PHYS 2211L LAB 3

Uniformly Accelerated Motion

Purpose
This laboratory is a set of experiments involving constant accelerations. In Experiment 1
we will measure the acceleration of free-fall using a “Picket Fence”, a photogate, and the
DataStudio system. In Experiment 2 we will time the motion of a cart on an inclined
plane. In Experiment 3, we will test the mass-independence of gravitational acceleration.

Principles
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity:

dv
a .
dt

If the acceleration is constant, then so is the change in velocity over equal time intervals
and the velocity will increase at a constant rate. The graph of velocity over time will be a
straight line, with the acceleration as the slope.

This allows us to find the equations of motion of an object (velocity as a function of time,
position as a function of time) algebraically instead of by integration, as is usually the
case. Such equations are called kinematic equations since they show the relationship
between position, velocity and acceleration.

Whether the acceleration is constant is determined by the forces on the object. Near the
surface of the Earth, the force of gravity is fairly constant, leading to constant
accelerations in many commonly encountered situations. For instance, an object in free-
fall will experience constant acceleration (if we ignore air resistance), as was first
demonstrated by Galileo in the 17th century. Objects sliding or rolling over a surface,
whether flat or inclined, will also experience nearly constant accelerations, even if there
is friction involved.

Galileo also first demonstrated that all objects in free-fall experience the same
acceleration, regardless of their mass (to the extent that air resistance can be neglected).
The acceleration of free-fall is given the symbol g and has the value of 9.80 m/s2 at the
latitude of Atlanta (g does vary with slightly with latitude and with altitude). The mass-
independence of gravitational acceleration extends to any situation where gravity is the
cause of the acceleration and other forces are negligible, such as an object rolling down
an incline.

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PHYS 2211L LAB 3

Uniformly Accelerated Motion

Free-fall Acceleration

If acceleration is constant, then its value at any instant will be the same as the average
acceleration over any time interval. The average acceleration is defined as

v
(1) a .
t

If we have a set of data showing the position of an object over small time intervals, we
can use (1) to calculate the acceleration during each interval and to confirm (or not
confirm) that it is constant. This is what we will do in the Picket Fence experiment.

To determine Δv for each interval, we make use of the definition of average velocity:

x
(2) v
t

where Δx is the change in position and Δt is the time interval. We also make use of the
fact that, for constant acceleration, the instantaneous velocity at the midpoint of the time
interval is equal to the average velocity over the time interval. That is,

t1  t 2 x  x1
v midpo int  v( )v  2
2 t 2  t1

where x2 and x1 are the positions of the object at the beginning and the end of the time
interval t2 – t1. Thus the position-time data allows us to construct the velocity at selected
times, which in turn can be used to calculate the acceleration.

Kinematic Equations for Constant Acceleration

We often want to determine acceleration by timing the entire motion, instead of timing it
interval-by-interval. If we know that the acceleration is constant, we can determine its
value as follows.

If we call the total displacement of the object d and the total time of travel t, we can
rewrite (2) as

d  vt

(replacing x with d and t with t). If the motion starts from rest ( v0  0 ), the
average velocity will be one-half the final velocity: v  (v  v0 ) / 2  v / 2 , where v is its

May 05 30
PHYS 2211L LAB 3

Uniformly Accelerated Motion

final velocity. It follows from definition (1) that its final velocity is just the acceleration
times the time:

v  at  v 0  at

Putting these expressions together leads to

1 2
(3) d  at
2

which gives us the displacement as a function of time for constant acceleration. Equation
(3) can be inverted to solve for the acceleration if the displacement and the time of travel
are known. Experimentally, this is how we “measure” accelerations: we actually
measure d and t and then calculate a using (3).

Equation (3) is a special case of the basic kinematic result

1 2
(4) d  v0 t  at
2

which is valid when v0 is not zero. We will make use of equation (4), in one form or
another, repeatedly in these labs.

May 05 31
Uniformly Accelerated Motion Lab 3

Experiment 1: The Picket Fence

In this experiment, we will measure directly the acceleration of a free-falling “picket

fence” by dropping it through a photogate. The Science Workshop data acquisition box
will measure its position as a function of time. From this data, we can calculate the
average velocity and the average acceleration of the fence over several time intervals and
determine a mean value for the acceleration of gravity, g.

The analysis can be outlined as follows:

1. For each time interval in the data, calculate t  t 2  t1 and x  x 2  x1 .

2. Calculate the average velocity during the interval from the definition for
average velocity, (2).
t t
3. Calculate the midpoint time for each interval: t mid  2 1 . The average
2
velocity over the interval will be the instantaneous velocity at this time.
4. Calculate the average acceleration between intervals using (1) and the change
in midpoint velocities and midpoint times.

An alternative method to the above is to graph the midpoint velocities as a function of

time and determine the slope of the graph. We will do this, and compare the results from
the two methods.

Equipment

 Science Workshop & DataStudio  Picket Fence

 Computer  Foam pad
 Photogate & stand

Procedures

1. Set up a photogate on a support stand near a Science Workshop data interface.

Arrange the photogate so that its light beam is parallel to the floor. Connect the
photogate to a digital channel on the interface with the connecting cord.
2. Connect the interface to a lab computer. Call up the DataStudio file for this lab. The
file contains a table where the system will record the position-time data and graph
displays for position and velocity.
3. Pass your hand (or any object) through the photogate and note that the red light on the
outside of the gate turns on when the light beam is blocked and off when the beam is
unblocked. Make sure your photogate is working properly.

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Uniformly Accelerated Motion Lab 3

Experiment 1: The Picket Fence

4. Place the foam pad on the floor under the photogate so that the picket fence will land
on it when it falls.
5. On the picket fence, measure the distance from the beginning of one opaque band to
the beginning of the next opaque band. This will be x - the displacement of the
fence during each of the time intervals. Record this value.
6. On the DataStudio screen, click the Start button (located on the second menu bar at
the top of the screen). The timer will display the message “delay start” and the timer
will begin ticking off seconds. However, the timer will wait until the beam is first
blocked to begin recording time intervals.
7. Carefully drop the picket fence through the photogate. You want the fence to drop
straight through the gate, with the opaque bands perpendicular to the light beam and
without it without turning, twisting or hitting anything on the way down. Hold the
gate gingerly when you release it, so that the plastic doesn’t stick to you fingers. You
can practice dropping and taking data until you are satisfied with your results. To
delete unwanted data, pull down the “Experiment” menu and select “Delete last data
run”.
8. When the photogate is first blocked, timing will begin. After the fence has cleared
the gate, click on the “Stop” button (the “Stop” button is the same as the “Start”
button). Timing will end, and the position-time data will be displayed in the table.
9. Record the position and time data in your lab notebook.

Analysis

1. In your analysis, set up a table like the table in the Data pages below. Record
your position and time data in the first two columns. (This does not take the place
of the recording the data in the data section in your lab notebook.)
2. Calculate v , the midpoint time, and a for each interval. Remember that
v  v midpo int .
3. Find the mean of your average acceleration values. This is your value for g, the
acceleration of gravity.
4. Find the deviations, the average deviation and the standard deviation of the
average acceleration values. Include a column for the deviations in your table.
5. Report your finding for the acceleration of gravity in the form: g exp  a mean   .
6. Find the percent error of a mean with g = 9.80 m/s2.
7. Now find g by a second method: Plot vmidpoint as a function of time. Do this by
hand on graph paper. Using a ruler, draw what you think is a best-fit line through
the data points.
8. Find the slope and the y-intercept of your graph and record the equation of the
graph.

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Uniformly Accelerated Motion Lab 3

Experiment 1: The Picket Fence

9. Compare the slope of the graph to a mean from the table, and to the accepted value
for g.

May 05 34
Uniformly Accelerated Motion Lab 3

Experiment 2: Motion on an Incline

Here we will measure the acceleration of a dynamics cart rolling down an inclined plane.
This is another case of gravitational (hence constant) acceleration. We will try several
angles of inclination and compare the measured accelerations with those predicted by
Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion.

The setup for this experiment is illustrated in the diagram below.

Wsinθ

W
θ

Newton’s Second Law of Motion tells us that the net force on an object in any direction is
equal to the product of its mass and its acceleration in that direction:
 
F  ma

If we ignore any frictional force acting on the cart, then net force down the plane is just
the component of the cart’s weight parallel to the plane: W sin  , with W given by
W  mg . Thus, mg sin   ma , so that

(5) a  g sin 

This tells us two things: (a) that the acceleration is independent of the mass, since the
mass m no longer appears in the equation; and (b) that the acceleration is proportional to
the sine of the angle (not to the angle itself).

We will test (a) in Experiment 3, below. We can test (b) by measuring the acceleration of
the cart for different inclination angles . If we graph the acceleration as a function of
sin , we should get a straight-line graph. The slope of the graph should be the constant,
g.

The above applies to a frictionless system. Any friction acting on the cart will reduce its
acceleration. Consequently, the slope should be less than g if friction is non-negligible.
We can determine the extent to which friction is negligible in the experiment.
Uniformly Accelerated Motion Lab 3

Experiment 2: Motion on an Incline

Procedures

1. Place one end of the dynamics track on a support to create an incline. Start with an
inclination angle of about one degree, or as small as possible. Clamp the low end of
the track to the lab table. There should be a bumper or end stop at the low end of the
track to catch the cart.
2. Record x0 and xfinal, the starting and ending positions for the cart, to the nearest
millimeter.
3. Measure the time of travel of the cart rolling down the incline for 5 different angles,
in increments of about one degree. For each angle, time three trials and use the
average time in your calculations. Record the times to the nearest 1/100 second and
the angle to the nearest 1/10 degree.

Notes on timing:

 Good results will depend on accurate times, in this and other labs. Make an
effort to do it right.
 Don’t wait for the cart to move to start timing. Start timing at the same time
the cart is released.
 Don’t wait until after the cart hits to stop timing. Anticipate the moment it
hits. (The human timing sense is remarkable. Galileo was able to do exactly
what we are doing without a stopwatch. He used his musical training to
“count the beats”.)
 Because of reaction time delays, it is best that the person who releases the cart
also times the run. Members of a lab group should take turns being the
timekeeper.

Analysis

1. Set up a table in your lab notebook to tabulate your results. The table below is a
suggested format.
2. Calculate and record the displacement of the cart (d = xfinal - x0).
3. Calculate the sine of each angle and record to three significant figures.
4. Find the average time and average deviation in the time for each angle and record
these.
5. Solve equation (3) for the acceleration. Use the result to calculate the experimental
acceleration for each angle. Use the average time for each angle.
6. Calculate the range of error, Δa, for each angle, using the average deviation in the
time as Δt. Treat d as exact (to the precision of this experiment).
Uniformly Accelerated Motion Lab 3

Experiment 2: Motion on an Incline

7. Graph the experimental accelerations as a function of the sine of the angle. Plot the
Δa values as error bars on your graph for each angle. Use a straight edge to draw the
best-fit line to the plot.
8. Determine the slope of the line and write down the equation of the graph.
9. On the same graph, draw a line representing a = gsinθ, the theoretical (frictionless)
acceleration. To draw this line, calculate the acceleration at a large angle using g =
9.80 m/s2 and plot that point. The theoretical line runs from (0,0) to that point. Label
this line appropriately to distinguish it from the experimental plot.
10. Take the percent error of the experimental slope from g = 9.80 m/s2.
11. Are frictional effects evident in your plot, or are any variations from the theoretical
line due to random error alone? If friction is evident, does it show an angular
dependence?
Uniformly Accelerated Motion Lab 3

Experiment 3: Mass and Gravitational Acceleration

This experiment uses the same setup as above. This time, we will keep the inclination
angle constant and determine the acceleration for different masses on the cart. We want
to find out if the weight of the cart affects its acceleration.

According to a = gsinθ (expression 5, above), the acceleration of the cart should be the
same regardless of any mass load placed on it. This is a consequence of the fact that both
the gravitational force and the inertia of the cart depend on the mass, so that mass cancels
out of the equation.

However, experimental variations (random error) will inevitably prevent us from

measuring exactly the same acceleration for different loads, just as we would likely find
three slightly different accelerations for three trials with the same load. To distinguish
between a random effect and a true mass-dependence for the acceleration of the cart, we
can use the properties of the standard deviation.

The theory of errors tells us that we should expect, by chance alone, that about 68% of
measured values should fall within one standard deviation of the average of the values,
assuming no systematic effect (such as a mass dependence) is skewing the results. This
suggests that we measure the acceleration of the cart for several mass loads at the same
angle of inclination. If 68% or more of the results fall within one standard deviation, then
any variation can be understood as random error, rather than as an effect of differing
masses.

Procedures

1. Weigh the cart and record its mass.

2. With the incline at 1-2 degrees, time the displacement of the cart. Let the cart roll
down the incline three times and find the average time. Record the mass of the cart
and the times.
3. Place 100 grams on the cart. Let the cart roll three times and find the average time.
Record the total mass and the times.
4. Repeat the above in 100-gram increments up to 400 grams on the cart. Find the
average time for each mass.

Analysis

1. Set up a table to record the masses, times, and calculated accelerations. A suggested
format is below.
2. Calculate the acceleration for each mass. Also calculate the average acceleration a
for all mass values, the deviations and the standard deviation.
Uniformly Accelerated Motion Lab 3

Experiment 3: Mass and Gravitational Acceleration

3. Plot acceleration as a function of mass on graph paper and draw the best-fit line
through the data points.
4. Determine the slope of the graph and write down the equation of the graph.
5. Indicate on your graph with dashed lines the values of a   , where a-bar is the
average acceleration and  is the standard deviation.
6. Comment on the results. Are the variations in the results significant? Is the slope of
the graph significantly different from zero? If not, why not? If so, is there a trend?
(For example, do the heavier masses consistently have greater accelerations?)
Uniformly Accelerated Motion Lab 3

Data: The Picket Fence

Note: Your data should be recorded in your lab notebook. The following is a guide only

Time (t) Position (x)

x Midpoint
v
Interval t Time (tmp)
v midpo int
a
t mp
1

5
Uniformly Accelerated Motion Lab 3

Data: Cart on Incline

Cart on Incline: Data & Calculations

x0 ____________ xfinal ____________ d ____________

Angle Sin  Time Deviation Experimental Range of

Acceleration Error (Δa)
1.
1. 2.
3.
Av: Av:

1. .
2. 2.
3.
Av: Av:

:
3.

Av: Av:

4.

Av: Av:

5.

Av: Av:
Uniformly Accelerated Motion Lab 3

Data: Mass and Gravitational Acceleration

Mass and Acceleration Table

Average
Trial Mass Times Time Acceleration Deviation
1.
2.
1. 3.:
1.
2. 2.
3.
1.
3. 2.
3.
1.
4. 2.
3.
1.
5. 2.
3.

Averages: ___________ ____________

Standard deviation: ___________