8603 Assignment Autumn 2017

Q No.1 Analyze various definitions of curriculum and discuss the main principals of curriculum
development in the light of definitions.
Definition of curriculum:
The word curriculum has been originated from Latin meaning course. It has been derived from
curro’ or‘ curree’ which means to run or move quickly. Simply curriculum can be defined as:
The set of courses, coursework, and their content, offered at a school or university.
As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course, referring to the course
of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults. A curriculum is
prescriptive, and is based on a more general syllabus which merely specifies what topics must be
understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or standard.
Kerr defines curriculum as, ‘All the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is
carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school”.
Regan’s definition of curriculum is, ” The curriculum is all the experiences of a child under direction
of the school.
Curriculum refers to the means and materials with which students will interact for the purpose of
achieving identified educational outcomes.
Other definitions of curriculum by famous authors are:
Curriculum is that series of things which children and youth must do and experience by way of
developing abilities to do the things well that make up the affairs of adult life; and to be in all respects
what adults should be. (Bobbit (1918)

Tanner (1980) defined curriculum as “the planned and guided learning experiences and intended
outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the
auspices of the school, for the learners’ continuous and wilful growth in personal social competence” .
Schubert (1987) defines curriculum as the contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired,
planned activities, the desired learning outcomes and experiences, product of culture and an agenda to
reform society.
Pratt (1980) defines curriculum as a written document that systematically describes goals planned,
objectives, content, learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth.
Goodlad and Su (1992) define curriculum as a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific
time frame and place, a tool that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of planned
activities and includes all learning experiences received by students with the guidance of the school.
Cronbleth (1992) defines curriculum as answering three questions: what knowledge, skills and values
are most worthwhile? Why are they most worthwhile? How should the young acquire them?
Grundy (1987) defines curriculum as a program of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that
pupils will attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives.
Hass (1987) provides a broader definition, stating that a curriculum includes “all of the experiences that
individual learners have in a program of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related
specific objectives, which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and present
professional practice”.
There are some other Experts define the curriculum with the different ways :
1: According to Nichols, Shidaker, Johnson, & Singer (2006) that Curriculum is an area of education
that is characterized by a lack of agreement about its definition and nature.

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2: According to Wortham (2006) that Curriculum is a planned set of course that is presented to
teachers to arrange teaching and learning in certain level of ages.
3: According to Nation & Macalister (2010) define Curriculum as a guidance in designing courses that
consists of outer cyrcle namely Principles, Environment, and needs that involve practical and theoretical
considerations that will have a major effect in guiding the actual process of course production. Inner
cyrcle that consists of goals and its center, contents and sequences, format and presentation,
monitoring and assessment.
4: According to Cattington (2010), curriculum (or curriculum standards) to refer to the standards,
benchmarks, and outcomes that delineate the content to be taught and learned in science classrooms.
5: According to Slattery (2006) Curriculum should be developed time by times to the postmodern
curriculum that is radically eclectic, determined in the context of relatedness, recursive in its complexity,
autobiographically intuitive, aesthetically inter subjective, embodied, phenomenological, experiential,
simultaneously quantum and cosmic, hopeful in its constructive dimension, radical in its deconstructive
movement, liberating in its post structural intents, empowering in its spirituality, ironic in its
kaleidoscopic sensibilities, and ultimately, a hermeneutic search for greater understanding that
motivates and satisfies us on the journey.
6: According to Lake and Winter bottom (2010) in Kattington (2010), Curriculum is a set of rule that
benefits students by providing them with practice in both content and social curriculum through the use
of active learning, exploration of interests, civic responsibility, character building, and recognizing and
helping the community.
7: According to Dat (no year) in Tomlinson (2008 Ed) impled that curriculum requires too much to be
accomplished within a unit and that their students want a more manageable and realistic learning goal.

Main principles of curriculum development

The main principles of curriculum construction may be mentioned as under:
1. Principle of Child Centeredness.
As modern education is child-centred the curriculum should also be child-centred. It should be based on
the child's needs, interests, abilities, aptitude, age level and circumstances. The child should be central
figure in any scheme of curriculum construction. In fact, curriculum is meant to bring about the
development of the child in the desired direction so that he is able to adjust well in life.
Highlights
Principles of Curriculum Construction are:
1. Principle of Child Centeredness ;
2. Principle of Community Centeredness ;
3. Principle of Activity Centeredness ;
4. Principle of Variety ;
5. Principle of Co-ordinations and Integration;
6. Principle of Conservation;
7. Principle of Creativity;
8. Principle of Forward. Looking;
9. Principle of Flexibility;
10. Principle of Balance;
11. Principle of Utility.
2. Principle of Community Centeredness.
Though the child's development and growth is the main consideration of curriculum construction, yet
his social behavior is also to be suitably developed, both the individual development and the social
development of the child deserve equal attention. He is to live in and for the society.

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Therefore, his needs and desires must be in conformity with the needs and desires of the society in
which he is to live. The values, attitudes and skills that are prevailing in the community must be reflected
in the curriculum. However, the society is not static. It is dynamic. Its needs and requirements are
changing with the rapid developments taking place in all fields. While working for the development, this
factor cannot be ignored.
3. Principle of Activity Centeredness.
The curriculum should centre round the multifarious activities of pupils. It should provide well selected
activities according to the general interests and developmental stages of children. It should provide
constructive, creative and project activities. For small children, play activities should also be provided.!
The purposeful activities both in the class-room and outside the class-room should be provided. It is
through a net work of activities that the desired experiences can be provided and consequently
desirable behavioral changes can be brought about in children.
4. Principle of Variety.
The curriculum should be broad-based so as to accommodate the needs of varied categories of pupils,
so that they are able to take up subjects and participate in activities according their capacities and
interests.
The needs of pupils also change from place to place. For example, the pupils in rural areas, urban areas,
and hilly areas will have different needs. The needs of boys and girls are also different. So these
considerations should be reflected in the curriculum.
5. Principle of Co-ordination and Integration.
Of course, the pupils are to be provided with selected experiences through various subjects and
activities but these must be well integrated. Various subjects and activities have to serve the same
ultimate purpose, the achievement of the aims of education. The activities and subjects should not be
put in after-tight compartments but these should be inter-related and well integrated so as to develop
the whole child.
6. Principles of Conservation.
One of the main functions of education is to preserve and transmit our cultural heritage. This is essential
for human progress. Culture consists of traditions, customs, attitudes, skills, conduct, values and
knowledge. However, the curriculum framers must make a suitable selection of the elements of culture,
keeping n view their educational value and the developmental stage of pupils.
7. Principle of Creativity.
The conservation of culture helps to sustain the society. The culture should not be simply transmitted
but also enriched. There should be provision in the curriculum to develop he creative powers of the
child so that he becomes a contributory member society. Reymont says, "In curriculum that is suited to
the needs of today and of the future, there must be definitely creative subjects."
8. Principle of Forward Looking.
Education is to enable the child to lead a successful social life. So the curriculum should not cater to the
present needs of the child alone. The needs of his future life should also be considered. The curriculum
should also include knowledge, skills, experiences, influences etc. which will develop in the child abilities
and power to make effective adjustments in the later life.
9. Principle of Flexibility.
In our age, rapid developments are taking place in various fields. Consequently the needs of society are
hanging. The content of curriculum cannot be same for all times to come. It should not be static. It must
be dynamic and change with the changing times. It should reflect the latest trends in the field of
education and psychology.

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10. Principle of Balance.

The curriculum must maintain a balance between subjects and activities, between direct and indirect
experiences, between academic and vocational education, between compulsory and optional subjects,
between formal and informal education, between individual and social aims of education etc.
11. Principle of Utility.
Curriculum should be useful rather than ornamental. It should not only include subjects which owe their
place in it to tradition. The curriculum must have practical utility for students. So there should be some
provision for technical and vocational education in the curriculum.
The various principles of curriculum construction should be kept in mind. Various regional and national
conditions should also be considered. It fact, all considerations which will help in achieving the aims of
education should be given due consideration.

Q No.2 Analyze the causes which led the colonial British Government to frame a curriculum in the sub
continent. Discuss their consequences on education system of Pakistan.

Education policy of the British:

In pre-British days Hindus and Muslims were educated through Pathsala and Madrassa respectively.
Britishers showed no interest in advancement of learning in the first stage of their rule in India. Some of
the Britishers in personal endeavor and for political gain showed some interest in spreading education.
Warren Hastings, Governor-General of Bengal showed keen interest in spreading oriental education in
which effort Jonathan Duncan, Nathan Hal head, Sir William Jones, joined hands. Sir William Jones, the
Justice Calcutta High Court, established Asiatic Society at Calcutta (1784 A.D.). Here they started
research on oriental education and culture. At the time of Lord Wellesley Fort William College was
established (1800 A.D.). Here the British Civilians were taught Indian languages, laws, customs, religion,
geography etc. By endeavor of Wilkins Jones, Colebrook, William Carey this oriental education got a
foothold.
Endeavour of the Christian Missionaries:
British colonial ruler did not show any interest in education. The Christian Missionaries were the first to
come forward. The Baptist Missionary William Carey came to India in the year 1793 A.D. He along with
his friends established Baptist Mission in Serampore (1800 A.D.). By their enthusiasm many primary
schools came up in nearly places.
They established a printing press and stilled printing booklets in Bengali. Carry translated the Ramayana
in English (1800 A.D.) By his inspiration the Bible was translated in different Indian languages and
Halhead’s Bengali Grammar’s new edition was published. By their zeal an English school was established
in Serampore in 1818 A.D. That is now known as Serampore College.
Personal Endeavour:
At that time by the attempt of few liberal Indians and foreigners non-government schools were
founded to spread English education. Out of them most memorable were Raja Rammohan Roy, Raja
Radhakanta Deb, Tejchandra Rai Bahadur of Burdwan, David Hare, the watchmaker of Scotland. Raja
Rammohan Roy was the father of modern India. By his own endeavor he established Anglo Hindu School
in 1815 A.D. By personal endeavor two English schools were founded in Chinsurah (1800 A.D.) and
Bhawanipur (1848 A.D). Few energetic Indians and high-minded English civilians came forward to
establish Hindu College in Calcutta in the year 1817 A.D. This is now the famous Presidency College.

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Endeavour of the government:

In the Charter Act of 1813, Rupees one lakhs per year was sanctioned for advancement of education in
India. Now there was a debate about the line of expenditure of this amount. Some said that it should go
for oriental education; the others said that the sum was to be spent for English education. Raja
Rammohan Roy was in favour of spending the money in western education. But that was not done. The
General Committee of Public Instruction (1823 A.D.) decided to spend the money on oriental studies. In
1823 A.D. the decision was taken to establish a Sanskrit College at Calcutta. Rammohan opposed this
decision.
During the rule of Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835 A.D.) there was change in government’s education
policy. He appointed Thomas Babington Macaulay, a renowned educationist, the chairman of the
Committee of Public Instruction. At that time the committee was divided in the issue of Oriental or
European education. Princep, Colebrook, Wilson were the supporters of Oriental education. They were
known as Orientalist. But people like T.B. Macaulay were the supporters of European education. He had
with him Alexander Duff, Sanders, Colvin etc. at his side. They became known as Anglicists. Macaulay
presented a proposal of advancement of English education in 1835 A.D. This was known as Macaulay
minutes.
He expressed his strong opinion in favour of English education, as he thought that oriental culture was
defective, unholy and corrupted.
He thought that it would be better to give proper teaching to a small number of upper and middle-class
students as a law of infiltration it would reach to more number of people. This law was known as
infiltration theory.
He opined that a shelf of Europeans library was equal to the whole literature of India and Arab.
Practically, this opinion was the result of his complete ignorance and blind nationalism.
He wanted to create a good number of black Europeans who would support the British government. The
government approved the Macaulay proposal and after that by the government the education English
language and science started spreading very quickly. It was in the same year (1835 A.D.) Calcutta
Medical College and Elphinstone College at Bombay were established. During the time of Lord Auckland
(1836-1842 A.D.) government sanctioned more money for propagating Anglicized education.
In 1842, the Public Instruction Committee was rejected and Council of Education was formed. Few
Indian members were taken in this Council. Charles Wood’s recommendation in the question of
spreading of higher education was very important. He was the Chairman of the Board of Control. His
proposal about education was known as Wood’s dispatch. He gave instruction to regularize the
education system from primary stage to University level. He also instructed to educate pupils in both
English and Vernacular. By his recommendation Education Department was established. In 1857 A.D.
Calcutta, Bombay and Madras Universities were established.
British effects on Pakistan education
The system of education followed in colonial India was introduced by the British primarily for
producing clerks and subordinates who were necessary for carrying on the administration of the country
in a colonial set up12. This system of education was designed by Lord Macaulay. Essence of this system
is better explained in the words of Lord Macaulay himself, "we want Indians in color but Englishmen in
taste and aptitude.” At least, that was the objective in the initial stages after replacement of Persian by
English as the court language in 1835.

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In order to objectively evaluate the education system of Pakistan, it is imperative to understand the
pros and cons of the existing system and view the progress/ changes which were made in the last six
decades. Despite the colossal problems which Pakistan faced on the eve of independence, the
educational aspect was given the foremost priority and an all Pakistan Educational Conference was
convened in November 1947, to consider the re-organization of the educational system. Later, in 1952, a
six year National Plan of Educational Development for Pakistan was prepared.
From 1958-1970, student unrest and politicization of educational institutions were the major
problems which Pakistan faced. Special commissions were set up to improve the standard of education.
However, system of education did not emphasize moral, religious and ideological aspects. One of the
major causes of dismal performance in the education sector was that meager resources were allocated
for the development of education.
The period from 1970-1978 saw nationalization of all educational institutions. Adult literacy drive was
initiated as well13. An effort was made to bring uniformity in the curriculum and method of teaching in
Madrassas, government schools and private educational institutions. The establishment of Universities
Grant Commission and National Book Foundation were the major achievements of this period. However,
education system suffered due to political instability and economic crisis which Pakistan faced.
From 1979-1989, the Afghan war and subsequent drive of Islamization affected the system of
education as well. During this era, major changes in syllabi were made. Maddrasa education was
encouraged and learning of Arabic was made compulsory upto class VIII. Efforts were made to orientate
the system of education towards ideological moorings and subjects of Pakistan Studies and Islamiat
were made compulsory upto intermediate level. However, parallel system of education such as curricula
of English medicum schools continued. On the whole, preferred goals of education were not fully
realized.
From 1990-9/11, economic stagnation and political instability were major banes in the development
of education in Pakistan. Education further deteriorated with the increasing disparity among social
classes. The number of educational institutions could not commensurate the population exodus and lack
of will to introduce reforms at the government level compounded the problems. Self-finance scheme
was introduced which further commercialized the education.
From 9/11 to present, major reforms were introduced in the system of education. Efforts were made
to de-nationalize the institutions and the private sector was encouraged to establish schools, colleges
and even universities and professional colleges. Syllabi have been revised and certain radical changes
made in subjects of history, Islamiat, geography, English and Urdu. Some of the changes are highly
controversial and have off set the ideological course of our system of education.
Our system of education instead of emphasizing on inculcation of values, discipline, social/ civic
responsibility and socio-economic productivity stimulates partisan and class difference and churns out
educated illiterates. The educatin system, as a whole, faces a set of complex specific problems.
First it is an imposed system which has not been evolved through a gradual process. Second, the
educational system in Pakistan ignores grooming aspect of students as productive and useful members
of a modern society. Third, this system neither segregated students as per psycho – social and socio-
economic requirements of our nation nor it identifies the talent of students for specialization. Fourth,
our curriculum still remains confused. We are undecided whether we should encourage scientific and
technical education or promote studies of humanities. We are also unclear whether to emphasise on
ideology and values or promulgate liberality. Language remains another problem and we have no clear
idea whether to continue with English media or not. Fifth, linkages between primary, secondary and
higher education are not existent. Number of subjects has not been rationalized at various levels over

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burdening the memories of students. Sixth, our system of education does not promote/ encourage
original thinking. Seventh, System of examination, though has been changed, stifle initiative and
experimentation. Students and teachers focus on achieving higher pass percentage rather than
emphasis on learning and bringing out hidden qualities and talent14. Eighth, our educational system
lacks in quality as well as quantity. Involvement of private sector has generated commercialization in
education and has added to class difference. Ninth lack of trained teachers adds to the inadequacies of
our educational system15. Tenth, there is a painful lack of educational environment in our country.
Teachers as well as students are content as much of superficial knowledge from textbooks as possible
that they can pour it out on the examination paper. Moreover, social knowledge is necessary for
intelligent and efficient social service and education should infuse this knowledge and endeavor to make
the students efficient members of the society. Sociology and other social sciences are not very popular
subjects in education of all the classes. Eleventh, vocational and technical training are other areas which
are ignored in our educational system. It has no strategy what so ever, to utilize the vast human capital
by imparting education which make pupils self sustaining. Twelfth, shortage of instructional facilities like
proper school buildings, laboratories, libraries and equipment is major impediment in promoting
conducive environment for learning. Thirteenth, misplaced priorities at policy planning level is another
grey area affecting progress in the field of education16. Fourteenth, system being followed at primary
level does not cater for inculcating objective thinking and power of reasoning in the young pupil.
Moreover, rampant poverty results into large number of dropouts at this level. Fifteenth, our secondary
education is purposeless and cumbersome. It neither prepares students to take on higher education nor
gives him opportune economic self sufficiency17. Finally, wide gap in the classes of society is applicable
to our education system. We have sophisticated English medium private schools for rich and influential,
the ordinary government schools for middle and lower middle class and Maddrassas for poor as well as
religious minded people.
Q No.3 compare and contract different foundations of curriculum development. How does culture and
society influence? Discuss.
Philosophical foundation
Curriculum decisions involve a wide range of considerations that anchor on several issues in
education. These issues include the purpose of learning, sources of the subject matter, the nature of
teaching/learning process, characteristics of the leaner, among others (Ekanem, & Ekefre, 2014).
These decisions are based or anchored on certain fundamental beliefs that spring from one’s
philosophy of education. This is what made it possible for philosophy to be viewed or taken as one of
the foundations of curriculum. The various philosophical thoughts that influence curriculum are
Idealism, Realism, Existentialism, Pragmatism, Essentialism, perennialism and Deconstructionism.
Alistair (2000) argues that there is no curriculum that does not draw inspiration from these philosophical
schools of thoughts. Philosophy helps us to handle our own personal system of beliefs and values, that
is, the way and manner that we perceive the world around us and how we actually define what is
important to us. Since philosophical issues have always influenced society and our institutions of
learning, the study and understanding of philosophy of education in relation to curriculum development
becomes vital and imperative. Basically, philosophy of education does influence, and to a greater extent
determines our educational decisions and alternatives. This is because; those that are responsible for
curricular decisions need be clear about what the belief or their belief system is. This is based on the fact
that unclear or confused beliefs will definitely lead to unclear and confusing curricular (Ekanem, 2013).
One vital step in developing a personal philosophy of education is to understand the several
alternatives that others have developed over the years. The function of philosophy can be seen or taken
as the tap root or the starting point in curriculum development. Apart from philosophy being the source

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of curriculum, it plays other functions in curriculum development. This can be seen in the view of Dewey
(1916), when he contends that “philosophy may… be defined as the general theory of education”. He
further stated that “the business of philosophy is to provide the framework for the aims and method of
schools. From the Deweyian perspective, philosophy provides a form of generalized meaning and
understanding of our lives (as cited in Ekanem, &Ekefre, 2014). In a similar argument Tyler (1949)asserts
that “The educational and social philosophy to which the school is committed can serve as the first
screen for developing the social program… philosophy attempts to define the nature of the good life and
a good society… educational philosophies in democratic society are likely to emphasize strongly
democratic values in schools.” Despite the fact that philosophy is not the beginning or starting point of
Tyler’s curriculum, there exists a strong interaction on an equal basis with other criteria, but he seems to
have given prominence to philosophy in the development of educational purposes. Thus, according to
such views, philosophy throws a light and shows a way on what destiny our education should inspire to
achieve.
Historical foundation
History is the creation resulting from human activities through participating in different events. In
order to be certain with what will happen in the future, one has to trace back of what transpired in the
past. Hence, historical foundation of curriculum addresses different phases of human development.
Students recognize that events in culture and personal issues take place continually. The number of
events and issues we face is so overwhelming at times that we often don’t know how to make sense out
of what is taking place. The study of history can help students gain perspective on events and issues they
face. The ability to break down and analyze events is an important step in critical thinking. From
historical foundation of curriculum therefore, a study on politics, economics, geography, agriculture,
religion and socio cultural practices are expounded to be certain with the past and predetermine the
future for the well- being of the society. Curriculum developers always ensure the historical perspective
is well reflected when designing curriculum in order to capture not only the local flavor but also global
historical views.
Psychological foundation
Learning theories have much to offer on the psychological aspect as a crucial discipline of curriculum
formation. It is the work of psychology to determine what age a child is ready to learn and under what
conditions. The study by Syomwene, Kitainge, and Mwaka, (2013) concluded psychology as the study of
human development physically and intellectually right from conception to adulthood. Educational
Psychology as a discipline is concerned with the question of how people learn (Ornstein and Hunkins,
1998). Psychologists are concerned with establishing patterns in human life so as to be able to
understand and predict behavior (Shiundu and Omulando, 1992). Educational Psychology as a discipline
advances principles of teaching and learning that influence teacher-student behavior within the context
of the curriculum. This is because psychology is the unifying element in the learning process. For
example John Dewey, a renowned educationist acknowledges that psychology is the understanding of
how the individual learner interacts with objects and persons in the environment. The quality of this
interaction determines the amount and type of learning.
Sociological foundation
Schools are part and parcel of society and exist for society. Society influences society through its
curriculum. Schools, through their teaching of the curriculum, can shape and mould society and society
in turn can impact the curriculum. There is rarely a curriculum that is developed without reflecting
society. People today are vocal in expressing their views and are eager in seeing their opinions influence
what is going on in school. With advancements in information and communication technology, people

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are talking and sharing views across the globe. They are seeing things happening in other school systems
and would like to see some of these practices in their own schools.
Culture and society influence on curriculum development
The relationship between education and society is dynamic and interactive. Education not only
reflects a society but is an influence in shaping its development. It helps to equip children to share in the
benefits of the society in which they live and to contribute effectively to that society’s sustenance and
evolution. The curriculum reflects the educational, cultural, social and economic aspirations and
concerns of the society. It also takes cognizance of the changing nature of knowledge and society and
caters for the needs of individual children in adjusting to such change. The social influences and
importance of these influences are factors in the curriculum development process ( Akhtar, 2004). The
curriculum development process can be improved by following ways with consideration the factors
influencing on the process: Need based analysis of curriculum, what are societal needs of students ?
What is the requirement of institutions? Which types of skills are incorporated in the student? How can
be bridge the gaps between the theory and real life situation? Taking feedback of stakeholders is one of
curriculum development strategy, Use of technology for fulfillment of demands of stakeholders;
Revision of curriculum is done for each five years, etc. The seminars, panel discussions, orientation
programs and workshops must be arranged for involvement of teacher as curriculum developer
Curriculum developers must follow some of the principles of curriculum development such as
conservative principle, forward looking principle, creation principle, activity principle, child centered
principle, flexibility principle, leisure principle, character building principle, and dignity of labour
principle. Also the principles of maturity, preparation for real life, linking with life, individual difference,
loyalties, core or common subjects, all round development of body, mind and spirit, democracy, Islamic,
socialism etc.
Q No.4 Discuss the criteria of content selection. Write the necessity of evaluation for the
improvement of curriculum.
The term curriculum is viewed in two different ways: the micro and the macro. The micro curriculum
refers to subjects, while the macro curriculum refers to curricular programs. For example, the subject
biology is a micro curriculum while BS in Civil Engineering is a macro curriculum.
What do the micro and the macro curriculum contain? The following criteria discuss the content of
these two levels of the curriculum.
Seven Criteria for the Selection of Subject-matter or Content of the Curriculum
The 7 criteria below can be utilized in the selection of subject matter for micro curriculum, and for
the content, subjects needed for the curricular program or course, of the macro curriculum.
1. Self-sufficiency
To help learners attain maximum self-sufficiency at the most economical manner is the main guiding
principle for subject matter or content selection (Scheffler, 1970) as cited by Bilbao et al., (2008).
Economy of learning refers to less teaching effort and less use of educational resources; but students
gain more results. They are able to cope up with the learning outcomes effectively.
This means that students should be given chance to experiment, observe, and do field study. This allows
them to learn independently.
With this principle in mind, I suggest that for a high school curriculum or preparatory year, there should
be a one day independent learning activity each week. However, this should be carefully planned by the
teacher. When the students return, they should present outputs from the activity.

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2. Significance
The subject matter or content is significant if it is selected and organized for the development of
learning activities, skills, processes, and attitude. It also develops the three domains of learning namely
the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills, and considers the cultural aspects of the learners.
Particularly, if your students come from different cultural backgrounds and races, the subject matter
must be culture-sensitive.
In short, select a content or subject matter that can achieve the overall aim of the curriculum.
3. Validity
Validity refers to the authenticity of the subject matter or content you selected. Make sure that the
topics are not obsolete.
For example, do not include typewriting as a skill to be learned by college students. It should be about
the computer or Information Technology (IT).
Thus, there is a need to check regularly the subject matter or contents of the curriculum, and replace it
if necessary. Do not wait for another 5 years in order to change it.
Modern curriculum experts are after current trends, relevance and authenticity of the curriculum;
otherwise, your school or country will be left behind.
4. Interest
This criterion is true to learner-centered curriculum. Students learn best if the subject matter is
meaningful to them. It becomes meaningful if they are interested in it. But if the curriculum is subject-
centered, teachers have no choice but to finish the pacing schedule religiously and teach only what is in
the book. This may somehow explain why many fail in the subject.
5. Utility
Another criterion is the usefulness of the content or subject matter. Students think that a subject matter
or some subjects are not important to them. They view it useless. As a result, they don’t study.
Here are the questions that students often ask: Will I need the subject in my job? Will it give meaning to
my life? Will it develop my potentials? Will it solve my problem? Will it be part of the test? Will I have a
passing mark if I learn it?
Students only value the subject matter or content if it is useful to them.
6. Learn ability
The subject matter or content must be within the schema of the learners. It should be within their
experiences. Teachers should apply theories on psychology of learning in order to know how subjects
are presented, sequenced, and organized to maximize the learning capacity of the students.
7. Feasibility
It means that the subject matter can be fully implemented. It should consider the real situation of the
school, the government, and the society, in general. Students must learn within the allowable time and
the use of resources available. Do not give them a topic that is impossible to finish.
For example, you have only one week to finish the unit but then, the activities may take a month for the
students to complete it. This is not feasible.

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Do not offer a computer subject if there is no even electricity in the area or there are no computers at
all.
Further, feasibility means that there should be teachers who are experts in that area. For example, do
not offer English for Business Communication if there is no teacher to handle it.
Also, there is a need to consider the nature of the learners. The organization and design of the subject
matter or content must be appropriate to the nature of students.
So, it would be better if students in a subject-centered curriculum (with pacing schedule that must be
religiously implemented every week) be grouped homogenously; otherwise, many will flunk in that
subject.
In conclusion, teachers in elementary and high school are not directly involved in the selection of
subject-matter because there are already lesson plans made by the Department of Education. All they
have to do is to follow it. However, they can also customize the lessons if their department heads or
principals will allow them.
As regards macro curriculum, the Commission on Higher Education sets guidelines and policies on what
subjects should be offered as minimum requirements for the course. Then, the Curriculum Development
Committee will take charge of the selection, organization and implementation of the curriculum with
the approval of the Academic Council.
The Curriculum Development Committee headed by the Director of Curriculum Development sees to it
that the selection of the subject-matter and the subjects for a curricular program be examined and
scrutinized using the 7 criteria mentioned above.
But, this is not the end of the process yet! Selection of the subject matter or content of the micro and
macro curriculum is only one of the considerations in designing the curriculum.
Necessity of evaluation for the improvement of curriculum.
Meaning of Curriculum Evaluation
Evaluation essentially is the provision of information for the sake of facilitating decision making at
various stages of curriculum development. This information may pertain to the program as a complete
entity or only to some of its components. Evaluation also implies the selection of criteria, collection and
analysis of data. It includes obtaining information for use in judging the worth of a programme and
procedure. It is a comprehensive term and transcends standardized tests covering all means of
ascertaining the results of construction.
Evaluation of curriculum is an integral and essential part of the whole process of curriculum
development. It is a continuous activity and not a "tail-end-process". Evaluation and planning are
complementary processes which occur almost simultaneously and continuously. Planning is made on the
basis of evaluation and vice versa. However, as a separate state evaluation has its own entity.

The importance of curriculum evaluation is to determine the value of the curriculum itself is the
curriculum appropriate for the particular group of students with whom it is being used? Are the
instructional methods selected, the best choices in the light of the objectives sought? Is the content the
best that could be selected? Are the materials recommended for instructional purpose appropriate and
the best available for the purpose envisaged?
Objectives of Curriculum Evaluation
1. To determine the outcomes of a program.
2. To help in deciding whether to accept or reject a program.
3. To ascertain the need for the revision of the course content.

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4. To help in future development of the curriculum material for continuous improvement.

5. To improve methods of teaching and instructional techniques.
Types of Curriculum Evaluation
According to Screven, following are the 3 main types
Formative Evaluation. It occurs during the course of curriculum development. Its purpose is to
contribute to the improvement of the educational program. The merits of a program are evaluated
during the process of its development. The evaluation results provide information to the program
developers and enable them to correct flaws detected in the program.
Summative Evaluation. In summative evaluation, the final effects of a curriculum are evaluated on the
basis of its stated objectives. It takes place after the curriculum has been fully developed and put into
operations.
Diagnostic Evaluation. Diagnostic evaluation is directed towards two purposes either for placement of
students properly at the outset of an instructional level (such as secondary school), or to discover the
underlying cause of deviancies in student learning in any field of study.

Q No.5 What are the various approaches to content organization which one is the suited for content
organization in Pakistan and why?

Approaches to curriculum
1. Subject-centered approach
2. Learner-centered approach
3. Teacher-centered approach
4. Problem- centered approach

Subject centered
The Subject-Centered Curriculum is the traditional model that was laid out by Ralph Tyler in 1949 in his
seminal book, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Also called the Knowledge-Centered
Curriculum, it is the most widely-used method of instruction. The knowledge-centered curriculum is an
academic curriculum where students are expected to acquire knowledge of their world as a foundation
for their adult life. This type of curriculum lays greater emphasis on the subjects themselves rather than
on the children. Students are expected to gain mastery of subject matters from academic disciplines that
have been predetermined by a panel of experts. These are prescribed for the students without much
regard to their actual interest or point of view. The curriculum is organized around content units and the
sequence of what is taught follows the logic of the subject matter. Knowledge and skills are taught
sequentially over time and students have to remember these for the purpose of examination or an
interview for a white-collar job. The teacher in a subject-based curriculum is seen as a scholar who will
be using a variety of teaching strategies to share their knowledge. A report by the Partnership for 21st
Century Skills emphasizes on the necessity of teacher-led instruction to help students gain knowledge
and be able to build upon it in an organized manner. As regards the environment in which the subject-
based curriculum takes place, it is the traditional school classroom where discipline is maintained and
students are often expected to remain seated at their desks. There is a clear academic focus and stress is
laid only on intellectual development. This type of curriculum ignores altogether the personal and social
development of the child Assessment within a subject-centred curriculum takes the form of formal
examinations and standards-based assessment. With these, teachers and students are able to evaluate
the progress made. In addition, program administrators can use the results of traditional tests to justify
their programs' achievements. In a 2004 study on core knowledge curriculum and school performance,
Wedman & Waigandt found a strong correlation between students enrolled in the Core Knowledge

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program and high test scores in all subjects regardless of ethnic or economic profiles. The longer the
students were enrolled in the program the more they outperformed their peers enrolled in non- Core
Knowledge schools.
What Is A Learner Centered Approach?
In a nutshell, a learner centered approach is one where the complete eLearning experience is focused
on the learners. For example, the courses need to be very user-friendly, so that learners can navigate
the course without any difficulty. They should be able to easily access the content of their choice, and
skip the sections they are not interested in. Likewise, learners should find the courses relevant to their
challenges and learning needs. The courses should include real life examples that learners can relate to.
7 Advantages of A Learner Centered Approach In eLearning
1: Improves participation.
The first step towards the success of any eLearning program is participation. A learner centered
approach addresses all the essential needs of learners, ensuring learners get a personalized and
convenient eLearning experience. For example, if a certain learner group prefers games and exercises,
the courses should be made more interactive. Similarly, if learners are more likely to access the course
content on tablets or mobiles, the courses should be designed to support this need. Due to the minute
attention paid to learner’s needs, learner centered courses ensure greater participation in eLearning.
2: Improves retention of knowledge.
Given that a learner centered approach places high emphasis on relevance and engagement, it greatly
influences learners’ interest levels. The learner centered approach shifts the focus from traditional
eLearning, which emphasized only on graphs and PowerPoint slides, to eLearning with more engaging
and simulating content. For example, if you are developing a course for engineers, the course should
have real life scenarios that are relevant to their day-to-day problems. Also, the course will have certain
elements, which will make them use the knowledge they may have acquired previously. This way,
learners will retain the knowledge better as opposed to a plain eLearning course with a lot of theoretical
knowledge.
3: Boosts performance at work.
A typical learner centered eLearning course will have a lot of scenarios, case studies, role plays, etc. For
example, if an organization is training its employees on quality guidelines or industry best practices, a
learner centered course with a lot of engaging and interactive content will help learners grasp the
content more effectively. This way, learners are more likely to apply their learning at work, leading to
improved on-the-job performance.
4: Develops problem-solving skills.
A learner centered eLearning course has a lot of real life examples, including games, quizzes, and
challenges. For example, the course may have challenges and games involving real life problems, which
will force learners to think of solutions. This kind of training develops problem-solving skills, which is
useful when learners encounter similar problems at work.
5: Fosters collaborative learning.
Learner centered courses provide the opportunity to foster collaborative learning. You should design
eLearning courses in such a way that learners have to involve their peers/superiors in completing the
course. Alternatively, the courses should have certain group exercises, which makes learners come
together to solve problems, and thereby share learning. This approach not only encourages
collaboration but also fosters teamwork.

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6: Makes learning more fun.

Use of games and stories in eLearning makes learning more fun. A learner centered approach provides a
lot of choices to learners. For example, if a particular course involves research, learners should be given
choices of topics for research. Likewise, learner centered eLearning courses use lots of different
mediums, such as videos, podcasts, practical assignments, etc. With these elements, learning is no
longer perceived as boring and monotonous.
7: Facilitates personalized learning.
All learners do not have the same learning needs. Some may just like to understand the basics of a
concept, while some may like to understand a course in detail. Also, some learners may already have
some knowledge about a topic, whereas some of them will be entirely new to the concept. A traditional
eLearning course will treat all learners the same way, and may not respond to the needs of different
types of learners. Things are different with learner centered eLearning courses. In such courses,
developers may include supplementary material with messages like “Click here to know more” or
“Here’s a refresher course”. The additional material makes learning more effective.
To conclude, as opposed to other approaches, such as a content centered eLearning or a teacher
centered eLearning, a learner centered approach provides many more benefits.
Teacher-centered approach
A teaching method where the teacher is in actively involved in teaching while the learners are in a
passive, receptive mode listening as the teacher teaches.
In teacher-centered education, students put all of their focus on the teacher. The teacher talks, while
the students exclusively listen.
It is the primary role of teachers to pass knowledge and information onto their students. In this
approach, teaching and assessment are viewed as two separate entities. Student learning is measured
through objectively scored tests and assessments.
Direct Instruction
 Direct instruction is the primary teaching strategy under the Teacher- Centered Approach, in
that teachers and professors are the sole supplier of knowledge and information.
 Direct instruction is effective in teaching basic and fundamental skills across all content areas.
Characteristics
1. Teacher talk exceeds student talk during instruction.
2. Instruction occurs frequently with the whole class; small-group or individual instruction occurs
less often.
3. Use of class time is largely determined by the teacher.
4. The teachers rely heavily upon the textbook to guide curricular and instructional decision
making.
5. The classroom furniture is usually arranged into rows of desks or chairs facing a chalkboard with
a teacher’s desk nearby.
Benefits of Teacher-Centered Learning

1. Expert Knowledge
2. Planning and Execution
3. Discipline
4. Evaluation and Assessment

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Problem-centered or society-centered
A third type of curriculum design is society-centered. As the name suggests, the curriculum content is
heavily loaded with societal concerns, problems, and issues. One such design is aimed at making the
students adapt to the changes in society and to solve societal problems within their level of capabilities.
Another contemporary view of the society-centered design is based on the reconstructivist philosophy
of education. This curriculum design is aimed at making the school, the teachers, and the students the
agents of social change. Hence, curriculum content is heavy with present and future problems of the
society and with contemporary building processes to enable learners to plan and realize societal
improvement at the local and global
levels. Among the traditional curriculum designs, the traditional design, particularly thebroad field, is the
most popular not only in the Philippines but in most parts of the world. The popularity of the said
curriculum design will continue although curriculum content is bound to undergo changes. A practical
guide for curriculum developers in the context of community concerns should be formulated to help
them become socially responsible, proactive individuals (Reyes, 2000).

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