Quaternary Science Reviews 81 (2013) 12e28

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Quaternary Science Reviews

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Differential uplift along the northern margin of the Central Anatolian

Plateau: inferences from marine terraces
Cengiz Yildirim a, b, c, *, Daniel Melnick c, Paolo Ballato c, Taylor F. Schildgen c,
Helmut Echtler b, A. Evren Erginal d, Nafiye Güneç Kıyak e, Manfred R. Strecker c
a_
Istanbul Technical University, Eurasia Institute of Earth Sciences, Turkey
b
Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ), Potsdam, Germany
c
Institut für Erd- und Umweltwissenschaften, and DFG Leibniz Center for Surface, Process and Climate Studies, Universität Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
d
Department of Geography, Ardahan University, Turkey
e _
Department of Physics, Işık University, Istanbul, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Emerged marine terraces and paleoshorelines along plate margins are prominent geomorphic markers
Received 26 March 2013 that can be used to quantify the rates and patterns of crustal deformation. The northern margin of the
Received in revised form Central Anatolian Plateau has been interpreted as an actively deforming orogenic wedge between the
29 August 2013
North Anatolian Fault and the Black Sea. Here we use uplifted marine terraces across principal faults on
Accepted 13 September 2013
the Sinop Peninsula at the central northern side of the Pontide orogenic wedge to unravel patterns of
Available online
Quaternary faulting and orogenic wedge behavior. We leveled the present-day elevations of paleo-
shorelines and dated marine terrace deposits using optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) to determine
Keywords:
Orogenic Plateaus
coastal uplift. The elevations of the paleoshorelines vary between 4
0.2 and 67
1.4 m above sea level
Central Anatolian Plateau and OSL ages suggest terrace formation episodes during interglacial periods at ca 125, 190, 400 and
Plateau margins 570 ka, corresponding to marine isotopic stages (MIS) 5e, 7a, 11 and 15. Mean apparent vertical
Central Pontides displacement rates (without eustatic correction) deduced from these terraces range between 0.02 and
Orogenic wedges 0.18 mm/a, with intermittent faster rates of up to 0.26 mm/a. We obtained higher rates at the eastern and
Black Sea southern parts of the peninsula, toward the hinterland, indicating non-uniform uplift across the different
Marine terraces morphotectonic segments of the peninsula. Our data are consistent with active on- and offshore faulting
Uplift rate
across the Sinop Peninsula. When integrated with regional tectonic observations, the faulting pattern
reflects shortening distributed over a broad region of the northern margin of the Central Anatolian
Plateau during the Quaternary.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction analyzed to deduce uplift rates over intermediate timescales (e.g.,

Along coastal margins, emerged marine terraces form tectonic
bench markers that record the rates and patterns of crustal defor-
mation (e.g., Bloom et al., 1974; Merritts and Bull, 1989; Pedoja
et al., 2006; Bishop, 2007; Caputo et al., 2010; Melnick et al.,
2012a). Emerged marine terraces in these environments are
created by a combination of sea-level oscillations and coeval ver-
tical crustal motions (e.g., Lajoie, 1986). The total displacement of a
marine terrace is the averaged sum of coseismic and interseismic
movements with respect to the position of the corresponding paleo
sea-level during terrace formation, and is therefore commonly
_ ing the Ms 6.6 Bartın earthquake in 1968 as a result of offshore
* Corresponding author. Istanbul Technical University, Eurasia Institute of Earth
Sciences, Turkey.
E-mail address: cyildirim@itu.edu.tr (C. Yildirim).
Lajoie, 1986). As such, the spatio-temporal variation of uplift rates
recorded by marine terraces can provide information about pat-
terns of deformation from the scale of individual faults (e.g.,
Valensise and Ward, 1991; Caputo et al., 2010; Melnick et al., 2012b)
to the scale of tectonic plate motions (Gardner et al., 1992;
Westaway, 1993; Armijo et al., 1996; Pedoja et al., 2011).
The margins of the Central Anatolian orogenic plateau are
delimited by the Central Tauride mountains in the south, which
border the Mediterranean Sea, and the Central Pontide mountains
in the north, which abut the Black Sea (Fig. 1A). A segment of the
shoreline of the Black Sea was coseismically uplifted between 0.5
and 0.7 m (Wedding, 1969; Ketin and Abdüsselamog lu, 1970) dur-
thrust faulting (McKenzie, 1972) associated with ongoing short-
ening along the western part of the northern plateau margin

0277-3791/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.09.011
 C. Yildirim et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 81 (2013) 12e28 13

Fig. 1. (A). Simplified neotectonic map of Turkey (after Barka and Reilinger, 1997; Şengör et al., 1985; Schildgen et al., 2012). CAP: Central Anatolian Plateau; EAF: East Anatolian
Fault; NAF: North Anatolian Fault, WAEP: Western Anatolian Extensional Province; BZSZ: Bitlis-Zagros Suture Zone. (B) Active faults in the study area and focal mechanism solutions
of major earthquakes (McKenzie, 1972; Finetti et al., 1988; Dirik, 1993; Andrieux et al., 1995; Barka and Reilinger, 1997; Reilinger et al., 2006). Years are labeled on epicenters of the
1943 Tosya, 1944 Bolu-Gerede, 1951 Kurşunlu and 1968 Bartın earthquakes. Moment magnitudes (M) of other earthquakes are indicated with colored symbols. Bathymetric
contours (white lines, 250-m interval) were extracted from GTOPO30 data (http://edcwww.cr.usgs.gov/landdaac/gtopo30/gtopo30html). BF: Balıfakı Fault; CF: Cide Faults; EF: Erikli
Fault; EkF: Ekinveren Fault; KF: Karabük Fault; ILR: Ilgaz Range; TB: Tosya Basin. (C) Simplified conceptual model of the northern margin of the Central Anatolian Plateau (modified
after Yildirim et al., 2011).

(Fig. 1B). With respect to longer timescales, however, the defor-
mation and surface-uplift history of the Central Pontides is not very
well known and subject to ongoing debate (Erinç and Inandık, _
1955; Akkan, 1975; Karabıyıkog lu, 1984; Yildirim et al., 2011).
Yildirim et al. (2011) suggested that the broad restraining bend of
the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) has led to the development of an
active orogenic wedge (e.g., Dahlen, 1990) that drives crustal
thickening and uplift of the Ilgaz and Sinop ranges (Fig. 1C). Given
that the NAF is inferred to have initiated in the late Miocene to early
Pliocene (e.g., Hubert-Ferrari et al., 2002), such a scenario would
imply shortening and uplift since that time. Mazzini et al. (2013)
also found that the stable isotope composition of soil carbonates
ranging in age from MN9 (ca 11 Ma) to MN11 (ca 8 Ma) inland of the
Central Pontides are less depleted compared to that of modern
precipitation values (Schemmel et al., 2013), indicating that the
Central Pontides have become a larger barrier to precipitation since
the late Miocene.
The Sinop Peninsula constitutes the northernmost promontory
of the Central Pontides (Fig. 1A, B). The peninsula preserves several
flights of marine terraces that have emerged above sea level (Erinç
14 C. Yildirim et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 81 (2013) 12e28
Fig. 2. (A). Digital elevation model (25 m resolution) and morphotectonic segments of
the Sinop Peninsula. Onshore faults from Şenel (2002), offshore faults from Finetti et al.
(1988) and Özhan (1989). Red lines indicate paleoshorelines across the peninsula. Red
stars show OSL sampling locations. Capital letters and numbers in white boxes indicate
sample codes in Table 1. (B) Simplified geological map of the Sinop Peninsula (modified
after Şenel, 2002). Labels in boxes indicate tentative marine isotopic stages based on
our OSL measurements of terrace formation ages. (For interpretation of the references
to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
_
and Inandık, 1955; Akkan, 1975; Karabıyıkog lu, 1984; Yildirim et al.,
2011). In this study, we focus on marine terraces located along
different morphotectonic segments of the Sinop Peninsula to
evaluate the rates and patterns of onshore and offshore deforma-
tion. We present (1) the geomorphic characteristics of uplifted
terraces including precise shoreline-angle measurements; (2) ages
of the terrace deposits based on optically-stimulated luminescence
(OSL) measurements and their correlation with marine isotopic
substages (MIS); (3) the net vertical displacements of the marine
terraces; (4) mean and intermediate uplift rates along the coastal
zone of the northern Anatolian plateau margin; and (5) an
evaluation of on- and offshore structures in the context of the
regional tectonic framework. The tectonic geomorphology of this
region is well suited to assess deformation processes on interme-
diate timescales, which may allow for a linkage of active defor-
mation with long-term topographic development. Specifically, we
test whether or not active offshore and onshore faults have
accommodated significant uplift on intermediate (Pleistocene)
timescales. Taken together, this information can help to better
constrain the spatiotemporal pattern of deformation and thus the
seismotectonic segmentation of the northern margin of the Central
Anatolia Plateau.
2. Tectonic and geologic setting
The Sinop Peninsula is one of the few places along the Turkish
Black Sea coast where folded Miocene marine sediments and
several flights of emerged Quaternary marine abrasion platforms
have been described (Erinç and Inandık,_ _
1955; Inandık, 1955;
Akkan, 1975; Karabıyıkog lu, 1984; Yildirim et al., 2011). The Black
Sea is an oceanic basin more than 2000 m deep that developed due
to back-arc extension associated with the northward subduction of
the Tethyan plate during the Mesozoic (Okay et al., 1994; Okay and
Tüysüz, 1999). Currently, the Turkish Black Sea coast is under
compression due to the AfricaeArabia and Eurasia collision (Finetti
et al., 1988; Barka and Reilinger, 1997; Cloetingh et al., 2003;
Munteanu et al., 2011).
The structural, geomorphic and kinematic characteristics of the
Sinop region suggest that the northern margin of the Central
Anatolian Plateau constitutes an active north-vergent accretionary
orogenic wedge, with strain broadly partitioned between the North
Anatolian Fault and the abyssal plain of the Black Sea (Fig. 1C;
Yildirim et al., 2011). The Sinop Peninsula is a transitional zone be-
tween the abyssal plain of the Black Sea and the array of high ranges
of the northern margin (Fig. 1B). An offshore seismic reflection
profile located north of the Sinop Peninsula shows back-stepping
imbricate thrusts on a low-angle detachment that have deformed
abyssal-plain sediments since the late Miocene (Finetti et al., 1988).
Onshore, industry-style seismic reflection profiles across the Sinop
Range and the Sinop Peninsula reveal thrust imbricates similar to
the offshore structures (Aydın et al., 1995). In contrast, using shallow
seismic reflection profiles, Özhan (1989) identified normal faults
affecting the continental shelf between these two major shortening
structures. From the seismic reflection profile of Özhan (1989) it is
difficult to estimate the depth extent of these normal faults, but they
most likely only affect the uppermost crustal levels (200e250 ms),
as they are not observed on deeper profiles.
The Balıfakı and Erikli faults are major onshore shortening
structures that appear to control much of the topographic relief in
the Sinop Peninsula (Fig. 2A, B). The EeW striking Erikli Fault de-
limits the low-relief topography of the peninsula and defines a
prominent, straight mountain front, suggesting active deformation
(Yildirim et al., 2011). The WNWeESE striking Balıfakı Fault runs
through the central part of the peninsula and is located near the
southern boundary of outcropping Neogene deposits (Fig. 2B). The
EeW striking normal faults, immediately offshore from the Sinop
Peninsula to its north and east (Fig. 2), deform Quaternary units
(Özhan, 1989).
The basement rocks of the Sinop Peninsula consist of accreted
late Cretaceous volcanic rocks, Maastrichtian-Paleocene and
Eocene clastics and carbonates (Fig. 2B), which were amalgamated
during the Alpidic orogeny during the Paleogene (Okay and Tüysüz,
1999). Miocene marine sediments exposed in the Sinop Peninsula
include early-middle Miocene shallow-water limestones, sand-,
silt-, and mudstones (Gedik and Korkmaz, 1984). They are gently
folded into an open, EeW oriented syncline. These structures
 C. Yildirim et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 81 (2013) 12e28
indicate general regional, NeS directed, post-Tortonian shortening.
The presence of Pliocene-Quaternary continental deposits super-
seding the Miocene marine deposits indicates that the peninsula
had already emerged above sea level in Pliocene time. Pleistocene
and recent aeolian deposits form dune ridges atop most of the
_
Inceburun promontory at the NW corner of the peninsula (Fig. 2B).
3. Methodology
3.1. OSL age estimates
Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) (Aitken, 1998) is a
powerful dating tool for Quaternary sedimentary deposits, espe-
cially when the age of deposition exceeds the time range of
radiocarbon dating (i.e., 50 ka) or when suitable materials for
alternative radiometric dating methods (e.g., U-series dating,
cosmogenic nuclide dating, etc.) cannot be retrieved (Choi et al.,
2008; Jacobs, 2008). An OSL age is obtained from the ratio of the
paleodose (or equivalent dose) De in Gy accumulated in quartz over
time during the burial of sediment due to the dose rate R (Gy/a) of
the radiation environment:
OSL Age ¼ De=R
A rigorous OSL analysis requires complete bleaching (sufficient
exposure to daylight) of quartz mineral grains during erosion and
transportation prior to deposition. This condition is probably
commonly met in the case of aeolian deposits, but it may not al-
ways be achieved in fluvial and marine deposits due to the atten-
uation effect of water on the intensity and spectral composition of
daylight (Stokes, 1999; Jacobs, 2008; Fuchs and Lang, 2009). The
stochastic nature of fluvial and marine environments may give rise
to differential and/or partial bleaching of the quartz grains, which
would result in overestimated ages and/or variable age estimations.
In addition to differential and/or partial bleaching, high concen-
trations of water or carbonate content within the sediments can
significantly decrease the dose rate (environmental radiation),
resulting in overestimated ages.
We collected three samples to be dated with OSL from each of
the sampled outcrops except for the 65
2 m terrace in the Boz-
burun Promontory, from which we collected only one sample.
3.1.1. Sample preparation and OSL measurements
The sediment samples to be used for OSL dating were wet sieved
to separate the grain size of 90e180 mm. The separated grains were
treated first with 10% HCl and then H2O2 for the removal of car-
bonates and organics, respectively. Then they were then etched
with HF to remove the outer surface of the grains affected by alpha
radiation, followed by HCl treatment once more. The samples were
washed with distilled water and dried in an oven at 50  C prior to
OSL measurements. The purity of the quartz grains was tested by
the absence of luminescence during infrared stimulation. All OSL
measurements were performed with an automated Risø TL/OSL
reader, model TL/OSL-DA-15, equipped with an internal 90Sr/90Y
beta source (w0.1 Gy s1), blue light emitting diodes (LEDs)
(470 nm, w40 mW cm2) and IR LEDs (880 nm, w135 mW cm2).
Luminescence signals were detected using an EMI 9635QA photo-
multiplier tube fitted with 7.5 mm-thickness Hoya U-340 filters
(Bøtter-Jensen, 1997). Sample preparation including chemical
extraction of quartz from sediment material and OSL measure-
ments were performed under subdued red light.
3.1.2. Equivalent dose (De) estimate
The equivalent dose (De) accumulated in quartz grains was
estimated using a single-aliquot regenerative-dose protocol (OSL-
15
Fig. 3. Radial plot of paleodose data from sample ICP- 1, where N represents the
number of aliquots evaluated by OSL-SAR techniques. (RISOE Analyst program was
used).
SAR) based on a comparison of the natural OSL signal with regen-
erative OSL signals produced by known laboratory doses (Murray
and Mejdahl, 1999; Murray and Wintle, 2000). As an example,
the radial plot of single grain De distributions of sample ICP-1A is
shown in Fig. 3. A natural aliquot was first preheated at 260  C for
10 s and then recorded with blue light stimulation at 125  C for 40 s
to obtain the natural OSL signal (Ln). To monitor and correct the
(1)
possible sensitivity change, a test dose was administered (10e20%
of the natural dose) to the same aliquot prior to heating to 190  C to
release electrons from shallow traps. The test dose OSL signal was
recorded to obtain (Tn). In the following three cycles, three regen-
eration doses were applied, following the same sequence of treat-
ments as described in the first cycle to obtain regenerated OSL
signals (Li, i ¼ 1,2,3). The same test dose was given again, heated to
190  C, and the test dose OSL signal measured to give (Ti). In the
fourth cycle, bleached samples were measured to obtain the zero
dose point (i ¼ 0). Corrected OSL signals (Li/Ti, i ¼ 1, 2, 3 and 0) were
used to construct the growth curve where the sensitivity-corrected
natural signal (Ln/Tn) is interpolated onto the growth curve to
obtain De. Fig. 4A presents growth curves for the samples of ICP-2A,
B and C, where the corrected dose points fit well with the expo-
nential function and the natural dose (open diamond) could be
measured before saturation.
The aliquots were tested for sensitivity changes between the
cycles. To do this, a known dose equal to the first regeneration dose
was given to the samples during SAR application to obtain the
regenerative dose points on the growth curves. The ratio of these
two corrected regenerated OSL signals, namely the recycling ratio,
is expected to be close to unity. In Fig. 4BeD, the first two dose
points indicate the same regenerative dose points, where solid
circle shows the dose point from the first cycle and open circle from
the fifth cycle of the same dose, which are rather close to each other
on the growth curves.
As an internal reliability test the OSL measurements, a known
dose (equal to the first regeneration dose) was given to the samples
to recover the known dose. The recovered dose was found using the
same SAR sequence as described above. The ratio of obtained dose
to given dose should be close to unity, indicating that the dose
measurement by OSL is reliable (Fig. 4E).
The dose rate was obtained from concentrations of the major
radioactive isotopes of the U and Th series and of K in each sample
(Olley et al., 1996). Radionuclide concentrations presented in
Table 1 were defined using ICP-ES/ISP-MS analysis, by ACME
Analytical Laboratories in Canada. The cosmic ray contribution to
the dose rate was estimated for the altitude, latitude, longitude, and
depth of each sample (Prescott and Hutton, 1988, 1994). The OSL
ages, equivalent dose values and, dose rates obtained are presented
in Table 1 together with the number of aliquots evaluated for each
sample.
16 C. Yildirim et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 81 (2013) 12e28

Fig. 4. (A) Dose response curves constructed using corrected OSL signals obtained for samples ICP-2A, ICP-2B and ICP-2C. Curves and De dose are similar for these three samples. (B),
(C), (D) Dose response curves constructed using corrected OSL signals obtained for the samples AYN-2C, ICP-1A and SNP-2. Open diamond indicates the natural dose point on the
growth curve; the interpolation of this point over growth curve to horizontal axis gives the OSL SAR dose, where they are 211.3 Gy, 279.3 Gy and 284.5 Gy, respectively. Open and
solid circles show the repeated dose points. (E) Recycling ratio values for ICP samples together with error bars.

3.2. Inner-edge altitude determination
An inner edge, or shoreline angle (line of intersection between
the uplifted relict cliff and the relict wave-cut platform) of a marine
terrace is the best geomorphic datum to calculate the relative
elevation of past sea-level positions. The limited spatial extent of
the terraces, locally dense bush vegetation, and slope degradation
(e.g., Anderson et al., 1999) make it very difficult to determine
inner-edges at many locations from in situ measurements. In this
study, we obtained our shoreline-angle elevation measurements
based on (1) outcrop observations where stream valleys or roads
cut the terraces, combined with (2) topographic profiles using
GNSS differential Global Positioning System (dGPS) measurements.
We utilized a Matlab script that is integrated with ArcGIS to esti-
mate best-fit shoreline-angle elevations based on extrapolating the
slope of the relict cliff and the wave-cut platform along shore-
normal profiles. The results typically yield 2-sigma errors in the
range of 0.2e2 m. Errors are usually larger for the older, higher
terraces.
3.3. Vertical displacement and uplift-rate calculation
Our chronologic interpretation of the marine terraces is based
on the OSL dating results of marine sediments. Because this method
tends to yield errors in age estimates on the order of 10%,
comparing the OSL ages to the history of sea-level oscillations can

Table 1
Radiometric data and OSL ages.

Terrace Sample Coordinates Depth Dose (Gy) (N) Dose rate Cosmic U (ppm) Th K (%) Water CaCO3 Age (ka)
level code (UTM_36N) (cm) (Gy/ka) (ppm) Cont. (%) (%)

ICP_A N_4662115 200 256
7 25 0.5
0.03 0.17 0.6 2.5 0.055 36 0 587
37
ICP-1 ICP_B E_660843 350 255
6 26 0.43
0.04 0.17 0.5 2 0.055 26 1 634
53
ICP_C 450 251
6 27 0.44
0.04 0.13 0.5 2 0.06 19 0 638
59
ICP_A N_4660348 50 34
1 8 0.53
0.04 0.23 0.6 2.1 0.04 16 0 75
5
ICP-2 ICP_B E_663209 100 36
1 8 0.61
0.04 0.2 0.6 2.85 0.07 22 0 67
5
ICP_C 150 33
1 8 0.45
0.04 0.19 0.5 2.1 0.055 21 0.6 74
6
SNP_A N_4656145 200 58
7 9 0.3
0.02 0.18 0.7 0.8 0.03 28 74.2 196
26
SNP-1 SNP_B E_679060 250 72
7 7 0.31
0.02 0.17 0.7 1.3 0.02 27 70 231
29
SNP_C 300 92
7 10 0.27
0.02 0.15 0.7 0.9 0.03 25 98.4 348
36
SNP-2 SNP_2 N_4656302 100 263
9 23 0.33
0.02 0.2 0.5 2 0.055 25 94.4 583
42
E_679539 125 5
AYN_A N_4645026 200 80
6 13 0.49
0.03 0.17 0.5 2.5 0.06 23 0 176
17
AYN-1 AYN_B E_639730 250 87
9 13 0.46
0.03 0.17 0.5 2.5 0.075 24 0 190
24
AYN_C 350 180
10 14 0.58
0.04 0.14 0.5 3.3 0.1 22 2.2 366
32
AYN_A N_4645302 300 178
8 15 0.47
0.04 0.16 0.5 2.6 0.05 32 1 405
36
AYN-2 AYN_B E_645612 150 167
11 12 0.53
0.04 0.19 0.5 2.3 0.07 32 0 374
36
AYN_C 250 230
9 25 0.51
0.04 0.16 0.5 2.6 0.055 27 0.08 538
45

ICP-2 samples are from a dune at the top of the Inceburun promontory.
 C. Yildirim et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 81 (2013) 12e28
_
Fig. 5. (A) Image of the sampling location and uplifted shorelines at the Inceburun Promontory. White-colored dashed lines and numbers indicate profile line and corresponding
numbers, respectively. Two-headed arrows indicate viewing direction of photographs in Fig. 4AeC. (B) Topographic profiles and inner edge elevations of the sampled marine
terrace.
provide more precise age estimates. The sea-level highstands that
form marine terraces are associated with interglacial stages and
interstadials, which are correlated with odd-numbered marine
isotopic substages (MIS) (Bloom et al., 1974; Pirazzoli et al., 1993;
Muhs et al., 2002; Pedoja et al., 2011). Where the uplift rate is
high enough, terraces related to short-lived interstadial sea levels
may be preserved onshore (e.g., Lajoie, 1986). To determine the
most likely highstands that correspond to the formation of the
marine terraces, we tentatively correlated the OSL ages of the
marine terraces to the chronologically closest marine isotopic
stages using the global eustatic sea-level curve of Bintanja et al.
(2005) and Siddall et al. (2006), which cover the time range of
our OSL ages and are widely accepted. We use these curves instead
of the Black Sea sea-level curve (Shmuratko, 2001), because the sill
_
depth of the Istanbul Strait (32 m) is topographically lower than
sea-level highstands in the Pleistocene. In fact, connectivity be-
tween the Black Sea and the Mediterranean (e.g., Zubakov, 1988)
can be inferred from a recently published stacked speleothem d18O
record from Sofular Cave (250 km west of the Sinop Peninsula),
which indicates the possibility of twelve separate marine trans-
gression events from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea via the
_
shallow Istanbul Strait during the last 670 ka (Badertscher et al.,
2011).
In general, the net vertical displacement of the marine terraces
is calculated by using the difference between the present-day
terrace elevation (E) and the paleoelevation (e) of each shoreline.
17
To calculate the mean uplift rate (U) of each terrace, the net vertical
displacement is divided by the MIS age (A) of the marine
terrace (Lajoie, 1986):
U ¼ ðE  eÞ=A (2)
Nevertheless, differences among the different paleo sea-level
curves with regard to the timing, height, or depth of the MIS
highstands makes it difficult to define a precise altitude of the
paleoshorelines to calculate net vertical displacements (Caputo,
2007). Therefore, we follow Pedoja et al. (2011) and calculate the
apparent vertical displacement rates without eustatic corrections.
The apparent displacement rate is calculated by only using the
present-day terrace elevation (E) and MIS age (A) of the marine
terrace (Lajoie, 1986):
U ¼ E=A (3)
Errors reported on the apparent displacement rates include er-
rors in the MIS ages and in inner edge altitude measurements
(GNSS) of the terraces. For comparison, we also calculate net ver-
tical displacement with corrections for eustatic sea-level based on
the eustatic sea level curves of Shmuratko (2001), Bintanja et al.
(2005) and Siddall et al. (2006), and present them in a compara-
tive plot that illustrates the differences in uplift rate estimated with
each curve.
18 C. Yildirim et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 81 (2013) 12e28
 C. Yildirim et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 81 (2013) 12e28 19

4. Results on the modern cliff. The highest level at 65
2 m is associated with

marine sediments up to 2 m in thickness and an outer edge
4.1. Geomorphology of marine terraces elevation of 64 m.

Several flights of marine terraces are eroded into the Upper
Cretaceous to Miocene rocks within the different morphotectonic
segments of the Sinop Peninsula. The main morphotectonic units in
_
the Sinop Peninsula include (i) the Inceburun Promontory; (ii) the
Bozburun Promontory; and (iii) the AyancıkeGerze Zone (Fig. 2A).
_
4.1.1. Inceburun Promontory
_
The Inceburun Promontory is characterized by low-relief
topography between the Black Sea and the Balıfakı Fault (Fig. 2A).
Inactive dune fields cover extensive areas of the terrace surfaces at
the top of the promontory, especially in the north (Fig. 2A). The
coast comprises rocky shores with 10 to 40-m-high cliffs and es-
tuaries and rias similar to the Karasu coastal plain (Fig. 2A). The
sequence on the promontory includes two levels (T1 and T2) of
marine terraces with inner edge elevations between 5
1 and
12
0.7 m that have been sculpted into upper Cretaceous basalts in
the northernmost part of the promontory (Figs. 2B, 5 and 6AeC).
The wave-cut notch of the 5
1 m paleoshoreline can be observed
in the modern cliff at the northernmost part of the peninsula
(Fig. 6C). We also observed wave-cut notches and a shingled beach
over a shore platform associated with the same 5
1 m elevation
paleoshoreline in an isolated bay of the western part of the
peninsula (Fig. 6B). The outer edge of the abrasion platform and
deposits of the 12
0.7 m terrace are well exposed in the north-
western part of the peninsula (Fig. 6A). The top surface of this
terrace is very flat at an elevation of 17
0.4 m; the surface is
covered a thick soil horizon, indicating long-acting pedogenic
processes.
4.1.2. Bozburun Promontory
The Bozburun Promontory is a small peninsula immediately east
of the town of Sinop (Fig. 2A). The promontory has relatively high
relief with rocky shores, 20- to 150-m-high sea cliffs, and a smooth,
southward tilted top surface that reaches up to 250 m elevation.
The Bozburun Promontory is connected with the Inceburun _ _
Promontory via a 3-km-long isthmus (Fig. 2A), which includes a 2-
to 5-m-thick layer of marine sediments rich in shell fragments. The
marine terrace sequence on the Bozburun Promontory consists of
four levels with inner edges at elevations of 4
0.2, 7
0.5 m,
17
0.4 m, 34
2 m and 65
2 m (Fig. 6DeF and 7A, B) that have
been eroded into the upper Cretaceous basalts. The upper parts of
the paleocliffs are still distinguishable, but thick colluvial aprons
cover the cliff bases, the inner parts of the terrace treads and the
shoreline angles. Nevertheless, the outer edges of the terraces are
still preserved. The wave-cut notch of the 7
0.5 m level and an
associated platform are eroded into the modern cliff (Fig. 6D),
suggesting recent relative sea-level fall. The top surface of the
17
0.4 m level reaches 25 m elevation as a result of colluvium
derived from the 65
2 m terrace. We couldn’t find any outcrop
associated with marine deposits at this terrace level, but its outer
edge is exposed at 15 m elevation. The top surface of the 34
2 m
terrace level is the largest among the terraces. The elevation of this
level reaches 40 m toward the inland, while its outer edge is 28 m
4.1.3. Ayancık-Gerze zone
_
The Ayancık-Gerze zone is transitional between the Inceburun
Promontory and the Sinop Range, between the Erikli and Balıfakı
faults (Fig. 2A and B). This zone has higher topography and relief
_
compared to the Inceburun Promontory (Fig. 2A). The largest ma-
rine terraces are found east of the town of Ayancık and north of
Gerze, along the western and eastern shores of the hanging-wall
block of the Balıfakı Fault (Fig. 6G and H). Here, the coast is pre-
dominantly rocky, with 10- to 70-m-high sea cliffs. Immediately
east of Ayancık, the sequence consists two levels of marine terraces
with shoreline angles at elevations between 21
0.7 m and
67
1.4 m (Fig. 8A and B) that were carved into clastic and car-
bonate rocks of Maastrichtian-Paleocene age (Fig. 2B). Marine
sediments 2- to 10-m thick locally cover abrasion platforms of the
terraces. The most prominent terrace level is 67
1.4 m high,
covering an area 0.5-m to 1.5-km wide and 7- to 8-km long, which
is delimited to the east by the Balıfakı Fault (Fig. 2A). The top surface
of the terrace reaches up to 75 m, where a colluvial apron covers
the inner edge of the terrace. The elevation of the outer edge
associated with this level is 45 m at the modern cliff. The lower
terrace level has relatively small surface west of the higher terrace
level. The elevations of the top and outer edge of the terraces are
25 m and 15 m, respectively. The thicknesses of the marine deposits
vary between 3 and 5 m.
4.2. Stratigraphy of the marine terrace deposits
Although the marine terraces constitute abrasion platforms,
marine sediments cover virtually all of them. In the following
sections we describe these deposits, including those which we
sampled for OSL dating.
_
4.2.1. Inceburun Promontory
The Inceburun stratigraphic section is exposed in the north-
ernmost part of the Sinop Peninsula. This section comprises a 6-m-
thick sedimentary package without fossils, organized in upward-
fining sandstone sequences (Figs. 6A and 9A and B). The base of
the section consists of a 1-m-thick, fine-grained sandstone with
horizontal to sub-horizontal lamination. Up-section, these layers
alternate with 1- to 3-cm-thick medium- to coarse-grained sand-
stone. These strata are overlain by up to 50-cm-thick channelized,
medium-grained, horizontally laminated sandstones with a pro-
nounced down-cutting erosive base, grading up-section into an
alternation of medium- and coarse-grained, horizontally-lami-
nated, 1- to 5-cm-thick sandstone layers. Toward the top is a chaotic
cross-bedded horizon, associated with a short-wavelength, dis-
harmonic, and discontinuously laminated sandstone (Fig. 9A and
B). Immediately above this horizon, 0.2-m-thick, steeply cross-
bedded strata are preserved with a convex-upward geometry on
the crest and concave-upward in the swale. Finally, in the upper-
most part of the section, weathered and mottled fine-grained
sandstone prevails.

_
Fig. 6. (A) View of the ICP1 sampling location and exposed part of the abrasion platform of the terrace in the northern part of the Inceburun Promontory (see Fig. 3 for point of
view). (B) View of the 4- to 5-m marine terrace inside a small bay. Pink dashed line indicates wave-cut notch of the paleoshoreline. (C) View of the 4- to 5-m wave-cut notch in the
_
northernmost part of the Inceburun Promontory (see Fig. 3 for point of view). (D) View of the 7
0.5 m and 17
0.4 m terraces in the northernmost part of the Bozburun
Promontory. (E) Close-up view of the wave-cut notch of the 7
0.5 m terrace. (F) View of the SNP1 and 2 sampling locations and exposed part of the abrasion platform of the terrace
north of the Bozburun Promontory (see Fig. 5 for viewing direction). (G) and (H) view of terraces in the Ayancık-Gerze zone (see Fig. 6 for viewing direction). Capital letters and
numbers in the upper boxes indicate marine isotopic stages and numbers in the white boxes indicate shoreline-angle elevations of the sampled terraces. (For interpretation of the
references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
20 C. Yildirim et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 81 (2013) 12e28
Fig. 7. (A) Image of the sampling location and uplifted shorelines in the Bozburun Promontory. White dashed lines and numbers indicate line of profile and corresponding numbers,
respectively. Two-headed arrows indicate viewing directions in photos of Fig. 4. (B) Topographic profiles and inner edge elevations of the sampled marine terraces.
The sedimentary facies association suggests deposition in a
shallow-water marine environment within a general trend toward
increased water depth through time. The channelized sandstone at
the base of the section suggests tidal influence, while the chaotic
horizon is interpreted to represent slumping (Fig. 9C), and hence
slope instability. The cross-bedding geometry preserved on top of
the slumped horizon suggests that the slumped unit could repre-
sent swaley cross stratification (SCS), indicating deposition above
the storm-wave base (e.g., Dumas and Arnott, 2006). Massive
mudstone typical of an offshore depositional environment, how-
ever, is absent. Therefore, despite the overall deepening trend of the
depositional environment, the section probably terminates above
of the shorefaceeoffshore transition.
4.2.2. Bozburun Promontory
Terraces in the Bozburun Promontory are capped by marine
_
sediments from middle to late Pleistocene age. Erinç and Inandık
_
(1955), Inandık (1955), Akkan (1975), and Karabıyıkog lu (1984)
studied the late Pleistocene coastal deposits in detail. The sec-
tions are not well exposed today due to intense urbanization;
therefore, we refer to the previously published descriptions. The
thickness of the sedimentary succession is about 40 m along the
isthmus. The succession consists of a 4- to 5-m-thick cross-
stratified coquina sandstone at the base overlain by a 18- to 20-
m-thick high-angle, cross-stratified sandstone, followed by a 12-
to 15-m-thick massive mudstone, and finally a 4- to 5-m-thick
_
high-angle cross-stratified sandstone at the top (Inandık, 1955;
Karabıyıkoglu, 1984). Karabıyıkog lu (1984) interpreted the sand-
stones as transgressive lag deposits in a foreshore/backshore
environment associated with coastal dunes. The contact with Pre-
Quaternary deposits is not exposed.
In the rocky coast part of the promontory, the 6- to 7-m-thick
low-angle cross-stratified shelly sandstone overlies 1- to 2-m-thick
_
gravels (Erinç and Inandık, _
1955; Inandık, 1955; Karabıyıkog lu,
1984), which in some places are deposited directly over elevated
abrasion platforms in the basalts. Together, the facies correspond to
shoreline deposits.
4.2.3. Ayancık-Gerze zone
The Ayancık stratigraphic section is characterized by a 3-m-
thick sedimentary sequence made up of packages of 20- to 50-cm-
thick fine- to medium-grained, amalgamated sandstone, alter-
nating with 1- to 5-cm-thick coarser strata with isolated pebbles
(Fig. 10A and B). The 20- to 50-cm-thick sandstone layers have a
complex cross-stratification pattern, with sharp surfaces at the base
and top of each package, horizontal lamination, cross lamination,
and parallel lamination toward the top, with a convex-upward and
a concave-downward stratification still preserved (Fig. 10C).
 C. Yildirim et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 81 (2013) 12e28
Fig. 8. Geomorphic map of the marine terraces in the eastern part of the Ayancık-Gerze Zone. White dashed lines indicate line of profile with corresponding numbers. Two-headed
arrows indicate viewing direction in the photos of Fig. 4G and H. (B) Topographic profiles and inner edge elevations of the sampled marine terraces.
Similar to the Bozburun section, the facies association of the
Ayancık sedimentary sequence suggests deposition in a shallow-
water marine system. We interpret the cross stratified sandstone
to represent swaley cross-strata (SCS), thus reflecting deposition
above the storm-wave base. The relatively good preservation of
the SCS and the amalgamation suggest a relatively high sedi-
mentation rate.
4.2.4. Paleobathymetry estimations
Sedimentary facies and structures do not unequivocally reflect a
specific water depth, but they represent the interaction between
the sediment characteristics (i.e., grain size, shape, density,
composition etc.) and the hydrodynamics of the water system (e.g.,
Bridge and Demicco, 2008; Immenhauser, 2009). Therefore,
assigning paleodepths based on sedimentary facies associations
alone is problematic and may introduce significant uncertainty.
_
The stratigraphic section of the Inceburun promontory reflects
a deepening-upward trend characterized by a fining-upward
sequence, including sedimentary structures typical of tidal chan-
nels and swaley cross-stratification (SCS). The water depth of a tidal
channel floor may range between 5 and 30 m (Immenhauser,
2009), while the SCS, which is thought to reflect a combination of
oscillatory and unidirectional flow, should represent deposition in
proximity of the fair-weather wave base (e.g., Dumas and Arnott,
2006). Sedimentation at that depth is consistent with the lack of
massive mudstone and the presence of isolated pebbles. To our
knowledge, however, there are no estimations of the average depth
of the fair-weather and storm-wave bases in the present-day Black
Sea. A global compilation indicates that fairweather wave-base
depths for shallow siliciclastic seas are 10
5 m (e.g.,
21
_
Immenhauser, 2009). For the Inceburun section, this would
represent a minimum estimate, because the section shows a
deepening trend toward the offshore transition region. In addition,
this sedimentary unit is located in proximity to the respective
_
paleocliffs of the Inceburun Peninsula, suggesting that the elevation
of our sampling site (10
2 m) is very close to the elevation of the
respective paleoshoreline (12
0.7 m) obtained from dGPS mea-
surements. Together, these observations imply a water depth of 1e
5 m, which is slightly lower than the estimation (10
5 m)
compiled by Immenhauser (2009). Similarly, the well-preserved
SCS (Fig. 10) in the Ayancık sedimentary sequence suggests depo-
sition in proximity to the fairweather wave base (e.g., Dumas and
Arnott, 2006). In addition, our GPS survey documents a 13- to 20-
m difference between the elevation of our sampling site (50
2 m)
and the elevation of the paleoshoreline (67
1.4 m). This difference
is still similar to the global fairweather wave-base estimate
(10
5 m; Immenhauser, 2009).
Based on these observations, and considering the intrinsic dif-
ficulty related to water-depth estimates, we consider a paleodepth
of 5e10 m for both stratigraphic sections. This conservative
approach, which is consistent with the different estimations, avoids
introducing further uncertainties in the uplift rates among the
different sites.
4.3. OSL ages and assigned MIS stages of the marine terraces
Quartz obtained from all sediment samples was bright in
luminescence, and sensitivity changes were corrected successfully
using the response to a test dose. The OSL samples that we collected
from marine terrace deposits (calculated using Eq. (1)) yield ages
22 C. Yildirim et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 81 (2013) 12e28

_
Fig. 9. (A) Stratigraphic section of the ICP1 sampling location in the northern part of the Inceburun Promontory. Numbers in the boxes indicate our OSL ages from the section. (B)
General view of the sampled outcrop. Holes show our sampling points. (C) Close-up view of the slump structures in the section that might be a result of seismic shaking.

that range from 176
17 ka to 638
59 ka and fall within several
clusters (Table 1). These relatively old OSL ages result from low
environmental radiation as well as high equivalent dose values, and
they appear to be reliable based on growth curves and dose re-
covery tests.
From an outcrop close to the inner edge of the 12
0.7 m terrace
_
of the Inceburun Promontory (level ICP-1), the three samples
yielded ages of 587
37 ka, 634
53 ka, and 638
59 ka (Table 1).
OSL ages from the 34
2 m terrace at the Bozburun Promontory
(level SNP-1) are 196
26 ka, 231
29 ka, and 348
36 ka, the
latter of which was from the outer edge of the terrace. For the
65
2 m terrace at the Bozburun Promontory (level SNP-2), our
sample from the outer terrace edge yielded an age of 583
42 ka
(Table 1). In the Ayancık-Gerze Zone, the OSL ages from the outer
edge of the 21
0.7 m terrace (level AYN1) are 176
17 ka,
190
24 ka, and 366
32 ka (Table 1), while ages from the inner
edge of the 67
1.4 m terrace (level AYN2) are 374
36 ka,
405
36 ka, and 538
45 ka (Table 1).
Different ages obtained from a single continuous section
without any unconformities might imply differential and/or partial
bleaching of the grains. In those cases, the ages of the samples
obtained from the minimum equivalent dose (De) value might be
more trustworthy due to more complete bleaching. Of course, these
samples could still be partially bleached and we may overestimate
the original age of the terrace. Therefore, we consider the age of the
deposit to represent the maximum age of the wave-cut platform,
and because its formation can precede or be coeval with deposition,
the uplift rates that we obtain represent minimum rates.
Based on this argument, we assigned each sample location to a
corresponding sea-level highstand by using the age of the sample
having the minimum equivalent dose (De) for each continuous
section. Accordingly, we assign the 12
0.7 m terrace in the
_
Inceburun Promontory (ICP-1) to MIS 15a-15c (ca 570 ka), and the
34
2 m (SNP-1) and 65
2 m (SNP-2) terraces along the Boz-
burun Promontory to MIS 7a (ca 190 ka) and MIS 15a-15c
(ca 570 ka), respectively. We also identified a terrace level at
17
0.4 m and a wave-notch level at 7
0.5 m in the Bozburun
Promontory (Fig. 8, “SNP-0” in Table 2), which may correspond to
MIS 5e (ca 125 ka) because of its position immediately below the
MIS 7a terrace level. We assign the marine terrace levels at
21
0.7 m (AYN-1) and 67
1.4 m (AYN-2) east of the town of
Ayancık to MIS 7a (ca 190 ka) and MIS 11 (ca 400 ka), respectively
 C. Yildirim et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 81 (2013) 12e28
Fig. 10. (A) Stratigraphic section of the AYN2 sampling location in the Ayancık-Gerze Zone. Numbers in the boxes indicate our OSL ages from the section. (B) General view of the
sampled outcrop. (C) Close-up view of the swaley cross stratification in the section.
(Table 2, Fig. 11). Although in some cases we obtained ages for in-
dividual terrace levels that could correspond to different odd
numbered MIS substages (for example, SNP-1 and AYN-1, AYN-2
and ICP-1), we did not observe any sedimentary cannibalism that
might indicate a marine transgression, erosion, and deposition
related to several MIS highstands.
The only other geochronological finding relevant to our terrace
ages is the biostratigraphy related to marine shell fragments that
we identified along the isthmus of the Bozburun Promontory. Erinç
_
and Inandık (1955) described these marine shells as a characteristic
fossil assemblage of the Karangatian Transgression in the Black Sea
that corresponds to the MIS 5e highstand (e.g., Tchepalyga, 1997).
The isthmus where they found the characteristic fossil assemblage
is one terrace level lower than the terrace we relate to MIS 7a from
our OSL ages, which helps to validate the accuracy of our OSL ages
and corresponding MIS assignments, at least in the Bozburun
Promontory.
In addition to samples from marine terraces, we sampled a
paleodune ridge overlying the marine deposits at the northernmost
part of the peninsula (Level ICP-2 in Table 1, and Fig. 2A). The OSL
samples ICP 4, 5 and 6 yielded ages of 75
5 ka, 67
5 ka, and
74
6 ka, which we associate with the sea-level low stand at the
transition from MIS 5 to 4 (Table 1).
23
4.4. Vertical displacements and mean-uplift rates of the marine
terraces
The vertical displacements of the terraces that we report and
discuss in this study are the apparent vertical displacements of the
terraces. The net vertical displacements of the terraces, which
include a correction according to the sea-level curves of Shmuratko
(2001), Bintanja et al. (2005), Siddall et al. (2006), are also given in
Table 2 and Fig. 12 to show the differences between the two ap-
proaches. The apparent vertical displacements range from 12 m to
67 m (Table 2). The lowest and highest vertical displacements are
obtained from the 12
0.7 m (MIS 15) and 67
1.4 m (MIS 11)
_
terraces in the Inceburun Promontory and Ayancık-Gerze Zone,
respectively. The apparent vertical displacement of the MIS 15
terrace level of the Bozburun Promontory is 53 m greater than that
_
of the terrace of the same age in the Inceburun Promontory mor-
photectonic segment (Table 2).
The lowest mean apparent vertical displacement rate is
_
0.02 mm/a (since ca 570 ka), obtained from the Inceburun Prom-
ontory in the northernmost part of the Sinop Peninsula (Table 2,
Fig. 13). At the Bozburun Promontory, the uplift rate from 570 to
190 ka was 0.08 mm/a, then increased to 0.26 mm/a from 190 to
125 ka, and slowed to 0.14 mm/a from 125 ka to today (Table 2,
24 C. Yildirim et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 81 (2013) 12e28

Figs. 13 and 14). In the Ayancık-Gerze morphotectonic segment, the

0.02
0.003

0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
uplift rate started off at 0.22 mm/a from 400 to 190 ka, and then

Uplift rated
decreased to 0.11 mm/a since ca 190 ka (Table 2, Figs. 13 and 14).

(mm/a)

This slowing of the uplift rate might be the reason why we observe

0.14
0.18
0.11
0.11
0.17
the MIS 7a level at lower elevation (21
0.4 m) in the Ayancık-
Gerze Zone with respect to its counterpart (34
2.1 m) in the

0.02
0.003

0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
Uplift ratec

Bozburun Promontory.
(mm/a)

As depicted in Fig. 12, the application of an eustatic correction to

0.12
0.17
0.11
0.11
0.17
estimate vertical displacement rates from marine terraces might
include major biases, particularly when estimates are made from
0.04
0.01

0.03
0.04
0.02
0.03
0.02
Uplift rateb

terraces of different ages. This is particularly the case in areas where

the uplift rate is relatively low (<0.2 mm/yr), such as the Turkish
(mm/a)

0.10
0.23
0.12
0.16
0.17
coast of the Black Sea. Sea-level curves have been determined using
variable methods at different locations, where the local effects of
dynamic topography and other tectonic forces might influence the
0.05
0.01

0.03
0.05
0.02
0.04
0.02
Uplift ratea

relative amplitude of sea-level oscillations; these effects are diffi-

(mm/a)

cult to quantify (e.g., Pedoja et al., 2011; Rowley et al., 2013). In fact,
0.13
0.28
0.14
0.21
0.17

the vertical displacement rates estimated using the sea-level curve

of Shmuratko (2001), which is specific to the Black Sea, are most
displacement

similar to the apparent displacement rates, thus suggesting no

12
1.0

1.1
2.3
2.0
1.2
1.7

major local bias. However, the general trend of northward-

Total

(m)c

decreasing vertical displacement rates across the Sinop Peninsula

15
34
64
21
66

is independent of the use of a eustatic correction (Fig. 13).

displacement

5. Discussion
21
2.0

2.0
4.5
3.6
4.1
1.7
Total

(m)b

5.1. Non-uniform uplift of marine terraces

12
45
71
32
69
displacement

The spatiotemporal variations in apparent uplift rates indicated

by the ages of the marine terraces can provide insights into the
28
1.0

1.1
4.5
2.2
4.1
1.7

deformation history of the Sinop Peninsula and the outer parts of

Total

(m)a

the orogenic wedge bordering the northern sector of the Central

16
54
80
41
68

_
Anatolia Plateau. The terraces along the Inceburun Promontory at
highstandc

the NW tip of the Sinop Peninsula yield the lowest uplift rates
elevation
Sea-level

þ1
21

11
41

11
11
1

among our data (0.02 mm/a since 570 ka) (Fig. 14). Interestingly,










(m)

between ca 570 and 190 ka, the Bozburun Promontory at the NE

þ2
0
þ1
þ0
1

tip records an uplift rate of 0.08 mm/a, which is slightly faster but
_
highstandb

still similar to the long-term uplift rate at the Inceburun Prom-

elevation
Sea-level

8
2

2
4
3
4
1

ontory (Table 2, Fig. 14). Nevertheless, the uplift rate of the Boz-










þ5
11
6
11
2
(m)

burun Promontory increased to 0.26 mm/a between ca 190 and

125 ka, which is three times higher than the previous uplift rate,
Tentative marine isotopic stages, total displacements and uplift rates of the terraces.

highstanda

then slowed to 0.14 mm/a since 125 ka (Table 2, Fig. 14).

elevation
Sea-level

15
1

1
4
1
4
1

Comparing the two sites, we interpret the pre-190 ka uplift history

þ1
20
15
20
1
(m)

to indicate that both regions were slowly, but nonetheless differ-

entially uplifted above an offshore thrust fault that is below and to
Inner edge

the north of both areas. After 190 ka, the faster uplift of the Boz-
elevation

13
0.2

0.4
2.1

0.7
1.4

burun Promontory likely indicates higher activity along the

2

Apparent uplift rate (e.g., Lajoie, 1986; Pedoja et al., 2011).

offshore structures that lie immediately to the south and north

(m)

17
34
65
21
67

(Fig. 2), which Özhan (1989) interpreted to be normal faults

_
570
10

10

bounding a horst. Compared to the Inceburun and Bozburun

5
5

5
5
MIS age

promontories, the Ayancık-Gerze zone, which is in the hanging-

(ka)

125
195
570
195
400

wall block of the Balıfakı Fault, records relatively fast uplift with
a rate of 0.22 mm/a from 400 to 190 ka, but slowed to 0.11 mm/a
MIS stage
Assigned

since 190 ka (Fig. 14). We relate these uplift rates to movement

According to Bintanja et al. (2005).
According to Siddall et al. (2006).

along the Balıfakı Fault, as it is the only mapped structure that

According to Shmuratko (2001).
15

5e

15

11
7a

7a

could potentially accommodate differential uplift between the

Ayancık-Gerze zone (at the southern end of the Sinop Peninsula)
Terrace

AYN_1
AYN_2
SNP_0
SNP_1
SNP_2
ICP_1

and the promontories to the north.

level

We thus conclude that shortening deformation has predomi-

nated during the Quaternary in the Sinop region. In this context, we
Morphotectonic

Promontory

Ayancik-Gerze

interpret the spatially limited occurrence of normal faulting at the

Promontory

northern and southern boundaries of the Bozburun Promontory as

Inceburun

Bozburun
segment

a local phenomenon (see below). Fast uplift of the Bozburun

Table 2

Zone

Promontory between ca 190 and 125 ka could be associated with a

a
b
c
d

transient phase of normal fault accommodation in the region,

 C. Yildirim et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 81 (2013) 12e28 25

Fig. 11. Global sea level curves (lower panel) for the last 700 ka, heights, and OSL-derived ages of the terraces (upper panel) across the Sinop Peninsula. Solid gray line indicates
_
modern sea level, dashed line indicates sill depth of the Istanbul Strait, which connects the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. Vertical scales of the sea-level curve and terrace heights
are different. Numbers and letters on the eustatic sea-level curve (blue, black, and red lines) indicate marine isotopic stages and their sub-stages. (For interpretation of the ref-
erences to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

which does not appear to be representative of the longer-term rate _

and style of deformation.
5.2. Implications for deformation patterns along the Pontide Belt
The Pontide ranges are a wedge-shaped orogenic belt spanning
nearly the entire southern (Turkish) coast of the Black Sea. The
topography of the Pontides changes dramatically from west to east.
The coastal zone mainly consists of erosional rocky shores where
several flights of marine terraces are preserved (Erinç and Inandık,
_
1955; Inandık, 1955; Akkan, 1975; Keskin et al., 2011). Nevertheless,
reliable marine terrace data, including absolute dating constraints
and paleoshoreline elevations that are comparable with our data,
are only available from the eastern Pontides. Seven levels of marine
terraces uplifted between 3 and 260 m were mapped in the Trabzon
area (Keskin et al., 2011), which is 400 km east of the Sinop
Peninsula. These terraces were dated using ESR, and associated

Fig. 12. Mean vertical displacement rates for marine terraces of the Sinop Peninsula.
Rates have been calculated at sites with age constraints from OSL dating using eustatic
corrections from three different sea-level curves; apparent rates include no eustatic
correction (see text for details). Note that displacement rates estimated using the sea
level curve of Shmuratko (2001), which is specific for the Black Sea, are very similar to
the apparent estimates. The global sea-level curves of Bintanja et al. (2005) and Siddall
et al. (2006) and tend to include large biases because they include larger amplitudes of
the sea-level oscillations. In general, all estimates show a northward-decreasing
pattern, which we associated with activity of local faults.
Fig. 13. Topography, faults (Özhan, 1989; Şenel, 2002), morphotectonic segments, and
uplift rates derived from marine terraces of the Sinop Peninsula. Red lines indicate
paleoshorelines across the peninsula. Red stars denote OSL sampling locations.
Numbers in white boxes indicate uplift rates reported in Table 1. (For interpretation of
the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)
26 C. Yildirim et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 81 (2013) 12e28

Fig. 14. Uplift rates through time derived from the elevated Sinop marine terraces and MIS-stage assignments based on our OSL dating. Numbers on top indicate MIS stages.

with MIS 11, 9 and 5e, resulting in mean uplift rates that decrease
through time from 0.17
0.03 mm/a, to 0.10
0.02 mm/a, and
finally 0.07
0.05 mm/a. The gradually decreasing uplift rates are
lower than those that we obtained over a shorter timescale at the
Bozburun Promontory and from the Ayancık-Gerze Zone (Table 1).
These results are somewhat surprising, as one might expect higher
uplift rates in the Eastern Pontides, considering their higher relief.
Nonetheless, the slower uplift rates from the Eastern Pontides are
consistent with close to neutral NAF-normal slip rates suggested
from an analysis of regional GPS data (Reilinger et al., 2006). The
relatively high uplift rates that we obtained from the Central Pon-
tides might be associated with their position at the apex of the large
restraining bend in the NAF, where contractional strain is likely
accumulating (Yildirim et al., 2011).
5.3. Implications for deformation patterns in the Central Pontides
The patterns of uplifted marine terraces at the Sinop Peninsula
indicate active internal deformation and upper crustal shortening
within the Central Pontide orogenic wedge (Fig. 15). This defor-
mation, however, is not only restricted to the Sinop Peninsula, but
extends across the entire array of mountain ranges and intermon-
tane basins between the NAF and the Black Sea (Yildirim et al., 2011,
2013).
The seismic reflection profiles from offshore Sinop, including
areas on the continental shelf and the abyssal plain of the Black Sea,
display different fault kinematics (Finetti et al., 1988; Özhan, 1989;
Aydın et al., 1995). The abyssal plain has been deformed by imbri-
cated thrusts, with younging of the deformation toward the hin-
terland (Finetti et al., 1988). On the hanging-wall block of the
youngest thrust of these imbricated structures, a set of normal
faults deforms Quaternary units of the continental shelf to the
north and east of the Sinop Peninsula (Özhan, 1989). In contrast to
these normal faults, the Balıfakı thrust records shortening in the
southernmost part of the Sinop Peninsula. Although normal faults
deform the continental shelf, the northern margin of the peninsula
is contractional overall, and localized normal faulting might be a
result of local flexural bending-moment stresses in the hanging-
wall block of the thrust faults that deform the abyssal plain
(Fig. 15); alternatively, they might be related to gravitational
collapse at the edge of the continental shelf.
The character of on- and offshore shortening across the Pontides
since the late Miocene indicates out-of-sequence thrusting (e.g.,
Yildirim et al., 2011), where either a progressive forward or break-
back sequence of thrusting implies that upper crustal shortening
mainly takes place on faults in the interior part of the orogenic
wedge. However, the active deformation of structures within and to
the north of the Sinop Peninsula may indicate that since the
Pleistocene, deformation in the orogenic wedge has been taking

Fig. 15. Conceptual diagram of the orogenic wedge of the Pontide mountains showing principal north-vergent thrust faults and Quaternary mean-uplift rates in the different fault
blocks, emphasizing a really extensive shortening and differential uplift in different sectors of the orogenic wedge. Numbers above the colored lines indicate time over which the
uplift rate is integrated. The uplift rate in the Gökırmak Basin indicates mean uplift rate of the basin derived from fluvial strath terraces (from Yildirim et al., 2013), not the faults.
Note the area of localized thin-skinned normal faulting in the hanging wall of the thrust fault of the northern Sinop Peninsula. AGZ: Ayancık-Gerze Zone, BP: Bozburun Promontory,
_ Inceburun
IP: _ Promontory, NAF: North Anatolian Fault, EkF: Ekinveren Fault, EF: Erikli Fault, BF:Balıfakı Fault.
 C. Yildirim et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 81 (2013) 12e28
place over a broader region, extending between the interior of the
wedge in the Kastamonu region to the south and offshore Sinop to
the north.
6. Conclusions
Our sedimentologic and geomorphic observations, the compi-
lation of regional structural data, and OSL dating of sediments
capping marine terraces along the southern coast of the Black Sea
supports the notion of overall shortening across the Sinop Penin-
sula as an integral part of the activity of the Pontide orogenic
wedge. Movements along these faults have accommodated differ-
ential uplift over the past 570 ka. Uplift rates that range from
ca 0.02e0.26 mm/a highlight the spatially non-uniform and
temporally variable nature of regional uplift. The northern
_
(Inceburun and Bozburun) promontories experience similarly slow
uplift rates of 0.02 and 0.08 mm/a from 570 to 190 ka, probably
related to a slow-moving fault north of both sites. After 190 ka, the
Bozburun Promontory alone experienced a phase of the fast
(0.26 mm/a) uplift, which was likely linked to nearby offshore
normal faults. In contrast, the Ayancık-Gerze zone in the southern
part of the Sinop Peninsula experienced moderate uplift rates of
0.22 mm/a from 400 to 190 ka and 0.11 mm/a since 190 ka, which
indicates tectonic activity along the Balıfakı thrust fault. Despite the
late Miocene pattern of back-stepping deformation within the
orogenic wedge and Quaternary reactivation of thrust faults farther
inland in the Gökırmak Basin (e.g., Yildirim et al., 2011, 2013), active
shortening across the Sinop Peninsula recorded since the middle
Pleistocene documents that the active deformation zone has
expanded outward along the northern margin of the Central
Anatolian Plateau.
Acknowledgments
This study is part of the Vertical Anatolian Movements Project
(VAMP), funded by the TOPO-EUROPE initiative of the European
Science Foundation, including contributions by the German Science
Foundation (DFG) to MS (grants STR373/20-1 and 25-1). CY was
supported by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG: EC 138/5-
1), Potsdam University, Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum Pots-
dam and TUBITAK 107Y333; HE was supported by Deutsche For-
schungsgemeinschaft (DFG: EC 138/5-1). TS was supported by the
Leibniz Center for Surface Processes and Climate Studies at the
University of Potsdam (DFG: STR373/20-1) and the Alexander von
Humboldt Foundation.
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