Works​ ​Cited

Cone,​ ​Daniel.​ ​“An​ ​Indefensible​ ​Defense:​ ​The​ ​Incompetence​ ​of​ ​Qing​ ​Dynasty​ ​...”​ ​Emory

College,​ ​Department​ ​of​ ​History​,

http://history.emory.edu/home/documents/endeavors/volume4/Cone.pdf

This​ ​is​ ​a​ ​scholarly​ ​paper​ ​discussing​ ​the​ ​reasons​ ​for​ ​Qing’s​ ​loss​ ​in​ ​the​ ​Opium​ ​War.​ ​It

detailed​ ​the​ ​events​ ​of​ ​the​ ​war,​ ​British​ ​invasions​ ​and​ ​Chinese​ ​défenses,​ ​and​ ​provided

commentary.​ ​The​ ​paper​ ​claimed​ ​that​ ​China​ ​could​ ​have​ ​been​ ​successful​ ​in​ ​the​ ​war​ ​despite

its​ ​inferior​ ​technology,​ ​and​ ​that​ ​it​ ​was​ ​the​ ​incompetence​ ​of​ ​the​ ​bureaucracy,​ ​the​ ​lack​ ​of

training​ ​for​ ​the​ ​troops,​ ​and​ ​various​ ​other​ ​factors​ ​that​ ​contributed​ ​to​ ​the​ ​humiliating​ ​defeat.

The​ ​paper​ ​concluded​ ​that​ ​the​ ​loss​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Opium​ ​War​ ​was​ ​an​ ​avoidable​ ​catastrophe,​ ​since

China​ ​could​ ​have​ ​easily​ ​utilised​ ​its​ ​geographical​ ​and​ ​defensive​ ​advantages​ ​to​ ​attain

victory.

Cone’s​ ​viewpoint​ ​is​ ​persuasive​ ​and​ ​effective.​ ​It​ ​also​ ​offers​ ​insight​ ​on​ ​the​ ​inherent

problems​ ​that​ ​existed​ ​in​ ​the​ ​Qing​ ​administration.​ ​The​ ​information​ ​provided​ ​can​ ​educate

readers​ ​in​ ​the​ ​proceedings​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Opium​ ​Wars.​ ​However,​ ​it​ ​seems​ ​that​ ​the​ ​loss​ ​is​ ​in​ ​fact

inevitable,​ ​since​ ​the​ ​intrinsic​ ​problems​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Chinese​ ​bureaucracy​ ​are​ ​rooted​ ​deeply​ ​in

hundreds​ ​of​ ​years​ ​of​ ​history.​ ​This​ ​paper​ ​relates​ ​to​ ​the​ ​research​ ​because​ ​it​ ​provides​ ​the

necessary​ ​context​ ​to​ ​study​ ​the​ ​cultural​ ​impacts​ ​of​ ​the​ ​demise​ ​of​ ​the​ ​said​ ​Qing

bureaucracy.

French,​ ​Howard​ ​W.​ ​Everything​ ​under​ ​the​ ​heavens:​ ​empire,​ ​tribute​ ​and​ ​the​ ​future​ ​of​ ​Chinese

power​.​ ​Alfred​ ​A.​ ​Knopf,​ ​2017.

 This​ ​source​ ​discusses​ ​the​ ​historical​ ​legacy​ ​of​ ​China​ ​and​ ​its​ ​impact​ ​on​ ​the​ ​present​ ​day

Middle​ ​Kingdom.​ ​The​ ​author​ ​contends​ ​that​ ​China’s​ ​past​ ​prosperity​ ​and​ ​dominance​ ​shaped

its​ ​attitude​ ​on​ ​the​ ​international​ ​stage​ ​today.

This​ ​book​ ​is​ ​highly​ ​relevant​ ​as​ ​it​ ​describes​ ​how​ ​historical​ ​factors,​ ​including​ ​western

encroachment,​ ​shaped​ ​the​ ​Chinese​ ​push​ ​for​ ​power​ ​as​ ​well​ ​as​ ​the​ ​Chinese​ ​legacy​ ​today.

Kissinger,​ ​Henry.​ ​On​ ​China​.​ ​Penguin​ ​Books​ ​Ltd.,​ ​2012.

This​ ​book​ ​is​ ​highly​ ​informative,​ ​tracing​ ​in​ ​detail​ ​the​ ​history​ ​and​ ​evolution​ ​of​ ​Chinese

diplomacy.​ ​In​ ​the​ ​first​ ​two​ ​chapters,​ ​Kissinger​ ​especially​ ​discussed​ ​the​ ​impact​ ​of​ ​Chinese

culture​ ​on​ ​Chinese​ ​worldview​ ​and​ ​Chinese​ ​diplomacy,​ ​as​ ​well​ ​as​ ​the​ ​impact​ ​of​ ​western

imperialism​ ​on​ ​multiple​ ​aspects​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Chinese​ ​society.​ ​In​ ​later​ ​chapters,​ ​Kissinger​ ​wrote

about​ ​the​ ​rise​ ​of​ ​Mao,​ ​his​ ​personal​ ​experiences​ ​in​ ​opening​ ​Sino-American​ ​diplomatic​ ​ties,

and​ ​beyond.

Kissinger​ ​is​ ​perhaps​ ​the​ ​most​ ​authoritative​ ​figure​ ​in​ ​this​ ​field​ ​of​ ​study,​ ​as​ ​he​ ​was​ ​largely

responsible​ ​for​ ​resuming​ ​formal​ ​Sino-American​ ​diplomatic​ ​relations​ ​after​ ​decades​ ​of

hostility.​ ​His​ ​ideas​ ​within​ ​the​ ​book​ ​are​ ​highly​ ​insightful,​ ​incorporating​ ​extensive​ ​research,

personal​ ​accounts,​ ​and​ ​his​ ​own​ ​analysis.​ ​This​ ​book​ ​is​ ​highly​ ​relevant​ ​to​ ​my​ ​research

because​ ​it​ ​touches​ ​on​ ​the​ ​legacy​ ​of​ ​Chinese​ ​culture​ ​and​ ​the​ ​impacts​ ​of​ ​western

imperialism,​ ​extending​ ​these​ ​events​ ​all​ ​the​ ​way​ ​through​ ​modern​ ​Chinese​ ​history.

Liang,​ ​BiYing.​ ​“The​ ​Boxer​ ​Indemnity​ ​Scholarship​ ​Program​ ​and​ ​Chinese​ ​Exchange​ ​Students.”

Guizhou​ ​Sociology​,​ ​www.cqvip.com/qk/81088x/199112/1002865662.html.

This​ ​source​ ​dives​ ​into​ ​the​ ​Boxer​ ​Indemnity​ ​Scholarship​ ​Program,​ ​which​ ​is​ ​established

between​ ​the​ ​United​ ​States​ ​and​ ​China​ ​after​ ​the​ ​Boxer​ ​Rebellion,​ ​using​ ​Chinese​ ​indemnities
 to​ ​America​ ​as​ ​funds​ ​for​ ​an​ ​exchange​ ​program​ ​for​ ​Chinese​ ​students​ ​to​ ​study​ ​overseas.​ ​This

paper​ ​discusses​ ​factors​ ​surrounding​ ​the​ ​decision​ ​to​ ​create​ ​such​ ​a​ ​program​ ​and​ ​the​ ​impacts

of​ ​these​ ​exchange​ ​students,​ ​which​ ​included​ ​many​ ​notable​ ​figures​ ​who​ ​later​ ​returned​ ​to

China​ ​to​ ​initiate​ ​reforms​ ​and​ ​westernization​ ​movements.

This​ ​scholarly​ ​paper​ ​is​ ​relevant​ ​to​ ​my​ ​research​ ​because​ ​it​ ​focuses​ ​on​ ​the​ ​impacts​ ​of​ ​the

Boxer​ ​Indemnity​ ​-​ ​increased​ ​western​ ​influence​ ​in​ ​China​ ​economically,​ ​in​ ​diplomacy,​ ​and

in​ ​education.

Lin,​ ​Zexu,​ ​and​ ​Mao​ ​Linli.​ ​The​ ​Full​ ​Works​ ​of​ ​Lin​ ​Zexu​.​ ​Hai​ ​Xia​ ​Wen​ ​Yi​ ​Publisher,​ ​2002.

The​ ​Full​ ​Works​ ​of​ ​Lin​ ​Zexu​ ​is​ ​a​ ​book​ ​that​ ​compiled​ ​all​ ​documents​ ​by​ ​Lin​ ​Zexu,​ ​a​ ​Chinese

bureaucrat​ ​responsible​ ​for​ ​the​ ​confiscation​ ​and​ ​destruction​ ​of​ ​opium,​ ​including​ ​memorials,

diaries,​ ​letters,​ ​and​ ​other​ ​important​ ​writings.​ ​Ten​ ​volumes​ ​exist,​ ​and​ ​all​ ​these​ ​together

serve​ ​to​ ​offer​ ​a​ ​great​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​knowledge​ ​into​ ​Lin’s​ ​life​ ​and​ ​deeds.​ ​Volume​ ​3​ ​compiles

some​ ​of​ ​his​ ​memorials​ ​to​ ​the​ ​emperor,​ ​including​ ​his​ ​own​ ​reports​ ​(sometimes​ ​Lin​ ​is​ ​the

only​ ​author;​ ​Lin​ ​can​ ​also​ ​be​ ​joined​ ​by​ ​other​ ​notable​ ​bureaucrats)​ ​from​ ​Canton.​ ​Memorials

that​ ​relate​ ​to​ ​the​ ​confiscation​ ​and​ ​destruction​ ​of​ ​opium​ ​often​ ​recount​ ​significant​ ​events,

offer​ ​advice​ ​on​ ​prohibition​ ​of​ ​opium,​ ​or​ ​report​ ​specific​ ​information​ ​that​ ​can​ ​be​ ​of​ ​use.

These​ ​writings​ ​came​ ​from​ ​the​ ​person​ ​who​ ​is​ ​responsible​ ​for​ ​and​ ​who

is​ ​deeply​ ​involved​ ​in​ ​the​ ​catalyst​ ​for​ ​western​ ​encroachment,​ ​they​ ​are​ ​undoubtedly

extremely​ ​valuable.​ ​For​ ​example,​ ​they​ ​offer​ ​first​ ​hand​ ​detail​ ​on​ ​all​ ​proceedings​ ​of​ ​the

confiscation​ ​and​ ​destruction​ ​of​ ​opium,​ ​such​ ​as​ ​the​ ​blockade​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Thirteen​ ​Factories​ ​or

the​ ​proceedings​ ​of​ ​confiscation.​ ​In​ ​addition,​ ​these​ ​documents​ ​can​ ​at​ ​times​ ​vividly​ ​reflect

the​ ​tense​ ​atmosphere​ ​and​ ​the​ ​way​ ​Lin’s​ ​aggressive​ ​stand​ ​dramatically​ ​unfolds.​ ​Finally,
 these​ ​works​ ​offer​ ​integral​ ​insight​ ​into​ ​Lin’s​ ​own​ ​viewpoints​ ​-​ ​his​ ​view​ ​on​ ​foreigners​ ​or

his​ ​view​ ​on​ ​opium​.​ ​This​ ​source​ ​is​ ​relevant​ ​to​ ​my​ ​research​ ​because​ ​it​ ​discusses​ ​the​ ​context

of​ ​cultural​ ​transformation​ ​and​ ​gives​ ​a​ ​detailed​ ​primary​ ​account​ ​to​ ​the​ ​event​ ​that​ ​led​ ​to

China’s​ ​road​ ​towards​ ​westernization.

​ ​ ​ ​ ​“Opium​ ​War​ ​Museum.”​ ​Opium​ ​War​ ​Museum​,​ ​www.ypzz.cn/.

This​ ​is​ ​the​ ​website​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Opium​ ​War​ ​Museum,​ ​located​ ​in​ ​Humen,​ ​China,​ ​the​ ​location

where​ ​commissioner​ ​Lin​ ​Zexu​ ​confiscated​ ​and​ ​destroyed​ ​opium,​ ​a​ ​catalyst​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Opium

War.​ ​This​ ​website​ ​provided​ ​many​ ​original​ ​artifacts​ ​from​ ​the​ ​Late​ ​Qing​ ​Dynasty​ ​as​ ​well

as

scholarly​ ​research​ ​on​ ​the​ ​Opium​ ​War.

This​ ​is​ ​a​ ​comprehensive​ ​and​ ​reliable​ ​site,​ ​and​ ​it​ ​is​ ​relevant​ ​to​ ​my​ ​research​ ​because​ ​it

provided​ ​valuable​ ​information​ ​on​ ​the​ ​Opium​ ​War​ ​as​ ​well​ ​as​ ​evidence​ ​of​ ​Chinese

transformation​ ​following​ ​western​ ​encroachment.

Qianlong.​ ​“Emperor​ ​Qianlong's​ ​Letter​ ​to​ ​King​ ​George.”​ ​Wellesley​ ​University​,

academics.wellesley.edu/Polisci/wj/China/208/READINGS/qianlong.html.

Emperor​ ​Qianlong​ ​wrote​ ​a​ ​letter​ ​to​ ​King​ ​George​ ​refusing​ ​many​ ​British​ ​requests​ ​for​ ​free

trade​ ​and​ ​increased​ ​diplomatic​ ​ties.​ ​The​ ​letter​ ​was​ ​written​ ​as​ ​a​ ​result​ ​of​ ​the​ ​failure​ ​of​ ​the

MaCartney​ ​Mission.​ ​Within​ ​the​ ​letter,​ ​Qianlong​ ​conformed​ ​to​ ​classic​ ​Confucian​ ​ideology,

viewing​ ​China​ ​as​ ​the​ ​Middle​ ​Kingdom​ ​and​ ​the​ ​rest​ ​of​ ​the​ ​world​ ​as​ ​barbaric​ ​states​ ​desiring

to​ ​be​ ​vassal​ ​states​ ​of​ ​China.

 This​ ​is​ ​a​ ​highly​ ​relevant​ ​primary​ ​source​ ​that​ ​provides​ ​context​ ​for​ ​the​ ​western

transformation​ ​of​ ​China,​ ​and​ ​it​ ​describes​ ​in​ ​detail​ ​a​ ​Confucian​ ​worldview​ ​that​ ​was

shattered​ ​by​ ​a​ ​series​ ​of​ ​events​ ​that​ ​opened​ ​China​ ​to​ ​western​ ​powers.

“The​ ​Wars​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Poppies.”​ ​The​ ​Wars​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Poppies​ ​|​ ​History​ ​Today​,

www.historytoday.com/leslie-marchant/wars-poppies.

This​ ​is​ ​a​ ​paper​ ​by​ ​an​ ​Australian​ ​scholar​ ​discussing​ ​the​ ​cultural​ ​and​ ​ideological​ ​factors​ ​of

the​ ​opium​ ​war.​ ​It​ ​also​ ​offers​ ​a​ ​summary​ ​of​ ​the​ ​events,​ ​from​ ​Lin’s​ ​arrival​ ​in​ ​Canton​ ​to​ ​the

Second​ ​Opium​ ​War.​ ​The​ ​author​ ​analyzed​ ​the​ ​causes,​ ​effects,​ ​ideological​ ​differences,​ ​and

situations​ ​of​ ​the​ ​two​ ​empires​ ​involved​ ​in​ ​the​ ​war.​ ​In​ ​addition,​ ​the​ ​author​ ​analyzed​ ​the

interpretation​ ​of​ ​the​ ​war​ ​and​ ​the​ ​impacts​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Open​ ​Door​ ​Policy​ ​adopted​ ​by​ ​western

nations​ ​operating​ ​in​ ​China​ ​later​ ​on.

This​ ​source​ ​is​ ​a​ ​scholarly​ ​article​ ​presented​ ​with​ ​extensive​ ​evidence,​ ​especially​ ​primary

accounts.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​relevant​ ​to​ ​my​ ​research​ ​because​ ​it​ ​discusses​ ​one​ ​of​ ​the​ ​first​ ​events​ ​that

contributed​ ​to​ ​western​ ​influence​ ​in​ ​China​ ​from​ ​a​ ​cultural​ ​standpoint,​ ​evaluating​ ​the

differences​ ​between​ ​Chinese​ ​Confucianism​ ​and​ ​British​ ​capitalist​ ​ideology.

Wei,​ ​Yuan.​ ​Hai​ ​guo​ ​tu​ ​zhi​.​ ​Cheng​ ​wen,​ ​1967.

Chinese​ ​scholar​ ​Wei​ ​Yuan​ ​compiled​ ​many​ ​of​ ​Commissioner​ ​Lin​ ​Zexu’s​ ​study​ ​of​ ​the​ ​west

to​ ​make​ ​a​ ​comprehensive​ ​volume​ ​that​ ​documented​ ​the​ ​rest​ ​of​ ​the​ ​world.​ ​Within​ ​this

source,​ ​there​ ​are​ ​detailed​ ​illustrations,​ ​including​ ​maps​ ​of​ ​foreign​ ​nations,​ ​as​ ​well​ ​as​ ​efforts

of​ ​Lin​ ​to​ ​translate​ ​foreign​ ​newspapers.

This​ ​primary​ ​source​ ​is​ ​highly​ ​relevant​ ​as​ ​it​ ​is​ ​one​ ​of​ ​the​ ​earliest​ ​evidence​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Chinese

learning​ ​from​ ​the​ ​west.

Wu,​ ​Yixiong.​ ​“Interview​ ​with​ ​Professor​ ​Wu​ ​Yixiong.”​ ​14​ ​Jan.​ ​2017.

In​ ​this​ ​short​ ​interview,​ ​Professor​ ​Wu​ ​from​ ​Sun​ ​Yat-Sen​ ​University​ ​discussed​ ​the

implications​ ​of​ ​Lin​ ​Zexu’s​ ​destruction​ ​of​ ​Opium​ ​as​ ​well​ ​as​ ​the​ ​impacts​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Opium​ ​War.

He​ ​provided​ ​confirmation​ ​that​ ​the​ ​Opium​ ​War​ ​was​ ​the​ ​catalyst​ ​for​ ​a​ ​series​ ​of​ ​events​ ​that

represented​ ​western​ ​encroachment​ ​and​ ​thus​ ​the​ ​beginning​ ​of​ ​modern​ ​China.

Professor​ ​Wu’s​ ​answers​ ​to​ ​my​ ​questions​ ​supported​ ​many​ ​other​ ​sources,​ ​and​ ​he​ ​specializes

in​ ​the​ ​research​ ​of​ ​the​ ​transformations​ ​during​ ​the​ ​late​ ​Qing​ ​Dynasty.​ ​This​ ​source​ ​is​ ​relevant

to​ ​my​ ​research​ ​because​ ​it​ ​is​ ​related​ ​to​ ​the​ ​beginning​ ​of​ ​western​ ​influence​ ​in​ ​China.