15BT 101 UNIT V

NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is the part of an animal’s body that co-ordinates the actions of the animal and
transmits signals between different parts of the body.In the most types of animals it consists of two main
parts:

1)CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

2)PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Central Nervous system:

The central nervous system is so named because it integrates information it receives from, and
coordinates and influences the activity of all parts of the bodies of bilaterally symmetric animals.It
consists majorly two parts:
1)The Brain
2) The Spinal Cord
The human brain consists of
• cerebrum,
• cerebellum and
• medulla oblongata.
The cerebrum or cortex is the largest part of the human brain, associated with higher brain function such
as thought and action.
• The cerebral cortex is divided into four
• Frontal Lobe- associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and
problem solving
• Parietal Lobe- associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli
• Occipital Lobe- associated with visual processing
• Temporal Lobe- associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and
speech
CEREBELLUM:
• The cerebellum is located behind the top part of the brain stem (where the spinal cord meets the
brain) and is made of two hemispheres (halves).
• It is a relatively small portion of the brain – about ten percent of the total weight,but it contains
roughly half of the brain's neurons,specialized cells that transmit information via electrical
signals.

Functions :
The cerebellum receives information from the sensory systems, the spinal cord, and other parts of the
brain and then regulates motor movements. The cerebellum coordinates voluntary movements such as
posture, balance, coordination, and speech, resulting in smooth and balanced muscular activity. It is also
important for learning motor behaviors

MEDULLA OBLONGATA
• The medulla oblongata is located in the brain stem, anterior to (in front of) the cerebellum. This is
a cone-shaped, neuronal (nerve cell) mass in the hindbrain, which controls a number of
autonomic (involuntary) functions.
• This section of the brain helps transfer messages to the spinal cord and the thalamus, which is
in the brain, from the body. The main function of the thalamus is to process information to and
from the spinal cord and the cerebellum.
 • The medulla oblongata helps regulate breathing, heart and blood vessel function, digestion,
sneezing, and swallowing.
• This part of the brain is a center for respiration and circulation. Sensory and motor neurons
(nerve cells) from the forebrain and midbrain travel through the medulla.
• It is the regulatory centre for reflex actions including hiccupping, sneezing,coughing and
vomiting.
• It regulates involuntary actions like breathing,
heartbeat and peristalsis.
• The medulla contains the cardiac, respiratory, vomiting and vasomotor centers and therefore deals
with the autonomic functions of breathing, heart rate and blood pressure.
• The spinal cord is a long,thin,tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support cells that extends from
the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of vertebral column.

Spinal cord functions:

• Conveys sensory information to brain
• Conveys motor information to PNS
• Reflexively integrates sensory and motor
information (i.e. decides what to do without asking the brain for
help)
• The peripheral nervous system consists of mainly PERIPHERAL NERVES,which are long fibers
that connect the Central Nervous System to the limbs and organs and every other part of the body.

The peripheral nervous system is divided into:

1)SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

2)AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:

•The somatic nervous system (SoNS or voluntary nervous system) is the part of the peripheral
nervous system associated with skeletal muscle and voluntary control of body movements. They
are also know as voluntary nervous systemsomatic nervous system consists of two parts:
• Spinal nerves: They are peripheral nerves that carry sensory information into and motor
commands out of the spinal cord.
• Cranial nerves: They are the nerve fibers that carry information into and out of the brain stem.
They include smell, vision, eye, eye muscles, mouth, taste, ear, neck, shoulders, and tongue.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

• The autonomic nervous system (ANS) supplies smooth muscle and glands, and thus influences
the function of internal organs.
• The autonomic nervous system is a control system that actslargely unconsciously and regulates
bodily functions such as heart rate,digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination
• The autonomic nervous system has two branches:
• Sympathetic nervous system : The sympathetic nervous system is often considered the "fight or
flight" (is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or
threat to survival)
• Parasympathetic nervous system : considered the "rest and digest" or "feed and breed" system.
Promotes calming of the nerves return to regular function, and enhancing digestion.
 • In many cases, both of these systems have "opposite" actions where one system activates a
physiological response and the other inhibits it.
• Example : Sympathetic nervous Diverts blood flow away from the gastro-intestinal (GI) tract
and skin via vasoconstriction whereas
• Parasympathetic nervous Dilates blood vessels leading to the GI tract, increasing blood flow
which is important after the consumption of food, due to the greater metabolic demands placed
on the body by the gut.

The nervous system has two classes of cells: nerve cells (neurons) and glial cells (glia)

Glial cells

 Glial cells are support cells.

 They are more in number than neurons.
 There are between 10 and 50 times more glia than neurons in the brain of humans.
 The name for these cells derives from the Greek word for glue. In actual terms, the glia do not
commonly hold nerve cells together but surround the neurons.

Figure 5.1. Different types of glial cells in the central and peripheral nervous systems.
 5.1.1.1. Types of Glial
Cells
in the
CNS

 Astrocytes: Most abundant glial cell type, irregular star-shaped cell bodies (Fig. 5.2.).
 Take up and release ions to control the environment around neurons
 Recapture and recycle neurotransmitters
 Involved with synapse formation in developing neural tissue
 Produce molecules necessary for neural growth
 Propagate calcium signals that may be involved in memory

Microglia: Smallest and least

abundant (
Figure 5.3. A
Phagocytes – microglial cell,
the macrophages
of the CNS an immune cell,
Engulf invading inmicroorganisms
the nervous
and dead neurons
system
Derived from blood cells called
monocytes

 Oligodendrocytes: Have few branches

 Wrap their cell processes around axons in CNS,
 Produce myelin sheaths for rapid conduction of nerve impulses
 Schwann cells surround axons in the PNS and form myelin sheath
around axons of the PNS Figure 5.4. Oligodendrocytes are small cells in th
nervous system while their counterparts in the
system are called Schwann cells. Their main rol
furnish myelin sheaths that insulate the neuron
toxic insults.
 

 Wrap their cell processes around axons in CNS,

 Produce myelin sheaths for rapid conduction of nerve impulses
o Schwann cells surround axons in the PNS and form myelin sheath around
axons of the PNS
5.1. 2. Nerve cells- Neurons

 Nerve cells are the main signaling units of the nervous system.
 A typical neuron has four morphologically defined regions: the cell body, dendrites, the
axon, and presynaptic terminal (Fig. 5.5.)
 The cell body (soma) is the metabolic center of the cell. It contains the nucleus which stores
the genes of the cell, as well as the endoplasmic reticulum, an extension of the nucleus
where the cell’s proteins are synthesized.
 The cell body gives rise to two kinds of processes: several short dendrites and one, long,
tubular axon.
 These processes vary in number & relative length but always serve to conduct impulses
(with dendrites conducting impulses toward the cell body and axons conducting impulses
away from the cell body as shown in the figure).
Figure 5.5. (a) SEM of a neuron showing a cell body with dendrites. (b) The cell body with two types of
processes, dendrites and axons.

5.1.2.1 Action Potential

A neuron receives input from other neurons

(typically many thousands). All the input signals
are integrated (Fig. 5.6). Once input exceeds a
critical level, the neuron discharges a spike - an
electrical pulse that travels from the body, down the
axon, to the next neuron(s) (or other receptors).
This spiking event is also called depolarization,
and is followed by a refractory period, during
which the neuron is unable to fire.
 The axon endings (Output Zone) almost touch the dendrites or cell body of the next neuron.
Transmission of an electrical signal from one neuron to the next is effected by
neurotransmitters, chemicals which are released from the first neuron and which bind to
receptors in the second (Fig. 5.7). This link is Figure 5.6. A motor neuron with input
called a synapse. The extent to which the signal and output zones.
from one neuron is passed on to the next depends
on many factors, e.g. the amount of neurotransmitter available, the number and arrangement of
receptors, amount of neurotransmitter reabsorbed, etc.

neurotransmitter

neurotransmitter

Figure 5.7. A neuron forming a synapse with another neuron and releasing neurotransmitters for
propagation of action potentials and thus, influencing various functions.

 The dendrites branch out in a tree-like fashion and are the main apparatus for receiving
incoming signals from other nerve cells.
 In contrast, the axon extends away from the cell body and is the main conducting unit for
carrying signals for other neurons.
 An axon can convey electrical signals along distances ranging from 0.1 mm to 3 m. These
electrical signals called action potentials are rapid, transient with an amplitude of 100 mV and a
duration of about 1ms.
 Neurons can respond to stimuli and conduct impulses because a membrane potential is
established across the cell membrane. In other words, there is an unequal distribution of ions
(charged atoms) on the two sides of a nerve cell membrane.

SUPPORTING CELLS
• The Nervous System consists of neurons and glial cells/supporting cells.
 • The Nervous System plays an important role as they transfer message from one part of the body
to another through synapses in seconds.
Neuron :

 Nerve cells are the main signaling units of the nervous system.
 A typical neuron has four morphologically defined regions: the cell body, dendrites, the axon,
and presynaptic terminal
 The cell body (soma) is the metabolic center of the cell. It contains the nucleus which stores
the genes of the cell, as well as the endoplasmic reticulum, an extension of the nucleus where
the cell’s proteins are synthesized.
 The cell body gives rise to two kinds of processes: several short dendrites and one, long,
tubular axon.
 These processes vary in number & relative length but always serve to conduct impulses (with
dendrites conducting impulses toward the cell body and axons conducting impulses away
from the cell body
NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS

Any disorder to the nervous system, structural, biochemical or electrical abnormalities in brain, spine or
nerves.
Symptoms – paralysis, muscle weakness, poor coordination and altered levels of consciousness
ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE

• It is an age associated disorder

• Leads to loss of memory, cognition, and executive performance
• Chronic neuro degenerative disease which slowly worsens with time
• It may be genetic
Symptoms
• Memory loss
• Confusion in time and place
• Poor judgements
• New problems with words and writing
• Challenges in planning or solving problems
• Misplacing things

PARKINSON’S DISEASE

• Also an age associated disorder

• Leads to rigidity and inco-ordination, interfering with mobility
• Results in death of dopamine cells
• Symptoms
• Feeling hopeless
• Irritability
• Inability to experience pleasure
• Fatigue or loss or energy
• Sleep problems

DYSLEXIA
• Known as reading disorder
• Difficulty in learning despite normal intelligence
• Problems include writing words, sounding words, spelling words, etc.
Symptoms
• Late talker
• Pronunciation problem
• Poor handwriting
• Difficulty in remembering numbers
• Confusion betwee “b” & “d”
OTHER NEURAL DISORDERS
Narcolapsy
• Person becomes drowsy and falls asleep often
Symptoms
• Loss of muscle control
• Sleep paralysis, micro sleep
Bipolar disorder
• Mental disorder which has elevated mood and period of depresson
 • The elevated mood is known as mania and hypo-mania. During mania they feel abnormally
happy.
• Symptoms
• Slowed movement, rigid muscles, impaired posture, no automatic movements .

Nervous System

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM PERIPHERAL NERVOUS

SYSTEM

Brain Spinal Chord Somatic Autonomic

Cerebrum Medulla Spinal nerves Cranial nerves

Cerebellum Oblongata

Sympathetic nerves Parasympathetic nerves

 IMMUNOLOGY
• Study of defence mechanisms of the body against foreign substances including m.os that enter
into the body
• The cells involved in defending the body against the foreign particles called immune system
• The body’s defense against disease causing organisms, malfunctioning cells, and foreign particles
Types of Immune cells
3 types of cells
1. WBC cells
2. RBC cells
3. Platelets
WBC cells also called leucocytes
Play an role in search recognition and elimination of foreign intruders
Leucocytes can be classified into neutrophilis ,basophils, esinophils , and monocytes
Lymphocytes
• Produce antibodies
• B-cells mature in bone marrow then concentrate in lymph nodes and spleen
• T-cells mature in thymus
• B and T cells mature then circulate in the blood and lymph
• Circulation ensures they come into contact with pathogens and each other
B -Lymphocytes
• At the clone stage antibodies do not leave the B-cells.
• The abs are embedded in the plasma membrane of the cell and are
• called antibody receptors.
• When the receptors in the membrane recognise and antigen on the surface of the pathogen the B-
cell divides rapidly.
• The antigens are presented to the B-cells by macrophages
 • Some activated B cells  PLASMA CELLS these produce lots of antibodies, < 1000/sec
• The antibodies travel to the blood, lymph, lining of gut and lungs.
• The number of plasma cells goes down after a few weeks
• Antibodies stay in the blood longer but eventually their numbers go down too.
Antibodies
• Also known as immunoglobulins
• Globular glycoproteins
• The heavy and light chains are polypeptides
• The chains are held together by disulphide bridges
• Each ab has 2 identical ag binding sites – variable regions.
• The order of amino acids in the variable region determines the shape of the binding site
• Some act as labels to identify
• antigens for phagocytes
• Some work as antitoxins i.e. they block toxins for e.g. those causing diphtheria and tetanus
 Summary of Acquired Immunity

Innate Immunity

 Non specific immunity

 Natural
 Can be considered as the first line of defense against foreign substances
 Innate immunity alone is insufficient to tackle many diseases producing microbes.
 The host against the microbes
1.,anatomic barrier
2.Physiologic barrier
3. Inflammation
4.Phagocytic
5 . Enzyme against soluble proteins
 Skin :
Prevents the penetration of most pathogens
Breaks the skin due to injury
It helps m.os to enter in to the body
 Mucous membrane:
Covers the alimentary canal , respiratory and genitourinary tract and eyes
Pathogens can penetrate the mucous membrane enter in to the body
Covered by hair like protusions of epithelial cells called cilia
 Physiological barrier:
Body temperature, PH, and soluble factors
Normal temp inhibit the growth of pathogen
 Many m.os cant live at very low PH
PH in stomach is very low due to HCl acid secretion
Acidic environment in stomach is lethal to many m.os
 Phagocytic mechanism
Ingestion or engulfment of particular matter of cells
Neutrophils , monocytes,and macrophages are the important phagocytic cells
Neutrophils accumalate in vast numbers around the infected area
Engulf the bacteria
Contain plenty of lysosomal granules
Enz of lysosomal granules kill the engulfed bacteria
Present in secretions of human saliva, mucus, and tears
 Acquired immunity
Cell mediated immunity
Humoral immunity
Immune response mediate by Abs produced by B lymphocytes – humoral immunity
Mediate by Abs produced by T lymphocytes – cellmediated immunity
 cellmediated immunity
1. First entry of microbe in to the host
2. B and T lymphocytes recognize the microbe and become activated
3. Activated B cells produce Abs
4. Abs bind to microbe
5. Leads to death of microbe
6. Activated T lymphocytes secrete substance called cytokines
7. Cytokines activate such as macrophages leads to killing and elimination of microbes