Professional Psychology: Research and Practice Copyright 2001 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.

2001, Vol. 32, No. 1, 34-39 0735-7028/01/S5.00 DOI: 10.1037//0735-7028.32.1.34

Applied Sport Psychology in Professional Sports: The Team Psychologist

Frank L. Gardner
Arizona School of Professional Psychology

Professional sports has become a significant worldwide business in which highly paid athletes are
considered substantial assets to be carefully selected, developed, and protected. Psychologists have
become increasingly involved with professional sport organizations, providing a wide range of psycho-
logical services, such as performance enhancement consultation, clinical or counseling interventions, and
psychological testing. As increasing numbers of psychologists enter the sport domain, the specific roles
and responsibilities of practice, unique ethical considerations, and psychological services and profes-
sional demands most often placed upon the team psychologist in professional sports must be clarified and
articulated.

As an ever-increasing number of psychologists enter the pro-
fessional sport domain, many questions may arise concerning the
differing ways to effectively and ethically work with elite athletes.
With the ongoing development of the field of sport psychology, the
role of practitioners of applied sport psychology has expanded to
include the wide array of psychological services currently in
demand among professional sports organizations (PSOs).
The professional role of practitioners of applied sport psychol-
ogy has taken on many differing forms over the years. For some,
applied sport psychology primarily refers to using basic cognitive-
behavioral and self-regulatory procedures and techniques to help
athletes of all levels enhance their performance (Hardy, Jones, &
Gould, 1996). This approach to sport psychology, based on qual-
itative and quantitative research suggesting that psychological
factors are significant contributors to optimal performance (Wil-
liams, 1998), views the development of "psychological skills" as a
necessary component, along with motor skill development, in the
attainment of athletic performance excellence.
For others, applied sport psychology includes the delivery of
psychological care and development of athletes above and beyond
efforts at enhancing athletic performance. In this model, the de-
velopment of life skills, coping resources, and care and attention to
both clinical and developmental issues often seen in the athletic
domain becomes the purview of the applied sport psychologist
(Danish, Petitpas, & Hale, 1995). An even greater expansion of the
practice of applied sport psychology has included the use of
psychological testing in such areas as predraft selection and neu-
ropsychological evaluation (Gardner & Karp, 1998; Karp & Gard-
ner, 1999).
FRANK L. GARDNER received his PhD in clinical psychology from Hofstra
University in 1980. He is professor and director of Sport Psychology
Programs at the Arizona School of Professional Psychology.
I WOULD LIKE TO THANK Zella E. Moore for assistance with library research
and for many helpful comments and editorial suggestions regarding pre-
vious versions of this article.
CORRESPONDENCE CONCERNING THIS ARTICLE should be addressed to Frank
L. Gardner, Arizona School of Professional Psychology, 2301 West Dun-
lap Avenue, Suite 211, Phoenix, Arizona, 85021. Electronic mail may be
sent to fgardner@azspp.edu.
34
Applied sport psychology is practiced in a variety of settings
across a wide range of skill levels, including the youth sport level
(Weiss, 1995), college level, (Greenspan & Andersen, 1995),
Olympic level (Murphy, 1995), and professional level (Gardner,
1995). As one might expect, the actual roles and responsibilities as
well as the goals and mission of the "sport psychologist" vary
across both setting and level (Greenspan & Andersen, 1995;
Weiss, 1995). At the level of intercollegiate athletics, the sport
psychologist is faced with developmental, educational, and perfor-
mance concerns in working with teams and athletes (Greenspan &
Andersen, 1995). It has been my experience that, in the world of
professional sports, in which winning and performance success are
clearly the primary mission, most of the issues presented to the
sport psychologist, be they clinical or otherwise, are conveyed
from the perspective of their impact upon performance. The pro-
fessional athlete may be suffering from anxiety attacks or depres-
sion, confronting the impending end of a career, facing the pain
and uncertainty of a lengthy rehabilitation, encountering family
turmoil, or experiencing a significant loss in confidence. The
athlete troubled by such issues is most often referred by coaches,
management personnel, or team medical staff because of a degra-
dation in performance, not because of personal discomfort.
As applied sport psychology has emerged as a specialty within
professional psychology, it is both understandable and quite log-
ical that PSOs would increasingly look to the field for assistance in
maximizing the athletic potential of its elite performers. Unfortu-
nately, there has been little empirical study of the psychological
needs of athletes nor of the needs and opinions of services pro-
vided to PSOs by sport psychology professionals. Although pre-
liminary qualitative research addressing these issues is currently
being undertaken, most of the information and knowledge about
PSOs is based on the personal experiences and descriptions in the
professional literature of the few who have worked in this domain
(Botterill, 1990; Gardner, 1995, 1998; Halliwell, 1990; Neff,
1990).
This article describes the roles and responsibilities of the psy-
chologist working with professional teams, noting the unique
demands and professional issues that confront the psychologist
working in sport settings.
 SPECIAL SECTION: THE TEAM PSYCHOLOGIST
The Team Psychologist in Professional Sports
Much like a professional athlete, the roles and responsibilities of
the team psychologist tend to evolve over time. These roles are
subject to change based on both personal development and fre-
quent changes in coaching, management, and player personnel.
Upon initial entry into the environment of professional sports, the
psychologist will feel very much like a novice or "rookie" (in the
terminology of professional sports)—new, inexperienced, and, in
many respects, out of place. This will invariably be so, regardless
of the psychologist's experience as a professional. The profes-
sional sports environment is unique and requires a period of
learning and adjustment.
The psychologist needs to become comfortable with informal
and sometimes short sessions, in elevators, on sidelines, on air-
planes, and in hotel restaurants at breakfast during road trips.
Consultations are provided when requested or when necessary and
are rarely formally set up as 45-min in-office sessions. Both player
personnel and staff need to become comfortable with the psychol-
ogist as both a person and a professional. Just as rookie athletes
often feel as though they are on the outside looking in, waiting for
their moment to shine, so too will the new team psychologist as he
or she awaits the first opportunity to use his or her skills. This first
opportunity can take many forms—ones that are primarily based
on the reason for the hiring of the psychologist. As I outline later,
the psychologist will most likely be brought into the organization
with a particular purpose in mind. This can include psychological
skills training for performance enhancement, clinical or counseling
services, predraft psychological testing, concussion-related neuro-
psychological testing, or some combination of these services.
It is important to realize, however, that if the psychologist does
his or her job well and is seen as an asset to the organization, there
will invariably be opportunity for expansion of the roles and
responsibilities mandated to that psychologist. The reason for this
is rather simple. Professional sports are, by their very nature,
people-intensive experiences. Therefore, issues relating to human
behavior (i.e., psychology) will always emerge. The team psychol-
ogist often becomes a key resource for these issues of human
behavior, both normal and abnormal, and thus can have much to
offer the organization whose success is completely dependent on
the performance of human beings. For example, when I was
retained by one particular PSO, the professional role initially
described by the organization was clearly delineated as predraft
assessment of prospective player personnel. Over time, staff be-
came increasingly comfortable and content with the service being
provided. Questions about, and finally requests for, direct inter-
ventions began to evolve. Finally, regular ongoing work with
player personnel was established for the purpose of performance
enhancement and coach-athlete relationship development.
Three Sport Psychology Roles
With Professional Sports Teams
As noted earlier, both personal experience and the professional
literature suggest that the role and function of the team psychol-
ogist can be separated into three broad categories (Gardner, 1995;
Halliwell, 1990; Neff, 1990; Smith & Johnson, 1990). These
categories include performance enhancement services, clinical or
counseling services, and psychological testing services.
35
Performance Enhancement Services
The psychologist working in a team setting must be well trained
in the performance enhancement techniques of applied sport psy-
chology. The sport-specific utilization of fundamental cognitive-
behavioral and self-regulatory techniques such as stimulus control
(precompetitive plans and routines), self-monitoring, goal setting,
guided imagery, cognitive restructuring and serf-instructional
training, relaxation training, arousal control, and attention control
are all critical if the team psychologist is to have a positive impact
on the super-elite levels of performance demonstrated by profes-
sional athletes.
Numerous studies have clearly indicated the role and efficacy of
these psychological skills in developing and enhancing peak ath-
letic performance (Williams, 1998). Both theory and research
suggest that optimal athletic performance is a result of well-
practiced, highly developed motor skills that become increasingly
automatic over time (Fischman & Oxendine, 1998). However, this
automatic processing of sport-related stimuli sometimes becomes
less automatic and more conscious (i.e., controlled) owing to a
variety of competing internal stimuli, external stimuli, or both. As
suggested by Kanfer and Schefft (1985) in their model of self-
regulation, the disruption of automatic processing results in per-
formance dysfunction in a wide range of human endeavors. Per-
formance enhancement techniques at their most basic level are
intended to teach self-regulatory skills to athletes so that they may
reestablish the automatic processing that is so critical for optimal
human performance. As one athlete so aptly described to me,
"Your job is to get my head out of my body's way!"
Performance enhancement services are often provided (a) in an
individual consultation format (Neff, 1990), (b) by means of
formal psychological skills training programs provided in a group
format (Halliwell, 1990), or (c) in some combination of the two
(Gardner, 1995). For example, athletes may seek help to restore
confidence, aid in the development of enhanced attention or con-
centration, reduce performance anxiety, overcome the fear of elite
competition following severe injury, or address some combination
of these (Petitpas & Danish, 1995). During a recent season, one
professional athlete requested assistance for difficulty concentrat-
ing and getting mentally prepared to perform for each game. A
thorough assessment revealed no psychological disturbance that
would explain these difficulties. The athlete, however, did not use
any consistent pregame routines and admitted to not taking pre-
game drills seriously. Working in a collaborative manner, the
athlete described his performance issues and the nonsport demands
he faced daily, I clarified the benefits of a clear and consistent
precompetitive routine, and a consistent pregame plan was estab-
lished. This pregame plan included set routines from breakfast
through the beginning of competition (i.e., meals, naps, mental
rehearsal, arrival times, stretching, and warm-up). In addition, we
established goals for pregame drill performance that required a
greater degree of personal involvement and concentration for them
to be completed effectively. These interventions helped reestablish
the activation state and concentration necessary for optimal per-
formance (Hardy et al., 1996).
Performance enhancement services can also focus on overall
team functioning. In this regard, the team psychologist can have a
significant role in efforts at establishing necessary levels of team
cohesion (Carron & Hausenblas, 1998). The psychologist can aid
36
the coaching staff in developing or clarifying necessary team
performance norms and in helping athletes understand and accept
their respective roles. Several years ago, a team I was working
with was hindered by player discontent and jealousy. The new
head coach had limited experience in the league. Team personnel
complained about playing time and coaching decisions. The coach
approached me while on a long road trip to vent his feelings of
frustration and to ask for advice. During a series of discussions, we
began to focus on the importance of performance norms and role
clarity and acceptance in the development of team cohesion. Ul-
timately, the coach arranged for a series of one-on-one and full-
team discussions, during which he presented his performance
expectations and outlined for each player their specific roles and
responsibilities. The coach and his staff began to demand that a
certain level of effort and outcome would be required for playing
time and consistently followed through with such demands. Those
few players who were unable or unwilling to accept these require-
ments and roles were soon traded or released. Over a period of 2
months, the team's performance improved significantly, and they
functioned more cohesively both on and off the playing field.
Interventions for the enhancement of team cohesion are highly
dependent on the needs and coaching philosophy of the staff and
should be entered into cautiously and only with the full knowledge
and support of coach and management personnel. Athletic coach-
ing, by its very nature, is in many respects similar to the manage-
ment of human resources in a business setting (Gardner, 1995).
Managers and coaches alike are responsible for selection, strategic
planning, and player motivation and performance. As such, their
ability to effectively understand, communicate with, and motivate
players and employees is critical for success. From this perspec-
tive, sport psychologists can offer the coach a number of insights
about player personalities, communication, and motivation. For
example, preseason psychological testing of entire teams can pro-
vide information useful to coaches in the development of a full
understanding of their players and can be used to develop specific
goals for each player's psychological skills training program
(Gardner, 1995). Rick Patino, former Head Coach of the Univer-
sity of Kentucky Men's Basketball team, commented,
We brought in ... a psychologist who had worked with the Knicks, to
test the team. I needed to know who was a leader, who lacked
confidence, who wanted to take the big shot. I found that they were all
insecure about what was ahead. I needed to ease those fears. I built
them up; I told them how valuable they were. I didn't try to make
them up into something they weren't. But I wanted to convince them
that even average athletes, playing well together, could accomplish
great deeds as a team. (Patino, 1992, p. 45)
Clinical or Counseling Services
The psychologist trained appropriately in both sport psychology
and clinical or counseling psychology can offer a great deal to an
organization whose success depends on individuals performing
physically demanding skills on a regular basis while under intense
public and media scrutiny. Professional sports are quite unforgiv-
ing. Performance is monitored daily and expectations are set at an
extremely high level. Additionally, there are always teammates
waiting in the wings to take the place of those athletes who cannot
(or do not) perform. Poor performances result in loss of playing
time and even jobs.
GARDNER
Although paid extremely well, these athletes by and large have
relatively short careers. Their careers often end owing to more
skilled (and often younger) athletes replacing them or they end
prematurely because of serious, unexpected injury. In fact, profes-
sional athletes' responses to injury often present themselves sim-
ilarly to grief responses. In response to the "death" or "near death"
of an athletic career, athletes often experience symptoms of anx-
iety, anger, depression, and even social withdrawal and intrusive
flashbacks (Petitpas & Danish, 1995).
In addition, the professional athlete is not immune to the normal
range of psychological difficulties facing human beings. Anxiety
and affective disorders as well as a wide range of family problems
confront the professional athlete as they do any other member of
society. The difference, of course, is that the world of professional
sports does not allow for personal time away from work to get
through the tough periods in life.
The clinical services provided by the team psychologist are
typically available for individuals throughout the organization. In
general, the model for the provision of clinical services to a PSO
can be conceptualized as similar to an internal employee assistance
program (Neff, 1990) in which any and all members of an orga-
nization have internal access to necessary psychological services.
The responsibility for team selection and the development of
team cohesion and technical and tactical strategies for optimizing
team performance are centered on relatively few individuals in
coaching and management positions. The pressure experienced by
such persons is enormous. The team psychologist's professional
role oftentimes includes helping both staff and those in a manage-
ment position cope with the daily stresses and strains inherent in
their jobs. In addition, family difficulties are not uncommon
among both athletes and management personnel (Coppel, 1995).
Issues relating to domestic violence, substance abuse, and general
stress management can all fall within the scope of practice for
individuals working as team psychologists.
Additional counseling services may take the form of preventa-
tive psycho-educational programs in family relations, anger man-
agement, financial management, and substance abuse, as well as
career counseling for those athletes beginning to think about the
completion of their careers. With respect to career counseling in
particular, some professional leagues such as the National Hockey
League (NHL) through the NHL Players Association, have devel-
oped formal programs to prepare their athletes for life after sport.
Some teams have developed their own career development pro-
grams (J. Goldberg, personal communication, October, 1991),
while others have shown no inclination to do so. Career counseling
with athletes first involves an explanation of life transitions and
their implications to the athlete, followed by systematic self- and
career exploration, and finally the development of a career action
plan (Petitpas, Champagne, Chartrand, Danish, & Murphy, 1997).
Psychological Testing
Little in sport psychology elicits as strong a reaction as does
psychological testing. There has been a wide range of professional
discourse in this area debating the utility, value, and ethical con-
siderations of psychological testing in the sport milieu (Etzel,
Yura, & Perna, 1998; Vealey & Garner-Holman, 1998). Others
have cautioned that psychologists using psychological testing as
part of their professional work must be particularly attuned to the
 SPECIAL SECTION: THE TEAM PSYCHOLOGIST
ethical responsibilities toward the athlete being tested, including
informed consent and appropriate availability of test feedback
(Nideffer, 1981).
Early efforts at determining empirical predictors of athletic
success were largely unsuccessful (Davis, 1991), and, as such, it
was thought by some that psychology should abandon the use of
psychological testing for selection purposes in the sports milieu
(Vealey & Garner-Holman, 1998). Despite these initial findings
and criticisms, the use of psychological testing in professional
sports continues to be used and highly valued by PSOs. Until
recently, the results of psychological testing have been presented
in a standard clinical manner, with each individual personality
described in depth. More recent studies, using somewhat different
methodologies, have begun to find empirical support for the ability
of psychological testing to accurately discriminate (and thus pre-
dict) between those athletes more or less likely to achieve predraft
expectations (Gardner & Karp, 1999). Such issues bring the pos-
sibility of objectivity in the prediction of athletic success into
focus. This would be in keeping with a recent meta-analysis that
suggested that mechanical (i.e., statistical) predictions of human
behavior are generally superior to clinical prediction methods
across a wide range of circumstances (Grove, Zald, Lebow, Snitz,
& Nelson, 2000). One could easily argue that the use of psycho-
logical testing as part of a comprehensive selection process in
professional sports is not at all different from the well-accepted use
of testing as a selection tool in corporate settings.
Regardless of philosophy, psychological testing is a professional
function used by a large number of PSOs (Neff, 1990). In fact,
informal discussion among psychologists working in professional
sports suggests that more teams use psychologists in this predraft
testing role than any other professional function (F. Neff, personal
communication, August 17, 1999). In my experience, administer-
ing psychological testing is a highly valued role for psychologists
in the world of professional sports.
Psychological testing of professional athletes may include neu-
ropsychological testing and predraft testing. In recent years, much
public scrutiny and media attention has been given to the issue of
mild traumatic brain injury (i.e., concussion) and athletics. An
estimated 250,000 head injuries occur per year in contact sports
(Pellman, 1998). In addition, the cumulative effects of concussion
in athletes and issues relating to return-to-play decisions have
become recurring themes in sports medicine (Burke, 1998). As
such, both the National Football League and the NHL have intro-
duced formal ongoing neuropsychological baseline and postcon-
cussion testing programs into their study of this issue (Burke,
1998; Pellman, 1998). In these programs, brief (20-30 min) mea-
sures of short-term and delayed memory, nonverbal fluency, at-
tention and concentration, and problem solving are administered to
all team members prior to training camp. Following any mild head
injury, players are retested. Information from these tests is then
incorporated as an element in the sports medicine staff decisions
about return-to-play parameters. In addition, this information is
used to educate players and their families with regard to head
injury, long-term consequences, return to play, and possible retire-
ment issues.
Making correct selection decisions when choosing new (young)
entrants into the sport is of critical importance to team manage-
ment. The yearly event commonly referred to as the entry draft is
the process in which each team selects college-aged amateurs
37
believed to be ready to play at the professional level. Manage-
ment's ability to make correct selection decisions (and, conversely,
avoid highly visible and expensive failures) is often a major
determinant of their teams' success and their own longevity on the
job. Scouts can only evaluate player talent and physical ability. Yet
frequently, players with tremendous athletic potential are ulti-
mately unsuccessful.
The team psychologist is often asked to evaluate relevant psy-
chological factors that may enhance or interfere with an athlete's
likelihood of attaining his or her potential. Included in this eval-
uation may be an assessment of clinical concerns and issues as
well as normal personality and behavioral style. This may include
structured interview, behavioral observations, and psychometric
evaluation of personality by means of objective tests (Gardner,
1998). Psychometric instruments used in this context vary a great
deal but typically include objective measurements of personality
and interpersonal style such as Cartel's Sixteen Personality Factor
Questionnaire (16PF; Cattel, Eber, & Tatsuoka, 1980) and Nidef-
fer's Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS; Nideffer,
1976). Because the costs of selection errors are great, it is quite
rational for those who make selection decisions to consider psy-
chological test results as a component of their selection process.
When psychological testing is performed in this manner, it is the
psychologist who must carry the burden of informing the athlete
and the organization of the nature and limitations to testing.
Unique Demands on Team Psychologists
in Professional Sports
The world of professional sports is in many ways a closed, and
somewhat paranoid, system (Gardner, 1995). People are viewed by
athletic personnel as either insiders or outsiders. Earning trust and
becoming accepted as an insider is a process, not an event. Again,
to use the previously noted rookie analogy, the process of becom-
ing an accepted and useful part of the sport world is an ongoing
developing process that has numerous ups and downs, much like
the career path that most athletes themselves face. There are times,
especially in the beginning, when both the psychologist and the
professional athlete feel frustrated and unappreciated, believing
that they can offer much more but recognizing that they must
patiently await their opportunity. When that opportunity finally
arises, there is often but one chance to prove one's worth. This
high-stakes work environment appeals only to some highly trained,
highly educated professionals.
In certain respects, those in professional sports are suspicious
and cynical about the value of psychology. Many in the field have
previously oversold the value of their services or have been less
than open and honest in describing the limits of their training and
education. This has resulted in a situation in which those psychol-
ogists seeking to work in professional sports have had to overcome
the negative experiences and misconceptions of others before even
having an opportunity to demonstrate their skills.
Once on the job, the team psychologist is confronted on a
regular basis with issues of boundaries and professional behavior
unlike any seen in the traditional day-to-day practice of profes-
sional psychology. Interventions are more likely to be performed
informally—on the sideline or in the locker room and rarely in the
psychologist's office. Team members, whether seeking help with a
performance-based issue or a more personal concern, do not want
38 GARDNER
to see themselves as patients. Accepting invitations to team func-
tions, holiday parties, and even championship celebrations need to
be well thought out. Issues relating to accompanying teams on road
trips, team meals, and charter plane flights, not part of standard
clinical practice, are regular events. In essence, the ability to
interact as part of the team, while at the same time maintaining
professional boundaries (and providing direct psychological ser-
vice), is a mode of operation very different from standard clinical
practice.
When hired by a team, the psychologist must be aware that it is
of critical importance that issues of confidentiality and privileged
communication be addressed, discussed, and agreed upon by all
involved parties. As someone who would most likely be remuner-
ated by the PSO, the psychologist cannot assume the same confi-
dentiality with athletes employed by the PSO as would exist in
private practice. In my experience, PSOs are realistic and under-
standing regarding issues of confidentiality if these are discussed
openly and directly at the outset.
An example of the need for early discussion of these issues
occurred in my first year as a consultant with a National Basketball
Association team. In an early discussion of confidentiality, man-
agement pointed out that the league substance-abuse policy re-
quired that any team personnel with knowledge of a player's drug
use must immediately report that information to the league office.
Failure to do so could result in the suspension of that personnel and
a major fine for the team. From the league's perspective, a psy-
chologist consulting for a team is considered personnel. After our
discussion, the team sought clarification from the league and was
given a written waiver regarding this issue. This concern had never
been addressed previously and was easily handled with fore-
thought and open discussion. It was clear that if a player was to be
expected to share personal information and seek help for addictive
behavior, the player and the team members needed assurance that
this communication was confidential and would not jeopardize the
status of the player, the team, or the psychologist.
The psychologist must also consider that situations will invari-
ably arise in which the interests of individual athletes may conflict
with the mission and goals of the client (i.e., team or organization).
For example, an athlete may need some time to deal with a serious
family problem at home, just at the time when the championship
playoffs are scheduled to begin. The interest of the player may be
to go home and address his personal situation, yet the team clearly
requires his services immediately (and at 100% of functioning). It
is impossible to consider all eventualities in this regard. It requires
professional skill and the ability to recognize not only the letter of
our guiding ethical principles but the spirit and intent behind them
as well.
There is very little, or perhaps no, empirical base by which to
make such complex professional decisions and only few profes-
sional contacts that can be of use in most situations. Unfortunately,
there are still too few psychologists functioning in this role, and
some of these individuals are not publicly active in the field (and,
thus, are unavailable for collegial discussion of common issues and
concerns). Psychologists working in professional sports have re-
mained generally disconnected from each other or have had, at
most, informal dialogue at professional conferences. In the future,
it would be a valuable service for APA's Division of Exercise and
Sport Psychology (Division 47) to develop a special interest group
for those individuals working or interested in working in profes-
sional sports.
The team psychologist must also be cognizant of the team's
reporting structure and maintain awareness of the person to whom
he or she should directly report: Coach? General Manager? Team
Physician? Or, possibly, all three! In many respects, the reporting
structure is dictated by one's role. Working with team personnel on
performance-based issues would clearly place the psychologist
into a direct report to the coach. The reporting structure for clinical
issues could require report to the coach, general manager, and team
physician. Predraft testing would likely result in direct report to the
general manager. Working with injured players or testing for
postconcussion effects would clearly place the psychologist in
direct report to the team physician.
Conclusion
The psychologist desiring work in this milieu must always
remember that when a team physician performs poorly, the orga-
nization maintains its involvement with medicine and replaces the
practitioner. However, when a team psychologist performs poorly,
not only the practitioner but the profession as well is, at least
temporarily, eliminated. In the world of professional sports, sport
psychology is essentially in a probationary period, still striving to
prove its value and demonstrate its efficacy.
Thus, as a novice sport psychologist enters the field, it remains
imperative that he or she fully understands his or her professional
roles within the athletic environment. To facilitate therapeutic
utility within the sport domain, the team psychologist must first
recognize that the sport environment requires flexibility, sponta-
neity, and the ability to adapt to the changing needs of an entire
organization of potential clients. Subsequently, it remains neces-
sary to establish, communicate, and maintain professional bound-
aries; adhere to the demands of the team and the guidelines
instituted for professional psychologists; establish therapeutic al-
liances with player personnel; and develop rapport with manage-
ment and staff.
Once this is accomplished and the sport psychologist has dem-
onstrated competency in performance enhancement techniques,
clinical or counseling skills, and psychological testing procedures,
the team psychologist can ethically remain integrated into the
athletic environment and provide the multifaceted services neces-
sary to enhance successful participation in professional sports.
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Received May 4, 2000
Revision received September 18, 2000
Accepted October 2, 2000 •