Synergy

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Synergy is the creation of a whole that is

greater than the simple sum of its parts.
The term synergy comes from the Attic
Greek word συνεργία synergia[1] from
synergos, συνεργός, meaning "working
together".

History
The words "synergy" and "synergetic" have
been used in the field of physiology since
at least the middle of the 19th century:

SYN'ERGY, Synergi'a, Synenergi'a,

(F.) Synergie; from συν, 'with,'
and εργον, 'work.' A correlation
or concourse of action between
different organs in health; and,
according to some, in disease.

—Dunglison, Robley Medical

Lexicon Blanchard and Lea,
1853
In 1896, Henri Mazel applied the term
"synergy" to social psychology by writing
La synergie sociale, in which he argued
that Darwinian theory failed to account for
"social synergy" or "social love", a
collective evolutionary drive. The highest
civilizations were the work not only of the
elite but of the masses too; those masses
must be led, however, because the crowd,
a feminine and unconscious force, cannot
distinguish between good and evil.[2]

In 1909, Lester Frank Ward defined

synergy as the universal constructive
principle of nature:
I have characterized the social
struggle as centrifugal and social
solidarity as centripetal. Either
alone is productive of evil
consequences. Struggle is
essentially destructive of the
social order, while communism
removes individual initiative. The
one leads to disorder, the other to
degeneracy. What is not seen—
the truth that has no expounders
—is that the wholesome,
constructive movement consists
in the properly ordered
 combination and interaction of
both these principles. This is
social synergy, which is a form of
cosmic synergy, the universal
constructive principle of nature.

—Ward, Lester F. Glimpses of

the Cosmos, volume VI (1897–
1912) G. P. Putnam's Sons,
1918, p. 358

Descriptions and usages

In the natural world, synergistic
phenomena are ubiquitous, ranging from
physics (for example, the different
combinations of quarks that produce
protons and neutrons) to chemistry (a
popular example is water, a compound of
hydrogen and oxygen), to the cooperative
interactions among the genes in genomes,
the division of labor in bacterial colonies,
the synergies of scale in multi-cellular
organisms, as well as the many different
kinds of synergies produced by socially-
organized groups, from honeybee colonies
to wolf packs and human societies:
compare stigmergy, a mechanism of
indirect coordination between agents or
actions that results in the self-assembly of
complex systems. Even the tools and
technologies that are widespread in the
natural world represent important sources
of synergistic effects. The tools that
enabled early hominins to become
systematic big-game hunters is a
primordial human example.[3]

In the context of organizational behavior,

following the view that a cohesive group is
more than the sum of its parts, synergy is
the ability of a group to outperform even
its best individual member. These
conclusions are derived from the studies
conducted by Jay Hall on a number of
laboratory-based group ranking and
prediction tasks. He found that effective
groups actively looked for the points in
which they disagreed and in consequence
encouraged conflicts amongst the
participants in the early stages of the
discussion. In contrast, the ineffective
groups felt a need to establish a common
view quickly, used simple decision making
methods such as averaging, and focused
on completing the task rather than on
finding solutions they could agree on.[4] In
a technical context, its meaning is a
construct or collection of different
elements working together to produce
results not obtainable by any of the
elements alone. The elements, or parts,
can include people, hardware, software,
facilities, policies, documents: all things
required to produce system-level results.
The value added by the system as a whole,
beyond that contributed independently by
the parts, is created primarily by the
relationship among the parts, that is, how
they are interconnected. In essence, a
system constitutes a set of interrelated
components working together with a
common objective: fulfilling some
designated need.[5]

If used in a business application, synergy

means that teamwork will produce an
overall better result than if each person
within the group were working toward the
same goal individually. However, the
concept of group cohesion needs to be
considered. Group cohesion is that
property that is inferred from the number
and strength of mutual positive attitudes
among members of the group. As the
group becomes more cohesive, its
functioning is affected in a number of
ways. First, the interactions and
communication between members
increase. Common goals, interests and
small size all contribute to this. In addition,
group member satisfaction increases as
the group provides friendship and support
against outside threats.[6]
There are negative aspects of group
cohesion that have an effect on group
decision-making and hence on group
effectiveness. There are two issues
arising. The risky shift phenomenon is the
tendency of a group to make decisions
that are riskier than those that the group
would have recommended individually.
Group Polarisation is when individuals in a
group begin by taking a moderate stance
on an issue regarding a common value
and, after having discussed it, end up
taking a more extreme stance.[7]

A second, potential negative consequence

of group cohesion is group think. Group
think is a mode of thinking that people
engage in when they are deeply involved in
cohesive group, when the members'
striving for unanimity overrides their
motivation to appraise realistically the
alternative courses of action. Studying the
events of several American policy
"disasters" such as the failure to anticipate
the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor
(1941) and the Bay of Pigs Invasion fiasco
(1961), Irving Janis argued that they were
due to the cohesive nature of the
committees that made the relevant
decisions.[8]
That decisions made by committees lead
to failure in a simple system is noted by Dr.
Chris Elliot. His case study looked at IEEE-
488, an international standard set by the
leading US standards body; it led to a
failure of small automation systems using
the IEEE-488 standard (which codified a
proprietary communications standard HP-
IB). But the external devices used for
communication were made by two
different companies, and the
incompatibility between the external
devices led to a financial loss for the
company. He argues that systems will be
safe only if they are designed, not if they
emerge by chance.[9]
The idea of a systemic approach is
endorsed by the United Kingdom Health
and Safety Executive. The successful
performance of the health and safety
management depends upon the analyzing
the causes of incidents and accidents and
learning correct lessons from them. The
idea is that all events (not just those
causing injuries) represent failures in
control, and present an opportunity for
learning and improvement.[10] UK Health
and Safety Executive, Successful health
and safety management (1997): this book
describes the principles and management
practices, which provide the basis of
effective health and safety management. It
sets out the issues that need to be
addressed, and can be used for developing
improvement programs, self-audit, or self-
assessment. Its message is that
organizations must manage health and
safety with the same degree of expertise
and to the same standards as other core
business activities, if they are to effectively
control risks and prevent harm to people.

The term synergy was refined by R.

Buckminster Fuller, who analyzed some of
its implications more fully[11] and coined
the term synergetics.[12]
 A dynamic state in which combined
action is favored over the difference of
individual component actions.
Behavior of whole systems unpredicted
by the behavior of their parts taken
separately, known as emergent
behavior.
The cooperative action of two or more
stimuli (or drugs), resulting in a different
or greater response than that of the
individual stimuli.

Biological sciences
Synergy of various kinds has been
advanced by Peter Corning as a causal
agency that can explain the progressive
evolution of complexity in living systems
over the course of time. According to the
Synergism Hypothesis, synergistic effects
have been the drivers of cooperative
relationships of all kinds and at all levels in
living systems. The thesis, in a nutshell, is
that synergistic effects have often
provided functional advantages (economic
benefits) in relation to survival and
reproduction that have been favored by
natural selection. The cooperating parts,
elements, or individuals become, in effect,
functional “units” of selection in
evolutionary change.[13] Similarly,
environmental systems may react in a non-
linear way to perturbations, such as
climate change, so that the outcome may
be greater than the sum of the individual
component alterations. Synergistic
responses are a complicating factor in
environmental modeling.[14]

Pest synergy

Pest synergy would occur in a biological

host organism population, where, for
example, the introduction of parasite A
may cause 10% fatalities, and parasite B
may also cause 10% loss. When both
parasites are present, the losses would
normally be expected to total less than
20%, yet, in some cases, losses are
significantly greater. In such cases, it is
said that the parasites in combination
have a synergistic effect.

Drug synergy

Drug synergy occurs when drugs can

interact in ways that enhance or magnify
one or more effects, or side-effects, of
those drugs. This is sometimes exploited
in combination preparations, such as
codeine mixed with acetaminophen or
ibuprofen to enhance the action of codeine
as a pain reliever. Some drug users
frequently utilize 5-HTP, a serotonin
precursor often used as an antidepressant,
prior to and after ingestion of MDMA. It is
said to increase the "high" and decreases
the "comedown" stages of MDMA use,
although most anecdotal evidence has
pointed to 5-HTP significantly altering the
effect of MDMA when used at the same
time, as well as potentiating the side
effects associated with serotonin
syndrome). Other examples include the
use of cannabis with LSD, where the active
chemicals in cannabis have been reported
to enhance the hallucinatory experience of
LSD..

Negative effects of synergy are a form of

contraindication. For example, a
combination of depressant drugs that
affect the central nervous system (CNS),
such as alcohol and Valium, can cause a
greater reaction than simply the sum of
the individual effects of each drug if they
were used separately. In this particular
case, the most serious consequence of
drug synergy is exaggerated respiratory
depression, which can be fatal if left
untreated. Mixing drugs can produce
potentially fatal reactions within the brain,
such as serotonin syndrome, due to
synergistic reactions changing chemical
and receptor activity. In the case of
Monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI)
medications, mainly used as last-straw
antidepressants, mixing certain foods and
drugs may cause hypertension or
hyperserotonemia.

Drug synergy can occur both in biological

activity and because of pharmacokinetics.
Shared metabolic enzymes can cause
drugs to remain in the bloodstream much
longer in higher concentrations than if
individually taken.

A paper presenting a community

computational challenge to predict
synergy outlines the difficulty of predicting
synergy based on high-throughput data.[15]
The Food and Drug Administration
published a guideline for the
pharmaceutical industry stressing the
need to understand combination effects
and synergy.[16]

Drug synergy mechanisms

The following are further sample

mechanisms that may be involved in the
development of synergistic effects:

improvement of absorption or
bioavailability (bioenhancer; for example
loperamide reduces the motility of the
small intestine, thus increasing the
absorption of many drugs absorbed in
the small intestine).[17]
displacement of an agent from plasma
proteins to which it usually binds,
whereby the non-bound and thus the
effective fraction of the agent is
increased.[18]
Binding to similar receptors (e.g. two
ACE inhibitors may bind to the same
receptor).
Effect on the same cellular system (e.g.
two different antibiotics like a penicillin
and an aminoglycoside; penicillins
damage the cell wall of gram-positive
bacteria and improve the penetration of
aminoglycosides).[19]
Prevention or delay of degradation in the
body (e.g. the antibiotic Ciprofloxacin
inhibits the metabolism of
Theophylline).[20]
Slowdown of excretion (e.g. Probenecid
delays the [nephron|tubular] secretion of
Penicillin in the kidney and thus
prolongs its effect).[20]
Anticounteractive action, for example
the effect of oxaliplatin and irinotecan.
Oxaliplatin intercalates DNA whereby
the cell is not able to replicate DNA.
Then, topoisomerase 1 tries to repair the
damage. Irinotecan inhibits
 topoisomerase 1, consequently the
cytostatic effect is increased[21]

More mechanisms are described in an

exhaustive 2009 review.[21]

Toxicological synergy

Toxicological synergy is of concern to the

public and regulatory agencies because
chemicals individually considered safe
might pose unacceptable health or
ecological risk in combination. Articles in
scientific and lay journals include many
definitions of chemical or toxicological
synergy, often vague or in conflict with
each other. Because toxic interactions are
defined relative to the expectation under
"no interaction", a determination of synergy
(or antagonism) depends on what is
meant by "no interaction".[22] The United
States Environmental Protection Agency
has one of the more detailed and precise
definitions of toxic interaction, designed to
facilitate risk assessment.[23] In their
guidance documents, the no-interaction
default assumption is dose addition, so
synergy means a mixture response that
exceeds that predicted from dose
addition. The EPA emphasizes that
synergy does not always make a mixture
dangerous, nor does antagonism always
make the mixture safe; each depends on
the predicted risk under dose addition.

For example, a consequence of pesticide

use is the risk of health effects. During the
registration of pesticides in the United
States exhaustive tests are performed to
discern health effects on humans at
various exposure levels. A regulatory
upper limit of presence in foods is then
placed on this pesticide. As long as
residues in the food stay below this
regulatory level, health effects are deemed
highly unlikely and the food is considered
safe to consume.
However, in normal agricultural practice, it
is rare to use only a single pesticide.
During the production of a crop, several
different materials may be used. Each of
them has had determined a regulatory
level at which they would be considered
individually safe. In many cases, a
commercial pesticide is itself a
combination of several chemical agents,
and thus the safe levels actually represent
levels of the mixture. In contrast, a
combination created by the end user, such
as a farmer, has rarely been tested in that
combination. The potential for synergy is
then unknown or estimated from data on
similar combinations. This lack of
information also applies to many of the
chemical combinations to which humans
are exposed, including residues in food,
indoor air contaminants, and occupational
exposures to chemicals. Some groups
think that the rising rates of cancer,
asthma, and other health problems may be
caused by these combination exposures;
others have alternative explanations. This
question will likely be answered only after
years of exposure by the population in
general and research on chemical toxicity,
usually performed on animals. Examples
of pesticide synergists include Piperonyl
butoxide and MGK 264.[24]
Human synergy
Human synergy relates to human
interaction and teamwork. For example,
say person A alone is too short to reach an
apple on a tree and person B is too short
as well. Once person B sits on the
shoulders of person A, they are tall enough
to reach the apple. In this example, the
product of their synergy would be one
apple. Another case would be two
politicians. If each is able to gather one
million votes on their own, but together
they were able to appeal to 2.5 million
voters, their synergy would have produced
500,000 more votes than had they each
worked independently. A song is also a
good example of human synergy, taking
more than one musical part and putting
them together to create a song that has a
much more dramatic effect than each of
the parts when played individually.

A third form of human synergy is when one

person is able to complete two separate
tasks by doing one action, for example, if a
person were asked by a teacher and his
boss at work to write an essay on how he
could improve his work. A more visual
example of this synergy is a drummer
using four separate rhythms to create one
drum beat.
Synergy usually arises when two persons
with different complementary skills
cooperate. In business, cooperation of
people with organizational and technical
skills happens very often. In general, the
most common reason why people
cooperate is that it brings a synergy. On
the other hand, people tend to specialize
just to be able to form groups with high
synergy (see also division of labor and
teamwork).

Example: Two teams in System

Administration working together to
combine technical and organizational
skills in order to better the client
experience, thus creating synergy.
Counter-examples can be found in books
like The Mythical Man-Month, in which the
addition of additional team members is
shown to have negative effects on
productivity.

Organismic computing is an approach to

improving group efficacy by increasing
synergy in human groups via technological
means.

When synergy occurs in the work place,

the individuals involved get to work in a
positive and supportive working
environment. When individuals get to work
in environments such as these, the
company reaps the benefits. The authors
of Creating the Best Workplace on Earth
Rob Goffee and Gareth Jones, state that
"highly engaged employees are, on
average, 50% more likely to exceed
expectations that the least-engaged
workers. And companies with highly
engaged people outperform firms with the
most disengaged folks- by 54% in
employee retention, by 89% in customer
satisfaction, and by fourfold in revenue
growth (Goffee & Jones, pg. 100)." Also,
those that are able to be open about their
views on the company, and have
confidence that they will be heard, are
likely to be a more organized employee
who helps his/ her fellow team members
succeed.[25]

Corporate synergy
Corporate synergy occurs when
corporations interact congruently. A
corporate synergy refers to a financial
benefit that a corporation expects to
realize when it merges with or acquires
another corporation. This type of synergy
is a nearly ubiquitous feature of a
corporate acquisition and is a negotiating
point between the buyer and seller that
impacts the final price both parties agree
to. There are distinct types of corporate
synergies, as follows.

Marketing

A marketing synergy refers to the use of

information campaigns, studies, and
scientific discovery or experimentation for
research or development. This promotes
the sale of products for varied use or off-
market sales as well as development of
marketing tools and in several cases
exaggeration of effects. It is also often a
meaningless buzzword used by corporate
leaders.[26][27]
Revenue

A revenue synergy refers to the

opportunity of a combined corporate entity
to generate more revenue than its two
predecessor stand-alone companies
would be able to generate. For example, if
company A sells product X through its
sales force, company B sells product Y,
and company A decides to buy company B
then the new company could use each
sales person to sell products X and Y,
thereby increasing the revenue that each
sales person generates for the company.

In media revenue, synergy is the promotion

and sale of a product throughout the
various subsidiaries of a media
conglomerate, e.g. films, soundtracks, or
video games.

Financial

Financial synergy gained by the combined

firm is a result of number of benefits which
flow to the entity as a consequence of
acquisition and merger. These benefits
may be:

Cash slack

This is when a firm having number of cash

extensive projects acquires a firm which is
cash-rich, thus enabling the new combined
firm to enjoy the profits from investing the
cash of one firm in the projects of the
other.

Debt capacity

If two firms have no or little capacity to

carry debt before individually, it is possible
for them to join and gain the capacity to
carry the debt through decreased gearing
(leverage). This creates value for the firm,
as debt is thought to be a cheaper source
of finance.

Tax benefits
It is possible for one firm to have unused
tax benefits which might be offset against
the profits of another after combination,
thus resulting in less tax being paid.
However this greatly depends on the tax
law of the country.

Management

Synergy in management and in relation to

teamwork refers to the combined effort of
individuals as participants of the team.[28]
The condition that exists when the
organization's parts interact to produce a
joint effect that is greater than the sum of
the parts acting alone. Positive or negative
synergies can exist. In these cases,
positive synergy has positive effects such
as improved efficiency in operations,
greater exploitation of opportunities, and
improved utilization of resources. Negative
synergy on the other hand has negative
effects such as: reduced efficiency of
operations, decrease in quality,
underutilization of resources and
disequilibrium with the external
environment.

Cost

A cost synergy refers to the opportunity of

a combined corporate entity to reduce or
eliminate expenses associated with
running a business. Cost synergies are
realized by eliminating positions that are
viewed as duplicate within the merged
entity.[29] Examples include the
headquarters office of one of the
predecessor companies, certain
executives, the human resources
department, or other employees of the
predecessor companies. This is related to
the economic concept of economies of
scale.

Synergistic action in economy

The synergistic action of the economic
players lies within the economic
phenomenon's profundity. The synergistic
action gives different dimensions to
competitiveness, strategy and network
identity becoming an unconventional
"weapon" which belongs to those who
exploit the economic systems’ potential in
depth.[30]

Synergistic determinants

The synergistic gravity equation (SYNGEq),

according to its complex “title”, represents
a synthesis of the endogenous and
exogenous factors which determine the
private and non-private economic decision
makers to call to actions of synergistic
exploitation of the economic network in
which they operate. That is to say, SYNGEq
constitutes a big picture of the
factors/motivations which determine the
entrepreneurs to contour an active
synergistic network. SYNGEq includes
both factors which character is changing
over time (such as the competitive
conditions), as well as classics factors,
such as the imperative of the access to
resources of the collaboration and the
quick answers. The synergistic gravity
equation (SINGEq) comes to be
represented by the formula:
 ∑SYN.Act
=∑R-
*I(CRed+COOP++AUnimit.)*V(Cus
t.+Info.)*cc [31]

where: ∑SYN.Act = the sum of the

synergistic actions adopted (by the
economic actor) ∑ R- = the amount of
unpurchased but necessary resources
ICRed = the imperative for cost reductions
ICOOP+ = the imperative for deep
cooperation (functional interdependence)
IAUnimit. = the imperative for purchasing
unimitable competitive advantages (for
the economic actor) VCust = the necessity
of customer value in purchasing future
profits and competitive advantages VInfo
= the necessity of informational value in
purchasing future profits and competitive
advantages cc = the specific competitive
conditions in which the economic actor
operates

Synergistic networks and systems

The synergistic network represents an

integrated part of the economic system
which, through the coordination and
control functions (of the undertaken
economic actions), agrees synergies. The
networks which promote synergistic
actions can be divided in horizontal
synergistic networks and vertical
synergistic networks.[32]

Synergy effects

The synergy effects are difficult (even

impossible) to imitate by competitors and
difficult to reproduce by their authors
because these effects depend on the
combination of factors with time-varying
characteristics. The synergy effects are
often called "synergistic benefits",
representing the direct and implied result
of the developed/adopted synergistic
actions.[33]
Computers
Synergy can also be defined as the
combination of human strengths and
computer strengths, such as advanced
chess. Computers can process data much
more quickly than humans, but lack the
ability to respond meaningfully to arbitrary
stimuli.

Synergy in literature
Etymologically, the "synergy" term was first
used around 1600, deriving from the Greek
word “synergos”, which means “to work
together” or “to cooperate”. If during this
period the synergy concept was mainly
used in the theological field (describing
“the cooperation of human effort with
divine will”), in the 19th and 20th centuries,
"synergy" was promoted in physics and
biochemistry, being implemented in the
study of the open economic systems only
in the 1960 and 1970s.[34]

In 1938, J. R. R. Tolkien wrote an essay

titled "On Fairy Stores", delivered at an
Andrew Lang Lecture, and reprinted in his
book, "The Tolkien Reader", published in
1966. In it, he made two references to
synergy, although he did not use that term.
He wrote:
 Faerie cannot be caught in a net
of words; for it is one of its
qualities to be indescribable,
though not imperceptible. It has
many ingredients, but analysis
will not necessarily discover the
secret of the whole.

And more succinctly, in a footnote, about

the "part of producing the web of an
intricate story", he wrote:

It is indeed easier to unravel a

single thread — an incident, a
 name, a motive — than to trace
the history of any picture defined
by many threads. For with the
picture in the tapestry a new
element has come in: the picture
is greater than, and not explained
by, the sum of the component
threads.

Synergy in the media

The informational synergies which can be
applied also in media involve a
compression of transmission, access and
use of information’s time, the flows,
circuits and means of handling
information being based on a
complementary, integrated, transparent
and coordinated use of knowledge.[35]

In media economics, synergy is the

promotion and sale of a product (and all
its versions) throughout the various
subsidiaries of a media conglomerate,[36]
e.g. films, soundtracks or video games.
Walt Disney pioneered synergistic
marketing techniques in the 1930s by
granting dozens of firms the right to use
his Mickey Mouse character in products
and ads, and continued to market Disney
media through licensing arrangements.
These products can help advertise the film
itself and thus help to increase the film's
sales. For example, the Spider-Man films
had toys of webshooters and figures of the
characters made, as well as posters and
games.[37] The NBC sitcom 30 Rock often
shows the power of synergy, while also
poking fun at the use of the term in the
corporate world.[38] There are also
different forms of synergy in popular card
games like Yu-Gi-Oh!, Cardfight!! Vanguard,
and Future Card Buddyfight.

In video game media a Synergist role is

adapted in games, such as Square Enix's
Final Fantasy XIII series to allow a
character to buff up themselves or their
party. In short, Synergists add resiliencies
to certain attacks, lessen status ailments
that are inflicted on a character, or
oftentimes blocking most attacks
altogether.

Information theory
When multiple sources of information
taken together provide more information
than the sum of the information provided
by each source alone, there is said to be a
synergy in the sources. This in contrast to
the case in which the sources provide less
information, in which case there is said to
be a redundancy in the sources.

See also
Behavioral cusp
Emergence
Holism
Perfect storm
Stroke
Synergetics
Systems theory

References
1. "synergy" . Online Etymology Dictionary
2. Werth, Margaret The Joy of Life: The
Idyllic in French Art, circa 1900 University
of California Press, 2002, p. 51
3. Peter A. Corning, Nature's Magic:
Synergy in Evolution and the Fate of
Humankind, New York: Cambridge
University Press 2003 ISBN 0-521-82547-4;
Peter A. Corning, Holistic Darwinism:
Synergy, Cybernetics and the Bioeconomics
of Evolution, Chicago: University of Chicago
Press 2005 ISBN 0-226-11613-1
4. David Buchanan & Andrzej Huczynski:
Organizational behavior, introductory text.
Prentice Hall, pp 276, Third Edition 1997
ISBN 0-13-207259-9
5. Benjamin Blanchard, System Engineering
Management, pp 8, John Wiley 2004,
ISBN 0-471-29176-5
6. David Buchanan & Andrzej Huczynski:
Organizational behavior, introductory text,
Prentice Hall, pp 275, Third Edition 1997
ISBN 0-13-207259-9
7. David Buchannan & Andrzej Huczynski:
Organizational behavior, introductory text.
Prentice Hall, pp 280, Third Edition 1997
ISBN 0-13-207259-9
8. David Buchanan & Andrzej Huczynski:
Organizational behavior, introductory text.
Prentice Hall, pp 283, Third Edition 1997
ISBN 0-13-207259-9
9. :Dr Chris Elliot, System safety and Law,
Proceedings of First International
Conference on System Safety, Institution of
Engineering and Technology, London, pp
344-351(2006)
10. UK Health and Safety Executive,
Successful health and safety management,
ISBN 978-0-7176-1276-5,(1997)
11. SYNERGETICS Explorations in the
Geometry of Thinking by R. Buckminster
Fuller (online version)
12. Fuller, R. B., (1975), Synergetics:
Explorations In The Geometry Of Thinking,
in collaboration with E. J. Applewhite.
Introduction and contribution by Arthur L.
Loeb. Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc.,
New York.
13. Peter A. Corning, The Synergism
Hypothesis: A Theory of Progressive
Evolution, New York, McGraw Hill 1983
ISBN 0-07-013166-X; Peter A. Corning,
Holistic Darwinism: Synergy, Cybernetics
and the Bio economics of Evolution,
Chicago, University of Chicago Press 2005
ISBN 0-226-11613-1;Synergy and self-
organization in the evolution of complex
systems.
14. Myers, N Environmental Unknowns
(1995).
15. Mukesh Bansal et al.: ”A community
computational challenge to predict the
activity of pairs of compounds. Nature
Biotechnology 32, 1213-1222, 2014
16. Guidance for Industry : Codevelopment
of Two or More New Investigational Drugs
for Use in Combination. June 2013.
http://www.fda.gov/downloads/drugs/guid
ancecomplianceregulatoryinformation/guid
ances/ucm236669.pdf
17. Kathy Moscou, Karen Snipe:
Pharmacology for Pharmacy Technicians.
Elsevier Health Sciences, 2012,
ISBN 9780323085786, S. 56.
18. Kathy Moscou, Karen Snipe:
Pharmacology for Pharmacy Technicians.
Elsevier Health Sciences, 2012,
ISBN 9780323085786, page 57.
19. K. D. Tripathi: Essentials of Medical
Pharmacology G - Reference, Information
and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. JP
Medical Ltd, 2013, ISBN 9789350259375,
page 698.
20. K. D. Tripathi: Essentials of Medical
Pharmacology G - Reference, Information
and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. JP
Medical Ltd, 2013, ISBN 9789350259375,
page 931.
21. Jia Jia et al: "Mechanisms of drug
combinations: interaction and network
perspectives." Nature Reviews Drug
Discovery 8, 111-130, 2009
22. Hertzberg, R. C., and MacDonell, M. M.
(2002). Synergy and other ineffective
mixture risk definitions. Sci Total Environ
288, 31-42.
23. [1] , U.S. EPA (2000). Supplementary
Guidance for Conducting Health Risk
Assessment of Chemical Mixtures. Risk
Assessment Forum, Washington, DC.
24. Pyrethroids and Pyrethrins , U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, epa.gov
25. Goffee, R. & Jones, G. (2013). Creating
the best workplace on the earth. Harvard
Business Review, 99-106.
26. Geneen, Harold; Bowers, Brent (1997).
The Synergy Myth: And Other Ailments Of
Business Today . St. Martin's Press. p. xii.
ISBN 978-0-312-14724-2.
27. Cummings, Michael S. (2001). Beyond
Political Correctness: Social
Transformation in the United States . Lynne
Rienner Publishers. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-
58826-006-2. Extract of page 92
28. Lawford, G. R. (2003). Beyond success:
Achieving synergy in teamwork. The
Journal for Quality and Participation, 26(3),
p 23.
29. Cost Synergy, investopedia
30. Stan Laura-Melinda, The Necessity to
Exploit the Economic Network's Synergistic
Potential, LAP LAMBERT Academic
Publishing, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2011, p.
3-4
31. Stan Laura-Melinda, The Necessity to
Exploit the Economic Network's Synergistic
Potential, LAP LAMBERT Academic
Publishing, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2011, p.
33 and 37
32. Stan Laura-Melinda, The Necessity to
Exploit the Economic Network's Synergistic
Potential, LAP LAMBERT Academic
Publishing, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2011, p.
6-7
33. Stan Laura-Melinda, The Necessity to
Exploit the Economic Network's Synergistic
Potential, LAP LAMBERT Academic
Publishing, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2011, p.
6
34. Stan Laura-Melinda, The Necessity to
Exploit the Economic Network's Synergistic
Potential, LAP LAMBERT Academic
Publishing, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2011, p.
5
35. Stan Laura-Melinda, The Necessity to
Exploit the Economic Network's Synergistic
Potential, LAP LAMBERT Academic
Publishing, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2011, p.
9
36. Campbell, Richard, Christopher R.
Martin, and Bettina Fabos. Media & Culture
5: an Introduction to Mass Communication.
Fifth Edition 2007 Update ed. Bostin:
Bedford St. Martins, 2007. 606.
37. Media Synergy see Linden Dalecki's
article in Northwestern's Journal of
Integrated Marketing Communications
(2008) "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived
from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-13.
Retrieved 2010-06-13.
38. 30 Rock episode 3.09; Liz: "I hate those
corporate things; a bunch of drunk people
talking about 'synergy'." Jack: "First of all,
never badmouth 'synergy'!"

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