All Topics

A Computer System

Algorithms and Flowcharts

Applications Software

Bar Codes

Batch Processing

Billing Systems

Bits and Bytes

Booking Systems

Bulletin Boards

Bus, Star and Ring Networks

Cache

CAD/CAM

CAL and Computers in School Administration

CAM

Codes of Practice

COM

Computer Control in Hospitals

Computer Misuse Act

Control Systems

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

Data

Data Collection

Data Compression

Data Encoding

Data Protection Act

Data Security

Data Transfer
A Computer System.

A computer system has three main stages :

1. The Input Stage - where data is put into the computer.
2. The Processing Stage - where the data is processed.
3. The Output Stage - where the results are displayed.
A computer also needs to store data for later use.
This is done on a backing storage device.

A typical computer system :

 The arrows show the flow of
data.

Algorithms and Flowcharts

An algorithm is a sequence of steps used to

complete a task.
Algorithms may be presented...
• in words
• as a flowchart The word 'sequence' implies there is an order to the
steps.
• in structured code
A computer program is an algorithm written
for a computer in a special programming
language.

Example in words :
Go straight on to the traffic lights, turn left and
take the third turning on the right. If the red
gate is open then go through it, otherwise go
through the green gate.
Example as a flowchart : Flowcharts have terminators (Start and Stop
boxes)...and the algorithm is determined by direction
on the flow lines.
Decision boxes are diamond shaped.
 Example in structured code :

Go straight on to the traffic lights;

Turn left;
Take the third turning on the right; Each line is executed in turn...
If the red gate is open then
go through the red gate
else
go through the green gate
end if;

Applications Software
 An applications program enables a user to
perform a specific function.
An applications package is a complete set
of applications programs and documentation.
Examples :
• school management software;
• theatre booking system;
• taxi service system;
• air traffic control system;
• computer game
If an application program can be used in
many different areas it is usually called a
generic program (or content-free
program).
Examples:
• a word processing program (can be
used to produce a legal document, a
newspaper article, a school homework
essay etc)
• spreadsheet program
• a database program.

Applications programmers write the

software using a computer programming
language. Programs can be configured to the
specific needs of a user by altering the
coding.

Bar Codes

A bar code is a set of parallel printed lines of differing

thicknesses which are used to store coded information
about an item.

Bar codes are read using a Bar Code Reader, which can
be in the form of a hand-held ‘wand’ or a stationary laser
scanner over which the bar code is passed.
This method of data entry is used in big shops and
 supermarkets and in libraries.

Advantages
• a fast method of data entry
• eliminates possible human error

Disadvantages
• scratched or crumpled barcodes may cause
problems

Batch Processing

A batch processing system is one where programs and

data are collected together in a batch before processing
starts.
Each piece of work for a batch processing system is called a
job. A job usually consists of a program and the data to be
run.
Jobs are stored in job queues until the computer is ready to
process them.
There is no interaction between the user and the computer
while the program is being run. Computers which do batch
processing often operate at night.

Example : Payroll - when a company calculates the wages

for its workforce and prints payslips.

Billing Systems

An example of a billing system is - electricity

payments. Every customer receives an electricity bill
which must be paid.
The electricity company has a large database
(master file) of all its customers. The file will also
include information such as latest meter readings,
how much electricity the customer has used this
year, how much has been paid etc...
At regular intervals, meter readers go round each
house to read the electricity meter. The reading is
recorded onto pre-printed forms.

The forms are all collected and input to the computer
system. This may be done using OMR or OCR, or by
manually keying in the data.
The data must be validated before it is processed to
A document produced by the computer which is
later used as input is called a turnaround
document.
make sure no 'silly' data is input.
Keyed data will need to be verified to check for
transcribing errors.

The electricity bill for each customer is calculated by

the computer and printed. These bills will be posted
to the customers.

The customer then pays the bill by either sending a

cheque or by credit/debit card. Some customers may
pay by monthly standing orders or direct debits.
Payments received will need to be recorded as
transactions on a transaction file and used to
update the master file.

For some billing systems statistical analysis can be

done on ...
• customer usage or spending patterns (eg
seasonal variations)
• payments
Bits and Bytes

The size of a computer's memory is measured by the amount

of data which can be stored in it. This is measured in bytes.

Data is stored in memory as a number of 0s and 1s. Each of The reason that binary numbers
are used is that memory consists
these is called a bit (Binary digIT), so for example the of millions of two-state devices
number 0110 is a 4-bit binary number. (think of them as switches).
8 bits is called 1 byte. Each of these can only be in one
state (0) or the other (1).

Using the ASCII system of coding each character is stored as ASCII stands for American
Standard Code for Information
a unique 8-bit pattern. (A is 01000001; B is 01000010 Interchange...Most computers use
etc..).... the same system so data can be
transferred from one computer to
1 byte of storage is needed to store one character, so to store another.
the word ‘FRED’ would need 4 bytes of storage.

A Kilobyte is 1024 bytes. A Kilobyte is usually abbreviated to

K, and you will sometimes see a computer described as
having 640K RAM. This means that there are 640 kilobytes of
You can think of data stored in
memory in the computer.
memory or on disc as looking like..
A Megabyte (abbreviated to Mb) is 1024 kilobytes, 1011001011001010
so 1 Mb = 1024 x 1024 bytes = 1048576 bytes (approx 1 0110100100010111
1110101110110100
million) 1101101000100010
0001001010010010
A Gigabyte (abbreviated to Gb) is 1024 Mb 1001011011101010
...
so 1 Gb = 1024 x 1048576 = 1073741824 bytes (approx 1
billion)

Booking Systems
It is now possible to make bookings on-line for
holidays, trains, planes, hotel rooms, theatre
performances...and many others.
A travel agent for example, may have computers
in all its branches directly connected to a central
computer where a database of all bookings is
stored. This is an example of a multi-access
system.

When a booking is made, the customer will need

to provide input details (name, date, place,
number of people etc).
These details may be entered ...
• at a computer terminal in a multi-access
system.
• on a form on an Internet web page.
• by transcribing them from a paper booking
form.
• by typing them in when in telephone
communication with the customer.

This form (on an Internet web page) is

used for collecting details of a
passenger's booking on the Eurotunnel.
These details are then used as input data
when the booking is made.

This data is validated to check if the details are

sensible. The computer will check to see if the
booking is available, and, if it is, the booking is
 made and it will then store the booking details in
the database.
Documents will need to be output to give to the
customer, confirming the booking and giving
details about it.

As soon as a customer makes a booking it has to

be processed immediately, so that no other
customer can make the same booking. This
means it is a real-time (transaction processing)
system.
It is essential that no data is lost, so the database
will have to be regularly backed up - possibly
using a tape streamer.
If payments for the booking are required, then
these can generally be done on-line using a Credit
card or a Debit card. If details of these are
transmitted over the Internet, the website must
be secure so that this information cannot be
stolen.

Bulletin Boards

A bulletin board is accessible using the

Internet and is a place where people who
share a common interest may leave or read
messages.

Especially popular on Usenet, enabling

worldwide 'newsgroups' to exchange
information on topics of interest.

Bus, Star and Ring Networks

Network topologies (ways in which computers are arranged in a

network)

Bus

Each computer is linked to a bus (cable) and there are

terminators at each end of the bus. Less cabling but can be
slow if there are a large number of users.
 Star

Star Network

All computers are connected to a central computer (file

server). The disadvantage is that if this file server breaks
down then all the computers are affected.

Ring

Token Ring Network

'Tokens' of data are passed round the ring (in one direction
only) and collected by the receiving computer. A faster
system and it is easier to add more computers.

Cache

Modern software usually requires a large amount of memory

in a computer in order to operate.

Most computers use a part of the hard disk as extra memory.

Data stored in memory which is not actually needed
immediately is temporarily moved into the disk cache and Access from disk is much slower
than from RAM so the speed of
moved back into memory when it is needed. operation will be reduced if disk
cache is used.
The computer will seem to have more memory than it really
has.

CAD/CAM

CAD stands for Computer Aided Design.

CAD is used for displaying and editing designs on the computer.
Calculations can often be made.

Graphics tablets.
(Graphics pads)

Input may be from a keyboard, graphics pad or touch-screen monitors.

Some CAD packages allow 3D

design...The image can be
rotated or viewed from
different angles.

Example : CAD can be used to

design...
CAD can be used for interior design work. Arranging furniture in a
room. This can be viewed from a number of different angles. • cars
The arrangement can be changed on the computer and 'tested' without • bridges
needing to move actual furniture around. • buildings
 • boats
• engines
• circuit boards
• ...and many
more

Facilities include...
• creating and editing new designs
• viewing designs from different angles
• adding standard pre-designed shapes from a library
• calculations (areas, volumes, stresses etc)
• designs can be tested (eg electrical circuits)
Finished designs may be
• ...printed out using a graph plotter.
• ...used as input for a CAM process....

CAM stands for Computer Aided Manufacture.

CAM uses a computer to control a manufacturing process. CNC
(Computer Numerical Control) machines such as
• lathes
• milling machines
• drilling machines
• welding machines CNC devices receive the
production instructions from
• soldering machines the computer as numbers.

• robots.
...are used to produce the product.
In the CAD/CAM process slight changes to design are quickly and
easily made and implemented. The result of any change can be quickly
analysed.
 A milling machine.
Cutters on a swivelling head receive
instructions and shape a block of metal.

CAL and Computers in School Administration

You are using CAL right now!
CAL stands for Computer Assisted Learning.
CAL courses may use ...
• text - notes and other resources
• graphics
• sound - a commentary or music background
• animation
• self assessments - for the student to know how much
has been learned.
CAL systems use interactive computing.

Benefits of CAL...
• more interesting learning with interactive systems and
multimedia - so greater motivation
• students can learn at any time
• students can learn from any place eg home
• students proceed at their own pace
• not so many teachers needed
 Pupils generally learn better when
they study on their own and can
learn at their own pace.

Computers in School Administration

Most schools now have a large database of pupil details. This
database will store personal data about the pupils as well as
the classes they take, their teachers, medical information etc.
This database can be searched to produce eg class lists
Pupil assessments may also be recorded (test and exam
results) so that pupil progress can be monitored.
Spreadsheets may be used to calculate and monitor the
school's financial budget.
Word processing or DTP software may be used to produce
documents for the teachers or pupils.
Timetables are produced using special software.

A school which has networked computers may have an

Intranet which provides web-based resources available at
any workstation.

Some school may have on-line registration systems where

pupils use swipe-cards (with magnetic strips).

CAM

CAM stands for Computer Aided Manufacture.

Output from a computer is used to control CNC manufacturing
machines such as millers or lathes...or even knitting
machines. (CNC stands for Computer Numerical Control and
means that instructions for the machines are given as
numbers.)
CAD/CAM is the whole process of design and manufacture
using computers. CAD is used to produce the design of a
product and the code to run the CNC machine is output. The
 machine then manufactures the product.

Codes of Practice

A Code of Practice is a set of standards that a

business would expect its employees to conform to.
It is not legally binding but the business would ask an
employee to agree to it before being employed and
would be grounds for dismissal if they were not obeyed.
It is always in the best interest of a business to treat its
customers fairly and with due consideration - or they
will go elsewhere.
It ensures consistency of practice. All employees would
conduct their business in a similar way.

COM

COM is a technique of reducing documents in

size and photographically printing them so that
they can be read using a special magnifying
machine.
Microfilm is a roll of film and microfiche is a
rectangular sheet of film on which many frames
(pages of information) can be stored.

Microfiche readers are needed to read the very

small text and pictures.
Example : Newspapers might be archived on
microfiche.
Advantages :
• uses much less storage space
• film lasts longer than paper

Computer Control in Hospitals

 The main use of computer control in hospitals is in life-
support systems.
Sensors attached to a patient monitor
• pulse
• temperature
• blood pressure
• breathing rate
The readings are taken at regular intervals and used as input
to a computer.
If any of these readings goes outside acceptable levels an
output signal sets off an alarm to alert the nursing staff.

These systems may be used for

• patients in intensive care (eg after operations)
• prematurely born babies

The advantages of this system...

• monitoring can be continuously done 24 hours a day
• no chance of human errors due to eg tiredness
• frees the nursing staff to carry out other duties
but...disadvantages...
• these systems are expensive

Computer Misuse Act

The Copyright Act makes it illegal to copy and use a file or

software without the owner's permission.

The Computer Misuse Act makes it illegal to...

• gain unauthorised access to a computer's software or
data (hacking) - including the illegal copying of
programs.
• gain unauthorised access to a computer's data for
blackmail purposes.
• gain unauthorised access to a computer's data with
the intention of altering or deleting it. This includes
planting viruses.
• copying programs illegally (software piracy)
A conviction may lead to a fine and a 5-year prison sentence.
Exercise : Computer Misuse Act

The Computer Misuse Act was introduced to prevent

Viruses
Copyright infringements
Hacking
Using computer data for blackmail or fraud
Illegal deleting or altering of computer data

Control Systems

The output from a computer may be in the form of a

signal to a hardware device.
In a control system, sensors are used to measure a
physical quantity and send input to the controlling
computer.
The computer responds by sending an output signal to
a control interface which activates various devices
eg a switch or an alarm.
Commonly used sensors are - heat sensors,
light sensors, sound sensors, humidity sensors,
movement sensors.
The control interface is needed because of the
different operating characteristics of the
computer and the devices.

The output signal may be sent a to an actuator which

activates a mechanical device such as a motor.

Example:
A computer may be used to control a greenhouse.
Sensors continually send information about the
temperature and humidity in the greenhouse to the
computer.
The computer will then analyse the data and send
output signals, if necessary, to activate the ventilators
or sprinkler systems.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a

computer is the main processor which
operates the computer - ie it carries out the
instructions of the program being run.
The CPU has three main parts...
• The A.L.U. (Arithmetic and Logic Unit)
which performs all the calculations.
A microprocessor
• The Control Unit - which controls the
 flow of data round the computer by
sending out control signals.
• Memory - which is used to store data.

Microcomputers would have a single CPU but

parallel computers have a number of
processors which share the processing tasks.

Data

Computers process data.

Data consists of raw facts and figures.
Examples : Exam marks, facts from a survey, readings from a light
sensor.

Data can be of different types -

Data Type Examples

Text (alphanumeric) John Smith

Decimal
432.5
(real numbers)

Integers 432

Currency £12.50

Dates 12/03/02

Calculated an average of exam marks.

Pictures

Sounds Boo!

Moving graphics / Video Clips

In a computer system, ALL data is represented as numbers.

A computer processes data to output information.

People apply rules and make deductions from this information to

produce knowledge.
 If we put the wrong data into a computer we will get the wrong
results. (GIGO = Garbage In -
Garbage Out)

Data Collection

Before data is input to a computer it needs to be

collected.
There are several methods of doing this:

Data Capture Forms.

Answers to questions are filled in by people on specially-

prepared forms. These forms are called data capture
forms (questionnaires) and need to be carefully
designed.
These answers will then need to be typed into a
computer for analysing. This is called transcribing the
data.
Example : A membership form for a club may need to
be filled in by a pupil wanting to join.

Data preparation is the process of transferring the
data into a form which can be processed by a computer.
Some forms can be read automatically by special
machines (OMR, OCR, MICR)....
Example : School registers.
...but often the data is typed in...
Data capture Forms must be designed so
they have instructions, are easy to fill in
and there should be no doubts as to how
to enter data. Eg Format of dates should
be specified - dd/mm/yy

This method is liable to errors when the data is entered When data is typed the input screen
should be designed to be attractive, easily
into the computer (Transcription errors). read and should match the document
being copied.
One method of avoiding transcription errors is
verification. The data is entered twice by two different
people and the computer will only accept the data if the
two versions are identical.

Data Compression
 When storing a file, a program can be run which compresses
the data so that the data takes up less storage space.
This is useful when files are to be transmitted over a network
or attached to an email as the transfer will take less time.
A disadvantage is that the file will need to be decompressed
before it can be used.
A special program is needed for compression and for
decompression although some compressed files will
automatically decompress themselves.
Some examples of
Compression programs are
WinZip, PKZip and WinRar
Example : Normally each character is stored as an 8-bit binary Common file extensions of
number. One method of compressing data is to assign the compressed files are
.zip, .rar
common characters a smaller number of bits and the less
Compressed files are often
commonly used characters a larger number of bits.
referred to as Zipped files.
Graphics files take up a lot of space and usually include a
number of repeated bytes....
eg The data
28 28 28 45 45 45 45 45 81 81
could be stored as
3 28 5 45 2 81
with no loss of information, ....but consists of 6 numbers
instead of 10.

Data Encoding

Data may be encoded when it is stored. A

number of different codes are defined for the
data.
For example a gender field may be stored as
codes (eg 'M' for Male, 'F' for Female).
This...

• makes data entry easier (less to

type)
• saves storage space
Validation rules can be set to check if gender
• makes validation easier data entered into a database is either 'M' or 'F'.

Data may also be encoded for security

reasons. (encryption)

Data Protection Act

 There are many organisations which hold personal
information about individuals.
Examples :
• Tax Office
• Doctor / Dentist
• National Insurance
• DVLC
• Police
..and many others.
The Data Protection Act (1998) states that organisations
which store personal information must register and state the
purpose for which they need the information.
The organisation must...
• gather the data fairly and lawfully
• gather only data needed for the stated purpose
• make sure the data is not used for any reason other
than the stated purpose
• make sure the data is accurate and up-to-date
• make sure the data is secure
• not keep the data for longer than is necessary
The individual has the right to
• view the data stored about him
• have the data changed if it is incorrect
The exemptions to the Data Protection Act are
organisations that hold data about...
• National Security
• Crime
• Taxation

The full details of the Data Protection Act can be found at

http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1998/19980029.htm

Exercise : Data Protection Act

The Data Protection Act states that organisations that hold personal data must register and
state the purpose for which the data is needed.
The organisation must make sure that...
 the data is formatted correctly
the data is kept up-to-date and accurate
the data is only used for the stated purpose
the data is passed on to other companies
the data is kept secure
the data is collected fairly and law fully
only data needed for the stated purpose is gathered
the data is backed up regularly
the data must not be kept longer than necessary

(select only the relevant lines)

The individual has the right to...

view data held about them
have incorrect data changed
refuse to have their data stored

Exemptions to the Act are organisations which hold data involved with crime, taxes or
National security.

Data Security

Ways of keeping data secure include the following

software and physical methods:
Passwords Password protection usually involves a
(software) person typing in...
A User Name - to identify the person.
A Password - to authenticate the
person. He should be the only one to
know what it is.
If the password is accepted, the person is
then authorised to view, or edit the
data. Different people may have different
levels of authorisation.

Encryption The data may be encrypted (coded) into

(software) a form which can only then be decoded
by the intended user. If the data falls into
the wrong hands it will be meaningless.

Voice A person speaks into a microphone and

prints the computer analyses the voice. If it
(physical) belongs to an authorised person, the
computer allows entry to a room or allows
access to a computer.
Methods of identifying people from
biological data are called 'Biometrics' and
include fingerprint scans, retina (eye)
scans, face recognition.
Locks Rooms may be locked. Some computers
(physical) may have locks on them.

Identity In order to gain access to a room or a

Cards computer, a person may have to swipe an
(physical) identity card through a card reader.

Backups To guard against the loss of data,

backups should be regularly made.
These backups should be stored in a
separate place, preferably in a fire-proof
environment. (Fire-proof safes are
available).
File dumps on paper can be a useful
back-up.

Transactio A transaction log is a record of all

n Log transactions made by a business since
the last backup was made.
If data is lost then it can be re-created by
 loading the previous backup and re-
entering all the transactions.

Data Transfer

Data created using one software package may

often be transferred into another.
The transfer may be between different
software packages or between different
computers.
Standard file formats for graphics include
Example : A graphic created using a graphics
....bmp, .gif, .jpeg, .tif etc...
package may be saved, emailed to another
Standard file formats for text include ...rtf,
user who could import it into a word- .doc, .txt
processed document.
This transfer is possible because of standard
file formats. Different applications software
will store data in the same format.

Data may also be transferred between

applications using copy and paste.

Data Transmission

Data in a network can be transmitted using :

Cable Each computer has a network card installed with
appropriate network software, and is linked to another
computer using a network cable.
Cable can be twisted-pair, coaxial, or optical fibre.

Wireless Data is transmitted using radio, infra-red or

(Microwave, microwaves.
Infra-red, A wireless hub receives and transmits data to each
Radio) computer. Each computer needs a special wireless
network card.
 No cabling involved.

Satellite There are now hundreds of satellites orbiting the Earth

which can be used to 'bounce' signals off.

Data Transmission speeds may vary.

If the speed is slow...
• a user will find it takes a long time for a response from a
computer to be made
• it will take a long time to download data

Data Validation

Data validation checks that the data is sensible before Presence checks can be carried out by
it is processed. running queries that look for 'Null' fields.

Methods used for validation are...

range check This checks that the data lies within a

specified range of values.
Eg the month of a person's DOB should
lie between 1 and 12

presence check This checks that important data is

actually there and has not been missed
out.
Eg Customers may be required to have
their telephone numbers.

type check A check that data is of the right type.

Eg number, text etc

length check Checks that fields have the correct

 number of characters.
Eg A bank account number may always
be 10 digits long.

check digits Used for numerical data. An extra digit

is added to a number which is calculated
from the other digits. The computer
checks this calculation when data is
entered.
Eg The ISBN number on a book. The last
digit is a check digit.

batch totals This checks for missing records.

Numerical fields may be added together
for all records in a batch. The batch total
is entered and the computer checks that
the total is correct.
Eg Add the 'Total Cost' field of a number
of transactions together.

hash totals This is just a batch total done on a

meaningless field.
Eg Add the Telephone Numbers together
for a number of Customers.

Data Verification

It is important to prevent errors occurring in data. Verification is used

to prevent errors occurring when data is copied from one medium to
another. (eg paper to disk, disk to disk, memory to disk)
Methods used for verification...

Double Used to check for transcription errors. The data is

keying entered twice (by two different people). The computer
will only accept the data for processing if the two
versions are identical.

Visual check Checking for errors by looking through the data. Eg

Proof-reading a typed document.

Parity Used to check for transmission errors over networks or

between memory and disk.
An extra bit is added to each binary number before it is
transmitted. Even parity systems make sure that each
number has an even number of '1' bits.
After transmission, each binary number is checked to
see if it still has an even number of '1' bits.
Example (Even parity)
 If 11010111 is transmitted ...(6 '1' bits)
and 11010011 is received ... (5 '1' bits)
then the computer knows a corruption of the data has
occurred.

Databases

A database stores and organises data and allows the user to access it
in a number of different ways.
Data is stored in files (tables).
Each file (table) has a number of related records.
Each record consists of related fields.

Microsoft Access is an
example of a Database
package.

Databases allow the user to..

• define the data structure (field names and types)
• enter and edit data
• import data from saved files or other applications
• search for data by using queries (including AND, OR and NOT)
• sort data into alphabetic or numeric order
• validate data on entry
• output reports which may include totals, averages etc...
• set security levels
Digital camera

A photograph can be taken by a digital camera

and then downloaded into the computer from the
camera.
The resolution of the pictures can be set - more
pictures can be taken at a lower resolution.
There is no need to buy film.

Some digital cameras are used as surveillance

cameras
eg for taking pictures of speeding cars.

Distributed Systems

In a distributed system, computers and peripherals are

linked together. Each user is not aware of which computer or
peripheral he is using.
A user on one computer may be running a program stored
on another computer accessing data stored on yet another
computer.
The operating system will control access to the resources.

Documentation

All software packages include documentation.

The User Manual is written for the user and may
include...
The User Manual is written to make sure the
• instructions for installation user can use the software and should be
written in simple language.
• instructions for use
• trouble-shooting guide (what to do if it goes
wrong!)

The Technical Manual is written for other The Technical manual is written for other
programmers who may need to alter some of
programmers or computer experts and may the software and may include technical
include.... computer terms.
 • data flow diagrams (or flowcharts) showing
how the program works.
• program listings

Documentation should explain software (or a

system) as simply as possible. This will be helped if
long wordy explanations are replaced by...
• graphs
• tables
• flowcharts
• diagrams
• photos

E-Commerce

Shopping over the Internet is increasingly popular.

Retailers create websites which display the items they
are selling.
Customers load the web-site and add the items they
wish to buy to a 'shopping-basket', and then pay by
credit or debit card. (Credit card details are encrypted on
secure sites)
The goods are delivered to the buyer's house.

Advantages of e-commerce:
• greater range of goods
• can be done from home
• goods are delivered to the door-step
• the business does not have to provide and pay for
premises

Disadvantages :
• there is a couple of days delay before receiving
goods.
• possibility of credit card information getting into
the wrong hands
• you cannot see or touch the goods before buying

Electronic Office and Safety

Most businesses use ICT in their office. The aim is to make
a paperless office - where all information is sent and
received electronically.
In the paperless office...
• finding information should be fast
• costs should be reduced (eg cost of paper)
• storage space should be minimal

Computers would be used...

• for word processing eg for documents, letters,
contracts...
• for spreadsheets eg accounts and budgets...
• for databases eg of customer details, daily
transactions...
• for DTP (Desk Top Publishing) for creating
pamphlets, brochures...
• for presentations eg annual report...
These computers would be networked.
Email would be used to send messages to customers and
between employees.
An Intranet would store important information used by the
business.
The business may use the Internet for advertising and
allowing e-commerce.

Health risks...
• eye strain (looking at computer monitors for too
long)
• neck/back strain - from poor seating arrangements
• RSI (Repetitive Strain Injury) - tendon injury from
using keyboards too much.
• fitness problems - from lack of exercise.
 The study of the working
environment is called
ergonomics.
This picture shows how you
should be sitting at a
computer!

Other measures for prevention of accidents....

• do not bring food or drink near computer equipment.
• do not overload electric sockets.
• do not leave wires where they can be tripped over.
• make sure fire extinguishers are installed.

Email

Email stands for Electronic Mail.

A user can send messages to another computer user.
Each user has a unique email address.
Files (text,pictures, music, video clips etc) can be sent with
the message as an attachment.

Advantages of email over conventional mail (snail-mail) :

• messages arrive much faster (within a few seconds)
• it is cheaper to send an email
• one message can be sent to a number of users.
• attachment files can be sent
• no stamp needed
• can be sent from home
 Disadvantages of email :
• you can only send a message to other users with
email accounts
• email attachments can contain viruses
• you cannot send physical objects
• messages can only be sent to other email users
• unwanted junk email may be sent to you in large
amounts! - filters can be used to eliminate this.

Email facilities may also include..

• reply to a received message
• forward a message on to another user WARNING!- Some viruses
spread by sending emails to all
• keep an address book of email addresses the users in the address book.

• keep mailing lists so that the same message can

be sent to groups of users

Embedded systems

An embedded system has processors built in to a

machine. These deal with the input, processing and
output of data.

Examples :

Microwave

Washing machine
 A guided missile.

Other examples : Traffic lights, digital cameras, mobile

phones, calculators, ATMs (cash machines), DVD
players, games consoles....and many more...

Employment

ICT has changed the nature of jobs. Some jobs

have been created and others have been lost...
New jobs created include ...
• computer programmers
• systems analysts
• computer technicians
• robot maintenance
Jobs which have been lost include...
• boring or repetitive jobs replaced by
robots (Eg assembly line)
• dangerous jobs replaced by robots
• office jobs - fewer workers needed
Most jobs now require some ICT skills.

Workers have often had to be re-trained to use

ICT in their workplace.

Exercise : Employment

ICT has caused some workers in repetitive, boring or paper-based employment to lose
their jobs
manual assembly w orker
refuse collector
office filing clerk
type-setters in a printing firm
taxi driver
eg
but has created others
 systems analyst
computer programmer
robot maintenance engineer
netw ork manager
refuse collector
eg .

Evaluation

When a new computer system is designed,

the question will be asked....What hardware
and software will be needed?
The hardware chosen must be
appropriate....
• it must not be too expensive
• it must be able to do the job
• it must be reliable
• it must not be too difficult for people
to use

The software chosen must be

appropriate....
• it must not be too expensive
• it must do the job without errors
occurring
• it must not be too complex for the
users
• it must be compatible with the
hardware
• is it adaptable if changes happen?

A set of evaluation criteria may be The measure of 'success' of a system will be

by how well it achieves the criteria.
specified. These will be used to measure how
well the hardware and software perform.

Expert Systems

An expert system is a knowledge-based system which

attempts to replace a human 'expert' in a particular field.
The system will consist of
• a large database of knowledge
• facilities for searching the knowledge database
• a set of rules for making deductions from the data
(inference engine)
Example
 A medical diagnosis expert system (eg MYCIN) would have
information about diseases and their symptoms, the drugs
used in treatments etc.
A patient is asked by a doctor about symptoms and the
replies are input to the expert system. The computer searches
its database, uses its rules and makes suggestions about the
disease and its treatments. Sometimes probabilities are
assigned to diagnoses.
The computer does not take the place of the doctor but can
be used to help the doctor make decisions.
Advantages.
• The computer can store far more information than a
human.
• The computer does not 'forget' or make mistakes.
• Data can be kept up-to-date.
• The expert system is always available 24 hours a day
and will never 'retire'.
• The system can be used at a distance over a network.
Disadvantages
• Well we don't want to do the experts out of jobs!
• Lacks the 'human touch'!

Expert Systems in Medicine.

An expert system...
• ...has a large database of knowledge.
• ...allows the database to be interrogated.
• ...has a set of rules (inference engine) for making
deductions.
An expert system is a computer system which simulates
the knowledge and expertise of a human expert.
For example, in Medicine, expert systems are being used
Expert systems are not really replacing
for disease diagnosis. doctors but are being used to help
The patient's details and symptoms are input, and the them. There are ethical and legal
reasons for this - if a computerised
system outputs probable diagnoses, recommended diagnosis is wrong, who do you sue?
treatments or drugs which may be prescribed.

Some patients would feel happier typing medical

information into a computer than discussing it with a
human doctor...but others would prefer the 'human'
touch.
 The advantages of an expert system over a doctor are...
• ...a large database of knowledge can be added to
and kept up-to-date - it can store more knowledge
than a person.
• ...the system cannot 'forget' or get facts wrong.
• ...it survives forever. There is no loss of knowledge
as there is when a doctor retires.
• ...the computer can access specialist knowledge
that a doctor may not have.

An expert system would be programmed using an AI

(Artificial Intelligence) language such as PROLOG.

Fax

A fax machine copies a document, transmits it down the

telephone lines to another fax machine where it is printed out.
The quality of the printout is not good. Fine for documents but
not good enough for graphics. Printouts are in black and
white.
Fax is short for facsimile.

A fax machine.

File Access

When records in a file need to be accessed

there are two ways of doing it....

Serial Access
This means ...start at the beginning of the file
and access each record in turn until the one If files are stored on magnetic tape then
serial access is the only method of access.
needed is found.
 Direct Access
The computer can calculate (from the key field)
where the record is stored in the file, and can Direct access can only be used if files are
then access the record directly from that stored on media such as disk, CD, DVD...
position. Direct access is also known as random
access
Direct access of records will generally be much
faster than serial access.

File Backup

Backing up a file is saving a copy of the file on

backing storage (eg disc or tape).
It is necessary to do this in case the file becomes
corrupted or lost. If a file becomes unusable, the Backups of a company's files can take a long
time to do and so are often done at off-peak
backup copy of the file may then be used. Any times eg at night
changes to the file since the last time the file was
backed up will need to be done again.

Important files or files that are changed often

Sometimes a number of backups are made
may need to be frequently backed up. and stored in different places...eg different
discs stored in different rooms or buildings.

If backups are made of large files then they may

be compressed before being saved.

A typical scenario....
All the files used by a business are saved onto
tape every night using a tape streamer. A
different tape is used each night of the week ...
but are then re-used the following week.

File Generations

When a transaction file is used to

update a master file, the process creates
a new master file.
The old master file can then be
deleted...no, wait!!...there may be
problems just around the corner. In
practice the old master file would be
archived in case the update process has
to be re-run.

Sometimes the old master file is referred

to as the father file and the new master
 file as the son file.
When the update is next run...
the son file becomes the father file
the father file becomes the grandfather
file
..etc...
In practice companies will keep several
generations of files. This is because
there may be a problem (eg disk crash)
and the update runs may have to be done
again to re-create the current master file.

File Merge

To merge two files is to combine them into a

single file.
Two files can only be merged together if they
have the same structure - the fields are
defined the same in each file.
The new merged file contains all the records of
both the merged files.
The two files must be sorted in the same
way. The resulting merged file will also be
sorted in the same way.

Merging files (in words) :

1. A new file is created
2. A record is read from each of the two
files.
3. The record which comes first (in sorting
order) is placed on the new file and is
replaced by reading a new record from
the original file.
4. The process [3] is repeated until both
files are empty.
 File 1 and File 2 are merged together to create a
new merged file which contains all records from
File 1 and File 2.
File 1, File 2 and the new file will ...

• have the same data structure

• be sorted in the same way

Files may be saved on media other than magnetic
tape.

Example :
File 1 :

ID No Sold today
305 3
309 1 The two files to be merged are
316 2 sorted in order of ID.
317 1
File 2:

ID No Sold today
301 5
310 1
319 7

Merged file :
ID No Sold today
301 5
305 3
309 1
310 1 The merged file is also sorted in
316 2 order of ID.
317 1
319 7
 Any number of files may be merged together if
they are properly sorted and have the same
data structure.

File Operations

The common operations carried out on files are :

Sorting Files may be sorted into order of a field. The

records are arranged in ascending or descending
order (numerically or alphabetically). The buttons used
for sorting may
If records are sorted it is much easier and quicker look like these..
to find a record.

Searching Queries are used to find records which match

certain conditions.
Simple query - Using one field. With Queries, the
Eg (NAME = 'Smith') names of the Fields
must be given as
Complex query - using two or more fields with OR, well as the data to
be searched for.
AND or NOT.
Egs
(NAME='Smith') AND (BALANCE > £100)
(PET='Dog') OR (PET = 'Cat')
(PET = 'Dog') AND NOT (Type='Spaniel')
Wildcard query - In alphabetical fields * may stand
for anything.
Eg (NAME = 'Sm*')
will include all names starting with Sm - Smith,
Smithers, Smedling and so on...

Adding new A new record may be added to a file.

data Eg A business may start to sell a new brand of item.

Deleting data A record may be removed from a file.

Eg A business discontinues the selling of an item.

Editing data A record in a file may be changed.

Eg If the price of an item changes.

File structure

A database consists of a number of related files (sometimes

called tables).
 A file consists of a number of related records.
A record consists of a number of related fields.
A field is a single data item consisting of a number of
characters.
Example 1
This table shows a small section of a file which contains details about
school pupils:
Number Surname FirstName Form
91230 Sam Fenella B
91231 Sanders Michael G
91232 Saunders Ian B
91233 Sealey Kelly R
91234 Shaw Lucy S
91235 Shaw Oliver N
The yellow section shows one record.
The file has 6 records and each record has 4 fields (Number,
Surname, Firstname and Form).
The key field is used to uniquely identify a record. The key field in
this example is 'Number'. No two records would have the same
data in the key field.
Fields may be of a number of different types :
• integer
• real (decimal)
• string (alphanumeric)
• date
• currency
• picture
• sound
• video
• a calculated field

When a database is created it is important that the same data is

not stored twice (this may lead to inconsistencies). This is
usually done by linking the tables with relationships...using the
key field of one table as a field in another table.

A report may use

data drawn from a
Data in a database can be accessed and used to produce reports. number of different
files.

File Update
The data on a transaction file is used to
update some of the fields on a master file.
The transaction file must be sorted in the
same order as the master file.
This is generally done in a batch processing
system where the transactions are
recorded on the transaction file and later
used to update the master file.

How it works (in words) :

1. A new master file is created.
2. For each transaction record, the
records of the master file are read and
written onto the new master file until a
matching record is found.
3. The data is updated and the record
written onto the new master file.
4. When the last transaction record has
been processed, the remaining records
on the master file are read and written
onto the new master file.

How it works (System flowchart) :

Here, the transaction and

master files are stored on
magnetic tape and used as input
for the update process.
All updated (and unaltered)
records are stored on the new
master file.

Example :
A master file of stock is kept for a clothes
shop. Some of the records are shown in this
 table :

ID Garment Price No Sold this year

305 Sweater (Red) £25.00 12
The key field is the ID field.
308 Sweater (Blue) £25.00 8
The master file in practice would have
309 Shorts (Size 12) £12.00 14
many more fields than this ...and many
315 Shorts (Size 14) £12.00 9 more records!
316 Socks(Grey) £1.99 34
317 Socks(Black) £1.99 28
Todays transactions are shown in the
transaction file below....
ID No Sold today
305 3 The transaction file must be sorted in the
309 1 same order as the master file (using the
key field)
316 2
317 1
The resulting new master file is shown in the
next table :
ID Garment Price No Sold this year
305 Sweater (Red) £25.00 15
308 Sweater (Blue) £25.00 8 The updated data is shown in red. Note
309 Shorts (Size 12) £12.00 15 that some records will have remained
unchanged.
315 Shorts (Size 14) £12.00 9
316 Socks(Grey) £1.99 36
317 Socks(Black) £1.99 29

Fixed Length Fields

A fixed length field is one which contains a set number of

characters.
With fixed length fields, the fields may need to be padded out
to the right length, eg with <space> characters.
eg If a Surname field is set at 10 characters then the name
SIMPSON would need 3 <Space>s added on to the end of it.
Advantage - Every record is the same size, so it is possible for
the computer to calculate exactly where each record starts in
the file and therefore it is quicker for the computer to find a
particular record.
Example 1
Each record of this file has 4 fields.
Number Surname FirstName Form
91230 Sam Fenella B
91231 Sanders Michael G
91232 Saunders Ian B
 91233 Sealey Kelly R
91234 Shaw Lucy S
91235 Shaw Oliver N
The field sizes may be fixed at ...
Field Name Field Size
Number 5
Surname 10
Firstname 10
Form 1
The first three records of the file would therefore be stored
as in the following table (each square represents one byte):
9 1 2 3 0 S a m F e n e l
l a B 9 1 2 3 1 S a n d e r s
M i c h a e l G 9 1 2 3 2 S a u
n d e r s I a n B

Each record takes up 26 bytes of storage space.

The first three records of the file take up 78 bytes of storage.

Floppy disks

Used for storage on microcomputers.

Usually 3.5 inches in diameter. High density floppy disks can
store 1.44Mb of data.
Access to data is slower than from a hard disk.
The data can be protected by opening a small write-protect
tab which prevents the contents of the disk being changed.
Floppy disks are portable and can be used for
• transferring data or programs from one microcomputer
to another.
• backing up data from a hard disk.
Floppy disks (and hard disks) have to be formatted before
they can be used.
DO NOT...
• leave floppy disks in heat (eg the sun) or damp
• open the sliding metal thingy..it lets the dust in!
• touch the brown disk inside
 The discs are protected by
a stiff plastic cover. This
has a hole for the
read/write heads which is
protected by a sprung
metal cover.

Graph plotter

Graph plotters are used to

produce high quality precision
graphics usually on large
sheets of paper.
They are slow, but can draw
continuous curves often in a
variety of colours. They are
especially useful for
architectural drawings,
building plans and CAD
(Computer Aided Design)
applications, where precision
drawing is required.

A mechanical arm holds a pen

which can be moved across
the page. The paper is
sometimes laid on a flat bed
(flat bed plotter) ...
...or on a rotating drum (drum
plotter).

Graphics

A graphics package is used to create images.

Input may be from a mouse, light pen, a graphics tablet or a
scanner. Photos from a digital camera may also be edited.
 Microsoft Paint is an
example of a
Graphics package.

Graphics packages would allow...

• creating and editing of new image
• choice of brushes
• choice of colours
• choice of fills
• freehand drawing
• import of images from other sources (including standard
shapes)
• addition of text
• zoom options
• textured effects
• rotation of shapes

Once created, images can then be used in DTP pages or web pages.

Graphics Tablet (Pad)

A graphics tablet is a board covered by a touch-sensitive

membrane which can detect the position of a pointing device
on its surface. It can be used to -
- hold a drawing while the user traces it.
 - hold a sheet of menus, icons and shapes which the user can
select
A stylus (or pen) is a pointing device for a graphics tablet.
A puck is a mouse-like input device for a graphics tablet
which is moved over the surface of the tablet. It has cross-
hairs to position it accurately and a number of buttons for
different actions.

Hard disks

One or more hard disks are found in the hard drive

which is usually housed inside a computer. Each drive is
built into a sealed unit to prevent contamination by dust
and moisture.
Advantages over floppy disks :
• Access to data is faster than from floppy disks.
• Hard discs store more data than floppy disks. (40
Gb drives are now common).
• They are more reliable than floppy disks as they
have more protection from dirt.

One disadvantage of a hard disc over floppy disk is that

it is not portable - you cannot carry it round and use it The read-write head floats so close to the disk
on different computers. that a small speck of dust would ruin the disk.
This is why the drives are sealed.

Exercise : Hard Disks

A hard drive is a sealed unit which contains one or more hard disks in a sealed case.
The advantages of a hard disk over a floppy disc are -
Access to data is faster.
They can be carried around
They have greater storage capacity
They are less liable to damage
(select only the correct answers)

Hardware and Software

A computer system consists of hardware and software.

Hardware is the equipment which makes up the computer

system. (If you can kick it, it’s hardware!). Hardware consists
of...
- input devices such as keyboard, mouse, joystick
- the Central Processing Unit (CPU) - which does all the
processing
- output devices such as a printer, monitor, graph plotter
- backing storage devices such as disc drive, hard drive
- media such as discs, tapes, paper etc

Software is the programs which run the system.

The main program which runs the computer system is called
the Operating System.
Other programs (called Applications programs) include ...
• Word Processing programs, Be careful - a floppy disk
is hardware but a
• Database programs, program which is stored
• Spreadsheet programs, on it is software.
• Graphics programs etc....
• Computer game

HCI (Human Computer Interface)

The Human Computer Interface (HCI) is the way the user interacts
with the computer.
The three main types are :

Command The user types in commands.

Programs use less memory.
Example : The MS-DOS interface.
Type DIR /W to get a list of all the files in a directory.
Quick to operate and very flexible, but the user needs to
learn all the commands and type them in correctly.
Menu Drop-down menus have options for selection. There may
be sub-menus...
The user selects an option with either a key or a click of
the mouse.
No need to learn the commands but it can be difficult to
locate a particular option.

GUI Graphical User Interface

Also known as a WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointers)
interface.
Icons (small pictures) represent options. Colour and sound Detail of a GUI interface
may also be used to make the interface more 'user-
friendly'.
Identical icons may be used in a number of different
programs. Eg a picture of a disk to save a file.
Example : Windows
Low-level IT skills needed by the user. Easy to use intuitive
interface.

Sound Speech driven interfaces are also now available. The user
talks a command into a microphone.
Useful for...handicapped, fighter pilots, surgeons..

Consistency of design of
When a new computer application is being designed, decisions about interfaces is important.
which user interface is to be used are often governed by the IT skills of
Eg The same buttons
the user. are used on a GUI for
Experts can use a command driven interface, but those with low IT skills printing in each
application and they
will need a GUI. Children need plenty of colour and sound. appear in the same
position on each display.
All good Interfaces will have allow users to seek help if they need it. This will make it easier
for the user to learn to
use the program.