CHAPTER 10 : HUMAN BIOLOGY
Structure of Skin
Human Characteristics that Make Them Unique
in the Living World
 They have flexible skeleton
 The hands are dexeterous and the posture is
upright.
The Basic Body Plan
 exhibit bilateral symmetry
 Humans have high degree of cephalization
which means that most of the sense organs and the
brain are concentrated in the head, or anterior region
. entering the body
Terms Used to Describe the Location of Certain
Organs in the Human Body
 Ventral – refers to front
 Dorsal – refers to back
 Lateral – to the sides
 Anterior or Cephalic – refers to the parts
towards the head region
 Posterior or Caudal – refers to the parts
towards the tail region.
 Proximal – refers to parts of the appendages
that are near the point of attachment
 Distal – refers to those parts that are away
from the point of attachment.
Human Body Cavities
 large spaces in human body where the
internal organs are located.
1. Thoracic Cavity – the heart and the
lungs are located
2. Abdominal Cavity or Coelom – the
digestive, urinary and reproductive
organs are located.
 Diaphragm – divides the thoracic from the
abdominal cavity
The Organ Systems of the Human Body
1. Intergumentary System
Includes the skin, hair, nails, and glands
This system forms a protective covering of the body,
secretes certain wastes, and helps regulate
temperature.
Two Main Layers
1. Epidermis – outer layer
 Very thin and contains many tiny
opening, called pores, where sweat and oils
secreted by the skin leave the body.
 The upper layer of epidermis is made
up of tough, flat, dead cells. The dead cells are
constantly being shed to replaced by new cells
from the deeper epidermis, about every 28 days.
 The cells are full of keratin, a
waterproof protein that helps keep bacteria from
2. Dermis – inner layer
 Consists of cells that produce collagen,
a protein that makes the skin supple and strong.
 Within the dermis are nerve endings,
blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands, and
sebaceous glands (the gland that produce sebum
oil or oil, are usually attached to hair follicles, to
keep the hair from drying out.
 Head and nails are dead epidermal
cells that contain keratin.
 Fingernails and toenails are solid
plates of epidermal cells.
 Skin Cancer – disease that causes
abnormal growth of the cells of the epidermis. It
is often associated with too much exposure to
sunlight

2. Skeletal System
 Forms the framework of the body.
 It consists of bones, joints where bones meet,
and connective tissues that hold the bones
together.
Functions
1. Serves as anchors to which muscles are
attached.
2. Protects internal organs such as the brain,
heart, and lungs.
3. The bone marrow makes blood cells.
4. Stores minerals that take in many
biochemical reactions.
Bone Structure
 Periosteum – membrane where small vessel
branch out
 Spongy bone – has many spaces and is found
in the ends of long bones in the middles spaces.
 Compact bone – has few spaces and is very
dense which provides support in long bones such
as the bone of upper arm or humerus.
 Red Bone Marrow – the material that
produces blood cells.
 Yellow Bone Marrow – made up mostly of fat
cells, is often found in the cavities within the shaft
of long bones.
 Haversian Canal – circular channels through
which nerves and blood vessels pass
 Osteoblasts – cells that make the new bone
cells needed for growth and repair.
 Cartilage – a tough, flexible connective tissue,
which is mostly replaced by bone at the time the
baby is born.
Bone replaces cartilage until a person is 25 years
old.
Joints
A place where two bones meet
 Immovable joints – found in joints of the skull
 Slighty movable joints – found in hip joints
 Freely movable joints – those found in elbow,
shoulder and knee
  Flexor – muscle that bends a joint.
Freely Movable Joints
1. Ball-and-socket joint – formed by a bone with
a ball-shaped end (end of thigh bone) fitting into a
bone with a cup shaped end (hip bone)
2. Hinge joint – such as knee and elbow, let
bones move like a door opening and closing.
3. Gliding joint – such as that found in wrist,
allows bones to slide over one another.
4. Pivot joint – such as the one that attaches the past each other, and the muscle shortens.
two bones of the forearm at the elbow, enables
bones to rotate around each other
Ligaments – connective tissue that connects bone to soluble form.
bones.
Tendons – connective tissue that connects muscles
to bones.
Injuries and Disorders
 Sprained Ankle – a joint is twisted and the
ligaments and tendons are injured.
 Bursitis – results when an injury causes too
much fluid to move into the bursae (fluid-filled sacs in
joints).
 Arthritis – diseases of the joints that causes
the joint to become inflamed and painful.
 Broken bones or fracture – results from
accident
3. Muscular System
 Movement of any part of the body.
 Muscles move the bones of the skeleton, keep
the heart beating, and enable the internal organs to
their work.

Types of Muscles
 Skeletal Muscles – muscles attached to the
skeleton. They are under conscious control and are
therefore voluntary muscles.
 Smooth Muscles – involuntary muscles of the
internal organs.
 Cardiac Muscles – muscles that makes up the
heart
Muscle and Bones
Skeletal muscles work by contracting or
shortening in length and thus, it can only pull but
cannot push.
 Extensor – straightens a joint.
 Muscle tone – a state of partial contraction to
keep the skeletal system properly aligned and
holds the internal organs in place.
 Sliding Filament Theory - Skeletal muscle
cells are made up of fibers, which in turn are
composed of tiny filament. When the muscle is
stimulated by a nerve impulse, the filament slide
4. The Digestive System
Consists of organs that process food to change it into
Five kinds of nutrients found in foods:
1. Carbohydrates 4. Vitamins
2. Fats 5.Minerals.
3. Proteins
Balanced diet – includes foods from each of the
four basic food groups: vegetables and fruits; grain
products, such as bread and cereals; dairy products;
and protein-rich foods such as meat, fish, and beans.
Metabolism – refers to the sum of all the chemical
processes that take place within an organism.
Catabolic Pathways – release energy by breaking
down complex compounds into simpler ones
Anabolic Pathways – use energy to build complex
molecules from simpler ones.
Calorie – the amount of heat energy needed to raise
the temperature of one gram of substance one
degree centigrade.
Body Metabolic Rate (BMR) – equal to the number
of kilocalories an animal must use in a set of time
just to maintain life. The BMR of a human female is
1300 to 1500 kilocalories per day, while that of a
male is 1600 to 1800 kilocalories per day.
Two Digestion Processes
 Mechanical Digestion – involves breaking
down food into tiny pieces without changing the
chemical nature of food.
 Chemical Digestion – involves the action of
enzymes in breaking down food into smaller and
simpler molecules.
Mouth
 mechanical and chemical digestion first take place.
Four types of teeth:
 Incisors – sharp front teeth that are used for
biting and tearing pieces of food.
 Canines – pointed teeth next to the incisors
which used to tear and shred food.
 Premolars and molars – teeth at the back of the
mouth which
About the Tooth
 Crown – the exposed part of the tooth
 Root – extends below the gum and is firmly
anchored in the jaw bone
Four Layers of Tissue in a Tooth
 Enamel – calcium-containing material and hardest
substance covering of the tooth.
 Dentine – the bonelike tissue taht makes up most
of the tooth.
 Cementum – a thin layer of bonelike tissue
covering the dentine of the root.
Pulp Cavity – inside the dentin which contains a
small pulp and the root canal
 Pharynx – part at the back of the throat that
connects the nose and mouth to the digestive and
respiratory tracts.
 Esophagus – a passage that that leads to the
stomach.
 Trachea – passage to the lungs
 Epiglottis – small flap of tissue that closes the
trachea during swallowing
 Persistalsis –waves of muscular contraction
The Stomach
 Is a muscular sac below the esophagus where
chemical and mechanical digestion of food
continues.
 The glands in the stomach secrete
hydrochloric acid and enzyme for chemical
digestion.
 Mucus is also secreted by stomach gland to
lubricate food.
 Chyme – is a thick liquid made up of partially
digested proteins, starches, and acids, and
undigested sugars and fats.
The Small Intestine
 About 7 m long and 2.5 cm in diameter.
 It has glands that produce enzymes for the
final digestion of proteins and carbohydrates.
 Villi –fingerlike projections in the surface of
intestine that increase the surface area of
absorption.
 Lacteal – lymph vessels that absorb fats and
fatty acids.
 Appendix – a finger-shaped pouch at the
junction of the small and large intestine which does
not serve any function.
The Large Intestine (colon)
 About 6 cm wide and 1.5 m long
 Feces – a solid waste matter when most of
the water has been removed from the undigested
material. The feces is propelled by peristalsis into a
last few inches of the large intestine, called rectum,
and eliminated through the anus.

The Liver
The largest organ in the body. It performs many consist of two parts: diastole and systole.
functions.
1. Produce bile for fat digestion
2. Storage place
3. Chemical factory
4. Detoxification site
 Hepatitis – infection in liver caused by virus
Gall Bladder
 This is a small saclike organ connected to the liver.
 It stores bile product by the liver.
 It removes water from the bile to make it more
concentrated.
 One of the main functions of bile is to dissolve
cholesterol.
 Gallstones – sharp painful crystals that may be
formed when the amount of salts in the bile is
insufficient
Pancreas
 Gland that secretes pancreatic fluid that goes Electrocardiograph – used to detect the currents of
into the small intestine through a duct.
 The pancreatic fluid is a mixture of enzymes produces a graph of the electrical activity of the
and sodium bicarbonate.
 The pancreas is also an endocrine gland
because it secretes hormone, called insulin, which
controls the sugar level of the blood.
5. The Circulatory System
 Consists of a closed network of vessels that
transport materials to and from the cells of the
body.
 The materials that the circulatory system
carry are oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, water,
metabolic wastes, and hormones.
The Heart
Four Chambers, two on each side, that are
separated by partitions or septa
 Atria (sing. atrium) – upper chamber that
receives blood coming into the heart and pump it
into the ventricles from which blood is pumped out phagocytes. The second method is to manufacture
of the heart.
 Ventricle – the lower chambers, bigger and
have thicker walls than the atria because the
ventricles work much harder to pump blood
throughout the entire body.
 Heart Rate - also known as pulse rate, is the
number of times the heart beats every minute. It is
 Diastole – the heart muscle relaxes, allowing
blood to flow into the atria and ventricles.
 Systole – the ventricle contract, pumping
blood to the body.
 The “lub-dup” sound of the heartbeat that is heard
in a stethoscope is caused by the closing of the
heart valves.
The beating of the heart is controlled by two tiny
masses of nerve and muscle cells called nodes.
1. Sinoatrial node or SA node – is also known as
the pacemaker of the heart and is located in the
right atrium and sends out electrical signals that
cause the atria to contract.
2. Atrioventrical node, or AV node – located in
the interatrial septum that relays the signals to the
ventricles, causing them to contract and pump
blood out of the heart.
electrical signals through the heart. The machine
heart called electrocardiogram or ECG, which is used
to diagnose heart disorders.
Blood
The average human body contains 5 liters of blood.
1. Red blood cells or erythrocytes – carry
oxygen to all parts of the body and pick up carbon
dioxide from body cells for removal.
Anemia – a condition whereby a person’s
blood does not transport enough oxygen.
2. White blood cells or leukocytes – are
sometimes referred to as soldiers of the body
because they help the body fight disease. Only about
1% of the total volume of the blood are white blood
cells. There are two methods by which white blood
cells fight infection. The white blood cells,
neutrophils and monocytes, engulf and digest dead
or harmful cells such as bacteria, thus, they are called
antibodies, that combat specific diseases
(lymphocytes)
3. Platelets – function in blood clotting.

Blood Vessels
Arteries – carry blood away from the heart
Arterioles – smaller arteries
Veins – carry blood towards the heart
Varicose Vein – weaken vein valves that
result to bulging
Capillaries – are thin-walled blood vessels across
which materials are exchanged between the blood
and the body tissues.
Both arteries and veins are made up of three
layers of tissues
 Endothelium
Capillaries are composed of largely endothelium
 Smooth muscle
Aorta (one very large artery near the heart) has a
very thick of smooth muscle so that it can withstand
the high pressure of blood pumped by the ventricle
 Connective tissue
Blood Circuit
 Pulmonary Circuit – the short loop of the
circulatory system that carries blood from the heart
to the lungs, where oxygen is oxygenated, and then
returns it to the heart.
 Systemic Circuit – carries the oxygenated
blood from the heart to the rest of the body and
back to the heart.
The Lymphatic System
 Composed of a network of vessels, nodes, and
organs.
 This system collects intercellular fluid, cleans it,
and returns it to the circulatory system
Function of Lymphatic System
1. to maintain the pressure and volume of the
extracellular fluid by returning excess water and
dissolved substances from the interstitial fluid to
the circulation.
2. lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissues are  External respiration – the exchange of gases
the site of clonal production of
immunocompetent lymphocytes and macrophages
in the specific immune response.
 Lymp Capillaries – are similar in structure to
blood capillaries. Lymph and blood capillaries
interwine and absorb the fluid that leaks through
them.
 Lymph Nodes – are masses of tissue through
which lymph is filtered. Within the lymph nodes, the
white blood cells attack viruses, bacteria, and even
cancer cells that may be present in the lymph.
 Spleen – an organ that belongs to the
lymphatic system. It removes old red blood cells,
platelets, bacteria, and other particles from the
blood.
Cardiovascular Disease
Is a collective term for disease of the heart and
blood vessels.
1. Atherosclerosis – a disease in which arteries
have become narrowed due to fatty deposits
called plaques inside vessel walls.
2. Hypertension or High Blood Pressure – is a
condition whereby the force of blood pumping
through the blood vessels is too high.
6. Respiratory System
 The respiratory system is concerned with the
exchange of gases between the body & environment
 This system brings oxygen from the air to the
bloodstream and returns carbon dioxide from the
bloodsteram and the air.
 Breathing – moves air into and out of the
lungs.
 Respiration – the name for the overall
process by which the body gets oxygen and gets rid
of carbon dioxide.
Three Levels in the Process of Respiration
 Cellular respiration – the process by which cells
get energy from the oxidation of glucose.
 Internal respiration – the exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide between the blood and the body
cells.
between the lungs and the air.
 Structure of Respiratory System
 Lungs – a spongelike organs filling most of the
thoracic cavity. It is divided into sections called
lobes.
 Air Passages – include the nose, pharynx (throat),
larynx (voicebox), trachea (windpipe), brochi
(tubes supported by rings of cartilage),
bronchioles (smaller bronchi) and alveoli (air
sacs).
Breathing
 Breathing involves inhaling and exhaling.
 The rate of breathing for most people is from
12 to 15 breaths per minutes.
 The lungs can hold up to 6 L of air.
 Only about 0.5 of air is exchanged with each
breath during quiet breathing, and up to 5 L during
strenuous exercise.
 At lease 1 L of air is retained in the lungs and
never exhaled.
 The largest volume of air that can be inhaled
and exhaled is called the vital capacity of lungs.
 Emphysema – lung disease that occurs when the
walls of the alveoli lose their elasticity and stay
filled with air when the person exhales.
7. Excretory System
The excretory system is concerned with
removing nitrogen-containing wastes in the body.
The Kidney
 The main excretory system organ is the kidney.
 It processes wastes such as urea, medications, and
toxins, into a liquid called urine.
 The kidney also helps regulate the amount of salts,
water and minerals, and vitamins, and maintains the
pH volume of the blood.
 Are pair of bean-shaped organs that remove waste
from the blood.
 Each kidney consists of two regions: the outer
cortex and the inner medulla.
 Each kidney contains approximately one million
functional units called nephrons. 8. Reproductive System
 A nephron consists of a clump of capillaries, the
glomerulus, and a tube which forms a cup-shaped
capsule, the Bowman’s capsule, around the
glomerulus.
 The part of the nephron in which urine forms is the
renal tube.
Kidney Function
 Filtration – the passing of liquid or gas
through a filter to remove impurities.
 Reabsorption – the process in which a liquid
is taken back into a vessel.
 Secretion – the release of some substances
from the blood.
Urine Disposal
 Urine consists mostly of water. It also
consists of urea, uric acid, salts, and substances
derived from medication.
 It drains into the collecting tubules, along
which water is removed, making the urine
concentrated.
 The collecting tubule in each kidney enters a
larger tube, the ureter, which carry urine to the
urinary bladder, for temporary storage.
 When the bladder is full, its components
smooth muscles, after sending signals to the brain,
contract to expel urine.
 Urine then passes through the urethra on its
way out of the body.
Factors Affecting Urine Production
1. Water content of the blood. More water in
the blood means a higher volume of urine
excreted.
2. The permeability of the nephron membranes,
which is controlled by sensors in the heart and
brain. The sensors from the heart and brain send
hormones from the endocrine system to make
adjustments on the concentration of salts and
water in the blood.
3. Increased urination can be induced by taking
a diuretic, a chemical substance that prevents
water from being reabsorbed, such as alcohol and
caffeine in coffee, cola and tea. Medicinal
diuretics are prescribed in conditions such as
edema, in which the body retains too much water.
 The reproductive system is concerned with
the perpetuation of the species.
 It consists of reproductive organs or gonads
and their ducts.
Male Reproductive System The Female Reproductive Cycle
 Testes (sing. testis) – male reproductive  Time cycle of events for the release of
organ which produce homrmone (testosterone) and gametes and hormones in the female .
male gametes, called sperm.  Can be divided into: Ovarian Cycle and
 Ducts – are tubes along which sperms pass Menstrual cycle.
out of the body.  The cycle complete in about 28 days has
 Scrutum – sac that enclosed testes. three phases: the menstrual flow phase, follicle
 Seminiferous tubules – coiled structures in phase, and luteal phase
the testes, among which are cells that produce  Endometrium – lining of the uterus.
testosterone.  Menstruation – if the egg is not fertilized, the
 Epididymis – a coiled tube which lies extra tissue and the fertilized eggs are shed.
alongside the testis in the scrutum wherein matured  Fertilization – the process by which the
sperm are stored for a time. sperm meets the egg in the fallopian tube.
 Penis –male copulatory organ which delivers  Zygote – fertlized egg.
sperm to the female reproductive system during the
process of sexual intercourse. The penis becomes The Ovarian Cycle
erect prior to sexual intercourse because its tissues The cycle of changes that take place in the
fill with blood. ovary including the maturation of follicle and
 Ejaculation – process of releasing sperm. release of an egg.
 Semen – the fluid which consists of sperm The Menstrual Cycle
and substances secreted by several glands.  Prepares the lining of the uterus to receive a
fertilized egg or discharge an unfertilized egg.
Female Reproductive System  Collectively, the two cycles coincide, and they
 The female reproductive systems consists of are collectively called, female reproductive cycle.
the female reproductive organ and its ducts.
 The female reproductive organ is pair of
ovaries, that produce female gametes of egg cells.
 Ducts of the ovary consists of parts along
with the egg cells pass and become fertilized.
 Fallopian Tube or Oviduct – eggs from the
ovary travel to the uterus.
 Uterus – an organ with muscular walls in
which fetus develops.
 Cervix – the base of uterus which connects
the uterus with the muscular, tube-shaped organ.
 Vagina – birth canal
 Ova (sing. Ovum) – mature eggs are formed
from the ovary by the process meiosis.
 Oocytes – egg cells.
 Follicles – developed oocytes which lie near
the surface of the ovary.
 Estrogen – hormone which is needed by the
developing follicle.
 Ovulation – process of releasing the egg from
the follicle.