 18: Drive Arrangements for Centrifugal Fans


Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:36 AM Page 31
• Fan rotation is determined to be clockwise or counterclockwise

by viewing the fan from the drive side.
• The choice of fan arrangement depends on the application – the
environment of the airstream being handled and the size of the
fans are primary considerations.
• The discharge position and the drive arrangement must be
determined to fit the fan system properly.
• Manufacturers identify the arrangements available for the fans
in their product line.
C LASS L IMITS FOR FANS
• AMCA has adopted a standard that defines the operating limits
for various classes of centrifugal fans used in general ventilation
applications.
• The standard uses limits based on mean brake horsepower per
square foot of outlet area, expressed in terms of outlet velocity and
static pressure.
• There are three class limits for centrifugal fans - Class I is the
lightest duty and Class III is the heaviest duty.
• When selecting a fan, it is important to ensure the duty point
does not exceed the performance range for the fan class.

Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:36 AM Page 33
CHAPTER 4
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
• All fans produce total pressure, which represents the static and
kinetic energy imparted to the air by the impeller.
• The rotating blades of the fan impeller convert mechanical
energy into static and kinetic energy by changing the velocity
vector of the incoming air.
• Centrifugal fans produce total pressure from the centrifugal
force of the air radiating out between the blade passages and by
the kinetic energy imparted to the air by virtue of its velocity
leaving the impeller.
• The absolute velocity vector in the case of centrifugal fans is the
sum of the tangential and radial velocity components.
• Axial fans produce total pressure from the change in velocity
passing through the impeller, with none being produced by
centrifugal force.
• The absolute velocity vector in the case of axial fans is the sum
of the axial and tangential velocity components.
Chapter 4: Principles of Operation 33

Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:36 AM Page 34
C ENTRIFUGAL FANS
• The operation of centrifugal fans can best be described by
velocity vector diagrams.
• The height of the diagram – indicated by the relative radial
velocity vector Vr – is based on the volume of air flowing
through the fan.
• The air velocity relative to the blade – indicated by Vb is nearly
tangential to the blade as some slip occurs due to boundary
layer effects.
• The tip speed component wr is perpendicular to the wheel
radius, where w is the rotational speed of the impeller in radians
per second and r is the radius of the impeller at the blade tip.
• Because the speed of the wheel is the same for each case, the
vector wr is constant.
• The absolute velocity indicated by Vs is the resultant of Vb and
wr.
• The relative tangential velocity vector indicated by Vt is
projected from Vs in the direction of wr.
• If volume decreases, the vector Vr decreases and as the vector Vb
does not change for a given blade, Vt increases with BI blades,
remains constant with R blades and decreases with FC blades.
• As the pressure of the fan depends on the product of Vt and wr,
the pressure characteristic rises as volume decreases for the BI
blade, is constant for the R blade and decreases for the FC
blade.
These vector diagrams illustrate that, at a given speed, the

smallest fan selection will be a forward curved fan.
Conversely, the largest will be an airfoil.

Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:36 AM Page 35
Figure 19: Outlet Velocity Vector Diagram for Backward-inclined

Blades
Figure 20: Outlet Velocity Vector Diagram for Radial Blades
Figure 21: Outlet Velocity Vector Diagram for Forward-curved

Blades

Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:36 AM Page 36
A XIAL FANS
• The principle of operation can be described by the use of a
velocity vector diagram.
• Velocity diagrams for axial fans are drawn for a uniform axial
velocity indicated by Va. The axial velocity remains nearly
constant from blade root to tip.
• The tip speed component wr is perpendicular to the axis and is
shown as the blade section under consideration.
Figure 22: Velocity Vector Diagram for an Axial Fan without Inlet
Guide or Diffusion Vanes near the Impeller Hub
Figure 23: Velocity Vector Diagram for an Axial Fan without Inlet
Guide or Diffusion Vanes at the Blade Tip

Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:36 AM Page 37
• The air velocity relative to the blade indicated by Vb is nearly

tangential to the blade as some slip occurs due to boundary
layer effects.
• The relative tangential velocity vector indicated by Vt is
projected from Va in the opposite direction of wr.
• The mean relative velocity drawn to bisect Vt is shown as Vm.
This is used in aerodynamic theory to calculate the circulation
around the airfoil.

Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:36 AM Page 39
CHAPTER 5
FAN PERFORMANCE CURVES
• The manufacturer guarantees fan performance according to

standard air conditions. When selecting a fan, it is necessary to
know the actual air inlet conditions (temperature, pressure,
density), and use the Fan Laws to correct the published
performance to actual conditions.
• Fan performance curves are developed from data obtained from
tests executed in accordance with AMCA and ASHRAE
standards.
• The most common procedure to develop a performance curve
is to test the fan from shut-off conditions to nearly-free delivery
conditions.
• A fan is generally tested in a set-up that closely simulates how
it will be installed in an air-moving system.
• Propeller fans are normally tested in the wall of a chamber, and
power roof exhausters are tested mounted on a curb to exhaust
vertically from a chamber.
• Centrifugal, tubeaxial, and vaneaxial fans are usually tested
with an outlet duct with provision for restricting the flow at the
discharge.
Chapter 5: Fan Performance Curves 39

Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:36 AM Page 40
• A static- and velocity-pressure measuring station is located

within the duct downstream of flow straighteners.
• At shut-off the duct is completely blanked off, and at free-
delivery the duct outlet is wide open; test data is recorded while
maintaining constant fan speed and air density.
• Under these conditions and at the same fan speed, the flow is
graduated to obtain sufficient data to define a corresponding
performance curve.
• For each test point, the pressures are measured and the
corresponding flow rate is determined. The measured pressures
are corrected back to fan inlet conditions.
• Fan performance curves are plotted with the inlet flow rate (in
cubic foot per minute or litres per second) on the abscissa. Total
pressure, static pressure, fan horsepower and fan efficiency are
plotted on the ordinate axis.
• It is not practical to test a fan at every speed at which it can
operate or at every inlet density it may encounter.
• By using a series of equations referred to as the Fan Laws, it is
possible to accurately predict the fan's performance at other
speeds and densities.
• Manufacturers usually publish fan performance curves at a
density of 0.075 Ib/ft3 and an inlet temperature of 70˚F.

Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:36 AM Page 41
Figure 24: Fan Test-rig Setup

Chapter 5: Fan Performance Curves 41

Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:36 AM Page 43
CHAPTER 6
FAN LAWS
• The Fan Laws relate the performance variables for any

dynamically similar series of fans at the same point of rating on
the performance curve.
• The variables are fan size, D; rotational speed, N; gas density, p;
volume flow rate, Q; pressure, p;total efficiency Ntj and power
(shaft), P.
• Fan Law No. 1 governs the effect of changing size, speed or
density on volume flow, pressure and power level.
• Fan Law No. 2 governs the effect of changing size, pressure or
density on volume flow rate, speed and power.
• Fan Law No. 3 governs the effect of changing size, volume flow
or density on speed, pressure and power.
L IMITATIONS
• The Fan Laws may be applied to a particular fan to determine
the effect of speed change. However, caution should be
exercised since the Laws apply only when all flow conditions
are similar.
Chapter 6: Fan Laws 43

Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:36 AM Page 44
• These Fan Laws do not include correction for

compressible flow.
C OMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR
• As air travels through a fan, it is compressed and the outlet
volume will be less than at the inlet. The fan laws as presented
in this chapter do not account for this effect.
• A fan selected without using compressibility will be larger in
size than required and the fan input power will be understated.
• The compressibility effect is quite small when fan pressure rise
is below 10” Wg., and is customarily ignored below this
threshold.
• For applications where the fan pressure rise is more than 10î
Wg., the chart on the following page may be used as follows:
1. Estimate the total efficiency of the fan that will be selected.
2. Obtain the compressibility factor, Kp from the chart for the
required fan static pressure rise.
3. For fan selection only, multiply the required pressure and
flow by the compressibility factor, Kp. The fan input power
obtained using the fan laws for selection must be divided by
Kp.
4. If the actual efficiency is more than 5% different than what
was estimated in step #1, return to step #1 using the new
efficiency.
5. When using equations 7 and 9 in chapter 7, multiply the
resulting power by Kp.

Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:36 AM Page 45
Approximate Kp 1%
1.000
.990
.980
Kp
.970
0.50
.960
0.55
0.60
.950 0.65
0.70
.940
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Fan Static Pressure Rise - inches W.G.
Figure 25: Compressibility Factor
Fans Reference Guide 45

Fans (00-06) 1/8/01 10:36 AM Page 46
Table 1: Fan Laws
Law No. Formulae

1a Q1 = Q2 x (D1/D2)3 x (N1/N2)
1b p1 = p2 x (D1/D2)2 x (N1/N2)2 x r1/r2
1c P1 = P2 x (D1/D2)5 x (N1/N2)3 x r1/r2
2a Q1 = Q2 x (D1/D2)2 x (p1/p2)1/2 x (r2/r1)1/2

2b N1 = N2 x (D2/D1) x (p1/p2)1/2 x (r2/r1)1/2
P1 = P2 x (D1/D2)2 x (p1/p2)3/2 x (r2/r1)1/2
S ELDOM U SED
2c
3a N1 = N2 x (D2/D1)3 x (Q1/Q2)
3b p1 = p2 x (D2/D1)4 x (Q1/Q2)2 x r1/r2
3c P1 = P2 x (D2/D1)4 x (Q1/Q2)3 x r1/r2
4 P = Qp / (6362 ht)
Source: ASHRAE Handbook, 1988 Equipment Volume.

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 47
CHAPTER 7
FAN FORMULAE
• The following fan formulae require certain constants and

parameters specific to each application. The constants are given
in this guide or in the referenced material.
• The formulae in this section are valid for incompressible flow
D ENSITY
• Fan performance data, unless otherwise identified, is based on
dry air at the standard atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psi., 29.921
in.Hg (101.325 kPa) and a temperature of 68˚F (20˚C). The air
density at standard AMCA test conditions is 0.075 lbm/ft.3
(or 1.2 kg/m3 when SI units are used).
• In most applications, fans process moist air at temperatures and
pressures other than standard conditions. Therefore, the air
density must be corrected to obtain the actual fan performance.
• For fans processing moist air, the moisture content of an
airstream is determined by measuring the wet-bulb
temperature, the dew-point temperature, or relative humidity.
Chapter 7: Fan Formulae 47

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 48
• Wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures are most often determined

at fan inlet conditions, using a sling thermometer.When the
airstream exceeds 180˚F (82˚C), the dew-point temperature is
more reliable to determine moisture content.
Density, when the dry-bulb temperature falls between 42˚F and
l00˚F (5˚C and 38˚C), may be determined by using the
psychrometric density chart in AMCA Publication 203-90, Field
Performance Measurement of Fan Systems, Appendix N. The
numerical method in Chapter 16, Appendix A of this guide may
be used with a scientific calculator or PC spread-sheet program.
• EQUATION 1: When the gas density (P) at one plane is
determined, the density at any point in the fan system may be
determined.
“Boyle’s Law”: P = constant or px = p1
Tr Tx rx T1 r1
where
rx = density at plane x, lb./ft.3 (kg/m3)
r1 = density at plane 1, lb./ft.3 (kg/m3)
Tx = absolute temperature at plane x, ˚Fabs (K)
TI = absolute temperature at plane 1, ˚Fabs (K)
px = absolute pressure at plane x, in.Hg (kPa)
p1 = absolute pressure at plane l, in.Hg (kPa)
FAN F LOW R ATE

• EQUATION 2: The flow rate at a reference plane. The fan flow
rate is the primary performance parameter.
Q = VA
where
Q = flow rate, ft.3/min. (L/s)
V = average velocity at reference plane, ft./min.(m/s)
A = area of reference plane, ft.2 (m2)

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 49
H EAD AND P RESSURE

• The common unit is inches of water, “water gauge”.
• Head is the height of a fluid column of water supported by gas
flow, while pressure is the normal force per unit area. With gas
or air, it is convention to measure pressure on a column of
liquid, as pressure measured in terms of unit area is not
practical.
• The term (V2/2g) refers to velocity head, and the term (rV2/2gc)
refers to velocity pressure.
• Velocity head is independent of fluid density.
V ELOCITY P RESSURE
• EQUATION 3: Velocity pressure is not independent of density.
pv = r(V/cf)2
where
pv = velocity pressure, in.Wg (Pa)
r = density, lbm/ft.3 (kg/m3)
V = mean fluid velocity, ft./min. (m/s)
cf = conversion factor, 1097 ( 1.414)
• EQUATION 4: For a standard air density of 0.075 lbm/ft.3
(1.20 kg/m3)1 Equation 3 becomes the following:
Pv = (V/cf)2
where
V = mean fluid velocity, ft./min. (m/s)
cf = conversion factor, 4005 ( 1.29)
1 The SI standard density of 1.20 kg/m3 is not an exact equivalent of the imperial standard
density. Source: Jorgensen, R. (ed.) Fan Engineering 8th ed. Buffalo: NY, Buffalo Forge
Company, 1983. (Ref. A). The SI density derived directly from the imperial equivalent
would be a value of 1.2014 kg/m3. Source: Metric Conversion Handbook for Mechanical
Engineers in the Building Industry 2nd ed. Public Works Canada, 1983. (Ref. B)

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 50
T OTAL P RESSURE
• EQUATION 5: The sum of the static pressure and the velocity
pressure is total pressure.
Pt = Ps + Pv
where
pt = total pressure, in.Wg (Pa)
ps = static pressure, in.Wg (Pa)
pv = velocity pressure, in.Wg (Pa)
FAN -S YSTEM -E FFECT FACTOR ( AT INLET )
• EQUATlON 6: The fan-system-effect pressure drop.

SEF = Co r (Vo /cf)2
where
SEF = fan-system-effect pressure loss, in.Wg (Pa)
Co = fan-system-effect loss coefficient, dimensionless
cf = conversion factor, 1097 (1.414)
and where
for centrifugal fans:
Vo = inlet velocity based on area at the inlet collar, or
outlet velocity based on outlet area, fpm (m/s)
for axial fans:
Vo = inlet or outlet velocity based on area calculated
from fan diameter, fpm (m/s)
FAN P OWER AND E FFICIENCY

• EQUATION 7: The air horsepower, or fan output power, PFo, is
determined from product of the flow and total pressure rise.
PFo = Qpt
cf
where:
PFo = output power, hp (W)
Q = flow, ft.3/min. (L/s)

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 51
pt = total pressure rise, in.Wg (Pa)

cf = conversion factor, 6349.6 (1,000)2
• The fan input power, PFi, is the measured power delivered to
the fan shaft.
2 The conversion factor 6349.6 was derived from converting the metric form of the equation
to the imperial equivalent utilizing the conversion factor in Ref. B (see p.47). When the
formula is applied directly to imperial units, the conversion factor to use is 6354 from
Ref. A (see p.47). In strict SI terms, flow would be in m3/s and the conversion factor would
be 1.0.
• EQUATION 8: The fan mechanical or total efficiency is the

ratio of the output power to the input power.
ht = PFo/PFi
where
ht = mechanical (total) efficiency, dimensionless
PFo = output power, hp (W)
PFi = input power, hp (W)
• EQUATION 9: The fan input power.
PFi = Q pt
ht cf
where
Q = flow, ft3/min. (L/s)
pt = total pressure rise, in.Wg (pa)
ht = total efficiency, dimensionless ratio
cf = conversion factor, 6349.6 ( 1,000)
• EQUATION 10: The fan static efficiency is the product of
mechanical efficiency and the ratio of static pressure to total
efficiency.
hs = (ps/pt) ht
where
hs = static effciency, dimensionless ratio

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 52
ht = total efficiency, dimensionless ratio

ps = static pressure, in.Wg (pa)
pt = total pressure, in. Wg (pa)
• EQUATION 11: By substitution, the fan input power is also:
PFi = Q ps
hs cf
where
hs = static efficiency, dimensionless ratio
ps = static pressure, in.Wg (Pa)
FAN M OTOR P OWER

• EQUATION 12 AND EQUATION 13: The fan motor output
power.
PMo = Q pt
ht hD cf
or
PMo = PFi
hD
where
PMo = motor output power, hp (W)
ht = fan total efficiency, dimensionless ratio
hD = fan drive efficiency, dimensionless ratio
cf = conversion factor, 6349.6 (1,000)

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 53
• EQUATION 14: The fan motor input power.

PMi = PMo
hM cf
where
PMi = motor input power, kW
PMo = motor output power, hp (W)
hM = motor efficiency, dimensionless ratio
E XAMPLE 1
• A large cafeteria at a manufacturing plant requires an exhaust
fan to ensure proper indoor air quality for the patrons. Positive
exhaust is provided by a belt-driven, 24-in., airfoil, single-width
(AFSW) centrifugal fan with an inlet and outlet area of 4.11
sq.ft. The fan is to be equipped with a two-speed 1,800/1,200-
rpm motor and, on the high-speed setting, is required to deliver
10,000 cfm of air at 70˚F at a static pressure of 2.5 in.Wg. This is
identified as operating point A (see Figure 25). Standard
atmospheric conditions are assumed for this example.
Figure 26. Operating Point and System Curve

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 54
Example 1.1
• Using formulae and manufacturers' catalogue data, determine
speed, the high-speed fan horsepower, and the corresponding
fan total and static efficiencies. Assuming drive losses of 5.6%,
calculate the motor size required.
Table 2. Typical ManufacturersÕ Performance Data for a 24-in.,
AFSW Centrifugal Fan at 70ûF and Standard Atmospheric
Pressure
Fan Static Pressure

cfm, std air
velocity
1Ó 1 - 1/4Ó 2 - 1/2Õ 3Ó 3 - 1/2Ó 4 - 1/2Ó

outlet
rpm bhp rpm bhp rpm bhp rpm bhp rpm bhp rpm bhp
6600 1605 963 1.8 1003 2.1 1191 3.5 1260 4.2 1329 4.2 1465 6.3
7000 1703 1000 2.0 1040 2.3 1222 3.8 1288 4.4 1353 5.1 1482 6.6
9000 2189 1188 3.2 1223 3.6 1387 5.4 1446 6.2 1503 7.0 1610 8.6
9400 2287 1226 3.5 1260 3.9 1420 5.8 1479 6.6 1534 7.5 1640 9.1
9800 2384 1267 3.8 1301 4.2 1456 62 1512 7.1 1567 8.0 1671 9.6
10200 2481 1310 4.2 1339 4.6 1494 6.7 1546 7.5 1601 8.4 1703 10.2
• The velocity pressure of the fan must be established to

determine the fan static pressure and the total efficiency
of the fan.
• EQUATION 15: Outlet velocity (rearrange Equation 2, p. 46).
V = Q/A
= 10,000/4.11
= 2,433 fpm

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 55
• Velocity pressure at the inlet & outlet (Equation 4, p. 47).

pv = (V/4,005)2
= 0.369 in.Wg
• Fan static pressure is
ps = (p2 - p1)- pv1
= 2.5” - .369” = 2.131”
• By interpolation, the fan power is 5.83 hp and from catalogue
data the corresponding impeller speed is 1,429 rpm.
• Total pressure (Equation 5, p. 47)
pt = ps + pv
= 2.131” + .369”
= 2.5” in.Wg
• EQUATION 16: Fan total efficiency
(rearrange Equation 9, p. 49)
ht = (Q pt)/(cf PFi)
= (10,000 x 2.5)/(6,349.6 x 5.83) x 100
= 67.53%
• Fan static efficiency (Equation 10, p. 49).
hs = (2.131/2.5) x 67.53
= 57.56%
• Motor output power including drive losses
(Equation 13, p. 50).
PMo = PFi/hD
= 5.83/(1 - 0.056)
= 6.176 hp
• Therefore a 7.5-hp motor is required.

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 56
Figure 27: Fan Static-pressure Design Curve at 1,475 rpm

Intersecting Design Point A and Fan Static-pressure Curve at
983 rpm Intersecting Point B
Example 1.2
• Using fan laws and assuming constant density, determine the
low-speed flow and total pressure to give operating point B (see
Figure 26). Using formulae and the manufacturers’ data in Table
2, p. 52, determine the corresponding fan power speed, and
total and static efficiencies.
• EQUATION 17: Air volume delivered by the fan on the low
speed setting (rearrange Fan Law No. la).
Q2 = Q1 (N2/N2)
=10,000 x (1,200/1,800)
= 6,666 cfm
• EQUATION 18: The corresponding impeller speed.
N2 = N1 (rpm2/rpml)
= 1,429 x 1,200/1,800
= 953 rpm

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 57
• EQUATION 19: The corresponding static pressure delivered by

the fan (rearrange Fan Law No. 3b).
ps2 = psl (Q2/Q1)2
= 2.131 x (6,666/10,000)2
= 0.947 in.Wg
• By interpolation, the fan power at point B is 1.73 hp from Table
2, and the corresponding impeller speed is 953 rpm.
Alternately, using the fan laws,
Pfi = 5.83hp x (1,200/1,800)3
= 1.73hp
• Outlet velocity (Equation 14, p. 50).
V = Q/A
= 6,666/4.11
= 1,622 fpm
• Velocity pressure (Equation 4, p. 47).
pv = (1,622/4,005)2
= 0.164 in.Wg
• Total pressure (Equation 5, p. 47).
pt = 0.947 + 0.16
= 1.11 in.Wg
• Fan total efficiency (Equation 12, p. 50).
ht = (Q pt)/cf Pfi)
= (6,666 x 1.11)/(6,349.6 x 1.73) x 100
= 67.35%
hs = (0.947/1.11) x 67.35
= 57.46%

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 59
CHAPTER 8
AIR SYSTEMS
• A fan provides the energy to overcome the resistance to flow

through air-system components. A fan's performance is
interdependent with the system elements.
• Components that contribute to system resistance include
straight ductwork, elbows, fittings, filters, humidifier
distributors, heat-transfer coils, dampers, acoustic silencers, bird
screens, registers, grilles and diffusers.
• Most air systems operate in the turbulent-flow regime rather
than laminar-flow conditions.
• Pressure losses in system elements are therefore mainly related
to turbulence and flow separation, the kinetic energy being
dissipated by viscous shear in the air.
• The pressure loss of each of the air system's elements may be
calculated with manufacturers' data and the procedures in the
ASHRAE Handbook, 1989 Fundamentals Volume.
• A given rate of airflow through a system requires a specific total
pressure generated by the system fan.
Chapter 8: Air Systems 59

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 60
• EQUATION 20: If the flow rate is changed, the resulting total

pressure required for turbulent-flow systems.
(Æp2/Æp1) = (Q2/Q1)2
• Figure 25 (p.51) shows the characteristic system curve plotted
in a parabolic fashion according to the relationship established
in Equation 20.
• Example 2 shows the effect of the relationship in Equation 20.
E XAMPLE 2
• The exhaust system in Example 1 has a filter bank to protect the
heat-recovery coil. The duct-system and coil static losses are
2.0 in.Wg and clean-filter losses are 0.5 in.Wg at the design
flow rate of 10,000 cfm.
• The required static pressure of the fan is 2.5 in.Wg at the design
flow rate. This identifies the design operating point A from
which the design curve A is plotted. It is assumed that the fan is
plenum mounted and hence the inlet velocity pressure is
~ 0” Wg, and fan static pressure = pressure rise of 2.5” Wg.
• When the fan is set at low speed, from the Fan Laws shown in
Example 1, the flow rate is 6,666 cfm.
• This second design point is point B on curve in Figure 27.
• The filter specifies a maximum dirty pressure loss of 1.5 in.Wg
at the design flow rate, which means in the dirty condition, the
total system static losses are 3.5 in.Wg.
• This gives a new design point C, from which the dirty
maximum design operating system curve C is plotted (see
Figure 27).

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 61
Example 2.1
• Using formulae and manufacturers' catalogue data (table 2,
p. 52), determine for operating point C, the speed, the high-
speed fan power, and the corresponding fan total and static
efficiencies. Assuming the same drive losses of 5.6%, calculate
the motor service factor .
• By interpolation, the fan power at point C is 8.2 hp from Table
2, and the corresponding impeller speed is 1,584 rpm.
• Total pressure required (Equation 5, p. 47).
Pt = 3.5 + 0.37
= 3.87 in.Wg
• Fan total efficiency (Equation 16, p. 53),
ht = (10,000 x 3.87)/(6,349.6 x 8.20) x 100
= 74.3%
hs = (3.50/3.87) x 74.3
= 67.2%
• EQUATION 21: Motor service factor.
SF = PFi/(hD x PMo)
= 8.20/(0.944 x 7.5)
=1.16
• Fan power exceeds standard motor service factor of 1.15.
Example 2.2
• Using Fan Laws, determine the actual air volume, fan power,
and fan total and static efficiency on the high-speed setting
under dirty filter conditions identified as point D on the system
curve (see Figure 27).

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 62
• EQUATION 22: Actual air volume delivered by the fan at a

constant speed of 1,475 rpm (rearrange Fan Law la).
Q2 = Q1/N1/N2)
= 10,000/(1,584/1,475)
= 9,312 cfm
• EQUATION 23: Static pressure.
ps2 = ps1/Q1/Q2)2
= 3.5/ ( 10,000/9,312)2
= 3.03 in.Wg
• By interpolation, the fan power at point D is 6.56 hp from
catalogue data.
• Outlet velocity (Equation 15, p. 53).
V = 9,312/4.11
= 2,266 fpm
• Velocity pressure (Equation 4, p.47).
pv = ( 8,266/4,005)2
= 0.32 in H20
• Total pressure (Equation 5, p.47).
pt = 3.03+0.32
= 3.35 in H20
• Fan total efficiency (Equation 16, p. 53).
ht = ( 9,312 x 3.35)/( 6,349.6 x 6.56) x 100
= 74.9%
• Fan static efficiency (Equation 10, p.49)
hs = ( 3.03/3.35) x 74.9
= 67.7%

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 63
Figure 28: Fan Static Pressure Curve Intersecting the Design

Point A and the Maximum Design Point D

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 65
CHAPTER 9
FAN AND SYSTEM INTERFACE
S YSTEM E FFECT FACTORS

• A fan is normally tested with open inlets and straight duct
attached to the outlet. This results in uniform airflow into the
fan and efficient static-pressure recovery at the fan outlet.
• If these conditions are not matched in the actual installation,
the performance of the fan degrades. This must be allowed for
when selecting the fan.
• Figure 28 illustrates deficient fan and system performance with
the calculated system-design pressure and flow shown as
Point 1.
• Since no allowance was made for system effect, the actual
operating condition is Point 4 – at the intersection of the fan
pressure-volume curve and the actual system curve.
• The difference between Point 1 and Point 4 projected on the
abscissa is the deficiency in flow.
• To compensate for the deficiency, a system effect factor equal
to the pressure difference between Points 1 and 2 must be
added to the calculated system-pressure losses, with the fan
selected to operate at Point 2.
Chapter 9: Fan and System Interface 65

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 66
• The fan system-effect factor is the product of Co times the

velocity pressure and is calculated using Equation 6, p. 48.
• For centrifugal fans, velocity is based on the area of the inlet
collar and the outlet area; for axial fans, it is based on the fan
diameter.
• Appendix C explains how to determine Co (the system effect
factors For SWSI centrifugal fans). Other system-effect factors
are beyond the scope of this guide, but are covered in AMCA
Publication 201-90.
Figure 29: Deficient Fan and System Performance
FAN O UTLET C ONDITIONS

• System-effect factors must be calculated and added to the
system resistance losses whenever 100% recovery at the outlet
of a fan cannot be achieved.

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 67
• Complete recovery can be achieved if the outlet effective duct

length is 2.5 diameters or more for a velocity of 2,500 fpm
(13 m/s) or less. Add one duct diameter for each additional
1,000 fpm (5 m/s).
Figure 30. Fan-outlet Velocity Profiles

Reprinted with permission from the Air Movement and Control Association from
Publication 201-90
• In some cases, fan outlets are connected directly to a larger duct

or plenum without a transition. This causes a pressure loss of
up to one velocity head (V2/2g), based on the highest velocity
of the fan outlet.
Chapter 9: Fan and System Interface 67

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 68
• The highest velocity is in the blast area of a centrifugal fan (the

area between the cutoff and the scroll), and in the swept area of
an axial fan.
FAN I NLET C ONDITIONS

• To achieve rated fan performance, air must enter a fan
uniformly over the inlet area in an axial direction without
prerotation.
• The ideal inlet condition allows air to enter axially and
uniformly without spin.
• A spin, in the same direction as the impeller rotation, reduces
fan flow and pressure, whereas a counter-rotating vortex at the
inlet slightly increases fan flow and pressure and substantially
increases fan power.
• The most common cause of reduced fan performance is
nonuniform flow into the inlet of a fan.
• Turbulence and uneven flow into the fan impeller is typically
caused by an elbow at the inlet of a fan.
• System-effect Co factors for inlet conditions that cause spin are
not available because of the multitude of variations.
• The system-effect factor can be eliminated by including an
appropriate length of straight duct between the elbow and the
fan inlet.
• For fans installed in cabinets or adjacent to walls, adequate
distance must be maintained in front of the inlet to allow for
unobstructed flow.

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 69
CHAPTER 10
FAN SELECTION
• Fan selection involves consideration of the following:

• volume flow rate and variation
• fan total or static pressure and system effects
• air density
• air temperature
• environment (corrosion, erosion, flammability)
• permissible noise levels
• attitude of fan and space available
• type of fan required
• type of drive and accessories
• speed capability of motor driver.
• The fan can be selected once the system-pressure-loss curve is
known.
• The system-pressure-loss curve is defined by accounting for the
system flow, resistances, and system-effect factors (according to
ASHRAE methods).
• The fan size, speed power, and noise spectrum is determined
using one of the many methods available from fan
manufacturers, e.g., tables or PC-based computer programs.
Chapter 10: Fan Selection 69

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 70
• Computer selection programs allow a designer to evaluate the

various fan options for optimizing system efficiency and
performance, obtain noise-level data, and plot the fan
performance curve quickly.
• The performance data in fan tables is based on arbitrary
increments of flow rate and static pressure, and shading may be
used to indicate an AMCA fan-class demarcation.
• Fan Laws cannot be used to obtain adjacent data points because
each data point represents a different point of operation on the
fan performance curve.
• Intermediate points of operation can be determined by
interpolation, as the listed data points are close enough for
reasonable accuracy for fan selection.
• Using a performance curve in conjunction with a computer
program or tables is very important, particularly in VAV
systems which have more than one point of operation.
• Using the performance curve optimizes fan selection to avoid
operation close to, or in, the stall region and maximize
efficiency throughout the operating range.
P RESSURE D EFINITIONS
• When using performance tables or charts, it is important to
understand what definition of pressure has been used by the
fan manufacturer. There are three possible ways to state the
fan's pressure requirement: Fan Total Pressure, Fan Static
Pressure and Fan Static Pressure Rise.

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 71
• These definitions arise from Bernoullí’s equation which is used

to calculate system friction losses. The relationship between
any two points (1 and 2) in a system is given below:
2 2
V1 V2
Ps1 + r1 = Ps2 + r2 + Friction Loss
1096 1096
The Friction Losses in this equation must be overcome by the fan.

• Fan Total Pressure is defined as
2 2
V2 V1
Fanpt = Ps2 + r2 - Ps1 + r1
1096 1096
• Fan Static Pressure is defined as
2
V1
Fanps = Ps2 - Ps1 + r1
1096
• Fan Static Pressure Rise is defined as

Dps = Ps2 - Ps1
• The inlet and outlet velocities (V1 and V2) in these equations are
taken to be at the terminals of the fan manufacture’s supply,
which may include silencers, inlet boxes, outlet diffusers, etc.
The velocities may not be identical to those in the adjacent
ducts.
The most common definition in North America is Fan Static
Pressure for centrifugal fan and Fan Total Pressure for axial flow
fans. The Europeans use Fan Total Pressure almost exclusively for
all fans.
Chapter 10: Fan Selection 71

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 72
P ARALLEL FAN S ELECTION

• Selecting parallel fans with a characteristic pressure reduction
left of the peak pressure point typical of FC fans requires careful
consideration.
• When these fans are operated in parallel, a fluctuating load
condition may result if one of the fans operates to the left of the
peak static point on its performance curve.
• Figure 31 shows the pressure flow curves of a single fan (curve
A-A) and the same fan operating in parallel with an identical fan
(curve B-B).
Figure 31: Design Operating Point Selection Range on a Typical

Centrifugal Fan Performance Curve

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 73
Figure 32: Pressure Flow Curves
• The figure-eight curve plots possible combinations of volume

flow at each pressure value for the individual fans.
• Points to the right of B-C are the result of the fan operating to
the right of its peak rating point; for all systems stable operation
occurs with a system resistance curve below C-C.
• For points of operation to the left of B-C it is possible to satisfy
system requirements with one fan operating at one point of
rating while the other fan operates at another.
• Figure 31 shows point BD1 – 4,700 cfm at a static pressure of
2.1 in.Wg – can be satisfied with each fan operating at
2,350 cfm at 2.1 in static pressure.

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 74
• The system curve can also be satisfied at point BD2 by one fan
operating at 1,350 cfm at a static pressure of 1.9 in.Wg and the
second fan operating at 3,150 cfm at the same static pressure.
• This is because the system curve D-D passes through the
combined performance curve at two points, but operation can
be unstable under such conditions.
• With fan selection at point BD2, one fan is under loaded while
the other fan is heavily loaded, and surge can occur in the
system.
S ERIES V S P ARALLEL O PERATION

• In any 2 stage arrangement, the same mass flow per unit time
must be handled by each stage (if there is no leakage). The
density of the gas passing through each stage will be different,
so it follows that the volume handled by each stage will be
different.
• Figure 33 shows the static pressure and horsepower curves for a
single fan. Also shown, are the static pressure curves for two of
these fans (a) connected in series, and for comparison (b)
connected in parallel. Strictly speaking, the static pressure curve
for the two fans in series will be slightly higher than that shown
since there is only one velocity head to be deducted from the
combined total pressure from 2 stages in order to compute the
combined static pressure available. For simplicity of discussion,
the static pressure is doubled for any given volume for two
identical fans in series.
• In Figure 33, system B passes through P, the intersection of the
combined series and combined parallel curves, i.e. either
combination will give the same volume on this system.
However, in series, each fan will consume the horsepower at
point D, whereas in parallel each fan will take the power shown
at point E.

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 75
System A
System B
Static Pressure D System C
Two Fans in Series
Horsepower
Static Pressure
One Fan
P
Static
Pressure
One Fan
Static Pressure Two

Fans in Parallel
Volume Flow
Figure 33: Series Fan Operation
• On any system to the left of point P. The two fans in series

combination will always produce more volume than the
parallel configuration. On any system to the right of point P.
Two fans in parallel will always produce more volume than
they will connected in series. Whenever a second fan is to be
added to one existing on a given system to increase flow, it is
advisable to plot pressure volume curves for both series and
parallel connection if maximum possible flow is desired. The
power absorbed by each fan should also be carefully noted.

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 77
CHAPTER 11
FAN NOISE
• Fan noise is an important criteria for the proper selection of fan

type and size for an application.
• The noise from a fan is predominantly from aerodynamic
sources and includes factors such as lift, rotation, vortex
shedding, and wake.
• The noise generated by a fan depends on the fan design, the
volume flow rate, total pressure, and efficiency. This noise is
proportional to the product of the pressure squared and the
flow.
• Low outlet velocity does not necessarily relate to lower sound
power, and fan selection should not be based solely on fan tip
speed.
• The only valid basis for comparison is the actual sound power
levels generated by the different fan types when they are
operating at the required system flow and pressure.
• For constant-volume systems, the recommended practice for a
selected fan type is that the fan size and speed be selected so
operation falls at or near the peak efficiency point of the fan
performance curve.
Chapter 11: Fan Noise 77

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 78
• A fan is normally quietest when selected within the most

efficient operating range, which is also advantageous for energy
conservation.
• Fan selection criteria for VAV systems include two other factors:
the efficiency and stability of the fan through the entire range of
modulation, and the acoustic impact of the modulation system.
• Fan selection for VAV systems is a compromise between fan
surge and fan inefficiency, and the narrower the range of
modulation the more acceptable the compromise will be.
• Variable inlet vanes may generate significant low frequency
noise as the vanes modulate to the close position and require
additional attenuation with a corresponding increase in system
pressure drop. Maximum sound levels occur at approximately
75% open VIVs.
• The other modulation systems – variable-speed motors and
drives, and variable-pitch fan blades – generate less noise as the
fan modulates to the no-flow operating point.
• The sound power generation of a specific fan at its operating
point should be obtained from manufacturers' AMCA test data
or from manufacturers' computer fan-selection programs.
• The data is presented as sound power levels in eight octave
bands and as weighted overall sound level.
• If test data is not available, the octave-band sound power levels
can be estimated using the following procedure.
FAN S OUND P OWER

• Fans generate a tone at the blade passage frequency, and the
number of decimals to be added is the blade frequency
increment (BFI). The octave band to which the BFI is added
depends on the type of fan and the impeller speed.

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 79
• EQUATION 24 : Blade frequency

Bf = N x no. of blades
cf
where
Bf = blade frequency, Hz
N = impeller speed, rpm (r/s)
cf = conversion factor 60 ( 1 )
Table 3: Typical Number of Fan Blades
Impeller No. of
Fan Type Size/Drive Blades
CENTRIFUGAL
Airfoil and Backward-inclined 24 in. and over 10
Under 24 in. 12
Forward-curved 52
Radial 6
AXIAL
Vaneaxial 12
Tubeaxial Belt drive 6
Direct drive 4
Propeller 6
• Blade frequency can be estimated using data from Table 3.

• EQUATION 25 : Estimating sound power levels at actual
operating conditions.
Lw = Kw + 10 log Q/cf1 + 20 log p/cf2 + C
where
Lw = estimated sound power level (dB re 1 pW)
Kw = specific sound power level
Q = flow rate, cfm (L/s)

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 80
p = fan pressure rise, in.Wg (Pa)

C = correction factor for point of operation, dB
cf1 = conversion factor, 1 (0.472)
cf2 = conversion factor, 1 (249)
• Estimated sound power level is calculated for all seven bands
with KW selected from Table 4. The BFI is added to the octave
band in which the blade passage frequency falls. Sound
correction factor is selected from Table 5.
Table 4: Specific Sound Power Levels and Blade Frequency
Increments
Sound Power Level, KW (dB re 1 pW)

Octave-band Centre Frequency, Hz
Fan Type Impeller Size 63 125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000 BFI
CENTRIFUGAL
Airfoil and 36 in. and over 32 32 31 29 28 23 15 3
backward-inclined Under 36 in. 36 38 36 34 33 28 20
Forward-inclined All 47 43 39 33 28 25 23 2
Radial blade and 40 in. and over 45 39 42 39 37 32 30 8
Pressure blower 20 in. to 40 in. 55 48 48 45 45 40 38
Under 20 in. 63 57 58 50 44 39 39
Axial
Vanaxial 40 in. and over 39 36 38 39 37 34 32
Under 40 in. 37 39 43 43 43 41 28 6
Tubeaxial 40 in. and over 41 39 43 41 39 37 34
Under 40 in. 40 41 47 46 44 43 37 5
Propeller
Cooling tower All 48 51 58 56 55 52 46 5
Note: These values are the specific power levels radiated from either the inlet or the outlet of
the fan. If the total sound power level being radiated is desired, add 3 db to each of the
above values.

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 81
Table 5: Sound Correction Factors
Correction Factor, C, for Off-peak Operation

Static Efficiency % of peak Correction Factor dB
90 to 100 0
85 to 89 3
75 to 84 6
65 to 74 9
55 to 64 12
50 to 54 15
E XAMPLE 3
• The fan in Example 1, p. 51, is operating at its design condition

of 10,000 cfm, at static pressure of 2.5 in.Wg, static efficiency of
60.9% and impeller speed of 1,475 rpm.
• Determine the sound power level in seven octave bands by
assuming the number of impeller blades to be 10 and by
estimating the off-peak, static-efficiency correction factor.
• A simple method to calculate the off-peak, static-efficiency
correction factor with reasonable accuracy, is to determine the
static efficiency of the fan operating at the same impeller speed,
but at a static pressure and flow of about 55% WOcfm.
• From manufacturers' data, the operating point close to the
55%-WOcfm line is 7,000 cfm at 4.5 in.Wg static pressure and
6.6-bhp power.

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 82
• EQUATION 26 : Peak static efficiency given by rearranging

Equation 11, p. 49.
h2 = QPs
cf PFi
= 7,000 x 4.5
6,349 x 6.6
= 0.752
• Static efficiency as a percentage of peak is as follows:
60.9/75.2 x 100 = 81%
• From Table 6, the off-peak correction factor C is 6 dB.
• The additional sound power levels due to the volume flow rate
and pressure are given by Equation 25, p. 73.
Lw = Kw + 10 log 10,000 + 20 log 2.5 + C
= Kw + 40 + 6
= Kw + 54 dB
• The specific sound power levels (KW) for Table 6 are obtained
from the second line of Table 4.
• BFI is given by Equation 24, p. 73.
Bf =1,475 x 10/60
= 246
• The closest octave band is 250 Hz.
• The magnitude of the off-peak, efficiency correction factor
suggests that a more efficient fan should be selected for the
given duty.

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 83
• A larger fan would allow for operation closer to the surge line at
a slower impeller speed, lower power and lower noise levels,
but with less ability to cope with higher system static pressures
at the design flow.
Table 6. Summary for Example 3
Sound Power Level, KW (dB re 1 pW)
Octave-band Centre Frequency, Hz
63 125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000
KW 36 38 36 34 33 28 20
Equation 11 54 54 54 54 54 54 54
BFI 3
Total dB 90 93 93 89 86 82 74

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 85
CHAPTER12
FAN DUTY CONTROL
• Fans are required to perform over a range of flows and

pressures called, “The Duty Cycle”. How the fan is controlled
to achieve the required range, can have a significant energy
cost.
• The type of fan control should be selected on the basis of cost,
the precision of control required and the frequency and
magnitude of system flow changes.
• For HVAC systems with infrequent changes in flow rate and/or
where control is a secondary consideration, a two- or three-
speed motor is a low-cost solution.
• Where a system requires continuously varying flow rates over
speed ranges of 2.6:1 and input power of less than 15 kW, an
adjustable-speed pulley drive is satisfactory and can improve
system efficiency.
• Magnetic or hydraulic slip couplings can be used in systems
with power greater than 15 kW. However these couplings have
an inherent power loss since the torque from the motor is
transmitted unchanged to the impeller, in spite of the difference
in rotational speed.
Chapter 12: Fan Duty Control 85

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 86
• The most efficient method of speed control, with the potential

for precise control, is the electronic adjustable speed drive (see
figure 32).
• Mechanical methods of volume control are often used in
commercial and industrial HVAC systems.
• The simplest, most inefficient method of control, is a fan
discharge damper; the damper artificially increases system
resistance and the fan works along its system curve.
unstable
Higher system
region
Outlet Pressure
resistance
curve as outlet
damper closes
Volume Flow
Figure 34: Outlet Damper Fan Control
• Single fan performance curve

• Multiple system resistance curves

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 87
• To provide a broader range of flow control at lower energy

penalties, the discharge damper can be used with multi-speed
motors, or with adjustable speed drives.
• Figure 33 shows discharge-damper control sequenced with
motor-speed control.
• There is no advantage other than initial cost to using an outlet
damper. Its use should be avoided.
Figure 35: Throttle Control of a Fan with

a Two-speed Motor
• Inlet-vane control can provide precise flow control, down to

about 40% of the full flow rate.
• This control device rotates the inlet airflow the same as the
impeller and so reduces the work done by the impeller.
Chapter 12: Fan Duty Control 87

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 88
• Another inlet-control device is a cone that varies the effective

fan-inlet area as a Function of the axial distance the cone is
positioned from the fan inlet. Used in HVAC only.
• Figure 31 shows the effect of inlet-vane control on BI,
centrifugal-fan performance.
• The flow rate from variable pitch-in-motion vaneaxial fans can
be dynamically regulated by varying the attack angle of the
impeller blades; this maintains high efficiencies over a wide
blade-pitch range.
Figure 36: Inlet Vane Control of a Fan

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 89
CHAPTER 13
VIBRATION ISOLATION/
FAN BALANCING
• All rotating machinery have critical speeds called resonant
frequencies where excessive vibration can cause damage. It is
necessary to have each fan and foundation installation checked
to avoid these speeds, or correct the fan balance.
• Most fans are shipped statically and dynamically balanced but
corrosion, erosion, dust and airborne contaminants collecting
on the impeller may cause imbalance over time.
• Therefore, consider fan isolation when designing the
installation.
• The transmission of vibration to a building structure involves
vibratory force, frequency of vibratory force (disturbing
frequency), natural frequency of isolator and floor, and stiffness
of isolator and floor.
• It is important to select vibration isolators to compensate for
floor deflection; and to avoid resonance, the natural frequency
of the isolator should be different to the disturbing frequency.
• The degree of fan isolation and balancing depends on the floor
span, and the fan type, size, speed and power.
Chapter 13: Vibration Isolation / Fan Balancing 89

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 90
• Use the "Vibration Isolator Selection Guide" in the ASHRAE

HVAC Applications Volume Handbook to determine the base and
isolator type and minimum deflection.
• Install flexible duct connectors at the inlet and at the discharge
to reduce transmission to the duct work.
• Consider resilient, structural steel or concrete, inertial bases for
fans in critical areas or in long buildings of light construction.
Note: The best vibration isolation design will not compensate for a
resonant frequency problem. Isolation will only reduce the
transmission of forces due to imbalance.

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 91
CHAPTER 14
ELECTRIC MOTOR
FAN DRIVE
• The AC electric motor is the main type of prime mover used to
drive fans and there are many types.
• The selection of a high-efficiency motor is important, but the
starting motor current and torque are more important.
• Excessive starting time raises the temperature of the motor
windings beyond acceptable levels.
F LYWHEEL E FFECT
• The time to accelerate a fan to operating speed depends on the
fan/impeller inertia (flywheel effect) and the starting
characteristics of the electric motor.
• The fan/impeller inertia is given as WR2 in the industry. This
must be corrected to represent the apparent inertia as seen by
the motor when the fan operates at a different speed from the
motor. R is called the radius of gyration.
• Additional resistance to starting will be air power consumed by
the fan. Therefore it is advisable to start centrifugal fans with
dampers closed. (Axial fans should have dampers open.)
Chapter 14: Electric Motor Fan Drive 91

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 92
• The characteristic starting-torque curves of the fan motor and

the maximum allowable time for acceleration (usually about 10
seconds) are available from manufacturers.
• The available acceleration torque is the difference between the
motor torque and the fan torque.
AC M OTORS
• Polyphase (usually three-phase) AC motors are almost always
used in fan applications that require more than 2 hp.
• The AC induction motor, usually with a squirrel-cage rotor and
no external connections, is the most suitable for three- phase-
power fan drive as it is inexpensive and reliable.
• It is a constant-speed motor with a flat torque characteristic in
relation to motor speed.
• However, its starting current is high – as much as seven or eight
times higher than the running current.
• The extra starting current for fans with low inertia and large
motors can cause problems with electrical supply and demand.
Special consideration must be given to reducing the starting
current.
• It is usual to reduce the starting voltage at start-up and step up
the voltage until the fan reaches running speed.
• Another solution is to use a wound-rotor induction motor in
which the polyphase windings of the motor are connected to
an external resistor via slip rings.
• Starting torque and starting current can be controlled by
adjusting the external resistance.
• Small fans requiring less than 2 hp usually use single-phase
power supply.

Fans (07-14) 1/8/01 10:50 AM Page 93
• Single-phase induction motors are non-self starting; to start the

motor, a second starting phase is created by connecting an extra
stator winding through a capacitor.
• The starting capacitor displaces the phase of the current and is
disconnected after running speed is obtained, and a different
size capacitor is used for running.
• Shaded pole motors are generally unsuitable for fan drive,
because of their inherent poor starting torque.
DC M OTORS
• Sometimes DC motors are preferable for fan drive, particularly
in applications requiring speed modulation.
• The series motor is most suitable, because it has moderate
starting current and self-regulating, stable operating
characteristics.
Chapter 14: Electric Motor Fan Drive 93

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CHAPTER 15
ENERGY CONSUMPTION
ANALYSIS
EXAMPLE: Building Ventilation
• Note: This procedure involves many calculations that are easily
done using a spreadsheet computer program.
• It is often necessary to estimate the energy consumption of a
fan, particularly for life-cycle costing. The energy costs are
usually determined for a period of a year.
• EQUATION 27: Estimating the energy consumption of a fan
involves integrating the fan shaft input power divided by
system efficiencies over time.
n PFi t(n)
E=∑ x t(n)
1 hDt(n) x hMt(n) x hVt(n) x cf
where:
E = energy consumption, kWh
PFi t(n) = fan shaft input power for time period, hp (W)
hDt(n) = drive efficiency for time period,
dimensionless ratio
hMt(n) = motor efficiency for time period,
dimensionless ratio
hVt(n) = variable-speed drive efficiency for time period,
dimensionless ratio
Chapter 15: Energy Consumption Analysis 95
Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 96

t(n) = time at fan motor power, hours
• The fan shaft input power is calculated by Equation 11 (p. 49).
Appendix B outlines the procedures for estimating drive
efficiencies. Motor efficiencies are obtained from
manufacturers' data. The procedure for using Equation 27
depends on the fan being analyzed.
C ONSTANT- VOLUME FANS
• For a constant-volume fan processing a gas at a constant
temperature rise, the procedure is straight forward as the energy
consumption is integrated over one time period.
• For a constant-volume fan processing outdoor-air, the fan
power varies as a function of the outdoor-air temperature.
• When energy use is a function of outdoor-air temperature, the
annual energy consumption can be determined using a
computerized, hourly analysis program.
• In the absence of such a program, a reasonable assessment can
be made by using ASHRAE bin weather data. When time-of-
use energy rates apply, then the weather data can be separated
into on-peak and off-peak periods.
• EQUATION 28: Total energy consumption:
n PFi b(n) X t b(n)

E=∑
1 hDb (n) x hMb (n) x cf
where:
PFi b(n) = fan shaft input power at bin temperature, kW
hDb (n) = drive efficiency at bin temperature,
dimensionless ratio

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 97
hMb (n) = motor efficiency at bin temperature,

dimensionless ratio
t b(n) = time at temperature bin, hours
• EQUATION 29: The fan shaft input power at each temperature
bin when a constant-volume fan processes air of varying
temperature:
PFi b(n) = PFi s x rb
rs
where:
PFi b(n) = fan-shaft input power at bin
temperature, hp (W)
PFi s = fan-shaft input power at standard
conditions, hp (W)
rb = actual bin density, lbm/ft.3 (kg/m3)
rs = standard air density, lbm/ft.3 (kg/m3)
VARIABLE - VOLUME FANS

• For an AF or BI centrifugal fan with variable-inlet vanes (VIVs),
the load profile of the fan system and the design point of the
fan (with the VIVs completely open) must be determined or
estimated.
• From the full-load design point, the fan flow as a percentage of
wide-open cubic feet per minute (WOcfm) must be determined
from the fan curve or a computer program. This is necessary to
determine which constants are used in the following equations,
which estimate the part-load conditions when the system curve
originates at the apex of zero flow and zero static pressure.

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 98
• EQUATION 30: Load profile expressed in terms of WOcfm.

%Q(n) = %Qd x Lf(n)
100
where:
%Q(n) = percentage fan load for load point, %WOcfm
%Qd = percentage design fan load, %WOcfm
Lf(n) = load factor for load point, %
• EQUATION 31: Percentage design fan load.
%Qd = Qd x 100
QWOcfm
where
%Qd = percentage design fan load, %WOcfm
Qd = flow at design, cfm (L/s)
QWOcfm = flow at WOcfm, cfm (L/s)
• EQUATION 32: Percentage fan-shaft input power at each load
point, including the design point.
%hp(n) = c + a x exp (%Q(n) x b)
where:
%hp(n) = percentage fan power for load point, %hp
%Q(n) = percentage fan load for load point, %WOcfm
a,b,c = constants determined from table closest to
design WOcfm
• EQUATION 33: The fan-shaft input power in horsepower at
the design point is determined from manufacturers' data and
corrected for VIV losses.
PFi c = PFi d x fP
where:
PFi c = corrected fan-shaft input power at design, hp
PFi d = fan input power at design, hp
fP = fan power correction factor
Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 99
• EQUATION 34: Typical fan power correction factor.

fP =1+ 1.933 994 x exp (0.026 075 x %Qd)
100
where
fP = fan power correction factor, dimensionless ratio
%Qd = %WOcfm at design
• EQUATION 35: The fan input power at each load point.
PFi (n) = PFi c x %hp(n) x rn x cf
%hpd rd
where:
PFi (n) = fan shaft input power for time period, hp (W)
PFi c = corrected fan input power at design, hp
%hp(n) = percentage fan power for time period, %hp
%hpd = percentage fan power at design, %hp
rn = actual density at load point, lbm/ft.3 (kg/m3)
rd = design air density used to determine hpd,
lbm/ft.3 (kg/m3)
cf = conversion factor, 1.0 (745.70)
• EQUATION 36: To determine the fan motor input power, the
motor efficiency at each load point must be determined as a
function of the load factor.
LfM = PMo(n)
PM
where
LfM = motor load factor, dimensionless ratio
PMo(n) = fan motor output power at load point, hp
PM = nominal nameplate rating of motor, hp

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• EQUATION 37: Fan motor output power (derivative of

Equation 13, p.50).
PMo(n) = PFi(n)
hD(n)
where:
PMo(n) = fan motor output power, hp
PFi(n) = fan-shaft input power at load point, hp
hD(n) = drive efficiency, dimensionless ratio
• EQUATION 38: The fan motor input power at each load point
considering the part load efficiencies by combining Equation 13
(p. 50) and Equation 14 (p. 50).
PMi(n) = PFi(n)
hD(n) x hM(n) x cf
where:
PMi(n) = fan motor input power at load point, kW
PFi(n) = fan-shaft input power at load point, hp (W)
hD(n) = drive efficiency at load point,
dimensionless ratio
hM(n) = motor efficiency at load point,
dimensionless ratio
cf = conversion factor,1.3410 (1,000)
• The total energy consumption in kilowatt-hours is then
determined by adding the product of the time in hours and the
fan motor input power in kilowatts at each load point.
• EQUATION 39: Total energy consumption.
n
E=∑ (PMi(n) x t(n))
1
where:

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 101
PMi(n) = fan motor input power for load point, kW

t(n) = time at load point, hours
• EQUATION 40: Percentage static pressure at each load point
including the design point.
%sp(n) = a x %Q (n)b
where
%sp(n) = percentage fan static pressure at load point, %sp
%Q (n) = percentage fan flow at load point, %WOcfm
a,b = constants determined from table closest to
design WOcfm
• EQUATION 41: The fan static pressure at each load point.
Ps(n) = Psd x %sp(n) x rn x cf
%spd rs
where:
Ps(n) = static pressure at load point, in.Wg (Pa)
Psd = static pressure at design, in.Wg (Pa)
%sp(n) = percentage static pressure at load point, %sp
%spd = percentage static pressure at design, %sp
rn = actual density at load point, lbm/ft.3 (kg/m3)
rs = standard density used to determine psd, lbm/ft.3
(kg/m3 )
cf = conversion factor, 1.0 (248.84)
• EQUATION 42: The fan static efficiency at each load point
(rearrange Equation 11, p. 49).
hs(n) = Q(n) x Ps(n)
PFi (n) x cf
where:
hs(n) = static efficiency at load point,
dimensionless ratio

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Q(n) = flow at load point, ft.3/min. (L/s)

Ps(n) = static pressure at load point, in.Wg (Pa)
PFi (n) = fan-shaft input power at load point, hp (W)
• EQUATION 43: Fan speed at the design point determined from
manufacturers' data and corrected for VIV losses.
NFc = NFd x Nf
where:
NFc = corrected fan speed with VIVs, rpm
NFd = fan speed at design without VIVs, rpm
Nf = fan speed correction factor
• EQUATION 44: Typical fan speed correction.
Nf = 1 + -41.329 73 + 11.168 903 x ln %Qd
100
where:
Nf = fan-speed correction factor, dimensionless ratio
%Qd = %WOcfm at design
E XAMPLE 4
• Uses the energy-analysis formulae in this chapter and the
density-calculation formulae in Appendix A.
• A ventilation system is required for a new welding shop at a
manufacturing plant. The shop is located in Toronto, Ontario,
at 176m above sea level, and is to operate three shifts a day year
round. Analysis has determined the welding booth requires a
minimum of 40,000 cfm of exhaust air for contaminate control.
To remove excess heat in warm weather, doubling the exhaust
volume to 80,000 cfm has been considered.
• One proposed system is two exhaust fans of 40,000 cfm each
and a roof-mounted, VAV, makeup-air system with a blow-

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 103
through, 54-in.-diameter, DWDI centrifugal fan with VIVs and a

glycol heating coil. The makeup-air unit fan delivers a
maximum of 80,000 cfm at a static pressure of 4.5 in.Wg, at
0.075 lb/ft3.
• Also included is a roof-mounted gravity relief damper to
prevent overpressurization of the zone. Whenever the system
must operate, the control sequence would be as follows:
• One exhaust fan and the makeup-air unit start and run
continuously. The VIVs in the unit modulate and provide
makeup airflow as determined by a calibrated velocity
pressure sensor in the supply duct. The supply air should be
reset from the minimum volume of 40,000 cfm at an outdoor
temperature of l3˚C to the maximum volume of 80,000 cfm at
an outdoor temperature of l9˚C. When the VIVs are fully
open, the second exhaust fan starts and runs continuously. A
normally-open control valve on the heating coil is modulated
to maintain a minimum supply-air temperature of 12.8˚C.
• To determine the annual energy consumption of the make-up-
air fan, considering density flow variation, use ASHRAE Metric
Bin Weather Data and a PC spreadsheet program using the
modified bin method to simplify calculations.
• The fan requires a 100-hp motor, and motor-efficiency data is in
Table 8.

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 104
Table 7: Typical VAV-fan Constants
%WOcfm
Dependent Independent
Variable Variable Constant 50 55 60 65
%hp %Q a 1.015668 1.251667 1.847918 1.915869
b 0.078326 0.068488 0.055539 0.052399
c 42.50 42.25 41.50 41.50
%sp %Q a 0.036628 0.028756 0.022564 0.017582
b 2.000501 2.000751 2.000808 1.999086
%WOcfm
Dependent Independent
Variable Variable Constant 70 75 80 85
%hp %Q a 2.012019 2.462608 3.751074 2.274535
b 0.048141 0.042180 0.033279 0.037477
c 41.50 41.00 39.50 41.50
%sp %Q a 0.013297 0.009782 0.007228 0.004959
b 2.000341 2.001993 1.997487 1.996321

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Table 8: Motor Load Efficiencies
Motor Load Factor Percentage

Size
25 50 75 100 115 125
100 hp 89.05 91.86 93.50 93.05 92.83 92.70
Table 9: The Solution to Example 4
GIVEN PARAMETERS VALUE REMARKS
Elevation, m 176
Standard Density (r), Ib/ft3 0.075
Flow (Q), cfm 80000
Static Pressure (ps), in.Wg 4.5
FAN SELECTION PARAMETERS
Power (PFi d) at Std Cond, bhp 74
Speed (NFd) at Std Cond, rpm 693
Max Flow (Qmax) 130300 From performance curve

at zero pressure, cfm at 693 rpm
%WOcfm (%Q), % 61.40 Q/Qmax
Maximum Static Pressure (Ps max) 5.5 From performance curve

in.Wg at 693 rpm
Motor Power (PM), bhp 100 Nominal motor size
Motor Efficiency (hM). % 93.5 Peak efficiency at 75%

load
contÕd

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 106
Table 9: The Solution to Example 4 (contÕd)
VAV FAN CONSTANTS

%WOcfm 60 Value nearest Q/Qmax
Variables Constants
%hp %Q a 1.847918 Data from Table 7
b 0.055539
c 41.50000
%sp %Q a 0.022564
b 2.000808
CALCULATED PARAMETERS
Station pressure 99.261 Interpolated
(Pb), kPa
Drive efficiency (hD). % 4.00 Equation B1, p. 109
Percent power at design using 93.249 Equation 32, p. 92
(%hpd) 60%WOcfm
Percent pressure at design using 81.500 Equation 40, p. 95
(%spd) 60%WOcfm
VIV correction factor (fp) 1.09245 Equation 34. p. 93
VIV correction factor (Nf) 1.04400 Equation 44, p. 96
Corrected power (PFI C) bhp 80.841 Equation 33. p. 92
Corrected speed (NFc), rpm 723 Equation 44, p. 96
Summary
• In reviewing the output from the spreadsheet program, it is
apparent that the fan operates at a static efficiency of only 16%
for over 6,000 hours a year. Therefore, the proposed control
scheme and system arrangement is not very efficient and
another scheme should be considered. Also, the ductwork
would have to be doubled in size for this arrangement, which
would add to the installation cost.
Fans 9501 Foldout 1/8/01 11:14 AM Page 25
Table 10. Summary of Example 4
Tdb Twb Hr PWS Ws W Rho Lfn %Qn %spn psn %hpn PFin Seff PMon Lf M eff PMin En
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
34 25 8 3169.211 0.02051 0.01672 0.0684 100.00 60 81.50 4.11 93.25 73.78 70.13 76.85 0.768 0.935 61.31 491
31 23 42 2810.437 0.01812 0.01477 0.0693 100.00 60 81.50 4.16 93.25 74.73 70.13 77.84 0.778 0.934 62.12 2609
28 21 186 2487.663 0.01599 0.01307 0.0702 100.00 60 81.50 4.21 93.25 75.68 70.13 78.83 0.788 0.934 62.92 11704
25 19 352 2197.793 0.01408 0.01159 0.0711 100.00 60 81.50 4.26 93.25 76.62 70.13 79.81 0.798 0.934 63.72 22428
22 18 742 2064.288 0.01321 0.01155 0.0718 100.00 60 81.50 4.31 93.25 77.40 70.13 80.63 0.806 0.934 64.38 47770
19 15 630 1705.445 0.01087 0.00922 0.0728 100.00 60 81.50 4.37 93.25 78.48 70.13 81.75 0.818 0.934 65.30 41136
16 13 644 1497.808 0.00953 0.00830 0.0737 75.00 45 45.83 2.49 64.00 54.50 43.10 56.77 0.568 0.924 45.83 29515
13 11 969 1312.737 0.00834 0.00752 0.0745 50.00 30 20.36 1.12 51.28 44.18 15.93 46.b2 0.460 0.915 37.50 36337
10 8 588 1072.839 0.00680 0.00598 0.0755 50.00 30 20.36 1.13 51.28 44.76 15.93 46.63 0.466 0.916 37.97 22325
7 5 811 872.485 0.00552 0.00471 0.0765 50.00 30 20.36 1.15 51.28 45.33 15.93 47.22 0.472 0.916 38.43 31167
4 3 621 758.030 0.00479 0.00438 0.0773 50.00 30 20.36 1.16 51.28 45.85 15.93 47.76 0.478 0.917 38.85 24124
1 0 1731 611.212 0.00385 0.00345 0.0783 50.00 30 20.36 1.17 51.28 46.42 15.93 48.35 0.484 0.917 39.31 68045
-2 -5 488 401.763 0.00253 0.00133 0.0794 50.00 30 20.36 1.19 51.28 47.09 15.93 49.05 0.491 0.918 39.85 19449
-5 -7 461 338.193 0.00213 0.00133 0.0803 50.00 30 20.36 1.20 51.28 47.62 15.93 49.60 0.496 0.918 40.28 18569
-8 -10 274 259.902 0.00163 0.00084 0.0813 50.00 30 20.36 1.22 51.28 48.19 15.93 50.20 0.502 0.919 40.75 11165
-11 -13 138 198.518 0.00125 0.00046 0.0823 50.00 30 20.36 1.23 51.28 48.78 15.93 50.81 0.508 0.919 41.22 5688
-14 -16 56 150.676 0.00095 0.00016 0.0833 50.00 30 20.36 1.25 51.28 49.36 15.93 51.42 0.514 0.920 41.69 2335
-17 -19 13 113.618 0.00071 -0.00007 0.0843 50.00 30 20.36 1.26 51.28 49.96 15.93 52.04 0.520 0.920 42.17 548
-20 -22 5 85.096 0.00053 -0.00025 0.0853 50.00 30 20.36 1.28 51.28 50.57 15.93 52.67 0.527 0.921 42.66 213
TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION (kWh) 395619
Column Description Column Description

1 Bin dry-bulb temperature, ûC. 11 Fan static pressure, in.Wg; Equation 41.
2 Bin mean coincident wet-bulb temperature, ûC. 12 Percent fan power; Equation 32.
3 Bin hours of occurrence, h. 13 Fan-shaft input power, bhp; Equation 35.
4 Saturation pressure, Pa.; Equation A6 and Equation A7, ûC. 14 Fan static efficiency, %o; Equation 42.
5 Saturation humidity ratio, dimensionless; Equation A9. 15 Fan motor output power, bhp; Equation 37.
6 Humidity ratio, dimensionless; Equation A11. 16 Motor load factor; dimensionless ratio; Equation 36.
7 Density, Ib/ft.3; Equation A14 and Equation A15 converted to IP units. 17 Motor efficiency; Equation derived from a regression analysis of
8 Load factor derived from example control sequence. Table 8 data (alternatively linear interpolation can be used).
9 Percent fan load; Equation 30. 18 Fan motor input power, kW; Equation 38.
10 Percent fan static pressure; Equation 40. 19 Fan energy consumption, kWh; Equation 27 (product of columns 3 and 18).

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 109
CHAPTER 16
APPENDICES
A PPENDIX A - D ENSITY C ALCULATIONS
Moist Air Parameters for Density Determination

• Moist air is defined as a binary mixture of dry air and water
vapour. The maximum amount of water vapour at saturation in
moist air depends on the temperature and pressure.
• EQUATION A1: Moist air obeys the perfect gas equation.
p V= n R T
where:
total pressure (p) is the sum of the partial pressure of dry
air (pa) and the partial pressure of water vapour (pw), V is
the total mixture volume, the total moles (n) is the sum of
the number of moles of dry air (na) and the number of
moles of water vapour (nw), T is the absolute temperature
and R is the universal gas constant
[1545.32 ft-lbf /lb-mol-F(abs) or 8.31441 J/(g-mol)-K].
• EQUATION A2: The density (p) of moist air is the ratio of the
total mass to the total volume.
p = (ma + mw)/V
Chapter 16: Appendices 109

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 110
where:
ma = mass of dry air
mw = mass of water vapour
• EQUATION A3: The humidity ratio (W) of a given moist air
sample is defmed as the ratio of the mass of water vapour to
the mass of dry air.
W = mw/ma
• The saturation humidity ratio (Ws) is the humidity ratio of
moist air saturated with water (or ice) at the same temperature
and pressure.
• EQUATION A4: Relative humidity (f) is the ratio of the mole
fraction of water vapour in a given moist air sample to the mole
fraction in a saturated air sample at the same temperature and
pressure.
f = xw/xws | t,p
• EQUATION A5: The dew point temperature (td) is the
temperature of moist air saturated at the same pressure (p) and
with the same humidity ratio (W) as that of the given sample of
air. It is defined as the solution td(p, W) to:
Ws(p,td) = W
• The thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature (twb) is the
temperature at which water (liquid or solid), by evaporating
into moist air at a given dry-bulb temperature (t) and humidity
ratio (W), can bring air into saturation adiabatically at the same
temperature (twb), while the pressure (p) is constant.
Density Calculations
• The numerical method for calculating the density of moist air is
a multistep process and initially involves determining the water-
vapour saturation pressure. The saturation pressure in SI units

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 111
at the wet-bulb temperature is calculated by the following

Hyland and Wexler formulae published in the ASHRAE
Handbook, 1989 Fundamentals Volume.
• EQUATION A6: The saturation pressure over ice for the
temperature range of -l00˚C to O˚C.
In(pws) = C1/T + C2 + C3T + C4T2 + C5T3 + C6T4 + C7In(T)
where:
C1 = -5.674 535 9 E-3
C2 = 6.392 524 7
C3 = -9.677 843 E-3
C4 = 6.221 157 Ol E-7
C5 = 2.074 782 5 E-9
C6 = -9.484 024 E-13
C7 = 4.163 501 9
• EQUATION A7: The saturation pressure over water for the
temperature range of O˚C to 200˚C.
In(pws) = C8/T + C9 + Cl0T + C11T2 + C12T3 + C13In(T)
where:
C8 = -5.800 220 6 E-3
C9 = 1.391 499 3
C10 = -4.864 023 9 E-2
C11 = 4.176 476 8 E-5
C12 = -1.445 209 3 E-8
C13 = 6.545 967 3
and where for both equations:
pws = saturation pressure, Pa
T = absolute temperature, K
• EQUATION A8: Saturation pressure in IP units:
pws(IP) = 0.020855 pws(SI)

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where:
pws(IP) = saturation pressure, lb/ft2
pws(SI) = saturation pressure, Pa
• EQUATION A9: Saturation humidity ratio.
Ws = 0.62198 pws/(p - pws)
where:
Ws = saturation humidity ratio, dimensionless
p = absolute pressure, lbf/ft2 (Pa)
pws = saturation pressure, lbf/ft2 (Pa)
• EQUATION A10: The humidity ratio using the wet-bulb
temperature.
W = ( 1,093 - 0.556 twb) Ws(wb) -0.240 (tdb - twb)
1,093 + 0.444 (tdb - twb)
• EQUATION A11: or in SI units:
W = (2,501- 2.381 twb) Ws(wb) - (tdb - twb)
2,501 + 1.805tdb - 4.186twb
where for both Equation A10 and Equation All:
W = humidity ratio, dimensionless
Ws = saturation humidity ratio, dimensionless
tdb = dry-bulb temperature, ˚F (˚C)
twb = wet-bulb temperature, ˚F (˚C)
• EQUATION A12: The humidity ratio.
W = 0.62198 pw/(p - pw)
where:
p = total pressure, lbf/ft.2 (Pa)
pw = partial pressure of water vapour, lbf/ft.2 (Pa)

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• EQUATION A13: Relative humidity using the perfect gas

relationships:
f = Pw/Pws | t,p
where:
f = relative humidity, dimensionless
pw = partial pressure of water vapour, lbf/ft.2 (Pa)
pws = saturation pressure, lbf/ft.2 (Pa)
• EQUATION A14: Volume.
v = RaT ( 1 + 1 .6078 W)
p
where:
v = volume, ft.3/lbm, (m3/kg)
Ra = gas constant for air, 53.352 ft.lbf/lbm.F(abs)
(287.055 J/kg.K)
T = absolute temperature, ˚F(abs) (K)
p = total pressure, lbf/ft2 (Pa)
• EQUATION A15: Density is determined by the inverse of the
volume.
r = 1/v
where:
• The equation to use to determine density depends on the
measured parameters. Table A2 outlines which equations must
be used with the appropriate parameters.

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Table A1. Standard Atmospheric Data for Altitudes to 3,000 m
Altitude Temperature Pressure

m ft. ûC ûF kPa in.Hg
0 0 15.0 59.0 101.325 29.921
500 1,640 11.8 53.2 95.461 28.19
1,000 3,281 8.5 47.3 89.874 26.54
2,000 6,562 2.0 35.6 79.495 23.47
3,000 6,562 -4.5 23.9 70.108 20.70
Source: ASHRAE Handbook, 1989 Fundamentals Volume
Table A2. Density Calculations

Given
Parameters To Obtain Use Comments
tdb, twb, p pws | twb Equation A6 or Using twb
Equation A7
Ws | twb Equation A9 Using pws | twb
W Equation A10 or Using ps | twb
Equation A11
v Equation A14 Using W
r Equation A15 Using v
tdb, td, p pw = pws | td Equation A6 or Using td
Equation A7
W Equation A12 Using Pws | td for Pw
tdb, f, p Pws | tdb Equation A6 or Using tdb
Equation A7
Pw Equation A13 Using pws
W Equation A12 Using pw

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A PPENDIX B - D RIVE L OSS C ALCULATIONS

• Power transmission losses must be considered in energy
consumption analysis whenever a direct-drive system is not
used. The types of drive systems with losses include hydraulic
and gear drives, belt drives (including V-belts and rubber chain),
and variable-speed drives including eddy current clutches and
electronic and mechanical variable-speed devices.
• Determining precise drive losses involves laboratory testing
procedures. However, using the methods in this appendix,
losses for the common drive systems can be estimated with
suitable accuracy.
V-belt Drives
• Expressed as a percentage of motor output, these losses
diminish logarithmically as the motor size increases. In
addition, there is a range for each motor size where typically
the losses increase as speed increases. The value of the drive-
belt loss can be determined by the graph in AMCA Publication
203-90, or the mean drive loss can be determined by the
following equations:
• EQUATION Bl: Fractional horsepower motors:
LD =9.4-4.651 27 In PM
• EQUATION B2: Motors from 1 to 10 horsepower:
LD = 9.4 -1.867 47 In PM
• EQUATION B3: Motors from 10 to 100 horsepower:
LD = 6.2 - 0.477 724 In PM
• EQUATION B4: Motors over 100 horsepower:
LD = 4.0
where for all applicable equations:
LD = drive loss in percent of motor output, %
PM = nominal rated motor output power, hp
Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 116
• EQUATION B5: Actual motor output power:

PMo = PFi/cf(1.0 - LD/l00)
where:
PMo = motor output power, bhp (kW)
PFi = fan shaft input power, bhp
LD = drive loss in percent of rated motor output
power, %
cf = conversion factor, 1.0 (0.745 70)
Rubber Chain Drives
• Relatively new drive method that is more efficient than V-belt
drive systems. The drive pulleys are ribbed and the belt is
toothed to prevent slippage. Drive losses occur due to the
bending forces as the belt rotates around the pulleys. Ask the
manufacturer for the drive losses, or assume that LD = 2.0.
• Fan motor output power is determined using Equation B5.
Electronic Variable-speed Drives

• Manufacturers publish the part-load efficiencies and power
factor of their electronic variable-speed drives as a function of
output speed at constant load and, in the case of fan systems,
as a function of output speed with load reducing with the cube
of the speed change. If the manufacturer does not supply this
data, the part-load drive efficiency can be determined by
multiplying the full-load design drive efficiency by the part-load
correction factor.
• EQUATION B6:
cfv =1.0 + (0.203 176 x 1n Nfv)
where:
cfv = variable-torque drive correction factor,
dimensionless ratio

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 117
Nfv = speed fraction of variable-speed drive,

dimensionless ratio
• EQUATION B7: Variable-speed drive efficiency.
hV = hvd x cfv
100
where:
hV = part-load drive efficiency, dimensionless ratio
hvd = drive efficiency at full-load design, %
• The part-load efficiency of the motor must be considered to
determine the input power to the variable-speed drive. Data on
motor part-load efficiency at reduced speed may be difficult to
obtain. In the absence of this data use the part-load efficiency at
full rated speed.
• EQUATION B8: Variable-speed drive input power.
PVi = PFi /hV hD hM
where:
Pvi = variable-speed drive input power, hp (kW)
PFi = fan-shaft input power, hp (kW)
hV = variable-speed drive efficiency,
dimensionless ratio
hD = drive efficiency, dimensionless ratio
• For installed systems where the input load and power factor
can be measured, the output of the variable-speed drive can be
determined by;
• EQUATION B9: For single - phase power:
PVo = (E I pf hD)/cf

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 118
• EQUATION B10: For three - phase power:

PVo = (√3 E I pf hD)/cf
where for both equations:
PVo = variable-speed drive output power, hp (kW)
E = average of the measured phase volts
I = average of the measured phase amps
= conversion factor, 745.70 ( 1,000)
pf = power factor, dimensionless ratio
Other Drive Systems

• For systems such as eddy current clutches and hydraulic couplings,
ask the manufacturer for the drive efficiencies. If this data is not
available, then the actual fan input power must be determined
by laboratory tests.

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 119
A PPENDIX C - FAN O UTLET L OSS C OEFFICIENTS ( REF.ASHR)

Table C1. Plane Asymmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet Without
Ductwork
C0
q A1 / A2
degree 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
10 0.51 0.34 0.25 0.21 0.18 0.17
15 0.54 0.36 0.27 0.24 0.22 0.20
20 0.55 0.38 0.31 0.27 0.25 0.24
25 0.59 0.43 0.37 0.35 0.33 0.33
30 0.63 0.50 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.42
35 0.65 0.56 0.53 0.52 0.51 0.50
Figure C1. Plane Asymmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet Without

Ductwork

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 120
Table C2. Pyramidal Diffuser at Fan Outlet Without Ductwork
C0
q A1 / A2
degree 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
10 0.54 0.42 0.37 0.34 0.32 0.31
15 0.67 0.58 0.53 0.51 0.50 0.51
20 0.75 0.67 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.65
25 0.80 0.74 0.72 0.70 0.70 0.72
30 0.85 0.78 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.76
Figure C2. Pyramidal Diffuser at Fan Outlet Without Ductwork

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 121
Table C3. Plane Symmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork
C0
q A1 / A2
degree 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
10 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.11
15 0.06 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.13 0.14
20 0.07 0.10 0.13 0.15 0.16 0.16
25 0.08 0.13 0.16 0.19 0.21 0.23
30 0.16 0.24 0.29 0.32 0.34 0.35
35 0.24 0.34 0.39 0.44 0.48 0.50
Figure C3. Plane Symmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 122
Table C4. Plane Asymmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork
C0
q A1 / A2
degree 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
10 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.11
15 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15
20 0.12 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18
25 0.15 0.18 0.21 0.23 0.23 0.26
30 0.18 0.25 0.30 0.33 0.35 0.35
35 0.21 0.31 0.38 0.41 0.43 0.44
Figure C4. Plane Asymmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 123
C0
q A1 / A2
degree 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
10 0.05 0.08 0.11 0.13 0.13 0.14
15 0.06 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.15 0.15
20 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.16
25 0.09 0.14 0.18 0.20 0.21 0.22
30 0.13 0.18 0.23 0.26 0.28 0.29
35 0.15 0.23 0.28 0.33 0.35 0.36

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 124
C0
q A1 / A2
degree 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
10 0.11 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14
15 0.13 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.18
20 0.19 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30
25 0.29 0.32 0.35 0.37 0.39 0.40
30 0.36 0.34 0.46 0.49 0.51 0.51
35 0.44 0.54 0.61 0.64 0.66 0.66

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 125
Table C7. Pyramidal Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork
C0
q A1 / A2
degree 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
10 0.10 0.18 0.21 0.23 0.24 0.25
15 0.23 0.33 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.44
20 0.31 0.43 0.48 0.53 0.56 0.58
25 0.36 0.49 0.55 0.58 0.62 0.64
30 0.42 0.53 0.59 0.64 0.67 0.69
Figure C7. Pyramidal Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 127
CHAPTER 17
CONVERSION TABLES
From To Multiply by
ûF ûC TûC = (t F Ð 32)/1.8
û
ûF ûR or F(abs) T(ûR) = tûF + 459.67

ûF K T(K) = (tûF + 459.67) /1.8
ûR or F(abs) K T(K) = TûR /1.8
ûC K T(K) = tûC + 273.15
K ûC t (ûC) = TK - 273.15
Chapter 17: Conversion Tables 127

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 128
Inch/Pound (IP) to Metric (SI) SI to lP

length
1 in. 25.400 mm 1 mm 0.039 37 in.
1 ft. 0.304 80 m 1m 3.2808 ft.
area
1 in.2 645.16 mm2 1 mm2 0.00155 in.2
1 ft.2 0.092 903 m2 1 m2 10.764 ft.2
mass
1 Ibm 0.453 59 kg 1 kg 2.2046 Ibm
volume
1 ft.3 0.028 317 m3 1 m3 35.315 ft.3
1 ft.3 28.317 I 1 0.035 315 ft.2
1 gal. Imp. 4.546 1 I 1I 0.219 97 gal. Imp.
1 gal. US 3.785 4 I 1I 0.264 17 gal. US
density
1 Ibm/ft.3 16.018 kg/m3 1 kg/m3 0.062 430 Ibm/ft.3
specific v
ft3/Ibm 0.062 43 m3/kg 1 m3/kg 16.018 ft3/Ib.
velocity
1 fps 0.304 80 m/s 1 m/s 3.280 8 fps
1 fpm 0.005 0800 m/s 1 m/s 196.85 fpm
force
1 Ibf 4.448 2 N 1N 0.224 81 Ibf
torque
1 Ibf.ft. 1.355 8 N.m 1 N.m 0.737 56 Ibf.ft.

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 129
Inch/Pound (IP) to Metric (SI) SI to IP

flow rate
1 cfs 28.317 m3/s 1 m3/s 35.315 cfs
1 cfm 0.471 95 m3/s 1 m3/s 2.118 9 cfm
1 gpm (Imp.) 0.075 77 L/s 1 L/s 13.198 gpm (Imp.)
1 gpm (US) 0.063 09 L/s 1 L/s 15.850 gpm (US)
pressure / head
1 psi 6.894 8 kPa 1 kPa 0.145 03 psi
1 psf 0.047 88 kPa 1 kPa 20.885 psf
1 ft.Wg(1) 2.986 1 kPa 1 kPa 0.334 88 ft.Wg (1)
1 in.Wg(1) 248.84 Pa = 0.036 psi 1 kPa 4.018 6 in.Wg (1)
1 in.Hg(1) 3.376 9 kPa 1 kPa 0.296 12 in.Hg (1)
1 psi = 27.8 in Wg
energy, work
1 Btu 1.055 1 kJ 1 kJ 0.947 85 Btu
1 kWh 3600.0 kJ 1 MJ 0.277 78 kWh
1 ft.lbf 1.355 8 J 1J 0.737 56 ft.lbf
power
1 Btu/h 0.293 07 W 1 kW 3.412 2 MBh (2)
1 hp 746.00 W 1 kW 1.340 5 hp (electric)
1 hp = 550 ft-lb/sec
Note: 1 Water and mercury at 20˚C (68˚F)

2 M = 103 in Mbh
Chapter 17: Conversion Tables 129

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 130
• Atmospheric pressure (standard)

14.7 psia, 101 kPa
psia = pounds/sq.in. “absolute”
i.e., includes atmospheric pressure
• p sig.= pounds/sq.in. “gauge”
= pressure measured above local atmospheric pressure,
( i.e., not including atmospheric pressure )

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 131
CHAPTER 18
ABBREVIATIONS AND
SYMBOLS
A BBREVIATIONS
A = fan outlet area, ft.2 (m2)
Bf = blade frequency
C = constant
Co = system effect coefficient, dimensionless
cf = conversion factor
cfm = cubic feet per minute
cfs = cubic feet per second
D = fan size or impeller diameter
fp = fan power correction factor, dimensionless ratio
I = amperage
In = natural logarithm
K = value for calculating system effect factors
Kw = specific sound power level, dB re 1 pW
LD = drive loss, %
lf = load factor
Chapter 18: Abbreviations and Symbols 131

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 132
Lw = sound power level, dB re lpW

m = mass, lbm (g)
N = rotational speed, rpm (r/s)
Nf = fan speed correction factor, dimensionless ratio
P = power, hp (kW)
p = pressure, in.Wg (Pa) or psi (kPa)
pB = barometric pressure, in.Hg (kPa)
pf = power factor, dimensionless ratio
PFi = shaft power input to the fan, hp (kW)
PFo = air power output of the fan, hp (kW)
PMi = motor input power, kW
psia = pounds per square inch, atmospheric
psig = pounds per square inch, gauge
pt = fan total pressure rise, in.Wg (Pa)
Pvi = variable-speed input power, hp (kW)
PMo = motor power output to the fan drive, hp (kW)
ps = fan static pressure rise, in.Wg (Pa)
pv = fan velocity pressure, in.Wg (Pa)
Pvo = variable-speed output power, hp (kW)
pws = saturation pressure, lb/ft.2, Pa
Q = volume flow rate at inlet conditions, cfm (L/s)
R = universal gas constant, Ft-lbf/lb-mol.F(abs)(J/g-mol.K)
r = radius, ft., in. (m, cm)
rpm = revolutions per minute
SF = service factor
SEF = system effect factor

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 133
T = thermodynamic temperature, ˚R (K)

t = customary temperature, ˚F (˚C)
tb = time at temperature bin, hours
td = temperature differential
tdb = dry-bulb temperature, ˚F (˚C)
twb = wet-bulb temperature, ˚F (˚C)
V = velocity, ft./min. (m/s)
Va = axial velocity component
Vb = velocity relative to blade
Vm = mean velocity component
Vr = radial velocity component
Vs = absolute velocity
Vt = tangential velocity component
Wg = water gauge
Ws = saturation humidity ratio
WOcfm = wide open cubic feet per minute, %
%hp = percent fan power for load point
%sp = percent static pressure for load point
S YMBOLS
˚C = degree Celsius
dB = decibel
˚F = degree Fahrenheit
g = gram
hp = horsepower
Chapter 18: Abbreviations and Symbols 133

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 134
in.Hg = inch of mercury

K = kelvin
kPa = kilopascal (103 x pascal)
L/s = litre per second
m/s = metre per second
Pa = pascal
pW = picowatt
˚R = degree Rankine
rad/s = radian per second
W = watt
∆t = temperature difference
hV = variable-speed drive efficiency, dimensionless ratio
hs = static efficiency of fan, dimensionless ratio
ht = total efficiency of fan, dimensionless ratio
q = plane angle
v = volume, ft.3/lbm (m3/kg)
r = density, lbm/ft3 (kg/m3)
∑ = summation of
f = relative humidity
w = rotational speed, rad/s

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 135
CHAPTER 19
BIBLIOGRAPHY
• Air Movement and Control Association (AMCA). Fans and

Systems. Publication 201-90. 30 West University Drive,
Arlington Heights, Ill. 60004-1893, (708)394-0150, 1990.
• AMCA. Field Performance Measurement of Fan Systems. Publication
203-90. Arlington Heights, Ill., 1990.
• American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). Handbook, l988 Equipment
Volume. Atlanta, 1988.
• ASHRAE. Handbook, 1989 Fundamentals Volume. Atlanta, 1989.
• ASHRAE. Handbook, 1991 HVAC Applications Volume. Atlanta,
1991.
• ASHRAE. Metric Bin Weather Data, Toronto International Airport.
Atlanta, n.d.
• ASHRAE. Simplified Energy Analysis using the Modified Bin Method.
Report TC 4. I . Atlanta, 1983.
• E.A. Avallone and T. Baumeister. MARKS' Standard Handbook for
Mechanical Engineers. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987.
Chapter 19: Bibliography 135

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 136
• Buffalo. High Pressure Type HL Industrial Exhausters. Bulletin FI-

115A. Kitchener, Ont.: Canada Blower/Canada Pumps, 1987.
• Buffalo. Type BL Centrifugal Fans. Bulletin F107-B, Kitchener,
Ont.: Canada Blower/Canada Pumps, 1987.
• Greenheck Fan Corp. CAPS- Computer Selection Program.
Schofield, Wis., 1986.
• Greenheck Fan Corp. Centrifugal Fans - Backward Inclined and
Airfoil Single and Double Width. Catalogue Cent. Fab (BI/AF)
R. Schofield, Wis., 1990.
• Greenheck Fan Corp. Centrifugal Roof Exhausters - Models G and
GB. Catalogue G/GB R. Schofield, Wis., 1989.
• Greenheck Fan Corp. Industrial Fans – Open Radial & Radial Tip.
Catalogue IF 1-86 M. Schofield, Wis., 1986.
• Greenheck Fan Corp. Inline Fans – Models SQ and BSQ.
Catalogue DSQ/BSQ R. Schofield, Wis., 1989.
• Greenheck Fan Corp. Sidewall Propeller Fans – Belt Drive.
Catalogue SPF-M. Schofield, Wis., 1989.
• Greenheck Fan Corp. Sidewall Propeller Fans – Direct Drive.
Catalogue SD-APR. 89-M. Schofield, Wis., 1989.
• Greenheck Fan Corp. Tubeaxial Fans – Direct and Belt Drive.
Catalogue TAB/TAD 2 R. Schofield, Wis., 1989.
• Greenheck Fan Corp. Utility Fans – Forward Curved and Backward
Inclined. Catalogue SFD/SFB 3-86 M. Schofield, Wis., 1986.
• Greenheck Fan Corp. Vane Axial – Response Control and Preset
Pitch Fans. Catalogue VR, VP R M. Schofield, Wis., 1989.
• Jorgensen, R. (ed.) Fan Engineering. 8th ed. Buffalo, NY, Buffalo
Forge Company, 1983.

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 137
• Public Works Canada. Metric Conversion Handbook for Mechanical

Engineers in the Building Industry. 2nd ed. 1983.
• The Trane Company. CDS – Customer Direct Service Computer
Selection Program. Vol 10.1. La Crosse, Wis., n.d.
• The Trane Company. Centrifugal Fans – Sizes 12-89 Single and
Double Width. catalogue PL-AH-FAN-000-DS-6-1083. La Crosse,
Wis., 1983.
Chapter 19: Bibliography 137

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 139
CHAPTER 20
GLOSSARY
abscissa
• horizontal coordinate of a point in a plane Cartesian coordinate
system obtained by measuring parallel to the x-axis. (Compare
ordinate.)
absolute humidity
• in a mixture of water vapour and dry air, the mass of water
vapour in a specific volume of the mixture. Compare relative
humidity.
absolute (thermodynamic) temperature
• temperature as measured above absolute zero.
absolute (dynamic) viscosity
• force per unit area required to produce unit relative velocity
between two parallel areas of fluid unit distance apart, also
called coefficient of viscosity.
absolute zero temperature
• zero point on an absolute temperature scale.
Chapter 20: Glossary 139

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 140
adiabatic exponent
• exponent k in the equation pvk = constant, representing an
adiabatic change (k is the ratio of the specific heat at a constant
pressure to the specific heat at constant volume).
adiabatic process
• thermodynamic process during which no heat is extracted from
or added to the system.
aerodynamic excitation
• time varying loads acting on the blades of a fan due to
nonconformities of the air flow. Note: Spatial nonuniformities of
airflow that are steady in time give rise to harmonic excitation
at frequencies that are integer multiples of the rotation rate of
the fan. TIme excitations of the airflow give rise to random
excitation.
air
• ambient local atmospherical air supply at fan intake.
air change
• introduction of new, cleansed, or recirculated air to a space.
air-conditioning system
• assembly of equipment for air treatment to control
simultaneously its temperature, humidity, cleanliness and
distribution to meet the requirements of a conditioned space.
airflow resistance
• deterrent (due to friction, change of direction, etc.) to the
passage of air within a system of airways or an apparatus.
air power (operational)
• power required to move air at a given rate of flow against a
given resistance. The ratio of air power to input power of a fan
or blower is termed efficiency.

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air power (theoretical)

• power required to drive a fan or blower as though there were
no losses in the fan or blower (100% efficiency).
algorithm
• prescribed set of well defined rules, or process, for the solution
of a problem in a finite number of steps, e.g., a full statement of
an arithmetical procedure for evaluating sine X to a stated
precision.
ambient air
• surrounding air (usually outdoor air or the air in an enclosure
under study).
ANSI
• American National Standards Institute
apparent power
• product of the volts and amperes of a circuit. This product
generally is divided by 1,000 and designated in kilovolt-
amperes (kVA). It comprises both real and reactive power.
ARI
• Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute.
ASHRAE
• American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air
Conditioning Engineers.
ASTM
• American Society for Testing and Materials.
baghouse fan
• an exhaust fan for conveying smoke, dust, etc., into filters for
pollution control.

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 142
balance pressure
• pressure in a system or container equal to that outside.
bin method
• energy calculation method, usually used for prediction, in
which the annual (or monthly) energy use of a building is
calculated as the sum of the energy used for all the outdoor
temperature bins. It allows heat pump (or other heater or
cooler) performance, which is different for each bin, to be
accounted for.
boundary layer
• region of retarded fluid-flow near the surface of a body moving
through the fluid, or past which the fluid moves.
brake horsepower (BHP)
• actual power delivered by or to a shaft (from the use of a brake
to measure power).
British thermal unit (Btu)
• the mechanical equivalent energy of a Btu is approximately
778.169 262 ft. lb. The heat energy of a Btu is approximately
that required to raise the temperature of a pound of water from
59˚F to 60˚F.
capacity
• maximum load for which a machine, apparatus, device or
system is designed or constructed.
cell (in a cooling tower)
• smallest tower subdivision that can function as an independent
heat exchange unit. It is bounded by exterior walls or partitions.
Each cell may have one or more fans or stacks and one or more
distribution systems.

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 143
central fan system

• mechanical indirect system of heating, ventilating or air-
conditioning, in which the air is treated or handled by
equipment located outside the rooms served, usually at a
control location, and is conveyed to and from the rooms by
means of a fan and a system of distributing ducts.
cleansed air
• air that has been treated to remove pollutants, particulates and
odours.
coil
• cooling or heating element made of pipe or tube that may or
may not be finned, formed into helical or serpentine shape.
compressibility
• ease with which a fluid may be reduced in volume by the
application of pressure.
compressor
• device for mechanically increasing the pressure of a gas.
conditioned air
• air treated to control its temperature, relative humidity, purity,
pressure and movement.
control/controller
• manual or automatic device for regulating a system or
component in normal operation.
cooling tower
• heat-transfer device in which atmospheric air cools warm water,
generally by direct contact (evaporation).
• mechanical-draft, water-cooling tower; tower through
which air movement is effected by one or more fans.

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 144
counterflow
• in heat exchange between two fluids, the opposite direction of
flow; i.e., the coldest portion of one fluid meeting the coldest
portion of the other.
critical speed
• The speed at which a fan, duct, or other component will vibrate
in resonance.
damper
• device used to vary the volume of air passing through an outlet,
inlet or duct, or generally through a confined cross section by
varying the cross-sectional area.
decibel
• unit of air sound pressure and sound power.
design airflow
• required airflow when the system is operating under assumed
maximum conditions, including diversity.
design conditions
• specified environmental conditions, e.g., temperature and
humidity, required to be produced and maintained by a system.
design working pressure
• in the U.S., the maximum working pressure for which an
apparatus has been designed. In some countries, the design
pressure is greater than the maximum working pressure.
dew point
• temperature at which water vapour has reached saturation
point (100% relative humidity).

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 145
dry air (definition for HVAC applications)

• 1. air without entrained water vapour. 2. air unmixed with or
containing no water. Note: Composition of dry air is defined in
ISO 2533-1975, without contaminants or pollution.
dry-bulb temperature
• temperature of air indicated by an ordinary thermometer.
duct system
• series of ducts, elbows and connectors to convey air or other
gases from one location to another.
dynamic pressure
• additional pressure exerted by a fluid due to motion, if that
motion were converted to a static pressure, as in a fluid jet
impinging on a surface.
equivalent length
• resistance of fittings or appurtenances in a conduit through
which the fluid flows, expressed in length of straight conduit of
the same diameter or shape that would have the same
resistance; also expressed in length/diameter units.
evasé
• a diffuser duct section on fan outlet to regain static pressure.
As the diffuser, in fact, adds a loss, the fan total efficiency
is reduced.
external vibration isolation
• in an air-handling unit, isolation of its vibration by devices
external to the unit.
fan
• device for moving air by two or more blades or vanes attached
to a rotating shaft.

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 146
fan air density

• density of air corresponding to the absolute pressure and
absolute temperature at the fan inlet when the fan is operating.
fan appurtenances
• accessories added to a fan for control, isolation, safety, static
pressure regain, wear, etc. (inlet boxes, inlet box dampers,
variable inlet vanes, outlet dampers, vibration isolation bases,
inlet screens, belt guards, diffusers, sound attenuators, wear
protection, turning gears).
fan blast area
• fan scroll outlet area less the area of the cutoff.
fan boundary (inlet and outlet)
• interface between the fan and the remainder of the system, at a
plane perpendicular to the airstream where it enters or leaves
the fan.
fan casing (volute, scroll)
• the part of the casing of a centrifugal fan or compressor that
receives fluid forced outward from the impeller or diffuser and
leads it to the discharge. (Compare fan shroud.)
fan coil (convector) unit
• fan and a heat exchanger for heating and/or cooling assembled
within a common casing.
fan curve
• diagram giving the pressure/volume characteristics of a fan, and
the power it requires.
fan free-discharge area
• area where the fan chamber meets the discharge scroll. Used in
fan system-effect calculations, (the outlet boundary).

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 147
fan inlet (outlet) area

• area of the fan or fan equipment for connection to attached
ductwork.
fan nodal line
• The point of zero displacement on any component vibrating at
its natural frequency.
fan (constant speed) performance curve
• graphical representation of static or total pressure and power
input over a range of air volume flow rate at a stated inlet
density and fan speed. It may include static and mechanical
efficiency curves.
fan power
• power input at the fan shaft, or the total of the power input to
the fan shaft and the power loss attributable to the power
transmission device.
fan pressurization test
• test for determining the air leakage of a building using a fan-
induced pressure difference.
fan propeller
• propeller or disc-type wheel within a mounting ring or plate,
and including driving mechanism supports for either belt-drive
or direct connection. (Compare impeller.)
fan shroud
• protective housing that surrounds the fan and that may also
direct the flow of air. (Compare fan casing.)
fan sound power
• sound power radiated into a duct, or through the housing.

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 148
fan static pressure

• difference between fan total pressure and fan discharge velocity
pressure.
fan torsional excitation
• type of excitation in which external force is applied to the fan
shaft in the form of torque pulsations.
fan total pressure
• arithmetic difference between fan-outlet total pressure and fan-
inlet total pressure.
fan wheel
• revolving part of a fan or blower.
fan wheel cone
• inlet ring, impeller shroud, impeller rim annular plate, or conical
ring on the air inlet side of a centrifugal fan to which the
impeller blades are fixed.
filter mixing box
• in air-handling units, a combination filter section outside-/
return-air mixing plenum, including control dampers.
flow nozzle
• tube specially shaped to increase the discharge velocity of the
fluid, to minimize contraction losses.
flow velocity
• velocity (local or average) of a fluid in a pipe, duct or canal, or
from an orifice.

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 149
frequency response
• normalized motion response of a fan to a known excitation,
expressed as a function of the frequency of the excitation. Is
usually given graphically by curves showing the relationship of
the response to the excitation (and, where applicable, phase
shift or phase angle) as a function of frequency.
full-load amperes
• current that a rotating machine will draw from the power line
when the machine is operating at rated voltage, speed and
torque.
gauge pressure
• pressure above atmospheric pressure.
head
• energy per unit mass of fluid divided by gravitational
acceleration. In fluid statics and dynamics, a vertical linear
measure. Note: The terms head and pressure are often
mistakenly used interchangeably.
head pressure
• operating pressure measured in the discharge line at a pump,
fan or compressor outlet; i.e., at the head.
horsepower
• work done at the rate of 550 ft- lb/sec. (745.7 W). (See also brake
horsepower.)
HVAC systems
• provide either collectively or individually the processes of
comfort heating, ventilating and/or air conditioning within, or
associated with, a building.

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 150
hydrostatic pressure
• pressure exerted by a fluid at rest.
impeller (rotor; wheel)
• rotating part of a device (fan, blower, compressor or pump) that
moves fluid. (See also fan.)
impeller reaction
• ratio of the variation of the fluid pressure in the impeller to the
total variation of pressure in the device.
impeller running noise frequency
• in a turbomachine, the noise frequency resulting from the
rotational speed of the impeller times the number of blades.
intermediate pressure (interstage pressure)
• pressure between stages of multistage compression.
internal vibration isolation
• in an air-handling unit, spring isolation of all moving parts
within the unit that support the fan sled.
IP units (inch-pound units)
• units using inches, pound and other designations; as opposed
to SI units in the metric system. Examples are foot, Btu,
horsepower, gallon.
iterative procedure
• process which repeatedly executes a series of operations until
some prescribed condition is satisfied.
joule (J)
• 1. (electric work) work done by one ampere flowing through a
resistance of one ohm for one second. J = W·sec. (watt second).
2. (heat or mechanical work) work done by a force of one
newton acting over one metre. J = N·m.

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 151
kelvin temperature
• SI absolute temperature scale (K), on which the triple point of
water is 273.16K and the boiling point is approximately
373.15K ( 1 K = 1˚C). Kelvin is 1/273.16 of the temperature of
the thermodynamic triple point of water.
kinematic viscosity
• ratio of absolute viscosity to density of a fluid.
laminar flow (streamline)
• fluid flow in which all the particles move in substantially
parallel paths, occurs at low Reynolds numbers.
mixing box
• compartment in which two air supplies are mixed together
before being discharged.
modulate
• 1. adjust by small increments and decrements. 2. vary a voltage
or other variable with a signal.
noise (NC) criteria curves
• curves that define the limits that the octave-band spectrum of a
noise source must not exceed if a certain level of occupant
acceptance is to be achieved.
noise reduction (NR)
• difference between the average sound pressure levels, or sound
intensity levels of two spaces – usually two adjacent rooms
called the source room and the receiving room respectively.
operating load point
• actual system operating capacity at the time of taking an
instrument reading.

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 152
ordinate
• the Cartesian coordinate obtained by measuring parallel to the
y-axis. (Compare abscissa.)
outdoor air
• air outside a building, or air taken from outdoors and not
previously circulated through the system.
outlet area
• gross overall discharge area of a given component in an air
distribution system.
output
• capacity, duty, performance, net refrigeration produced by a
system.
phase
• 1. in thermodynamics, one of the three states of matter, solid,
liquid, or gas. 2. position in a cycle.
pitot tube
• small bore tube inserted perpendicular to a flowing stream with
its orifice facing the stream to measure total pressure.
polytropic process
• one in which heat is being exchanged with the surroundings,
represented by the equation pvn = constant (n is the polytropic
exponent). Describes the process in a fan.
pressure
• thermodynamically, the normal force exerted by a
homogeneous liquid or gas, per unit of area, on the wall of the
container.
prime mover
• engine, turbine, water wheel or similar machine that drives an
electric generator.
Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 153
psychrometer
• instrument for measuring relative humidities with wet- and dry-
bulb thermometers.
pump
• machine for imparting energy to a fluid causing it to do work,
drawing a fluid into itself through an entrance port, and forcing
the fluid out through an exhaust port. Main types are air lift,
centrifugal, diaphragm, positive displacement, reciprocating and
rotary.
Rankine temperature
• absolute temperature scale conventionally defined by the
temperature of the triple point of water equal to 491.68˚R, with
180 divisions between the melting point of ice and the boiling
point of water under standard atmospheric pressure (l˚R= 11˚F).
rating standard
• standard that sets forth a method of interpreting the results of
tests of individual units, at specified conditions, in relation to a
product manufactured in quantity.
reactive power
• portion of apparent power that does no work. It is measured
commercially in kilovars. Reactive power must be supplied to
most types of magnetic equipment, such as motors. It is
supplied by generators or by electrostatic equipment, such as
capacitors.
real power
• energy- or work-producing part of apparent power. It is
measured commercially in kilowatts. The product of real power
and length of time is energy, measured by watt-hour meters
and expressed in kilowatt-hours (kWh).

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 154
reheat
• application of sensible heat to supply air that has been
previously cooled below the temperature desired for
maintaining the temperature of the conditioned space.
relative humidity
• ratio of the partial pressure or density of water vapour to the
saturation pressure or density respectively, at the same dry-bulb
temperature, and barometric pressure of the ambient air.
saturation pressure
• for a pure substance at a given temperature, the pressure at
which vapour and liquid, or vapour and solids, can exist in
equilibrium.
sensor
• device or instrument designed to detect and measure a variable.
specification
• precise statement of a set of requirements to be satisfied by a
material, product, system or service that indicates the
procedures for determining whether each of the requirements is
satisfied.
stall region
• performance zone where unstable operation occurs,
characterized by aerodynamic blockage or the breakaway of the
flow from certain passages between the blades.
standard air (IP)
• dry air at 70˚F and 14.696 psia. Under these conditions, dry air
has a mass density oF 0.075 lb/ft3.
standard air (SI)
• dry air at 20˚C and 101.325 kPa absolute. Under these
conditions, dry air has a mass density of 1.204 kg/m3.

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 155
stratified airflow
• layers of air, usually at different temperatures or different
velocities, flowing through a duct or plenum.
stratified fluid flow
• form of low velocity, two-phase flow in horizontal pipes, so
that the free surface of the liquid remains level between a
gaseous and liquid phase above and below it respectively.
system effects
• usually conditions in a distribution system that affect fan and
pump performance and related testing, adjusting, and balancing
work. Can also affect the performance of other components
(such as filters).
temperature profile
• graph representing the distribution of temperatures in a plane
section of a body or a space, or over a period of time.
testing standard
• standard that sets forth methods of measuring capacity, or other
aspects of operation, of a specific unit or system of a given class
of equipment, together with a specification of instrumentation,
procedure and calculations.
thermal transfer fluid
• fluid circulated through closed circuits to transfer heat from one
location to another.
thermal watt
• heat power expressed in watts.
throttling
• 1. of a fluid, an irreversible adiabatic process which consists of
lowering pressure by an expansion without work. 2. reduction
in fluid or current flow by adding resistance.

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 156
ton (of refrigeration)

• time-rate of cooling equal to 12,000 Btu/h (approximately
3,517 W).
total pressure
• in fluid flow, the sum of static pressure and velocity pressure.
turbine
• fluid-energized acceleration machine for generating rotary
mechanical power from the energy in a fluid stream.
turbulent (eddy) flow
• fluid flow in which the velocity varies in magnitude and
direction in an irregular manner throughout the mass.
turning vane (air splitter)
• curved strip of short radius placed in a sharp bend or elbow in a
duct to direct air around the bend.
two-phase flow
• simultaneous flow of two phases of a fluid, usually gas-liquid
flows.
valve
• device to regulate or stop the flow of fluid in a pipe or a duct by
throttling.
variable air volume (VAV)
• use of varying airflow to control the condition of air, in contrast
to constant flow with varying temperature.
variable flow
• throttling control of water during a cooling or heating process.
velocity head
• height of fluid corresponding to the kinetic energy per unit
mass of fluid divided by gravitational acceleration.

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 157
velocity pressure
• in a moving fluid, the pressure due to the velocity and density
of the fluid, expressed by the velocity squared times the fluid
density, divided by two (rv2/2).
velocity profile
• graph that represents, in a plane section, the velocity
distribution in a flowing fluid.
vena contracta
• smallest cross-sectional area of a fluid stream leaving an orifice.
venturi
• contraction in a pipeline or duct that increases the fluid velocity
to lower its static pressure, followed by a gradual expansion to
allow recovery of static pressure. Used for metering and other
purposes that involve change in pressure.
viscosity
• 1. property of semifluids, fluids and gases by which they resist
an instantaneous change of shape or arrangements of parts. It
causes fluid friction whenever adjacent layers of fluid move in
relation to each other. 2. property of a fluid to resist flow or
change of shape.
viscous flow
• 1. laminar flow or streamline flow. 2. type of gas flow in which
the average free path of gas molecules is much smaller than the
smallest cross-sectional dimension of the pipe conveying the
substance.
voltampere (VA)
• basic unit of apparent power. The practical unit of apparent
power is kilovolt-ampere (kVA), 1,000 voltamperes.

Fans (15-21) 1/8/01 10:54 AM Page 158
water column (wc)

• tubular column located at the steam and water space of a boiler
to which protective devices, such as gauge cocks, water gauge
and level alarms are attached.
water gauge (Wg)
• 1. gauge glass with attached fittings that indicates water level
within a vessel. 2. designation that water is the fluid in a
manometer.
watt (power) (W)
• 1. energy flow at the rate of one joule per second. 2. the work
done or energy generated by one ampere induced by an emf of
one volt. P = EI = I2R.
wet-bulb temperature
• temperature indicated by a psychrometer when the bulb of one
thermometer is covered with a water-saturated wick over which
air is caused to flow to reach an equilibrium temperature of
water evaporating into air, when the heat of vaporization is
supplied by the air.
• wet-bulb temperature is lower than dry-bulb temperature. This
difference indicates the amount of humidity in the air. If W.B.
temp. = D.B. temp., then you have 100% humidity.
• tables of W.B. and D.B. difference are available to show %
relative humidity (% of maximum).

OTHER IN-HOUSE REFERENCE GUIDES:
• Adjustable Speed Drives

• Energy Monitoring & Control Systems
• Lighting
• Motors
• Power Quality
• Power Quality Mitigation
• Pumps
COMMENTS:
For any changes, additions and/or comments call or
write to:
Scott Rouse
Project Manager
Ontario Power Generation
700 University Avenue, H15-A6
Toronto, Ontario
M5G 1X6
Telephone (416) 592-8044
Fax (416) 592-4841
E-Mail srouse@ontariopowergeneration.com
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Fans 9501 Covers 1/8/01 10:12 AM Page 3

First Edition, September 1993

Making Energy Savings Good Business

3rd Edition, 1999

Fan Inlet Conditions ...................................................................68

1. Operating Point .........................................................................6

22. Velocity Vector Diagram for an Axial Fan without

C1. Plane Asymmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet

1. Fan Laws ..................................................................................46

A1. Standard Atmospheric Data for

• This guide contains the information required to select an

2 Fans Reference Guide

• The demarcation between blowers and compressors is set at a

FAN T OTAL P RESSURE R ISE

4 Fans Reference Guide

FAN S TATIC P RESSURE

FAN O UTPUT P OWER

Figure 1: Operating Point

6 Fans Reference Guide

• The two general classifications of fans – centrifugal and axial –

Chapter 3: Fan Types 7

Figure 2: General Configuration and Component Terms for

8 Fans Reference Guide

Chapter 3: Fan Types 9

24 in. AFSW Centrifugal

static efficiency (se)

Figure 4: Typical Characteristics of Airfoil Fans

10 Fans Reference Guide

• Usually commercial heating, ventilating and air-conditioning

• In systems that require low-to-high static pressure, specifically

Chapter 3: Fan Types 11

• Primarily in industrial systems in a corrosive or erosive

• Generally in packaged and built-up, commercial and residential

12 Fans Reference Guide

24 in. BISW Centrifugal

static efficiency (se)

Figure 5: Typical Characteristics of Backward-inclined Fans

Chapter 3: Fan Types 13

static efficiency (se)

Figure 6: Typical Characteristics of Radial Fans

14 Fans Reference Guide

Figure 7: General Configuration and Component Terms

Chapter 3: Fan Types 15

• Low static-pressure, high volume, commercial and industrial

16 Fans Reference Guide

static efficiency (se)

Figure 8: Typical Characteristics of Propeller Fans

Chapter 3: Fan Types 17

static efficiency (se)

Figure 9: Typical Characteristics of Tubeaxial Fans

18 Fans Reference Guide

Figure 10: Typical Characteristics of Vaneaxial Fans

Chapter 3: Fan Types 19

• Low and medium static-pressure, commercial, ducted systems

• Low to high static-pressure, commercial HVAC systems, and

20 Fans Reference Guide

• Generally used to extract sticky, corrosive or volatile fumes in

Centrifugal Inline Fans

• Commercial applications where high efficiency, low sound

Chapter 3: Fan Types 21

Figure 11: Configuration of Bifurcated Fans

22 Fans Reference Guide

24 in. Centrifugal Inline