ABSTRACT:

The main objective this paper is to highlight the various aspects of

prefabricated building methodologies and adoption of alternate building materials for low
cost housing. In a building the foundation, walls, doors and windows, floors and roofs are the
most important components, which can be analysed individually based on the needs thus,
improving the speed of construction and reducing the construction cost. The major methods
of construction systems considered here are namely, prefabricated roofing components like
precast RC planks, precast hollow concrete panels, precast concrete/Ferro cement panels and
usage of new alternative building materials like Fly –Ash sand lime bricks, Solid concrete and
stone blocks, Cellular Concrete, Laterite Blocks, Dry-Hydrated Lime, Rice-husk Ash Pozzolana
and Hollow Concrete Blocks. The results of this research shows that at what standards the
building can construct with use of alternative building materials and how far we can
implement those standards.
Introduction

Around half of all non-renewable resources mankind consumes are used in

construction, making it one of the least sustainable industries in the world. However, mankind
has spent the majority of its existence trying to manipulate the natural environment to better
suit its needs so today our daily lives are carried out in and on constructions of one sort or
another: we live in houses, we travel on roads, we work and socialise in buildings of all kinds.
Contemporary human civilisation depends on buildings and what they contain for its
continued existence, and yet our planet cannot support the current level of resource
consumption associated with them.

Estimate of global resources used in buildings (Cost of design and construction)

Estimate of global pollution that can be attributed to buildings (Operating costs)

Construction Materials:
The materials used in building construction also have a serious impact on the
environment. First of all, many of the materials used in the construction of buildings are
produced in a non-sustainable way. The factories that make the materials produce damaging
CO2 emissions.

Then there’s the issue of transportation. Materials that are not produced locally are
often shipped from across the country or even from overseas. The transportation required
for shipping these materials has a considerable impact on air quality.

There is a huge environmental impact associated with the extraction and consumption
of raw materials for the use of building materials. Not to mention the actual production of
those materials in their final form. According to the USGBC, 40% of the world’s raw materials
are used in the construction of buildings.

Construction sector contributes to 23% of air pollution, 50% of the climatic change,
40% of drinking water pollution, and 50% of landfill wastes.

Due to this, the construction and civil engineering activities have experienced a boom
due to the rapid improvement in building material. However, the current scenario in the
booming construction industry has posed many challenges due to some unsustainable
aspects of the highly polluting and the exhaustive nature of building materials. At the same
time, it has also created opportunities for innovative and unconventional resources to emerge
due to the widening gap in demand and supply of building materials, as well as the need for
energy efficient and economical methods of construction.

Way back in 1990, the central government took the initiative to set up the Building
Materials & Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC) to promote cost-effective, eco-friendly
and energy efficient building materials and technologies. Some of the natural materials that
were considered by BMTPC as potentially viable building materials are: 27 types of agro-
industrial wastes, by-products, residues, natural fibers, plantation timbers, including rice and
wheat husk, bagasse from sugarcane, coir, hemp etc., that are cultivated on a large scale in
Indian farms and some other materials like Rice Husk Ash Concrete, plastic bricks, bagasse
particle board etc...

Many state governments have done researches on usage of Alternative Building

Materials for constructing a building for stepping towards the sustainable development.

Alternative building materials:

Basically alternative building material means?

Alternate building materials are those which can be used economically by replacing
the conventional building materials. Alternate building materials are made from waste
products and thus it even minimizes environmental pollutions.

These alternate building materials can be used when it meets the respective
specifications in the code of practice.

Before going in depth about usage of alternative building materials we should know
about the Embodied Energy.

Embodied Energy:

Embodied energy is one part of a building material’s overall environmental impact.

Embodied energy is the total energy required for the extraction, processing, manufacture and
delivery of building materials to the building site. Energy consumption produces CO2, which
contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, so embodied energy is considered an indicator of
the overall environmental impact of building materials and systems.

Reducing the embodied energy is very important to reduce the environment impact which
raises due to building materials.

Why reduce embodied energy?

Energy consumption during manufacture can give an approximate indication of the

environmental impact of the material, and for most building materials, the major
environmental impacts occur during the initial processes.

The total amount of embodied energy may account for 20% of the building’s energy use,
so reducing embodied energy can significantly reduce the overall environmental impact of
the building.

Embodied energy must be considered over the lifespan of a building, and in many
situations, a higher embodied energy building material or system may be justified because it
reduces the operating energy requirements of the building. For example, a durable material
with a long lifespan such as aluminium may be the appropriate material selection despite its
high embodied energy.

As the energy efficiency of a building increases, reducing the energy consumption, the
embodied energy of the building materials will also become increasingly important.

Buildings should be designed and materials selected to balance embodied energy with
factors such as climate, availability of materials and transport costs.

Lightweight building materials often have lower embodied energy than heavyweight
materials, but in some situations, lightweight construction may result in higher energy use.
For example, where heating or cooling requirements are high, this may raise the overall
energy use of the building.

Conversely, for buildings with high heating or cooling requirements but where there is a
large diurnal (day/night) temperature range, heavyweight construction (typically with high
embodied energy) and the inclusion of high levels of insulation can offset the energy use
required for the building.

When selecting building materials, the embodied energy should be considered with
respect to:

 the durability of building materials

 how easily materials can be separated
 use of locally sourced materials
 use of recycled materials
 specifying standard sizes of materials
  avoiding waste
 selecting materials that are manufactured using renewable energy sources.

How is embodied energy measured?

Embodied energy is measured as the quantity of non-renewable energy per unit of

building material, component or system. It is expressed in megajoules (MJ) or gigajoules (GJ)
per unit weight (kg or tonne) or area (m2) but the process of calculating embodied energy is
complex and involves numerous sources of data.

To get clarify about the embodied energy consideration in selection of building

materials. A case study of embodied energy is shown below:

The embodied energy of the major components for a 1½ storey house of 195 m 2 is set out in
the following table.
 The table shows that the weight of materials used in construction can have an impact
on relative embodied energy. For example, per kilogram of material, steel roofing has an
embodied energy around 43 times greater than concrete roof tiles, but because the weight
of steel required for a roof is far less than the weight of concrete tiles, the comparative
embodied energy of a roof-lot of steel reduces to about 4 times greater than concrete roof
tiles.

Here the reason to consider the embodied energies in building materials is to know
the importance of appropriate material selection and to know about the environmental
effects of building materials used in construction.

So, from above information the alternative building materials has less embodied
energy with respect to the type of building material.

Why Use Alternative Building Materials?

Stick building or traditional building methods are still just as popular and relevant
today as they ever were. In fact, stick building is one of the least expensive ways to build a
home, and most builders, contractors, and homeowners are familiar with the process. After
all, if you’ve ever taken a home improvement course, you’re already familiar with how to
examine, build, and repair many of the things in your home. So why would you want to use
alternative building materials?

There are actually several good reasons why people may choose to build in an
alternative way. Many of these methods are becoming increasingly popular as people hear
more about them.

 Expenses
 Time
 Eco-Friendly
 Strength and Weight

Alternative building materials are also called Eco-friendly materials.

Building Materials in the Perspective of Sustainable Development:

Sustainable development is a strategy that provides a framework within which

communities try to find economic development modalities based on the effective use of
resources, on new commercial activities in order to consolidate economy, while protecting
and improving the environment.
Sustainable development in the field of civil engineering requires the attainment of
several objectives, of which the most important are:

 reduction of the use of conventional energy sources (fossil fuels) and use
 of renewable energy sources;
 conservation of natural areas and biodiversity;
 insurance of a healthy interior environment;
 use of ecological materials.
Particularly important in achieving these objectives is the selection of ecological building
materials and the production of new ecological materials according to the requirements of
sustainable development.

In order to avoid the negative impact on the environment, the process of design and
production of ecological materials should take into consideration the effects of the following
factors that occur during the life cycle of these materials:

 the energy consumed in the extraction, manufacture, transport, construction

processes;
 the degree of environmental damage caused by the extraction of materials;
 the amount of waste generated during the extraction and manufacturing processes;
 the amount of pollutants resulting from the extraction,
manufacture, construction, demolition processes;
 pollution as an effect of the storage of materials resulting from demolition;
 the volume of ultimate waste;
 the percentage of recyclable or reusable material;
 the durability of the material and its effects on the life duration of the building.
There are no ideal solutions regarding the construction methods and there are no purely
ecological materials, but a correct, well documented analysis will facilitate a more
“friendly/favourable” result in relation to the environment.
The selection of the material with optimal construction characteristics for a specific use
requires a multicriteria analysis of all factors with a negative impact on the environment.

CRITERIA FOR THE EVALUATION OF BUILDING MATERIALS FROM

AN ECOLOGICAL POINT OF VIEW:

In the present context, the entire building industry is facing special priorities regarding
the execution of ecological constructions. For this purpose, both material manufacturers and
builders should take into account as early as the design stage the factors that influence the
quality of the environment during the life cycle of the materials, considering the following
criteria:

 The criterion or resources, which establishes the adequacy of the use of

material resources, taking into account their amount, the possibility of their
renewal, their spatial position in relation to the location of their processing or
use.
  The criterion of topographic change is closely related to the criterion of
resources, its importance consisting in the requirement of the conservation of
natural systems. Economic development resulting in necessary topographic
changes in an area should not irreversibly affect natural ecological balance.

 The criterion of waste and its recycling is important from two essential points
of view: the environmental impact and the embodied energy. This criterion
should be considered as early as the stage of the elaboration of the feasibility
study and design.

 The criterion of pollution is related to those processes of manufacture of

building materials that have negative effects on the environment (global
heating, acidification, reduction of the ozone layer, etc.). This criterion requires
the finding and the use of the building materials with the lowest impact on the
environment.

 The energy criterion incorporates the energy requirements for the life cycle of
a building. Since energy production affects both, natural resources and the
environment through the resulting pollutants, the energy criterion is one of
the most important criteria that should be taken into account in the building
industry. The indicators by which this criterion is relevantly defined are the
embodied energy in building materials and systems and the operating energy.

 The biological criterion takes into account the effects of materials on the
health of people during the life cycle of building materials. The knowledge of
the risks that old and modern building materials pose to health is essential in
order to ensure the protection of workers and users.

BUILDING MATERIALS IN THE ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE:

An analysis of materials that are frequently used in construction from the point of view
of the embodied energy, of the resources from which they are derived and their availability,
as well as their effects on health, focuses the attention of specialists on the discovery of new
materials, manufacturing technologies and building systems.
An increase in the interest in the use of traditional materials such as earth, wood,
straw etc., as well as new building materials and systems such as insulating concrete forms,
autoclaved cellular concrete and even metal products combined with thermal and sound
insulating materials is seen.
 From an ecological point of view, an ideal building material would be one for which
the raw material is found in nature and needs no or low processing, its manufacturing energy
is derived from renewable sources and after use it is completely recycled.

 Clay bricks are building materials that largely meet these requirements. Their
manufacture uses raw material that is abundantly available, the incorporated energy
is extremely low considering that solar energy is used, and after demolition they can
be easily reintegrated into the natural circuit.

 Ceramic blocks are made of raw materials that are found in sufficient amounts in
the terrestrial crust; although some of them have a high amount of embodied
energy, they are successfully used in construction due to their mechanical and
thermo-physical properties. They have no negative effects on health.

 Wood is an abundant renewable ecological material which, due to its physical-

mechanical properties and multiple technical-economic advantages, is
increasingly used in many countries, in a large variety of products (logs, plywood,
chipboard, glued laminated timber, etc.).

 Modern wood materials are obtained by a change in the composition and the
structure of wood material and have superior technical characteristics. Their
manufacturing technology involves an increased amount of embodied energy,
which however remains within reasonable limits.

 Metals are materials with a major impact on the environment from an ecological
point of view, because the manufacturing process involves high energy
consumption. Although the embodied energy is considerable, they are durable
building materials, with a long life cycle, at the end of which recycling can be
successfully performed, contributing in this way to the reduction of the amount
of raw materials and energy required for new constructions.

 Thermal insulating materials used in construction, although high energy

consumers, have an increased ecological value due to the reduction of operating
energy.

In the context of an effective use of raw material resources and of a reduction in

pollution, the manufacture of new effective ecological building materials involves the
good management of material and energy resources.

REDUCTION OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF BUILDING MATERIALS:

The main solutions regarding the reduction of the environmental impact of building
materials are:
 the rational and effective use of raw materials;
 reduction of the amount of embodied energy;
  waste management;
 manufacture of new ecological building materials;

Some of the ways of achievement of these objectives are:

 selection of optimal building materials (for their specific use) so that the
energy incorporated in the building systems should be as low as possible;
 minimization of the required operating energy;
 adequate management of waste material, based on the effective material
and energy use and the reduction of the stored waste;
 energetic valorisation of waste, achievable by the replacement of fossil
fuels used in the manufacturing of cement with alternative fuels derived
from waste or various technological processes (worn tires, plastics, Profuel,
Cemfuel, etc.);
 use of waste as materials, which eventually means an effective energy use,
achievable by:
I. recycling of materials with high embodied energy (e.g. metals);
II. recycling of waste with a view to their use in concrete industry as:
aggregate substitutes (rice husks, sawdust, coconut pith, cork
granules, crushed concrete, broken bricks etc.), Portland cement
substitutes (thermal power station ash, blast furnace slag, rice husk
ash, etc.);
III. recycling of waste for the production of new ecological materials
(e.g. straw products, bricks made of paper fibres agglomerated with
cement, sludge-based mortars).

LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF MATERIALS:

From an ecological point of view, building materials should be considered in terms of

their potential effects and impact on the environment during their life cycle.
The aim of life cycle assessment in the case of building materials is in the first place to
compare the environmental impact of different products that have the same use. LCA can
also be used as a decision-making instrument in the design of new products.
The evaluation of the environmental effects of materials can be performed by various
methods for impact analysis.
The methods and programs for the analysis of materials from an ecological point of
view are in a continuous development process, each having a number of advantages and
disadvantages.

 The method of the critical volume is easy and comfortable to use for the
assessment of ecological impact relying on the norms in force, but is defective
because norms change in time and differ from one country to another.
  CML-2 is an adequate method for the life cycle assessment of a product or
process, allowing the evaluation and the interpretation of results based on
analysis methods such as: dominance analysis, hierarchical elimination
analysis, qualitative or quantitative multicriteria analysis.

 The method of qualitative environmental protection numbers (kv) is a

relatively practical method, based on which the designer obtains accurate
information on the best material for a specific use, assessed from an
ecological point of view; however, the method is qualitatively subjective.

 The building material selection guide presents a large amount of

information and gives the designer indications about the technical
conditions, the alternatives of use of materials, the recovery of waste, the
environmental and health problems raised by the different materials.
However, the large amount of information poses particular problems to
the designer regarding the choice of the material with optimal
characteristics.

Both the methods and the programs are focused on the analysis of
materials only regarding the environmental effects and possibly the costs
involved, without approaching other criteria that are absolutely necessary for
sustainable development.
This has generated the idea of finding a method for the analysis of
materials that might respond to these requirements. Such a method is ECCOMAT
– 09.

THE “ECCOMAT – 09” METHOD AND SOFTWARE FOR THE SELECTION OF

ECOLOGICAL BUILDING MATERIALS:

ECCOMAT–09 is a multicriteria analysis method for the selection of the optimal

ecological material from a large number of materials for the same use.
The field of application is the design and execution of buildings with ecological
materials and the extension of research in order to obtain new ecological materials.
The analysis concerns ecological, hygro-thermal comfort characteristics, mechanical
strengths and costs.
From an ecological point of view, the greenhouse effect, acidification, eutrophication,
toxicity effects as well as waste management are analysed.
Environmental impact is assessed based on the material-energy balance, taking into
account the energy incorporated in materials and fuel consumption for transportation.
 The evaluation of hygro-thermal comfort is performed by taking into consideration
the following thermo-technical characteristics of materials: specific heat; thermal
conductivity; the vapor permeability resistance factor; thermal diffusivity.
Using an improved multicriteria analysis with a scoring system proportional to the
value of effects, the program gives the best solution based on which designers and
researchers in the field of construction can make adequate decisions.
The ECCOMAT–09 analysis of building materials gives a concrete answer to the
designer regarding the material with optimal characteristics for the construction of a building
depending on its use.
The researcher involved in the production of a new building material has the
possibility to discover the weak links in the life cycle of the product, having recourse to the
analysis of the characteristics of the raw and other materials required for hygro-thermal
comfort, resistance and environmental protection (including waste management).
The calculation program based on the ECCOMAT–09 analysis method is an instrument
that offers the users many possibilities for the management and the assessment of building
materials, helping them obtain the optimal solution in an easy and rapid way.
The ECCOMAT–09 program has the following characteristic elements:

 an intuitive user interface based on ISO 14040;

 easy parameterized modelling, with analysis based on scenarios of importance
of criteria categories;
 compilation of life cycle inventories using the in-house data including the data
introduced by the user;
 reporting of data in a number of different ways by the use of table/graphic
display options with comparative values for different materials depending on
the chosen parameters;
 input – output data base program;
 classification of results;
 extensive filtering options for all results.
Properties:

Reduce pollution
Air pollution-Use of materials with low emissions.

E.g. Cement paints.

Water pollution-Materials that prevent leaching.

Land pollution-Materials that reuse waste that would otherwise have resulted in landfill.

E.g. Fly ash bricks.

Eco building materials:

The environmental impact of building materials.
Environmental Issues Related to Building Materials:

The production of building materials often leads to two types of environmental/health

related problems. Firstly, a particular building material can lead to a local environmental
impact either in the form of pollution/health hazard or in the depletion of natural resources.
Secondly, building materials production using fossil fuel energies can cause global
environmental problems like global warming. There is a need to mitigate these two kinds of
environmental problems. Typical problems are discussed below.

1.Stone
Stone, especially granite, is extensively used in building construction. Size stone is
often used for foundations and walls. Crushed stone aggregate is widely used for concrete
manufacture. Considerable amount of fine granite dust is generated at the site of stone
extraction whether it is manual shaping of stone or mechanized crushing. The stone workers
often inhale the fine dust and succumb to silicosis or tuberculosis after several years of such
work. The entrepreneurs involved in stone processing seem to have no concern for the health
of the workers involved in such activities. There is a need to educate the workers and
employers about the dangers of stone dust and develop suitable filters such that inhalation
of the fine dust can be avoided.

2.Top soil for Brick

The top soil is often used for brick making, especially in the Indogangetic plains. It is
well known that the top soil is a rich source of nutrients for trees and crops and this nutrient
base is depleted by large scale brick manufacture near metropolitan cities like Delhi. The
landscape is also destroyed by unorganized creation of pits which can render the land useless
for agriculture or other non-agricultural uses. Careful planning, by retaining the top soil while
taking out the soil in the lower zones or by creating natural water bodies, can largely mitigate
this problem. In South India, the problem is less acute since there area large number of
irrigation tanks which contain enormous quantities of silt. A small fraction of this silt can
provide all the bricks for building construction.

3. Pollution by Marble Dust

The marble processing industry in Rajasthan produces large quantities of fine marble dust
which can affect the usability of agricultural land. The marble dust can be used as a resource
in number of ways.

a. Additive to cement to make masonry cement.

b. Source of calcium carbonate for lime/cement industry.
c. Building products like Stabilized Mud Blocks, marble dust + resin for wash basin.

4. Mangalore Tile
The extensive use of firewood for making Mangalore tiles in Coastal India has led to a
deforestation in the Coastal regions. It is possible to use natural gas or coal for tile burning.
Use of imported fossil fuels is the only way to save the forest tracts in these parts.
Development of other alternatives to tiles is also desirable to avoid deforestation as well as
fossil fuel burning.

5. The Question of Timber

Good quality timber is in short supply in India. Very often, timber imported from
Malaysia and Australia is used in building construction. Some organizations like the CPWD
have a tendency to ban the use of timber since excessive demand for timber can lead to
massive deforestation. Many a time, attempts are made to replace timber by concrete or
ferrocement. This is perhaps a good short term strategy. However, in the long run this
approach can be counter productive. It is necessary to recognize that timber is a material
which is totally based on Solar Energy while cement based materials depend on fossil fuels.
Cement based materials cause depletion of fossil fuels and excessive carbon emissions leading
to global warming. Use of timber also alleviates global warming since the carbon in timber is
stored for a long period. Thus, timber is a very environment friendly material, provided it can
be procured without disturbing natural forests.

The question before the Civil Engineer is to examine the possibility of growing timber
in non-forest lands in an ecologically sound manner. There is a need to avoid ‘plantation’ type
of concepts wherein a single species is planted in monoculture over large tracts of land. Again,
growing timber is a long drawn out process and cannot be pursued by a corporate, profit
oriented approach. The land requirement for such programmes may not be large. However,
the political will and ecological sensitivity needed to pursue such programmes may not be
available in our society at present.

There is also a tendency to think only in terms of growing teak wood. There are a
whole range of good quality timbers available in this country, other than teak wood. There is
a need for concerted efforts by Foresters and Civil Engineers to grow all the available timber
species. Time horizon for such programmes may range between 30 to 40 years. The
environmental benefits of such programmes can be immense.

Global Warming:
The utilization of fossil fuels like coal and petroleum has been increasing steadily for
more than 200 years after the invention of the Steam Engine and I.C. Engines. The carbon-di-
oxide in the atmosphere which was about 280 ppm at the beginning of the Industrial
Revolution, has now reached levels like 354 ppm. There has been an explosive growth of
research on Global Warming due to carbon-di-oxide emissions and other gases released by
the Industry. While the opinion is divided, many scientists believe that Global Warming has
arrived due to excessive burning of fossil fuels and the removal of carbon sinks by
deforestation.

The Kyoto Protocol has been agreed to by several countries across the globe to reduce
consumption of fossil fuels over the coming decades.
Populous countries like India and China are also emerging as major consumers of fossil fuels
although their per capita energy consumption is below the levels in Western Countries.
Further Industrialization of these countries will certainly add to the Global Warming unless
new low energy strategies are developed.

The importance of buildings in the energy scenario can be understood by the fact that
in the European Union 40% of the total energy consumption is accounted for by buildings
sector. The buildings also contribute 30% of the total CO2 emission in EU. This shows that
development is invariably associated with high impact on the Global Environment. It is hence
essential to explore ‘Energy Efficient Building Alternatives’. Here again, two categories of
energy efficiency need to be recognized. Firstly, the embodied energy in a building needs to
be reduced. Secondly, the energy used during the operational life of a building should also be
reduced. Connaughton reports that 10% of the Industrial energy consumption in UK goes to
building materials production while 56% of the energy is used in the maintenance of the
building. This shows that a building consumes far more energy during its life time than what
is spent during its construction. In a typical calculation the energy used by a low rise flat in UK
over 25 years is about 12 GJ/m2 while the energy content of the building is only about 4 GJ/m2.
In another calculation in the Indian context, a 2-storeyed brick and RC building consumed 2.65
GJ/m2 during its construction, while it consumed 5.83 GJ/m2 over a 25 year period. Countries
like India have not yet reached the levels of a developed country like UK in energy
consumption. However, recent trends in air conditioning buildings in India can exacerbate the
situation since most of the buildings are poorly insulated and guzzle lot of energy to maintain
thermal comfort. Use of Solar Passive Cooling concepts and improved thermal insulation are
needed to mitigate these problems. A brick vaulted building with simple Solar Passive Cooling
concepts was built in a village near Bangalore which showed significant improvements in
indoor climate with marginal cost inputs.

For example, the embodied energy in a building will be

Total Embodied Energy in a Building

The Table also clearly shows that RC frame constructions have more embodied energy than
masonry buildings. It is perfectly feasible to build 4 to 6 storeyed masonry buildings using
bricks/blocks with strengths in the range of 8.0 to 20.0 MPa. Hollow-Concrete Blocks or
Stabilized Mud Blocks of 8.0 MPa strength can be easily obtained with technologies available
in India. Wire cut bricks with strengths of 20.0 MPa are also available. Thus a switch over to
masonry of moderate rise (4 to 6 storeys) can save 30.0 to 40% of the embodied energy. It
must also be pointed out that the use of Steel Framed Construction, which is common in the
West, will consume more energy than an RC Framed building for comparable heights.

Where as, MPa-Megapascal

ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY AND COST EFFECTIVE BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES:

Role of Transportation in Buildings:

Transportation of building materials to the construction site contributes to the
cost and embodied energy of a building. Greater the distance of transportation, greater is the
consumption of energy and money. Over the years, a variety of transport vehicles are now
available in India, often tempting the user to procure materials from greater distances. Figure
1.1 shows the influence of distance and mode of on the cost of transporting 1 cu.m of soil.
The figure also shows how the changing cost of energy is escalating the transport cost. Thus,
a traditional transport mode like the bullock cart is becoming obsolete in recent times as it
cannot compete with fossil fuel based transportation. This figure also brings home the point
that procuring building materials at short distances (local materials) becomes important for
saving energy and costs. In case a particular material is not available at short distances, it is
useful to explore alternative techniques to perform similar tasks.

Efficient Foundations and Walls:

Use of stones (size stones or random rubble) is quite common in South India for
foundations of walls. However, the modern practice of using cement mortar makes the
foundation rather expensive. Traditionally, two storeyed buildings have been built on stone-
in-mud mortar foundations. The stress levels in the foundation are generally so low that even
mud-mortars should suffice. Use of soil-cement or soil-lime-cement as mortars should prove
to be a cost effective alternative. Use of arched foundations is also a cost-effective alternative.
Wall construction can be cost effective, if the finish of the masonry unit is so good as
to eliminate plastering. Good quality Stabilized Mud Block (SMB) or Hollow Concrete Block
(HCB) can lead to such walling solutions. Use of cement-soil-sand mortars is also cost effective
compared to cement-mortar without sacrificing masonry strength or durability.
There is often a tendency to reduce the thickness of the wall, especially in framed
structures, to achieve cost reduction. It must be noted that a wall thickness which is less than
225 mm can lead to penetration of heat, especially from East and West facing walls. The
marginal reduction in cost is then accompanied by significant thermal discomfort in the
interior. Increased use of fans and coolers will also lead to greater energy consumption
throughout the life of the building.
Cost and Energy Efficient Roofing Systems:
A number of efficient roofing alternatives can be considered. Use of partial or
complete prefabrication can lead to efficient use of materials. This will also permit
combination of two or three different materials for cost and energy economy. For instance,
in a Jack Arch Roofing, expensive concrete is partially replaced by brick masonry.
Use of filler slabs, where the tension zone concrete is partly replaced by SMB or brick
is also cost and energy efficient.
Use of brick domes and vaults can lead to roofing systems which reduce penetration
of solar heat into the building. Openings at the crown will facilitate air movement. Reduction
in the steel used facilitates reduction in the embodied energy as well.

BUILDINGS IN DIFFERENT CLIMATIC REGIONS:

The Indian subcontinent has widely varied climatic conditions. Some of the major
categories of climate may be listed as :
a. Hot Summer and Cold Winter
b. Hot Summer and Moderate Winter
c. Hot and Humid
d. Moderate Summer and Cold Winter
e. Cool Summer and Very Cold Winter.

Types of alternative building materials: