Velocity Measurements of Flow Through a Model Three-Dimensional

Porous Medium with varying Boundary conditions

by

James Kofi Arthur

A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of

The University of Manitoba

in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of

Master of Science

Depaftment of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of Manitoba

Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

Copyright @ 2008 by James Kofi Arthur

 THE UNIVBRSITY OF MANTTOBA

FACULTY OF GRADUATB STUDIBS

COPYRIGHT PBRMISSION

Velocity Measurements of Flow Through a Model Three-Dimens¡onal

Porous Medium with Varying Boundary Conditions

By

James Kofi Arthur

A Thesis/PI'acticum submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University of

Manitoba in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the clegree

of

Master of Science

James Kofi ArthurO2008

Permission ltas been granted to the University of Manitoba Libraries to lentl a copy of this
thesis/practicum, to Liblary antl Archives Canatla (LAC) to lend â copy of this thesiiipracticum,
ancl to LAC's agent (UMI/ProQuest) to microfilm, sell copies and to publish an aSstract of this
thesis/practicu m.

This reprotluction or copy of this thesis has been made available by authority of the copyright
olvnet'solely for the purpose of private study and research, and may only be reproducetl ana ópieA
as ¡rernritted by copyright lan's or rvith express rvritten authorization from thà copyright ownér.
 ABSTRACT

This thesis reports an experimental investigation of a pressure-driven flow through a

model three-dimensional porous medium. Each model porous medium is a square array

of circular acrylic rods oriented across the flow in a rectangular channel. The solid

volume fraction, þ of the arrays ranged from 0.01 to 0.49. Three boundary conditions

were studied. in the fi¡st boundary condition, the model porous medium was installed on

the lower wall of the channel only and was bounded by a free zone. In the second and

third boundary conditions, porous media of equal and unequal þ were arranged on the

lower and upper channel walls so that the two media touched (second boundary

condition), and did not touch (third boundary condition). Using water as the working

fluid, the Reynolds number was kept low so that inertia was not a factor. Panicle image

velocimetry was used to obtain detailed velocity measurements in the streamwise-

transverse plane of the test section. The velocity data were used to study the effects of

þ, and the differerrt boundary conditions on the flow through and over the porous

medium, and at the interface. For the first boundary condition, it was observed rhat at
þ:
0.22, flow inside the porous medium was essentially zero, and the slip velocity at the

porous medium and free zone interface decayed with permeability. In the second and

third boundary conditions, flow communication between the porous media was observed

to be dependent on the combinations of / used, and the trends of the slip velocities at the

interface befween the two porous media obtained for that boundary condition were

indicative of complicated interfacial flow.

nl
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My utmost gratitude is to my LORD and my God, in Whom I live and move and have

my being.

To Dr D W Ruth and Dr M F Tachie, my supervisors, I extend my profound appreciation

for their professional guidance and financial support through the National Science and

Engineering Research Council, and Canada Foundation for Innovation. I am also

indebted with gratitude to Dr M. Birouk and Dr S. Clark for being part of my examining

committee.

The conhibutions of the following people are also gratefully acknowledged: Irwin

Penner, John Finken and Paul Krueger for their technical assistance; Martin Agelinchaab,

whose advises and criticisms has in no small way helped in advancing this work to its

completion; Kofî Adane for developing the MATLAB script used in the calculation of

the line averages of the velocity data; Dr Samuel Paul, Mohammed Shah, Jonathan

Tsikata and Godwin Tay, for their support.

lv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS.

LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES

NOMENCLATIJRE xiii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background. .I

1.2 Boundary Conditions in Porous Media Flow . .1

1.2.1 Porous Media Flow Bounded by an Open Flow .2

i.3 Motivation. .5

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIE\ry

2.1 Introduction . .6
2.2 Experimental, Theoretical and Numeri cal Investigations . .6
2.3 Summary of Literature Review . . .20
2.4 Objectives . . .20
 CHAPTER 3: PRINCIPLE AND IMPLEMENTATION oF PARTICLE IMAGE

VELOCIMETRY

3.1 Introduction .
.22

3.2The PiV Technique 22

3.3 Tracer Particles 24

3.4 Light Sources 25

3.5 Image Recording Media 27

3.6 Image Analysis. 29

3.7 Post-Processing of Data 34

3.8 Optimizing PIV Measurements . 36

CHAPTER 4: EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND MEASUREMENT PROCEDURE

4.1 Introduction . 3g

4.2Tesl Channel and Porous Media Models 3g

4.3 The PIV System 41

4.4 Measurement Procedure 42

4.5 Preliminary Experiments 46

4.5.1 Sample Size Determination .46

4.5.2 Accuracy of Velocity .41

4.5.3 Flow Development in Porous Media .41

4.5.4 Test for Inertial Effects .48

4.6 Measurement Uncertainties .51

4.7 Test Conditions and Measurement Procedure .53

vi
 CHAPTER 5: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Introduction .
56

5.2 Velocity Distributions 56

5.2.1 Flow through a Porous Medium Bounded by a Free zone .s7

5.2.2 Flow through Porous Medium on Lower and upper channel walls

with Media Touching .61

5.2.3 Flow through Porous Media on Lower and upper channel walls

with Media Nor Touching . .67

5.2.3.1 Flow through Non-Touching porous Media with

Varying Chan¡el Depths . . .74

5.3 Fluid Flow at the Interface of a porous Medium . . .77

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND COMMENTS

6.I Introduction 82

6.2 Conclusion . g2

6.3 Recommendations for Future Study .85

REFERENCES 86

APPENDIX A .

Table 4.1: summary results of percentage flow rate distributions for: (a)

porous media on lower wall on1y, and touching and non-touching porous

vll
 media on both channel walls and of equal /; (b) touching and non-

touching porous media on both charulel walls and of unequar

/. 90

APPENDIX B

Figure B.1: velocity distributions for model porous media of equal

/ on

lower and upper walls of the channel for þ :0.22 and þ :49 .gl

APPENDIX C

Figure c.1: curve f,its for experimental data for interfacial flow for flow

bounded by a ffee zone (PBR). gz

Figure c.2: curve fits for experimental data for interfacial flow for flow

bounded by a free zone (PTR). .g3

viii
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 : Summary of literature review .
19

Table 4.I : Typical assessment of bias limits of the velocity in free zone . 52

Table 4.2: Summary of test conditions for (a)l't series (b)2"0 Series, and (c) 3d

Series of experiments; h¿: 14 mm and h¡¡ 7 mm. . . 55

Table 5.1 : Summary results of percentage flow rate distributions for various

boundary conditions of porous medium flow in pBR and plane z/l¡¡r= g. . . 76

Table 5.2: Summary results of slip velocity results for flow through porous

medium on lower channel wall only.

78

tx
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Flow through a porous medium: (a) and (b) bounded by a free

zone for a pressure driven, and shear driven case respectively; (c) bounded

by another porous medium, with the media touching; and in (d) bounded by

another porous medium, but with a free zone between the porous media. .. 4

Figure 3.1: A typical PIV experimental set-up for the two-dimensional

velocity measurement of water flow in a charurel 23

Figure 3.2: A linear model of an image displacement function

(Raffel et al ,2007).

Figure 3.3: A typical numerical processing flow-chart of pIV, using

cross-corelation. 32

Figure 4.1. Schematic of the test channel 39

Figure a.2 @)Sectioned (o-o) front and top views showing arrangements of
model porous medium on lower wall of the channel only; front views of (b)

lower and upper walls of the channei, with the media touching; (c) lower and

upper walls of the channel, with the media not touching. 40

Figure 4.3: Schematic of PIV system 43

Figure 4.4: Schematic of channel and pump system 43

Figure 4.5: Schematics of (a) the PIV and test section anangement; and
 (b) top view of a model porous medium with the laser sheet of light

represented by line segments: Lr-Lr. andL2-L2. 44

Figure 4.6: (a) Results of convergence test performed for an empfy channel;

(b) Various profiles for flow in the mid-plane of the channel span (z/l:
0);

(c) and (d) respectively show the streamwise velocity profiles at a selected

y location to demonstrate flow development inside rods ofl: 0.10 and 0.025. 49

Figure 4.7:Effect of Reynolds number,.Re on the flow through channel of

with model porous medium on lower wall of ó: (a) 0.025 and (b) 0.10.

Figure 5.1: velocity distributions for the case of modei porous media on the

lower wall of the channel only. H = 22 mm; (a,b) are in a pBR, and (c,d)

are in a PTR. .
58

Figure 5.2: Bulk velocity distributions for the case of model porous media

on the lower wall of the channel only. 11= 22 mm; (a,b) are in a pBR, and

(c,d) are in a PTR. s9

Figure 5.3: velocify distributions for the case of model porous media of

equal þ on both lower and upper walls of the channel. H 22 mm; (a,b) are
=

in a PBR, and (c,d) are in a PTR. 62

Figure 5.4: Bulk velocity distributions for the case of model porous media

of equal / on both lower and upper walls of the channel. H= 22 mm; (a,b)

are in a PBR, and (c,d) are in a PTR. 63

Figure 5.5: velocity distributions for the case of moder porous media of

unequal / on both lower and upper walls of the channel. H = 22 mm; (a,b)
are in a plane z/l¡¡6:0, and (c,d) are in a plane z/l¡16:0.5. 64

XI
Figure 5.6: Bulk velocity distributions for the case of model porous media

ofunequal / on both lower and upper walls of the channel. H = 22 mm;

(a,b) are in a plane z/l¡16:0, and (c,d) are in a plane z/l¡16= 0.5. 6s

Figure 5.7: Velocity distributions for the case of model porous media of

equal þ on both lower and upper walls of the channel . H = 25 mm; (a,b)

are in a PBR, and (c,d) are in a PTR. 68

Figure 5.8: Bulk velocity distributions for the case of model porous media

of equal / on both lower and upper walls of the channel . H = 25 mm; (a,b)

are in a PBR, and (c,d) are in a PTR. 69

Figure 5.9: Velocity distributions for the case of model porous media of

unequal / on both lower and upper walls of the channel. H = 25 mm; (a,b)
are in a plane z/l¡16:0, and (c,d) are in a plane z/l¡16: 0.5. 72

Figure 5.10: Bulk velocity distributions for the case of model porous media

of unequal / on both lower and upper walls of the channel. H = 25 mm;

(a,b) are in a plane z/l¡16: 0, and (c,d) are in a plane z/l¡¡6: 0.5. t3
-a

Figure 5.i 1: The effect of varying H forthe case of porous media of ht

:14 mm and, hu: 7 mm for: þ¿:0.22, þy:0.05.In (a, c) measurements

are in lhe plane z/l¡¡,¿ : 0, and in (b, d) are in the plane z/l¡¡6: 0.5. 75

Figure 5.12: Results of present work for porous medium flow bounded by

a free zone are compared with similar experimental study by Agelinchaab

(2005) for slip velocities made dimensionless by (a) the local maximum

velocity, and (b) the shear rate and the permeability. 80

x11
 A plane areas of f,ilter bed

8,,,, Relative bias error of ¿¿

By Bias limit of elementX

8,, Bias enor jn u

C number of particles per unit volume of the fluid.

d Rod diameter

dt Diameter of rod on lower porous medium

de Particle diameter

d, Particle image diameter

d¡1 Diameter of rod on upper porous medium

Dn Maximum channel hydraulic diameter

Eu Measurement uncertainfy in u

I Beal function

fo, I Focal ratio

F Fourier transform function for image at t6

g Gravitational acceleration

g Real function

G Fourier transform function for image af Ís+Lt

h Sand filter bed, height of rods

h¡ Height of rod on lower porous medium

hu : Height of rod on upper porous medium

hz, ht Manometric height measurements

xlll
 H Depth of channel,

i gtreamwise position of image

in IA
j Transverse position of image in IA

k Specific Darcy permeability

K Confidence coefficient

/ gpacing between adjacent rods

L Length of channel

Lo Image resolution

Lt Camera chip, window size

M Image magnification

¡/ Sample size

¡ú Average number of particle images

þarticle image densify)
O* Boundary limit point f¡om the exterior fluid

P Applied pressure

Pr,,, Relative precision error of ¿¿

P, precision error in ¿¿

O Volumetric rate of flow

r Radius of rod

Re Global Reynolds number = <u6>d/v.

Reon Reynolds number : ît^* D¡ /v.

ReL Global Reynolds number based on lower porous medium

rod diamet er : <u6>d¡/ v.

xlv
Reu Global Reynolds number based on upper porous medium

rod diamete= <u6>dy/v.

.ç Object to image scale factor

t Time

to Initial time

u Streamwise ensembled average velocity

Lrb Bulk streamwise ensembled average velocity

Lrmin Mjnimum velocity

Untax M aximum streamwise ensembled av er age velocity

U Streamwise mean filter velocity

Ua Darcian streamwise mean filter velocity in porous medium

uo Velocity of the outer wall

U, Area-averaged slip velocity

1u) Line -averaged velocity in streamwise direction

1ub) Bulk line-averaged velocity in streamwise direction

1'lln Maximum line-averaged velocity in streamwise direction

^)
lLts) Line-averaged slip velocity

u Streamwise spatial frequency domain coordinate

V Transverse spatial frequency domain coordinate

ys Settling velocity

V Total volume

Vo Volume of particles

W Width of channel
 x Streamwise cartesian coordinate

xfd,h Hydrodynamic entrance length

X Elements of bias error

X Streamwise spatial coordinate

Y,Y,, Yt Transverse cartesian coordinate

v Transverse spatial coordinate

L Spanwise cartesian coordinate

Greek Symbols

ã Slip coefficient

A Gradient operator

As Particle diSplacement

Lt Time interval between pulses

Lz Light sheet thickness

ø Solid volume fraction

0ie Real correlation function

ofc Fourier coeffi cients function

r Shear rate at the interface

'Wavelength
).

p Fluid dynamic viscosity

lt' Apparent (Brinkman) viscosity

o Standard deviation

XVI
Tn Response time

e Sensitivity coefficient

Kinematic viscosity

p, pf Fluid density

Pp Seeding ltracer particle density

XVlI
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

The study of flow through porous media is fundamental to many engineering fields.

Some important applications are oil and gas reservoirs, groundwater hydrology, filters,

polymer brushes, nuclear waste repositories, and heat pipe technology. While some

porous media flows may be driven by shear as in the case of a polymer brush, in many

other applications, the flows are generated by a pressure gradient. Even in a polyrner

brush on suspended particles, pressure gradient may be a factor if the polymer chains are

attached to a stationary surface. Many industrial processes such as the recovery of oil and

the manufacturing of advanced composites are typically done by injecting some fluid by

means of pressure. Although flows through porous media may be multi-phase, and may

show the presence of inertial effects, the scope of this study is limited to that of single-

phase flows, and those for which inertia is not a factor. The above-mentioned practical

examples are still applicable even in such cases. Slow single-phase flows through

naturally occurring porous media are generally three-dimensional. However, there are

cases where by virtue of tlle geometry ancl an'angerneltt of the porous rnedia, the flows

rnay be approximately two-dimensional.

1.2 Boundary Conditions in Porous Media Flow

As schematized in Figures l.i(a, b) and 1.1(c, d) respectively, flow through a porous

medium may be bounded by a region of clear fluid flow, that is, a free zone; or by

another porous medium. In the latter condition, the lower and upper media may be
touching as illustrated in Figure 1.1(c). This is what prevails in aquifers and oil reservoirs

composed of adjoining layers of varying porosity. In other applications, such as fluid

flow through fractured rocks and filtration cross-flow problems, the lower and upper

porous surfaces of equal or different porosities are separated by a free zone. This is the

condition shown in Figure i.i(d). In all the boundary conditions described above, the

porous media are bounded on one side by an impermeable wall. As mentioned earlier,

the flow may be driven by shear or pressure gradient, and typical velocity distributions

for pressure and shear driven flows are shown Figures 1 .l (a) and L I (b) respectively.

'

1.2.1 Porous Media Flow Bounded by an Free Zone

For the case indicated in Figure 1.1(a), a pressure-driven flow may be specified so that

the region y < 0 is occupied by the porous medium safurated with a fluid identical to that

in y > 0. The flow inside the porous medium, if sufficiently slow, is governed by Darcy's

law, equivalently stated (Gupte and Advani, 1997) as:

vp=-p.U
k
(1.1)

where Vp is the applied pressure gradient, ¡: is the fluid dynamic viscosity, U is the mean

filter velocity (volumetric flow rate per unit area) and k is the specific Darcy

permeability. For a model porous medium of long circular cylinders with unif-orin

diameter, t is given by the following relation (Sangani and Acrivo s, 1982; Jackson and

James, 1986):

(r.2)
i = ùl- tn ø - r.476 + 2ø -1 l74þ'z + a.076fl
 where r and þ arc, respectively, the radius of the cylinder cross section and the solid
volume fraction. A slow flow in the free zone may be desc¡ibed by the Stokes
equation,

given by:

pv2(J: vp (1.3)

To establish a continuity of fluid velocities and stresses to match the Darcian

regime and
the Stokes free zone, Brinkman (1947) suggested the following modification
to Darcy,s
law:

+=-vp+¡t'Y2(J (1.4)

where ¡iisart apparent (Brinkman) viscosity that nray depend on the fluid as well as the

geolnetry and structure of the porous medium, At the nominal interface between the
porous medium and the free zone, the classical no-slip condition is
not applicable due to

the presence of a tangential slip velocify, U". Beavers and Joseph (1967) therefore

proposed a slip boundary condition at the nominal interface. In the

case of Figure LI (a),
the boundary condition can be expressed as:

(1.5)

where, dU/dy lr=o* is the shear rate of the fluid at the interface, and, (J¿ : -Vp k/p is the
Darcy velocity in the porous medium. The slip coefficient, a in Eqn. (1.5) was speculated

to depend linearly on the structure of the material at the interface. In Figure I.l (a) it is
noted that lJ --- IJa ãs y ---+-co (for the case of very high h¿), and, u : (J, at y : 0.Using

these boundary conditions, the solution of Eqn. (1.4) valid in the regiony < 0 is given
by

(Gupte and Advani, 1997):

 (1.6)

Figure 1.1:Flow through aporous medium: in (a) and (b) boundedby a free zone; The

velocity (Q profiles for a given streamwise location in the flow for a (a) pressure driven,

and (b) shear driven case for an outer wall velocity, U"; (c) bounded by another porous

medium, with the media touching; and in (d) bounded by another porous medium, but

with a free zone between the porous media. The dimensions å¿ and hu represent different

depths.
Differentiating Eqn. (1 .6) once with respect to y, and evaluating at y :0 yields:

o'l (u,-un) (1.7)

orl,=r-,tút-lÐ

which is equivalent to the boundary condition of Eqn. (L5) if o: {¡rl¡ .

1.3 Motivation

Fluid flow through and over porous media has been studied extensively but these studies

focused primarily on porous media bounded by a free zone (e.g. Beavers and Joseph,

1967;Taylor, l97l; Kim and Russel, 1985; Sahraoui and Kaviany, l99l; Gupte and

Advani, 1997; James and Davis , 2001; Tachie et al, 2003,2004; Shams et al 2003; Davis

and James,2003,2004; Agelinchaab, 2005). A theoretical analysis of a simplified

unidirectional flow in the interfàcial region of two porous media has also been reported

(Vafai and Thiyagaraja, 1987). However, to the best of the author's knowledge, no

detailed experimental investigation of fluid flow through and over three-dimensional

porous medium bounded by another porous medium has been reported. As a result, many

important questions about flow distribution between layers of porous media of equal or

unequal þ remain unresolved. Furthermore, the penetration of flow through layers of

porous media with an intermediate open flow is still not well understood. This thesis

therefore seeks to address these issues by conducting detailed particle image velocimetry

(PIV) measurements in a pressure driven flow through and over model porous media

covering a wide range of solid volume fraction (0.01 f þ50.+g).

 CHAPTER 2: I,ITBRATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter reviews the pertinent work clone as reported in the literature. The review is

summarized in Table 2.1. This is folìowed by an outline of objectives of the present

research work.

2.2 Exp erimental, Th eo retical and Num erical Investi gations

The experimental work of Darcy (1856) forms the basis of the theory for slow flow

through porous media. His studies were conducted on the flow of water in vertical

homogenous sand f,rlter beds of height å, bounded by horizontal plane areas of equ al size,

I' These areas were congruent so that corresponding points could be connected by

vertical straight lines. Open manometer tubes were attached at the upper and lower

boundaries of the filter bed. In that way, water percolating through the bed rose through

the tubes to heights hzand å7 meâsured above any arbitrary datum level. He observed that

for a steady-state unidirectional flow in a uniform porous medium, there is a relationship

between the volumetric rate of flow, Q and the applied pressure. This relation, known as

Darcy's law, is stated as:

O
_ -kA(h2 - ht)
h Q.T)

Darcy's law is usually expressed in differential form as expressed in Eqn (l.l). Darcy's

law has been validated by the results of several experiments. As reviewed by

 Scheideggar (1960), the law is generally applicable for sufficiently slow flows with small

pressure differentials.

Brinkman (1947) calculated the viscous force exerted by a flowing fluid on a dense

s\'varrn of particles based on a model of a spherical particle embedded in a porous mass.

Brinkman noted that Darcy's law had no viscous stress component defined in relation to

it' It could at best give only a good approximation of the flow in porous media with small

permeabilities. To accommodate cases of low particle densities (k - oo), and to

circumvent the difficulties associatecl with obtaining consistent boundary conditions for

problems of fluid flow through porous masses and an adjoining fi'ee zone, Brinkman

suggested a modification to Darcy's law, given in Eqn (l.a). This equation is known as

the Brinkman or Brinkman-extended Darcy equation. Brinkman compared the results of

calculations with an experimental relation by Carman (1937). For a column of total
volume V packed with particles of total volume Vo, Brinkman found that for Vo / V<
0.6, there was satisfactory agreement with the experimental relation and Eqn. 1.4 when p
:p',

Since these developments, the determination of the appropriate conditions for flow at the
interface between a porous rnedia and another boundary has attracted considerable

research interest. Typically, the interfacial boundary conditions between a porous media

and a free flow have been the focus of such studies. In earlier studies, the limitations in

experimental techniques had only provided measurement of global quantities such as

flow rates and pressure drops. In one such study, Beavers and Joseph (Lg67)conducted
one of the first experirnental studíes on the interf'acial boundary conditions for a

Poiseuille flow through and over a porous medium. Various samples of two structurally

different types of permeable materials - low density nickel foametal, and aloxite - were
tested, each of length 8 inches and effective flow area3.5 by 1.5 inches. They did not

specifli the / used in their work, however values given later by Kim and Russel (1985)

indicate they range from 0.20 to about 0.49. Demineralized water and Sinclair 1O0-Grade

Duro oil were used as the working fluids. The experimental set-up consisted of an open

rectangular channel, connected to an upstream reservoir, and two downstream reservoirs.

A porous block was placed in the channel. The top of the channel was made to rest on

spacers, and held frrmly by means of adjustable screws so that various gap sizes could be

created above the porous block. An adjustable divider plate was positioned at the same

height as the top of the block at the downstream end. By so doing, the flow from the gap

just above the block \¡/as separated from that through the porous block. Fluid flowing into

this stratif,ied test section through a smooth converging entrance, exited the channel into

one of the two downstream reservoirs. The fluid flow through these reservoirs over weirs

could be adjusted independently so that the pressures at the porous block exit plane were

balanced in both the porous material, and in the gap above the material. The flow was

directed by solenoid valves to either measuring vessels, or a large collecting tank, and

then returned to the upstream reservoir through a filter. Based upon measurements of the

mass flow rates the authors postulated the boundary condition expressed in Eqn. (1.5).

Values of a : 0.78, 1.45 and 4.0 for foametals and 0.1 for aloxite were obtained based on

the measured flow rates and known permeability values.

 Saffman (1971) provided a theoretical justification for the semi-empirical boundary

condition proposed by Beavers and Joseph (1961). Saffman modeled the problem as a

flow through a non-homogenous porous rnedium with porosity and permeabiliry

changing discontinuously. The values of porosity and permeability varied respectively

from one and inf,rnity, to the values of the porous medium forming the boundary.

Saffman used a statistical approach to obtain an asymptotic solution for the flow near the

interface. By the use of boundary layer techniques, Saffrnan derived the Beavers and

Joseph's boundary condition (Eqn. 1.5) in the following form:

rl
U,:-.k2 dulI +O(k)
ü dyl (2.2)
l,,=o*

Saffman pointed out that Eqn. (1.5) is sufficient to calculate the outer flow correct to

O(k'''). Furthermore, since U¿ in Darcy's equation was much smaller than other

quantities, Ua could be dropped if the details of the boundary layer are not required.

Saffman also noted that the precise location of the interface between the porous medium

and the free zone will affect the value of the slip coeffic ient a, even to the point that it
may take on negative values.'

Taylor (1971) performed experiments to determine whether the slip coefÍicient, a \¡/as

dependent on any other features of the geometry of the media of flow apart from the

porous material. He designed an ideal porous material of þ = 0.5. The model porous
medium used was a stationary Perspex disk of concentric grooves separated by

cylindrical tongues. Therdisk was supported in a dish filled with Shell Talpa oil, to a
level of a millimeter above the grooved disk. Above the grooved disk was a brass disk

supported centrally by means of a to¡sion wire. The brass disk was balanced by small

added weights to enable it to swing freely on its wire at a measured gap above the

grooved disk. By assuming a constant stress across the gap, the torque exerted on the

brass disk by the rotating grooved disk was estimated from the angle of twist of the

torsion wire. The permeability Æ was computed from a theoretical analysis by Richardson

(lgll),and a value of a = 2 wasobtained.

Beavers et al (1974) also performed experiments with the goal of validating the Beavers

and Joseph boundary condition for gas flows. They also sought to determine whether the

fluid had any signifìcant influence on the value of the experimentally determined slip

coefficient ø. The test section was a large aspect ratio (about 110 to 360) rectangular

duct with a permeable bottom wall, an impermeable flat plate top wall, and side walls of

precisely machined spacer strips. The porous media were of two specimens of foametal

of different dimensions and permeability, and each of þ= O.OS. The experiments were

performed in an open-loop air flow facility. The testing apparatus was designed so that

airflow through the duct and the porous block were driven by the same axial pressure.

The magnitude of the pressure gradient was chosen to fall within the range for which a

coupled parallel flow was established with fully-developed laminar flow in the channel,

and a Darcy flow in the porous material. Flow rate measurements of the laminar channel

flow with a porous boundary v/ere compared with that of a solid boundary. The results

showed that slip velocity at a porous boundary could be detected even for a gaseous

i0
working fluid, flowing along the boundary. It was found thal awas respectively,0.2T

and 0,19 for the two foametal specimens.

Koplik et al (1983) analyzed the shear flow at a porous media - free-zone interface. They

calculated the energy dissipated in a flow about an isolated sphere. It was determined that

the apparent viscosity is less than the fluid viscosity (i.e. /t'</t ). By applying the dilute-

limit theory, Kiin and Russel (1984) later solved the Stokes equation for flow through a

random array of f,rxed spheres for þ ranging from 0.30 to 0.50. While they did not report

quantitative values for the apparent viscosity, their analysis however predicted that its

value is greater than the viscosity of the fluid (i.e. p'>lt). This is contrary to the result

obtained by Koplik et al (1983).

Larson and Higdon (1986, 1987) studied the shear flow near the surface of a fwo-

dimensional porous media. The model porous media were made up of square and

hexagonal arrays of infinite and semi-infînite lattices of cylindrical inclusions, bounded

by a free zone. The boundary-integral method was used to solve the Stokes flow for

cases of the porous medium aligned with the flow (Larson and Higdon, 1986), and across

the flow (Larson and Higdon, 1987). Their results indicate that penetration into the

porous media is greater in the media aligned with the flow (hereafter referred to as the

'aligned-flow') than in the media aligned across the flow (hereafter referred to as the

'cross-flow'). The slip velocities were calculated based on the volumetric flow rates

above and below the interface, and were found to yield different results, except for very

low þ. Negative values were also obtained - a result that has cast doubt on the accuracy

1.1
of their method. They, however, concluded that the use of slip coeff,rcients for porous

boundaries was not well justified, and that the macroscopic models of Brinkman (1947),

and Beavers and Joseph (1967) were generally inadequate to describe the detailed flow

flreld at the porous surfaces. A numerical study of flow across rod arrays was carried out

by Shraoui and Kaviany (1992) using a finite difference analysis to solve the momentum

and continuity equations. Periodic arrays of the rods of / befween 0.2 and 0.5 were

employed. The work revealed dependence of a on þ.

Vuî;and Thiyag araja (1987) studied the flow field and heat transfer at the interface

between two different porous media, the interface separating a porous medium from a

fluid, and the interface between a porous medium and an impermeable medium. In the

analysis, the velocity f,reld in the porous medium was assumed to be independent of the

flow direction. This appears to be the only study that investigated porous media flow

bounded by another porous medium, reported in the literature. They used continuity of

velocity, shear stress and heat flux at the interface, and the Forchheimer-Extended Darcy

equation (to account for inertial effects within the porous medium).

With the advent of more advanced measuring techniques, more detailed measurement of

flow in porous media is now possible. An extensive experimental investigation of the

fluid flow at the interface of a porous medium and a Hele-Shaw cell was conducted by

Gupte and Advani (1997) using a laser Doppler anemometry technique (LDA). They

reported the values of a for a random network of glass strands weaves of ø: 0.07,0.14,
and 0.21. The experimental mold was made up of a pair of LEXAN plates with

t2
 compatible transmission characteristics for argon ion laser of wavelength 488 nm. The

plates \Ä/ere separated by a metal gasket material which served as the mold wall. With

channel depths of 1.6 mm and 3.175 mm, channel width of 10 mm and a channel length

of 180 mm, a Hele-Shaw cell was generated. The channel was partially filled with a

fibrous preforms to form a free zone coupled with a Darcy flow inside the preform

through its permeable interface. Saturated and steady flow through the cell was

established by injecting a viscous fluid at a constant flow rate through the system. A slit

was made inside the porous medium to optically access the flow passage where the fluid

velocity \¡/as measured. For the LDA, a "dual beam" or "fringe" system was employed.

The working fluid was a mixture of glycerol and de-ionized water. Mixtures of

viscosities 0.10,0.20 and0.27 kg/(m.s) seeded with l¡rm diameter latex particles were

tested. It was found that while the interface between the flow through the porous medium

and the free zone is affected by þ , it was unaffected by either the fluid viscosity or the

flow rates on either side of the permeable boundary. Furthermore, there was no specific

trend in the variation of þ with the ø.

James and Davis (2001) later used singularity methods to solve flows driven by shear

and pressure in the interfacial region between a pororìs medium and a free zone. The

model porous medium, consisting of an array of regularly spaced circular cylinders of

/
< 0.10, was oriented across the flow, and filled a fraction of the channel. The trends of

penetration were studied using a dimensionless slip velocity, U, l(i./þ lwhere ¡ :

du/dylr=o*).It should be noted that [J,l(r',!lr):7lain Eqn (1.5) if rhe value of u¿ is

negligibly small. For the flow driven by shear, U, l(i./È¡ was found to depend only

13
weakly on / and the fraction frlled by the porous medium. For pressure-driven flow, U"

obtained was less than that under comparable shear-flow conditions. U" was found to be

dependent on cylinder size and filling fraction in this case. It was found that U, l(Ì ^'lk)

depends only on þ, and is about a quarter of the value predicted by the Brinkman
equation.

The development of the particle image velocimetry (PIV) technique has provided

detailed velocity measurements in flow through porous media. Its unique ability to

capture instantaneously velocity measurements of whole flow fields with high spatial

resolution makes it a preferred measurement device. Shams et al (2003) used the PIV

technique to conduct detailed measurements of two-dimensional shear flow fields near

the edge of a 'cross-flow' model porous medium. Their test \¡/as similar to the case

studied by Larson and Higdon (1986, lg87) and James and Davies (2001). The model

was an annular array of regularly spaced transparent acrylic circular rods of radius 3.18

mm and of length 110 mm, installed vertically onto a Plexiglass disk, to form a circular

brush. For the large radius of curvature involved, the array rù/as approximated as square,

with the rods located at the intersections of equally spaced radial rays and concentric

circles. Annular arrays were made to cover þ: 0.025, 0.052 and 0.10 respectively. For

each test, the model was hung upside down over an open Plexiglass drum which rotated

on a direct-drive turntable at a constant speed. The array of rods was adjacent to a

stationary inner cylinder. In order to meet creeping flow conditions, the annulus v/as

filled with silicone oil of kinematic viscosity 10i0 mm2/s at 24oC. The fixed array

occupied a portion of the annulus of the channel. The rotation of the drum thus created a

shear flow throughout the charurel. V/ith the large radius of curvature used, the circular

1,4
Couette flow field adjacent to the porous medium was essentially that of a simple shear

flow. The silicone oil was seeded with silver-coated hollow glass spheres having a

diameter of 14 pmand a density of 1.65 g/cm3.Two continuous wave 50mW argon ion

lasers (?u: 532 nm) with cylindrical lens, were used to provide illumination of a sheet of

light of approximately 1 mm thickness. A charge coupled device (CCD) camera with

resolution of 768 pixels x 484 pixels operating at 30 frames per second was used to

capture images in the field of flow. A PCI type frame-grabber was employed for the

transfer of images to a desktop computer memory in real time. Data processing was done

using the cross-correlation option of a commercially available data processing software,

Visiflow, AEA Technology. The maximum interrogation area employed in the

experiment was lmm2. The results showed that secondary motion could arise in a porous

medium when the external flow is a simple shear flow. Evidence for this was found in

the presence of eddies in the streamline patterns between the first and second rows for

the 0.052 and 0.10 arrays. The eddies were detected to move closer to the outside row

with increasing /.

In a later analytical work, Davis and James (2003) used singularity methods to

investigate the slip velocity at the interface of a regular array of rods and the unfilled

portion of the arurulus for a shear-driven flow. One of the objectives of this workwas to

determine the influence of the interior rods on the interfacial velocity. Solid volume

fractionsranging from 0.0001 to 0.10 were studied. The dimensionless velocity, U,l(Ì

was found to be nearly independent of the number of annular rows behind the rods.
^/È¡

t5
Using an experimental set-up similar to that employed by Shams et al (2003), Tachie et

al (2003) performed an experimental study of shear flow penetrating through a model

porous medium. Their research was aimed at validating the Couette flow studies of

James and Davies (2002) and Davies and James (2003). The porous media used were of

circular, square, and equilateral triangular cross-sections. The circular and square rods

were 3.18 mm in radius and side respectively, whilst the equilateral triangular rods were

of side length 6.36 mm. The rods were arranged in an armular anay to provide a þrange

of 0.01 to 0.16. Silicone oil (GE Silicone) of kinematic viscosity 1000 mm2/s at room

temperature was the working fluid. The PIV technique was used to conduct velocity

measurements in the region around the edge of each array.Particularly, the test section

was primarily illuminated by a 50mW argon ìon laser (7,": 532 nm), and an additional

laser (20mW and X = 532 nm) positioned at about 20o to the first laser was used to

improve the illumination within the array. With the plane of the camera divided into 64

x 64pixel subregions withl5o/o overlap, the spatial resolutionwas typically 0.8 mm. It

was observed that circulation started within the range of 0.04 < ø< 0.052.It was

observed that the onset of circulation depended on the rod geometry. It was also found

that U" l(i ^tk) decayed from 0.30 to 0.24 as þ increased from 0.0i to 0.16. The

dimensionless interfacial slip velocity U, l(y was also confirmed to be nearly

^/Æ¡

independent of the rod shape, and the number of circles of rods forming an array.

Davis and James (2004) considered the simple shear flow f,reld over square arrays of

model porous media. The porous media was composed of circular rods of / ranging from

0.001 to 0.100, aligned in the direction of flow, and occupying a fraction of the channel.

L6
 The Stokes flow was solved by singurarity methods.
They noted that the u,/(i./Æ; was

independent of the number of rows and of the fraction

of the channel depth filled by the
porous medium (f,rlling fraction). Concurring with
Larson and Higdon (19g6, l9g7), their

results affirmed that penetration in 'aligned flow'

was greater than that in ,cross-flow, by

threefold' Furthermore, they pointed out that the Brinkman

equation could not provide a

reasonable estimate for the velocity at the edge

of their model porous medium.

Tachie et al (2004) investigated slow flow through

a model brush in a subsequent study.

The field of flow was created in the arinulus befween

two concentric cylinders, filled
with Dow corning 200, a fluid of kinematic viscosity 1000 mm2/s.
The test facility and
experimental technique employed was similar to that
used in Tachie et al (2003). Here,

however, the model porous media used consisted of aî array of uniformly-spaced 3.1g
mm diameter rods oriented perpendicular to the axis of the
cylinders, and mounted onto
the inner cylinder to simulate a three-dimensional 'brush-flow'
configuration. The rods
extended 79 mm into the gap, creating a free zone,18
mm wide. For the gap between the

rod ends and the outer cylinder, the flow outside the array
was that of circular Couette.

PIV was used to study the velocity field in the penetration region
of brushes of solid
volume fractions 0.025,0.05, and 0.r0. The dimensionless
slip velocity, u, /(i ^,lk)

determined was found to be about l, and nearly independent of ø.It was noted that the
'brush-flow' configuration gave higher slip velocities, and greater penetration in flow
compared with the 'cross-flow' case.

17
In a more recent work, Agelinchaab (2005) used the PIV technique to conduct a

fundamental study on the velocity field in a flow driven by pressure, over and through a

three-dimensional model porous media of 'brush-flow' type configuration. The

experiments were conducted in a two-dimensional channel made of transparent acrylic

sheet of refractive index, 1.47. Mineral oil of kinematic viscosity, 34.5 mm2/s and

refractive index I .474 respectively was used as the working fluid. The test models were

constructed by mounting transparent acrylic circular rods to the bottom wall of the

channel. The rods were uniformly spaced in square arrays covering the entire span of the

channel, but only a fraction of the space between the top and bottom walls of the

channel. Solid volume fractions, þ: 0.0t, 0.05, 0.12, 0.22,0.49 were achieved by using

different combinations of rod diameters, d: 1.59, 3.18, and 4.16 mm. Adjacent rod

centers were Spacedat, L:6 mm and 12 mm. Two rod heights, h:7,14 were used to

obtain frlling fractions (i. e. the ratio of the rod height to the depth of the test section , h/IÐ

of 0.28 and 0.56 respectively. The effects of þ and h/H were tested. Each test model was

also studied at two different Reynolds numbers based on rod diameter and bulk velocity

(i.e. the aÍea-aveÍaged velocity for the case of a channel without any porous media), -Re :

0.1 and 1.0. In the PIV system, a Nd: YAG pulsed laser (?,":532. nm) was used to

illuminate the flow field. A 60 mm diameter Nikkor lens was fitted to a high resolution

Dantec Dynamic HiSense camera using a CCD of 2048 pixel x 2048 pixel chip anci

pitch, 7.4 ¡tm. Other cornponents of the PIV system included a buffer system; and a

synchronizer. The data acquisition and image processing system (FlowManager 4'50.I7)

was installed on 3.0 GHz Pentium 4 Dell computer. The flow was seeded using light

scattering glass spheres of diameter 10 pm and specific gravity of 1r4. Each image was

i8
subdivided into 32 x 32 pixels and processed with 50% overlap to give a 0.33 mm x

0.33 mm interrogation area. For a constant channel depth H, their results revealed that

the velocity within the porous medium increased with both rod spacing / and rod height,

å but decreased with þ.In the free zone, however, the mean velocity increased with å and

þ,buT. decreased with increasing /. The dimensionless slip velocity U,l(i ^llò tor h/H:
0.28 and 0.56 filling fractions were about 1 and2,respectively.

Table 2.1: Summary of Literature Review

Focus ofResearch Studv Pertinent Studies Reviewed

Investigation Experimenial Darcy (1856), Beavers and Joseph (I96i),
Type Taylor (1971), Beavers et al (1974), Gupte and
Advani (1997), Tachie et al (2003,2004),
Agelinchaab (2005)
Theoretical / Brinkman (1947), Saffman (1971),Kopliket al
Numerical (1983), Kim and Russel (1984), Larson and
Higdon (1986, 1987) Vafai and Thiyagaraja
(1987), Shraoui and Kaviany (1992), James and
Davis (2001), Davis and James (2003,2004)
Boundary Free Zone Brinkman (1941), Saffman (1971) Beavers and
Condition of Joseph (1961), Taylor (1971),Kopliker al
Porous medium (1983), Kim and Russel (1984), Larson and
flow Higdon (1986, 1981), Gupte and Advani
(1997), Shraoui and Kaviany (1992), Gupte and
Advani (1997), James and Davis (200i), Ðavis
and James (2003,2004) Tachie et al (2003,
2004), Agelinchaab (2005)
Another Porous Vafai and Thiyagaraj a (1987)
Medium
Degree of Global Darcy (1856), Beavers and Joseph (1967),
Velocity Beavers et al (1974)
Measurements Detailed LDA: Gupte and Advani (1997)
(Experimental) PIV: Shams et a1,2003;Tachie et al (2003,
2004), Agelinchaab (2005)
Dimensionality of One or Two Pressure-Driven flow: Gupte and Advani
Flow in Detailed Dimensions (ree7),
Measurements Shear-Driven flow: Shams et a1,2003; Tachie
et al (2003\
Three Shear-Driven flow: Tachie et al (2004),
Dimensions Pressure-Driven flow: Aselinchaab (2005)

T9
 2.3 Summary of Literature Review

The literature on the flow phenomena in a porous media, and at the interfacial regions
in
particular has been reviewed. As summarized in Table 2.1, anumber
of experimental and
theoretical / numerical research studies have been conducted. While some researchers

experimentally measured global quantities such as pressure drop and flow

rate (e.g.
Darcy, 1856, Taylot,IgTl and Beavers and Joseph, 1967), others made detailed
velocity
measurements (e.g. Sham et a\,2003; Tachie et a\,2003,2004).It is also
apparentthat

although fluid flow through and over porous media has been studied extensively,
these

studies have however focused primarily on porous media bounded by a free

zone. A

number of theoretical analyses of simplified ¡ø¿o-dimensional flow in the interfacial

region of two porous media have also been reported. However, the literature
appears to

provide no detailed experimental investigation of fluid flow through and

over three-
dimensional porous medium bounded by another porous medium.

2.4 Objectives

The goals of this research were as follows:

(Ð To sfudy the effects of þ on flow through a model three-dimensional porous

medium, bounded by a free zone,

(iÐ To study the effects of varying boundary conditions in flow through a model

three-dimensional porous medium,

20
 (iii) To study the modes of communication in a flow through the model porous

medium bounded by another model porous medium where the porous media

are respectively touching and not touchin g (i.e., separated by a free zone),

(iv) To study the interfacial flow conditions for model three-dimensional porous

medium flow bounded by a free zone, and another model porous medium.

These goals were achieved by conducting detailed PIV measurements in a pressure

driven flow through and over model porous media of a wide range of solid volume

fraction (0'01 < Ó=0.+S¡. The porous media models used consisted of transparent acrylic

circular rods arranged in a square afiayi and installed perpendicular to the flow, in a

rectangular channel. The models \À/ere initially installed on the bottom wall of the

channel only to simulate flows through porous media bounded by a free zone (as shown

in Figure 1.1a). Subsequently, porous media of equal or unequal

þwereinstalled on both

lower and upper walls of the channel. The rationale was to test for the case where the

flow through the porous medium is bounded by another porous medium. The depth of the

channel was varied to provide conditions for which the top and bottom porous media

touched (as in Figure 1.1c), and did not touch each other (as in Figure t.l d).

2L
 CHAPTER 3: PRINCIPLE AND IMPLEMET{TATION OF

PARTICLE IMAGE VELOCIMETRY

3.1 Introduction
In this chapter, an overview of the particle image velocimetry (PIV) technique is given

This includes aspects such as the tracer particles, light sources, image recording media,

image analysis methods, and the optimization of measurements.

3.2 The PIV Technique

PiV is an optical technique used for the quantitative measurement of whole flow f,relds

instantaneously. The result of such measurement is velocity information in two- or th¡ee-

dimensions. Figure 3.1 shows a schematic diagram of a typical experimental arrangement

of a PIV system for the fwo-dimensional velocity measurement of a flow f,ield. The set-

up is made up of a number of components. The components are: tracer particles in a

flow, a light sourc e (e.g. a laser) and an image recording medium (i.e. a camera). As

shown, there are other systems used for the synchronisation of the camera and laser

pulses (e.g. synchroniser), the evaluation the data images, and post-processing of the data

acquired (".g. a computer with image acquisition software). The specific components of

the PIV technique used in this work is described in Chapter 4.

The PIV technique is based on an indirect determination of the velocity of a fluid flow,

by measuring the velocity of small tracer particles in the flow field. The tracer particles

22
are assumed to faithfully follow the fluid motion. In a typical PiV system as shown in

Figure 3.1, a plane of flow seeded with tracer particles is illuminated twice within a short

interval of time by means of a laser. The light scattered by the particles is recorded on a

single frame or a sequence of frames of a camera. The particle image displacements

between the light pulses are then calculated from the positions at the two instances of

time by statistical methods. The velocity is evaluated using the time delay between the

two illuminations and the imaging magnification,

camera
Tracer particles

Buffer / S

Computer

Figure 3.1: A typical PIV experimental set-up for the two-dimensional velocity

measurement of a flow field.

Unlike other techniques of measurements where probes such as pressure fubes and

hotwires are required to complete measurement, PIV is relatively non-intrusive. The

tracer particles used are of mechanical properties which allow for the study of flows such

23
 as boundary layers at porous media interfaces without
disturbing the flow. Furthermore,

the present developments of PIV technique make it possible

for large portions of flow
fields to be measured instantaneously and yet with optimum temporal
and spatial
resolution' A practical guide by Raffel et al (2007) provides
a detailed overview of the

PIV technique.

3.3 Tracer Particles

In PIV, the fluid flow is measured indirectly by measuring the velocity

of tracer particles
within the flow. To ensure high accuracy in measurement, it is therefore
essential that the

hydrodynamic and optical properties of the particles are carefully

considered.

The Stokes' drag law can be used to model the behaviour of a particle
under acceleration.

For a spherical particle in a viscous fluid at a Reynolds number less

than unity, the

settling velocity u" induced due to the difference in the tracer particle
density, po, and the

fluid densiry , pf. is shown by Mei et al (1991) to be given by:

.. -(0, - pr)sd|
" l8p (3.r)

In Eqn. 3.7, g is the gravitational acceleration, do is the particle diameter, and p is the

dynamic velocity of the fluid. It should be noted that the settling velocity, v, is

undesirable, as it is an effect of the influence of gravitational force when po and p¡ are

mismatched. Since this is a primary source of error, it should be

ensured that the particles

are neutrally buoyant in the fluid. To characterize the particle's ability to follow the flow,

24
 a response time parameter, rp is used. This parameter is a measure of the tendency of

particle to reach the fluid velocity, and it is govemed by Stokes law, and given by
(Westerwe el et al, 1996):

_ __ P or,gdÎ
'^ Igp (3.2)

While the particles must be small enough to ensure that it faithfully follows the fluid

motion, it must also be large enough to scatter light sufficiently to be detected by the

camera' The light scattering properties of a tracer particle are dependent on the particle

size, shape, and orientation, the refractive index of the particles to that of the surrounding

medium, and the wavelength of radiation. Seeding particles used for pIV range in size

from a few microns to hundreds of microns.

3.4 Light Sources

A light source is needed in a PIV technique to provide light of sufficient intensity to

illuminate a flow field, so that the light scattered by the tracer particles result in images

which can be recorded by the camera. The light should be pulsed in such a way that the

seeding particles and t-low field do not move significantly during the light-pulse
exposure.

Lasers are widely used in PIV techliques to illuminate the flow region. The reason for

the choice of lasers is their ability to emit a monochromatic light at high intensity, and to

25
 be converted into a thin sheet of light without ch¡omatic
aberrations. A laser system
basically consists of three main components. These
aÍe: alaser material, a pump source,

and a mirror arrangement. The laser material is

excited by the pump source by the
introduction of electro-magnetic or chemical energy
to generate a sheet of light. The
mirror anangement allows the thickness and orientation
of the light sheet to be adjusted.

Lasers can be classified as gas lasers, or semiconductor

/ solid-state lasers based on the
type of laser material' Gas lasers include Helium-neon
lasers, copper-vapour lasers,
Argon-ion lasers)' These lasers have atomic or molecular
gas laser materials, and are
continuous wave types, suitable for applications
in low-speed water flows. There are
other lasers which are also classified under semiconductor
or solid material lasers. They
are so-called since the laser material is a semi-conductor
or a solid material. Examples of
such lasers are: Ruby lasers, Neodymium: yttrium-aruminium-garnet
(Nd:yAG) lasers,
and Neodymium: yttrium lithium fluoride lasers. These lasers have
high power efficiency
and high amplification. They are also abre to generate
beams \¡iith high quarity.

Nd:YAG lasers are the most widely used solid-state lasers

employed in pIV in which the

beam is produced by Neodymium ions. PIV applications

usualìy require an illumination

of high energy density. Pulsed Nd:YAG lasers, are able to

do this, economising the
available energy by concentrating it into short pulses, and still providing sufficient
energy to obtain PIV images' They are thus more
commonly applied to the study of

water flows' For a two-dimensional PIV, the plane

of the light sheet of the light source is

usually in the flow direction and perpendicular to the plane

of the camera.

26
 3.5 Image Recording Media

In the PIV technique, the initial and final positions of tracer particles
scattering light in
the field of flow are recorded with an optical recording
medium (i.e., a camera). The
particle positions form the basis for the processing
of the displacement vector. The pIV
recording methods are of two kinds: recording methods
which capture the illuminated
flow onto a single frame, and those which give an illuminated
image per illumination
pulse' The former is referred to as single frame
or multi-exposure pIV, and the latter, as a

multi-frame or single exposure pIV.

Historically, the single frame or multi-exposure PIV in

conjunction with photography
was the first of the two recording modes to be employed
in pIV techniques. In this
method, the particle images are recorded on a single
frame. As a result, there is no
retention of information regarding the temporal o¡der
of the illumination pulse. This
leaves the displacement vector with directional ambiguity
which must be accounted for
by the use of additional schemes such as image shifting. Furthermore,
the method
involves a time-consuming iteration procedure for image
optimization and processing.

on the contrary, the multi-frame or single exposure PIV recording method

retains the
temporal order of the particle images. The evaluation procedure associated with this

method is much easier to handle. It is currentìy the preferred method for

image
recording, provided the tech¡ological requirements can
be met. present developments in

electronic imaging in multi-frame recording now allow for immediate feedback and

optimization of image quality during the experiment. The charge-coupled

device (CCD)

27
 camera is the most widely used PIV multi-frame
recording device. The CCD cameras are

noted for their capacity to produce images of high

spatial resolution, and ability to allow

PIV recordings which are temporarily spaced by microseconds.

Furthermore, CCD
cameras are able to provide instantaneous digital
signals of the image map of the particle

positions for possible online analysis.

The most important component of a CCD based

camera is the CCD sensor. Two types of
CCD sensors are full-frame-transfer CCD and interline
transfer CCD sensors. The CCD

sensor typically consists of a two-dimensional array (such as a rectangular, circular or

hexagonal array) of light sensitive picture elements (detectors)

called pixels. Each pixel
is a capacitor, charged by the photons of light converted
into electrons as light is incident
on it' The electric charge is proportional to the photon
flux incident on the pixel, and the
time interval of flux exposure. The charge on each pixel
is transformed to a voltage. The

read-out voltage is observed on the PIV image map

as a distribution in grey scale.

In a CCD sensor, there is another group of cells present, called

storage cells. These
storage cells are not exposed to light. The laser pulse and the camera frames are
synchronised in such a way that the first laser pulse
is timed to expose the first frame.
The charge of the light-sensitive cells of the frame is then
transferred to the storage cells

after the laser pulse. At the second laser pulse the second
frame is exposed. The first and

second frames are then transferred sequentially to the

camera ouþuts within a time

interval on the order of 0.5 to r miliseconds (Agelincha ab,2005).

28
3.6 Image Analysis
The image of particles on each of the camera frames of a digital recording media is sub-

divided into rectangular regions called interrogation areas (IA). The two sequential

images recorded are then correlated within each IA. This correlation involves a statistical

evaluation of the average spatial shift in corresponding images. The image analysis is

depicted in Figure 3.2 in a linear digital signal processing model.

Image transfer functlon

Input image Output image
(Spatial shift) .
r.e) z Image
andv
i.e, I"t Image

f(m,n) g(m,n)
F(u,v) G(u,v)

Adaptive noise

D(u,v)

Figure 3.2: A linear model of an image displacernent function (Raffel et a\,2007). The

letters m, u and n,v are used to describe coordinates in the streamwise and transverse

directions respectively.

In the model of Figure 3.2,the functions f and g of pixel coordinates (m,n) are known,

since they respectively describe the light intensities within an IA recorded at times t and t
+Ar. The main challenge then, is the estimation of the spatial shift (displacement)

function s(m, n) in the presence of a noise function d(m, n). To ensure an efficient

evaluation of the correlation, fast Fourier transformation (FFT) processes are used. This

is based on the fact that a carnera, image can be considered a two-dimensional flreid,

29
 analogous to a time series in one dimension. In Figure 3.2, Fourier transforms
are
represented by upper case functions of the corresponding lower case functions in the
spatial frequency domain coordinates (u, ,n). The transforms
F(u, v) and G(u, v) reduces
the summation of elements of the sampled region to
a complex conjugate multiplication

of each corresponding pair of Fourier coefficients. The resultant

coefficient function, ¡¡lre

is then transformed to obtain the correlation function using the location of the
Qre.

displacement peak on the correlation plane and the time

between laser pulses, the
velocity vector in the IA is then evaluated. By processing images over an array of
interrogation areas, a velocity vector map is generated. Software
such as FlowManager (a

commercial software developed by Dantec Dynamics) are used

to facilitate the image
evaluations

Two basic cor¡elation methods are employed in estimating the spatial

shift function,
namely: auto-correlation and cross-coïïelation. The auto-correlation
method was widely

used in the past, because earlier technologies could not support

the separation of the
initial and final positions of particles on distinct camera frames. In this
method therefore,

an image recorded on a camera frame is correlated with a spatially

shifted version of
itself' The result of this is a large central peak in the correlation plane
and two
displacement peaks. The average particle displacement in the
IA is obtained from the
distance from the central peak (i.e., the self-correlation peak)
to either of the
displacement peaks. It should be noted that in auto-correlation, although a central peak

corresponds to zero displacement, it does not actually represent a physical zero velocity.

Rather, it is a result of a self-correlation of particle images. Thus, particle

displacements

JU
 less than 2 - 3 pixels are not detected. This reduces the range of a particle displacement

over sub-pixel resolution (i.e., the dynamic range). Another problem associated
with
auto-correlation is a directional ambiguity in the particle images. This
makes it difficult

to apply this correlation to flow applications in which eddies are likely

to be detected. To

address the above-mentioned problems of dynamic range and directional ambiguity

special cameras have been developed. These special cameras have the
capacity to shift

the image of the particles on the CCD-chip in the interval between the
first and second
exposure' However, there are technologies that now do allow the
complete separation of
consecutive camera images with high resolution. This is done by
the use of a c¡oss-

correlation technique.

A typical numerical processing flowchart using a cross-coffelation method is shown in

Figure 3'3' For a multiple (double) frame / single exposure the cross-correlation
technique is applied by sarnpling two interrogation windows from the
image recordings.

In single frame / double exposure recordings, autocorrelation is employed by using

interrogation windows of different sizes and / or slightly displaced from each other. In

either case, at time I = t6and at t: ts +At the input signals of first and the second images

are recorded.

31
 INPUT Image I at Image2 at
t: to t: to+lt

IA subsampling IA subsampling
at position (i, j) at position (ij)
f(m,n) g(m,n)

FFT FFT

F(u,v)
I I G(u,v)

Cross correlation
@(u,v):F(u,v).G(u,v)

Õ(u,v)

FFT inverse

0(u,v)

Peak detection and subpixel interpolation

(dx,dy)

Conversion to velocity, V^(ij), Vr(ij)

OUTPUT
Data

Figure 3.3: A typical numerical processing flow-chart of PIV, using cross-correlation.

The letters i, m, u, x, and j,fl,Y, y are used to describe coordinates in the streamwise
and

transverse directions respectively.

32
 The spatial shift functions are obtained by the
use of FFT algorithms. It is noted that the

calculation of correlations by means of FFT produces

IA' The result of this is that particle
reduce this' additional functions, such as
a cyclic noise at the edges of an
images at the edges have no corresponding
pair. To
overlapping of interrogation areas are employed

to make use of all the information near the edges

of the IA. For large relative
displacements, small overlapping interrogation
areas become small and signal to noise

ratio reduces' it is therefore recommended that

particle image displacements be 1ess
than
a quarter of the IA (prasad,2000).

High correlation values (true correlations) are observed

when many particles images in
the first frame match corresponding spatially
shifted images in the second frame. on
the
other hand' small correlation values (random correlations)
are present when only
individual particles match with other particles
in a second frame. Random correlations
are the result of seeding particles leaving an
IA between the first and second image
recordings (a phenomenon called 'loss-of-pairs').
These correlations lead to a decrease in

signal-to-noise ratio' In applying the cross-correlation

method, a sufficiently large match
of particle pairs provides a satisfactory peak in
the correlation plane. The position of the

peak gives the average displacement of

the particle within the IA_

compared with the auto-correlation method, the cross-correlation is typically

characterised by a higher dynamic range and no djrectional ambiguity. while
autocorrelation techniques may require 10 particles
per IA to obtain satisfactory results,
cross-coffelation requires only 6 (Keane and
Ad¡ian ,1gg2).Although calculations in
the

33
 cross-colTelation technique are more complex and
time-consuming, those computational

challenges are usually overcome by using computers

of high speed and memory. Fufther
details of this method are given Raffel et ar (2007)
and wilrer and Gharib (1991).

A special iterative type of cross-corelation, called

adaptive cor¡elation is sometimes
more prefened' This correlation depends on the use
of a guessed velocity spatial
distribution' This initial guess is used to introduce an
offset from the first IA (i.e., the rA

in the image frame from the first laser pulse) to the second
rA (ì.e., the IA in the image
frame from the second laser pulse). The resultant
vector is validated, and then used as an

input to estimate another IA offset. The process is

thus repeated, but with a subsequently

smaller window' The iteration continues until a convergence

criterion is reached. The
adaptive correlation has some characteristics superior
to other conventional correlation
methods' The iterative processes lead to an increase
in signal strength. This is because
more vectors are successfully recovered (and not lost
through loss of pairs) for a given

seed density of the flow' Furthefinore, there is consequential decrease in the size of the
IA, improving the spatial resolution of the IA. Keane and
Adrian (lggz)showed that to
obtain a high valid detection probability for an adaptive
correlation technique, the
number of particle images per IA should be 3.

3.7 Post-Processing of Data

The result of Piv measurements is usually a huge set of data which needs fast reliable
and fully automated post-processing so that the
measurements made can be interpreted

34
 easily. This post-processing is usually accomplished by the following steps: data
validation, replacement of incor¡ect data, data reduction, further data analysis and

presentation of results.

After PIV measurements are evaluated, wrongly determined vectors (called outliers) are

usually apparent by a visual inspection of the raw d,ata. A vector is wrongly determined

in an IA when its signal to noise ratio is less than unity. Outliers may be treated

interactively for a small number of PIV recordings. For a large number of pIV
recordings, however, this interactive treatment is not possible. Such cases are treated by

means of an automatic algorithm with a high level of confidence, so that no questionable

data is stored in the flrnal data set. The guiding principle is that all questionable data that

cannot be validated by the algorithm should be rejected. It is possible to recover

erroneous data by using a replacement scheme, such as bilinear interpolation of valid

neighbouring vectors. PIV data is usually of high quality if there are less than 5o/o outliers

under extremely challenging experimental conditions (Raffel et al,200l). Beyond this

level, replacement schemes should not be used. Due to the high volume of velocity

vectors usually mapped in a measurement, thorough inspection of the fluid mechanical

properties of the vectors is very difficult. To facilitate this, techniques such as averaging,

conditional sampling and vector field operators are usually applied. The PIV data may

then be futher analysed, and then presented in the form of plots which are easily
perceptible to the human observer. Post-processing of PIV data can be. done using

commercially available software such as FlowManager, MATLAB (technical computing

35
 software developed and supplied by the MathWorks) and OriginPro (data analysis and

graphing software by Originl.ab).

3.8 Optimizing PIV Measurements

Even under ideal experimental conditions, a PIV vector map will contain outliers.

Optimisation of PiV measurements is therefore needed to carefully control the

measurement parameters so that outliers are reduced to a bare minimum. The parameters

include measurement of the particle diameter, laser energy, light sheet dimensions,
intervals befween images, camera magnihcation and focal ratio. To optimise

hydrodynamic and optical properties, the particle to be chosen must with density similar

to the fluid density but large and polished enough to scatter light.

Keane and Adrian (1990) studied the detection probability of valid vectors, and
recommended that to improve signal to noise ratio, an IA should be large enough to

accommodate enough particles, but small enough so that a vector describes the flow.

Furthermore, they also prescribed that in order to make corresponding particle image

pairs separable, the particles be allowed to travel more than one particle image diameter

d,,givenby

,,=l#.(, *(,.+)^r)'l (3.3)

where do is pafücle diameter, S is the object to image scale factor (also defined as the

inverse of the magnification factor of the lens arrangement of the camera). The focal

36
ratio of the camera, denoted by f*, is the diaphragm aperlure. The aperture controls the

light per unit area that is admitted into the image plane of the system. Light per unit area

reaching the image plane of the system reduces asfsincreases. The laser light wavelength

is denoted by /. Peak locking is an error caused by a wrong estimate of the sub-pixel

displacement. This error has a periodic pattern on pixel intervals. The particle image

diameter is recommended to be 2.0 pixels (Raffel et al, 2007) for minimizing peak

locking.

For an image magnification M, and a minimum velocify, rzr¡n, the minimum time interval

between images is given by:

d'
LT> (3.4)
Mu^'n

Using Eqn (3.4), appropriate time intervals can therefore be carefully controlled to

ensure that particle displacements are less than a quarter of IA.

The average number of particle images þarticle image density) 1ú within a square IA of

window size L¡is given as

_CL2rLz (3.5)
^rt - ---------7-
J\ J
M¿

where Az is the light sheet thickness, and C is the number of particles per unit voiume of

the fluid.

37
 CHAPTER 4: Experimental Apparatus and Measurement procedure

4.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the test channel, porous media models, and the pIV
set-up. This is

followed by a discussion of the experimental set-up, preliminary measurement

concerns,

quantification of measurement uncertainty, and general measurement procedure.

4.2Test Channel and Porous Media Models

The experiments were performed in a rectangular channel, schematically shown in

Figure 4.1. To facilitate optical access, the test section was constructed from
12 mm thick

transparent acrylic sheets, of refractive index 1.47 . Thetest channel was of length, Z :
600 mm, width, W : 71 mm and of a variable depth, 11. The channel depth
could be
varied by placing machined transparent acrylic plates of refractive index 1.47 and,

specific thicknesses on the lower wall.

Schematic diagrams of the arïangements of the test models are also shown in Figure
4.2.

As for the test section, the porous media models were also made from transparent acrylic

material of refractive index 1.47 . The models were constructed by inserting circular rods

into holes drilled into the plates. The rods were ananged in square arrays to obtain solid

volume fractions in the desired range of 0.01 S ú S 0.49. For a given rod diamet er d and

þ, the spacing between rods / was determined from the relation:

t: dt2^l1r,tó) (4.1)

38
 Y^ ,Þ=
F-r-
*-,
Vl:)
Figure 4'1: Schematic of the test channel. All numeric dimensions
are in millimeters.

Three different rod diameters- that is, d:1.59 mm, 3.lg mm, and,4.16 mm _ and th¡ee

different spacing between adjacent rods l:

- that is, 6.03 mm, g.90 mm and 12.60 mm
-
were used to achieve the range of
/ stated above. In order to ensure that the flow inside

the model porous medium developed to become periodic (as

will be demonstrated later),
each porous medium had between six and ten rows
of rods along the direction of flow
and spanned the entire width of the charulel. Porous media
rods of mean heights, h¡: 14

mm and hu: 7 mm were used for the lower and upper channel
walls, respectively, to test
specific boundary conditions. The relative standard deviation
of the lower and upper
porous media rod heights from the mean were about 2.50/o
and,l.5% respectively.

The center of the most upstream colum¡s of rods was located

400 mm downstream from

the inlet of the test section. This was done to ensure that laminar
flow in the empty
channel (that is, a channel with no porous media present)
would be fully developed at
that location, which is far greater than the estimated hydrodynamic
entrance length, x¡a,n

= 290 mm' The length xfd,h was calculated using the cor¡elation: x¡a*/Dn = 0.051eon
(Incropera et a\,2007), based on a maximum channel hydraulic
diameter, D¡ = 43 mm,

and a Relmolds number Ra¿¿ defined,by D¡, and a maximum streamwise veloc ity u^* in

an empty channel of 3 mm s-t atthaT.D¡.

 (b)

, x> , 'ur,

Figure 4'2: (a) sectioned (o-o) side and top views showing arangements
of model
porous medium on rower wa, of the channer onry; side views of (b) rower
and upper
walÌs of the channel, with the media
touching; (c) lower and upper walls
of the channel,
with the media not touching' All interfaces are
represented by dashed lines. All
numeric
dimensions are in millimeters.

40
In Figures 4.7 and 4.2, the coordinate system used in this work is also shown. The
streamwise, transverse and spanwise directions are respectively denoted by x, y (or y)
and z. The location x : 0 coincides with the center of the most upstream columns of rods.

For the transverse direction, the following references are used: ]/: 0 is the center-line

between the lower and upper walls; lt : Q is at the interface between the lower porous

medium and a free zone (as in Figure 4.2a); lz: 0 is also the interface between the upper

porous medium and a free zone (as in Figure 4.2c).For the spanwise direction, z : 0 is

f,ixed at the channel mid-span.

4.3 The PIV System

A schematic of the PIV system is shown in Figure 4.3. ANd-YAG, 120 mJ / pulse laser

and 532 nm wavelength was used. A C-mount 58 mm - 62 mm diameter EX Sigma lens,

equipped with a band-pass filter, was fitted to a Dantec Dynamic HiSense 4M digital

camera that used a charge coupled device (CCD) of 2048 pixel x 2048 pixel chip and
pitch 7 '4 pm. The data acquisition and image processing was done using a buffer system;

FlowMana ger 4.50.17, a commercial PIV software developed by Dantec Dynamics, was

installed onto the hard-drive of a 3.0 GHz Pentium 4 Deil computer.

41
 4.4 Measurement procedure

Water of kinematic viscosity y

= I x l0 -6 m2ls at ZI'C, density p = 1000 kg/m3,and a
refractive index of l'33, was used as the working fluid. A centrifugal pump supplied by
cole-Parmer Instruments company having a maximum
flow rate, 530.4cmr/s was used
to deliver a non-pulsating low pressure flow into
the channel. For clarity,the connection
of the channel and pump is shown in a separate
schematic in Figure 4.4. ThepIV system

and test section is schematized' in Figure a.5@).

The flow was seeded using fluorescent
polymer micro-sphere particles supplied by
Duke scientif,rc corporation with mean
diameter and specific gravity of 6 pm and
1.05, respectively. The Nd-yAG pulse laser

was used to illuminate the flow field. A set of cylindrical lens was used to convert the
laser light into a thin sheet, positioned in such
away that its plane \¡ias perpendicular to

the camera' The seeding particles absorb and

emit light at a waveleng th of 542nm and
672 nm, respectively.

The ccD camera was used to capture images of the flow field. To enable adjustments
during focusing, the camera was mounted on a traversing prior
mechanism. to
measurements, a calibration was performed in order to establish a scale factor between
the flow displacements (in physical units) and the pixel displacements
(in pixel units). To
do this, a metallic ruler of about I mm thickness was placed at the location of interest
inside the channel. The lens of the camera was
then adjusted until the graduations on the

ruler were well focused. The scale factor of 3.71 used

in the experiment was thus
obtained using the PIV software. A camera fierd of view,46.5 mm by 46.5 mm was

consequently kept in the entire measurement process.

To minimize errors due to peak-

42
 Computer

Nd:YAG Laser

Laser
generator

Figure 4.3: Schematic of pIV system

Figure 4.4: Schematic of channel and pump system

43
 CCD
(a) camera

Nd:YAG Laser

(b)

x L?
,r- L2

L 1A., Lt

Figure 4'5: Schematics of (a) the PfV and test section arrangement; and (b) top view of a

model porous medium with the laser sheet of light represented by line segments: Lr-Ll.

and Lz-Lz' Other representative reference locations are also shown. All numeric

dimensions are in millimeters.

44
 locking while optimizing background contrast
and resolution, a camera focal length
of l l
was used' The particle image diameter
was estimated to be 2.57 pixels. This
value is
close to the recommended optimum value
of 2 pixels required to minimize peak locking
(Raffel et al' 2007)' Each image was
subdivided into 32 by 32 pixels and processed
with
50Yo overlap to give an interrogation
area (IA) with a spatial resolution
of 0.36 mm by
0.36 mm.

During the image acquisition, the times

between the pulses of laser were chosen
so that
the maximum particle displacement in
an IA was less than a quarter of the
side of the IA.
The images were stored continuously through
a buffer system onto a desktop computer.

The digital images rvere post-processed using

the adaptive-correlation option. The
adaptive cor¡elation uses a multi-pass
fast Fourier transform cross-correlation
algorithm
to determine the average particle displacement
within the IA during a period of laser
exposures. This was facilitated by the
use of FrowManager 4.50.r7.

Extensive measurements were conducted

in the x-y plane at z/l = 0 and 0.5 locations
inside the porous medium and free zone. For
the case of a pair of porous media of
unequal / on the channel walls, the measurements were made at the two z locations using

the porous medium of higher as the reference.

þ For clarity, those locations are hereafter

referred to as: z/r¡¡4 : 0 and 0.5 for those boundary conditions.

The purpose for
measurements at two z locations was to account
for the expected variations in flow along
the channel span. For the present experiments,
the plane zll or z/l¡¡6:0 passes between

adjacent rows of the porous media rods of þ = 0t.01,0.025,0.05, and 0.10. The planez/l

45
 or z/l¡16: 0'5 passes through the porous media
rods of these models. on the other hand,

due to the arrangement of porous media ¡ods :

of þ 0.22 and 0.49,the plane z/l : 0 or
z/l¡1p:0 rather passes through the rods whilst the z/t: 0.5 or z/l¡¡p: 0.5 plane passes
between adjacent rows of the rods. The plane
passing between rods and that passing
through rods are illustrated schematicaily in Figure 4.5(b) as LrLt and, Lz_Lz,
respectively, in the representative top view
of a porous medium model. For convenience,
these planes of measurement are hereafter
referred to as pBR and prR, respectively.
Ensemble averaged streamwise verocity
Q,) data sets were line-averaged using a
MATLAB script' with reference to Figure 4.5(b),
velocities taken in the pBR were
typically line-averaged from rod centre A¡ to
42, and in the pTR, from rod centre B¡
to
82' In either case of plane measurement, the line-averaged
streamwise velocity <u> was
obtained using the following relationship at a given
y: c location:
t/2
1Lt )=
rf
= c)dx
T Jttj,l, (4.2)
-l /2

4.5 Preliminary Experiments

4.5.1 Sample Size Determination

A primary concern was the sample size N, necessary

to achieve statistical convergence.
To determine this, measurements were made for
flow in the empty channel and ¡.¿ was
evaluated using different sample sizes in the range <¡/<
30 150. The results in Figure
4'6 indicate that within the sample range used, the velocity
profiles were independent of
the sample size' A minimum sample size of // : 30 images was therefore used in

46
 subsequent measurements. In Figure 4.6 the transverse distance is normalized by the
depth of the channel. The verocities in Figure a.6@) are also normalized by the

streamwise bulk velociry,

ub=
tf
u J"o, -H t2
(4.3)

The profiles obtained were parabolic, and as expected, the ratio

of the centre line velocity
to u6was 1.5 in each case.

4.5.2 Accuracy of Velocify

To ascertain the accaracy of the velocities obtained from the pIV, velocity profiles

obtained for an empty channel at different bulk velocities and

streamwise locations were

compared with analytically derived results. The velocity u was normalized by the

corresponding local maximum velocity, u,,*. Tltis is demonstrated in Figure 4.6(b)

where it can be seen that the measured profiles are in good agreement
with the analytical
profile. This indicates that the flow in the empfy charurel is fully
developed at the
location of the porous media (that is, x > 0) as expected for a laminar
flow.

4.5.3 Flow Development in porous Media

With the installation of the model porous media in the channel, the flow in the test

section became three-dimensional. It is expected that the flow through the porous
media

in the x direction would become periodic after a number of rows. To determine the

region of periodicity, measurements were made in the x-y planeat two z locations
i.e. z/l
:0, 0'5, as described in,Figure 4.5b). The results for measurements taken for two x-y

+7
 planes show that the
flow generally became periodic
at x/r > 2 (thatis, from
the 3d row
onwards)' For cìarity' this
trend is shown in Figure
4.6(c -d) using data exfacted
arong
the stream at the same
hansverse location within
the porous medium onry
for the case of
Ó =0'10 and 0'025'respectiveÌy'
To ensure that anarysìs was
done onry in the region
of
periodicify, a, subsequent
measurements were taken
at x/r > 2.

4.5.4 Test for fnertial

Effects

Alother concern was that of inertia.

Darcy's law for a single-phase
fluid flow through
porous media is valid
in sufficiently low Reynolds number
regimes. The Reynords
number in this work is defined
by Re - {u6 >dy'u. The burk rine-averaged sfteamwise
verocify is given by the
'ub' :
reration,
[-roro" (<u> dy)l/H. This Ae is a grobal
Reynolds number of the
flow in the test section at the
rocation of interest and
is not
necessarily representative
of the local flow within the porous
medium. The Reynords
numbers in prior investigations
(e.g. Tachie et a.,2004
and Agelinchaab, 2005)
have
been at most l Preliminary
' tests conducted with the pump
showed that atvery row
flow
for H : 25 rnmin a chan¡er
rates (i'e'' ur< 7 mm/s
with no porous media present),
there
tended to be regions of
back-flow. This resulted in
sinusoidar mean verocity profires
even
in the region of fully developed
flow in the chan¡er. Besides this
constraint, the smarest
rods in this study were of
diameter, d : 1-5g mm, and
the working fluid used was
water
of kinematic viscosity v= 7 x -6
70 m2/s at 20'c.rt was therefore
evident that the present
test conditions would yield Re

48
 (Ð
(b)
1.0
-','
ub: -- S x: - 27 .68 mm
2.04 1.0 n uu:1.04-- s -t; x: -21.45 mm
tr N:30 I ¡/:100 * uu: l-44 -- s -'; x: 'l.02mm
C ¡/:50 O N=120 (, uu:2-04rn- s -'; x: -27.68 mm
A N:70 A N: t5o
0.5 Õ\CrO0I u / u :l-QY/ÍÐ2
nø
Õô0ôc!ô 0.5
Y/H
Y/H

0.0

-0.5

u/uu u/umu
(c) (d)
20 l0 20 l0
ø= 0.10
ø= 0'025
E ; z/l:0.5
O ; z/l:0 ffi-
u '.n ¡*dt
Jtt T.'
llt!Tf: J
(mms
ñ .t
't'--!-¡---l-¿- (mm s- ¡l

l0 -tL * rt
r-r-rr-frJ-
010 L!i¿'i$t¡+
% ^d*q%æ
o o@q- .,

sdeÞ%þ#tr"]
a
sdddeh
J J

x/l x/l
Figure 4.6: (a) Results of convergence test performed for an empty channel; (b) Various

profiles for flow in the mid-plane of the channel span (z/l: 0); (c) and (d) respectively
show the streamwise velociry profiles at a selected y location to demonstrate flow

development inside rods ofl:0.10 and 0.025.

49
 thus needed' To do this'
velocity measurements were
made for moder porous
medi a of þ
: 0'025 and 0' 10 on the lower
wall only, and at various burk
verocities. This was done
to
cover 1'4 < Re < 6-7. rn
figure 4.7, the rine-averaged
sffeamwise verociry, (zz )
is
normalized by the maximum
line_averaged streamwise
velocity {ttr;>.The data
sets
collapse reasonably well' Based on these results,
it can be concruded that for
the range of
'Re considered in this work, the
effects of inertia are negrigibre.

@)
(b)
0.5

Gl¡
oÐl
l6ûìt
,{ml

Y/H ÐfC u,' û{

0. ô8

Ø:0'A5
D Re:1.4
O Re:23 Re:20
-0.
A Re:3.5 ^O Re:4.5
0.0
I Re=6.7
0.5 1.0
<u/unru>

Figute4'7: Effect of Reynolds

number, Re onthe flow
through chan¡er of with
moder
porous medium on rower
wa, of ó: (a) 0.025 and (b)
0.r0. Resurts show that within
experimental errors' the
flow under consideration is independent
of ineniar effects within
:
Re 7.4 and 6.7 .

50
 4.6 Measurement Uncertainties

To assess the u measurement uncerta inty 8,,, both bias

and precision errors were
identified and quantified in each aspect of the measurement chain based on the
methodology outrined by coleman and steere,
r995 and stern e¿ at, 1999.

To evaluate the bias component of the measurement

uncertainty, the various elements of
the bias elÏors in the measurement process
were first assessed. The accuracy of the
velocity measurement by PIV is limited by the
accuracy of the particle response to fluid

motion, light sheet positioning, right pulse timing,

the size of IA and the sub_pixel
interpolation of the displacement correlation peak.
A number of precautionary measures
were taken to reduce these errors to a minimum
level. For example, by the use of seeding

particles of appropriate size and shape, it was expected that the parlicles would follow

the flow accurately (Raffel et al, 2007). It also ensured that the particle displacements
were less than one quarter of IA' As noted earlier, the particle image diameter of 2.57
pixels was close to the recommended value
of 2.0 (Raffel et al, 2007) for minimizing
peak locking.

The elementary bias limits identified are the resolutions

of the image, the ccD camera
chip, time interval between laser pulses, particle
displacement, respectively denoted by

Lo, Lt, a/, and as (Agelinchaab, 2005).The bias

limit of the measured velocity, ,8,, was
then determined from a root-sum-square of the elementary bias limits based on
sensitivity coefficients, in this case given by:

Br,'= 0'L"Btr"* 02r,82r,* 02x82¡,r 02uB2t

(4.4)

51
 In Eqn (4.4), the sensitivity coefficients, 0x: ôu¡/ôX, X:
for Lo, Lr, A,t, As. The
classification of the sources of bias error, and the corresponding
contributions to the bias
limits for u are presented in Table 4.1 in a typical assessment. As shown in
the table, the
relative bias error, B,: 8,, /tt was determined to be about 0.6g%.

Table 4.1 : Typical assessment of bias limits of the

velocity in free zone

Variable Magnitude

Lo (m) 4.658-02 I E-04 4.77 E -06 4.77 E_06 2.28 E-L1

h (pix) 0.5 -1.10 E _06 s.428_07
2048
2.94 E-3

& (s) 8.s0 E -03 1E -0j -s.4zE -02 s.4t E_09 2.93 E-17

As þix) 4.01 0.025894 -s.S4E_04 1.43 E_05 2.06 E-r}

u (rnls) 2.228 -03

Z(Bx0x)2

:2.29 E-10

Bu: L.5l E -5

Br, /r,t:0,68%

The precision limit of the measured velocity, P,, is mainly

the result of scatter in the
measured data due to variations in measurements and
operating conditions. This was

assessed statistically from P', : Ko, where K is the confidence coefficient, having a value

of 2 fot a 95Yo confidence level for sample size N > 10 (Coleman

and Steele, 1995), and

othe standard deviation of the samples. The typical values of relative precision
error, p,.,,,
: P, lu were I.5o/o inside the porous medium and 0.4Yo in the free zone. The total

52
 uncertainty 8,, was then determined from the square root of the sum of the squared bias

and precision eïrors, i.e., Eu : ^'l(B',, + Fò. The values were found to be approximately

2Yo and lo/o o1¿¿ in the porous medium and in the free zone, respectively. As PIV is an

optical-based method of measurement, it was expected that with the increase in solid

volume fraction of the porous media models, standard deviations of the measured

velocities would become higher. In the interior of model porous media of

þ: 0.22 and,

0.49, therefore, the uncertainty in z was estimated to be about l0%.

4.7 Test Conditions and Measurement Procedure

Based on the results from the preliminary experiments, detailed measurements were

made at the test conditions summarized in Table 4.2. The experiments were conducted in

th¡ee series with each set of experiments testing. a specific boundary condition. In Series

1 (shown in Table 4.2a),the model porous medium was installed on the lower wall of the

channel only, with a free zone over the porous medium. These anangements are similar

to previous experimental set-ups (e.g. Agelinchaab 2005) in which the porous medium

was adjacent to a free zone. In the present case, ll was kept constant at 25 mm,whilst /
was varied from 0.01 to 0.49. In Series 2 (as shown in Table 4.2b), model porous media

of equal þwere installed on the lower and upper walls. In Series 3 (shown in Table 4.2c),

model porous media of unequal þwere installed on the lower and upper walls of the

cha¡rnel. In Series 2 and 3, two channel depths, H = 22 mm and 25 mm were used. In the

former depth, the porous media on the lower and upper channel walls were just touching,

while in the latter depth, there was a free zone befween the lower and upper porous

53
 media' For each of
the test conditions in
series 2, measurements
were made in the pranes
z/l =0' 0'5 ' In Series
3 experiments where pairs
of porous media of unequar
combined, measurements þwere
were made at z/l¡¡6:
0, 0.5 locations.

In the table (and in Figure

4.2), theheight, diameter,
and rength of the rods
fabricate the moder porous used to
media on the rower
wail are denoted by lrt
, dt ãnd,It while
those on the upper
wall are denoted by .ru,
du and tu. Thesorid vorume
fractions of the
model porous media
on the lower and upper
walls are denoted by
út andþy, respectively.
Ret and Reu are the characteristic
grobar Reynords number
defined as ReL : {Ltb >d/v
and Re¿¡- <u6>du/v.The
bulk line_averaged velocify
<ub>per condition
was fypically
found to be of the same order of magnitude for the two pranes of
measurement.
Fu¡thermore, apart from
conditions for which
Ør: úr:0.22,0.49 at H = 22 mm,
25mm; and = 0.05, þu: O.22combinations
þ¿
at 11 = 25 mt-n,all the other<uo>values
were found to be consistently
greater in the pÌanes
z/1, z/l¡¡6__ 0 than
that in the planesz/1,
z/l¡76- 0'5' Thus' only
values of <u6> and
the correspondingRe
varues
in the planesz/r,
z/l¡¡6= 0 are shown
in Table 4'2' TheReynolds
number Re was kept
sufficientry low (z.e
Re < 4) so that inertia
was not a factor in
the flow, as concruded
from Figure 4.7.

54
 Table 4.2: Summary of test conditions for (a)1't Series (b)2"0 Series,
and (c) 3.d Series of
experiments, ht:14 mm and, h¡,r 7 mm.

(a)
H d'¿ l¿
þL <Lt6) Ret
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm/s)
25 1.s9 12.60 0.01 0.71 1.1
25 1.59 8.90 0.025 0.s5 0.9
25 3.18 12.60 0.0s 0.66 2.1
25 3. r8 8.90 0.10 0.59 1.9
25 3. i8 6.03 0.22 0.s6 r.8
25 4.7 6 6.03 0.49 0.60 2.9

(b)
H dt du It ly ót <LI6) ReL,
þu
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm/s) Reu
22 1.59 1.s9 t2.60 12.60 0.01 0.01 1.00 1.6
22 1.59 1.s9 8.90 8.90 0.02s 0.025 0.66 1.1
22 3.18 3.18 12.60 12.60 0.0s 0.0s 0.89 2.8
22 3. 18 3.1 8 8.90 8.90 0.10 0.10 0.41 1.3
22 3.18 3.18 6.03 6.03 0.22 0.22 0.0s 0.1
22 4.76 4.76 6.03 6.03 0.49 0.49 0.01 0.1
25 t.s9 1.59 12.60 12.60 0.01 0.0r 1.0s 1.7
25 1.59 1.59 8.90 8.90 0.025 0.02s 1.0s 1.7
25 3.18 3.i8 12.60 12.60 0.05 0.0s 0.88 2.8
25 3.18 3.18 8.90 8.90 0.r0 0.10 0.73 2.3
25 3.1 8 3.i8 6.A3 6.03 0.22 0.22 0.09 0.3
25 4.76 4.76 6.03 6.03 0.49 0.49 0.40 1.9

(c)
H d¡ dy I¿ lu þt 1ub) Ret Reu
þu
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm/s)
22 3.18 1.59 12.60 12.60 0.05 0.01 0.87 2.8 1.4
22 3.18 3.18 8.90 6.03. 0.05 0.22 0.74 2.3 2.4
22 3.r8 4.76 12.60 6.03 0.05 0.49 0.9s 3.0 4.5
22 3.18 t.s9 6.03 12.60 0.22 0.0i 0.68 2.2 1.1
22 3.18 3.18 6.03 12.60 0.22 0.05 0.53 1.1 1.7
25 1.s9 3.1 8 12.60 t2.60 0.01 0.0s 1.0s 1.7
25 3.18 1.s9 12.60 12.60 0.05 0.01 1.0s J.J 1.7
25 3.18 3.18 8.90 6.03 0.0s 0.22 0.10 0.3 0.3
25 3.r8 4.76 12.60 6.03 0.0s 0.49 0.13 2.3 3.5
25 3.18 1.59 6.03 12.60 0.22 0.01 0.88 2.8 r.4
25 3.18 3.18 6.03 12.60 0.22 0.0s 0.46 1.5 1.5
28 3.18 3.18 6.03 12.60 0.22 0.05 1.16 3.7 3.7
31 3.18 3.18 6.03 t2.60 0.22 0.05 1.18 3.8 3.8

55
 CHAPTER 5: RESULTS A¡{D DISCUSSIOI{

5.1 Introduction

In this chapter, the results of the experiments are presented and discussed. The effects of

boundary conditions on flow through a model porous medium are considered in order of

complexity of the resulting flow. That is, the flow through a porous medium bounded by

a free zone is first discussed, followed by that with porous media on lower and upper

walls, with the fwo media just touching. Finally, the case of flow through apair of porous

media separated by a free zone is examined. In each case, communication in flow

between various layers of porous media is discussed. Pertinent issues regarding slip

velocities are also examined.

5.2 Velocity Distributions

The u velocity reported was extracted at streamwise locations befween adjacent rods

shown as C and D in Figure a.5þ) for the respective planes of measurements. In the

profiles presented subsequently for each boundary condition, u ís respectively

normalized by the corresponding local maximum velocify, ?,t^^, and the bulk velocily u6.

While the former shows the typical profile for the respective test conditions, the latter

provides an estimate for the relative distribution of flow. The line-averaged velocities,

1u) are similarly normalized by the corresponding local maximum velocities 1u,,^.>, and

the local bulk velocity of the flow <u6,>. The wall-normal distance has been normalized

by the respective channel depth, 1L For conditions where porous medium is on the lower

wall only or porous media of equal þ are onìower and upper channel walls, distributions

56
 are shown for flows in PBR and PTR.
For conditions where porous
media of unequar
are on lower and upper
/
channel walls, distributions
are shown for flows in pranes
z/r¡¡6:
0' and 0'5' Percentage flow
rate distributions per unit
span of the channer in the
rerevant
porous media and free
zone for the various boundary
conditions are arso given
in Tabre
5'l' For a given boundary condition,
trends in flow distributions
were sim'ar in both
planes of measurement.
For this reason only values
for pBR and z/l¡¡6= 0 planes
are
shown in Table 5'l' A
complete version of the percentage
distributions are given in
Appendix A.

5'2'1 Frow through a porous

Medium Bounded by a Free
zone
The effects of flow through
and over different sorid vorume
fractions of a porous
medium bounded by a ÍÌee
zone are shown in Figures
5.r and 5.2. Figures 5.1(a, c)
and
5 '2 (a' c) respectively
show the normal ized u
and <u>velocity profiles
for the flow in a
PBR' Figures 5' I (b' d) and
5'2 (b'd) respectively
show those for the flow in
the prR. In
these figures' the velocities
within the porous media for
the pTR are less than those
in the
PBR' This is because the former
is in closer contact with the
rods. with regards to trends
in velocities' similar observations
were made for pBR and pTR
planes in all other related
boundary conditions.

In the'porous medium, a boundary

layer region is formed at
the wall boundary for which
shear stresses have maximum
values at the boundary and
decrease into the fluid.
As
observed in Figure 5'1' the
viscous effects due to the lower
chan¡el walr generary fade
with increasing þ' However, this
phenomenon is dependent
on the spacing befween

57
 (a)
0.5
ú%

Y/H ., "- tå.1,"rft"1

0.0 tBo

ri.{
B" -o
au-
-0.5]q
0.0

òd
, f-r,lls Æà'E Y/Ho.

-0.s
1.0 0.0 0.5 1.0
1u / ur,*) 1u / tt,,*)
Figure 5.1: velocity distributions for the case of a model porous medium on the

lower wall of the char¡rel onJy. H = 25 mm. The symbols used are: n ø:0.01,

l:12.60 mm, d:7.59 mm; E þ:0.025, /: 8.90 mm, d: 1.59 mm; C þ:

0.05,/:12.60mm,d: 3.l8mm; Q þ: 0.10,/:8.90 mnad:3.l8ttr-; A

þ :0.22,t: 6.03mm,d : 3.18 m-; A þ :0.49,t : 6.03mnt, d:4.76 mm.

Analytical profile for an empty channel '.u/ u^o*:7-(2Y/IÐ'; (a,c) show the profiles
-
for the flow in a PBR; (b,d) respectively show profiles for the flow in a PTR. The

dashed line is y
/H: 0.

58
 (a) (b)
0.5

Y/H fui,"
Y/H A

0.0 0.0

-0.5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 0 12
u/uu u/uu
(c) (d)

Y/H
0.0
Y/H
0.0 -TH
2 ¿)
<u/uu> 1u/ uu>
Figure 5.2: Bulk velocity distributions for the case of
model porous medium.on the

lower wall ofthe charurer or.iy. H - 25 mm.The symbors used are: n þ: 0.07,
l:12.60mm,d:L59mm; E Q:0.025,/:g.90 mn¡d:l.59mm; O ó:
0.05, /:72.60mm,d : 3.l8mm; | ó: 0.10, /:g.90 mm,d:3.1g-m; A
þ :0.22,1:6.03 mm, d : 3.18 mm; A þ :0.49, t = 6.03 mm, d= 4.76 mm;

(4c) are in a PTR, and (b,d) are in a pBR. The dashed rine is y
/H: 0.

59
 adjacent rods, /. This explains why the velocity gradients within porous medium of
ó:
0.025 where I : 8.9 mm, are less than that of ø: 0.05 where I : 12.6 mm. For ø> 0.10,
the profile becomes more parabolic in the free zone.

It is also observed that the porous medium on the lower wall produced an asymmetric

velocity distribution. Unlike the empty channel for which the maximum velocity

occurred on the centerline (Y/H :0), the location of 1u^*> is shifted towards the upper

channel wall. This shift may be understood by noting that there is a blockage in flow

caused by the presence of the porous medium, resulting in more flow in the free zone

where the maximum velocity is reached. The shift in the position of the <u^oè is

minimal at ø:0.01. At þ:0.49 however, lLtntax) is approximately mid-way the depth of

the free zone. This indicates that at such a high þ (as may be further observed in a latter

section), the boundary condition at the interface is practically that of no-slip. The relative

flow distributions belween the various layers are shown in Figure 5.2 and,typical values

are summarized in Table 5.1. From Figure 5.2, ít is seen that the ratio between the

maximum velocity and bulk velocity ranges from I .5 fo 4. Within this range,
/: 0.01 is

closest to that for an empty channel. From Table 5.1, it is observed that the extent of flow

blockage is significant even at low ó.At ø:0.01, for example, about 60% ofthe total

flow is channelled into the free zone. This value generally increases with þ so that /:
0.22 is just sufficient to allow no less than 99% flow through the free zone.

60
 5.2.2 FIow through Porous Medium On Lower and Upper Channel Walls \ilith
Media Touching

Figures 5.3 and 5.4 show profiles for the case of porous media of equal
/ on lower and

, upper walls. The distributions for þ : 0.22 and 0.49 were found to have scatter. They

have been shown as separate figures in Appendix B. As indicated in Figures 5.3 (a, b),

the velocity profiles for a flow through touching porous media on lower and upper

channel walls follow closely that of an empfy channel. However, line-averaged profiles

in Figures 5.3 (c, d) show 'wake-like'patterns just above the slip plane (ytlH:0). This

occulrence is due to the porous media rods on the channel walls not being in perfect

contact with each other. From the line-average velocity distributions in Figures 5.4(c, d)

and the flow rate distribution results presented in Table 5.1, it is clear that for a pair of
equal þ, the flow through the lower porous medium is about 62%
- 68%o of the overall

flow. This is expected since the depth filled by the lower porous medium is about 66% of

the total channel depth. For an empty channel, the ratio ur*/u6 is 1.5. In this boundary

condition <u^^/ub) is close to this value as it varies from a minimum of 1.2 at

þ:0.01
to about |.6 at þ: 0.10.

In Figures 5.5 and 5.6, the velocity distributions normalized respectively by the local

maximum and bulk velocities are presented for the case where the þ of the lower and

upper porous media are unequal. It should be noted that the differences in velocity
magnitudes fo¡ the z/l¡np:0, 0.5 are due to the measurement plane of the / occupying the

61
 Q'¡r,,

,/ -tl (
---/ ^dr^
u%r%\"'
0.0

(c) (d)

Eþ{.rfu
Y/H
0.0

0.s 1.0 0.0 0.5 1.0

<u/ u <tt / tt

/ on lower and
Figure 5.3 : Velocity disfibutions for model poroì.rs media of equal

upper walls of the channel. H *22 mrn The symbols used are : ! ú : 0.01, l:

12.60mrn, d : 7.59 mnU O þ:0.025, /:8.90 nrrld: 1.59mm; O þ:

0.05,/:I2.60mrn,d: 3.18 mm; A þ --0.10, /:8.90 mrr:rd: 3.l8mm;

profile for an empty channel :u/ u, :I-(2Y/IÐ' ; (4 c) showthe veloci¡

-AnaMical
profiles in a PBR and &, d) in a PTR The dashed line is¿ / H:0.

62
 (a) (b)
0.5 0.5
roca
EOD -oÌr
aoa o "Qrr
o "}l
-
oÐ o
ÙD
@ o T rah
.CE
o) taD
o)
.æ
aú o
o
.O
¡D
¡a raû
(o .---G-
-------a-IIr- '- --{
-o--
XD
Y/H IO Y/H o
o
(
(
aO
tO
-)a (o
_!o o .E
0.0 aEo 0.0 o aO_
(o
(
rG
æ
-fl
O o
(
(o -r'
*
.-r-+
.ID o
c
o o arì H
o 3--'
B o rl
ñrcr
oo¡
ocDr
o)
o ol
EÙ o t-a
( ,lo
trc- o B¡
o or on Drra
oor cÛrra I
a
oo¡
-0.5 -0.5
I 0 I
u/uu tt/u,
(c) (d)
0.5 0.5
¡
oaD
ooB o¡o
O¡ tr
a
raD o "ro
onoil o
o -oat a
otl o trt aa
otr to o ol
ooa o rI
ctlo o O¡
o r¡
-cffcra
-------------- ---o-o --r-n1*--
Y/H .Etr'Ë) Y/H o
o
Os
O¡
acû o O¡
0.0 0.0 o O¡
af)-n o ta.'
.I] o
.D o O¡
¡ct o O¡
aþ o It
aÙ3 o O¡
trO o l{ì
DD o rt
taÞ o
o
nr-go
E'D o
trD o
oar o %'
DC- o
-0.5
tr oa
-0.s -T
t20 I
<u /uu> <u /uu>
Figure 5.4:Bulk velocity distributions for model porous media of equal / on lower and
upperwalls ofthechannel. H=22 mm. Thesymbolsusedare: n þ: 0.0I,1:
12.60mm, d : 1.59 mm; E þ :0.025,/: 8.90 mm,d : 1.59 mm; O þ:
0.05,/:12.60mm,d: 3.18 mm; O þ:0.I0,1:8.90mm, d:3.18mm;
(a, c) show the velocity profiles in a PBR, and (b, d) in a PTR. The dashed line is

!,/H:0.

63
 (b)

I "l"a ""à
0.5
' *lâ oao å"oo_
r+.p
åÊj
Y/H Y/H
¿s r;å.-il.:"_)
0.0 0.0

"Ê(.*
+#p+"o -0.5
-0.5
0.0 0.5
0.0 0.5
u/u u/u
M
(c) (d)

! t
0.5 0.5
o o^ lo^ ^4.oo,

Y/H å-A-- -î-' ---- -- --.Ð -

^aaa*;¡
D ¡ q.--Ë
--^-------l#--
" ".bbþË"^_
^^---
Y/
0.0 0.0

-0.5
L otocP -0.s
0.0 0.5 0.0 0.5
<u/ u
mox
<u/ u

Figure 5.5 : Velocity distributions for the case of modei porous media
unequal / on both

jl
lower and upper walls of the channel. x22. The symbols used are: O Ór:0'05'6r:

I a Ôr:0'22, úu:0.05; n û, :0'05,6r: 0'01; a

0.49; úr:0.05, Ór:0.22;

Q,
: 0.22,6¿,: 0.01; prohle for an empty channel
"u/
u*o*:l-(2Y/ÍÐ2;

-Analytical
(a, c) are in a plane z/lor: |and (b, d) in a plane The dashed line isy' / H:0
'lrþ:0'5'

64
 (a) (b)
0.5 -¡
'li
]r oo
A a¡.^
0.s
¡ "D
F a^
]ll¡ o- ^^Â
o
cl
^^
^^ ^a {\
1.
'-"D Ã ^^
-a r-
o
o
l!o^¿\ o ^^
f¡ar¡
¡r ^ .É)
o
o /\^.^^
^^
Y/ ll
^^ o
Y/H l----;r4¡----o-
I -lr l m
Itr r-õo
-o-_:. - r-,&
'^
o^
¡-A -fl-!
â^
âo
11 D n i^ rÌ æ
A
0.0 lt$ o r o ^Â^
qûo1
11 .å: ¡D ¡ too 0.0 A^ ^\^
l_r !I
ûrO
'ar¡¡ô ^\.- u_t ¡O
_ul
A
,+
Strô
oo rõ
¡o A^
A ^
A ^\". ^ur rP
t^
tU
?oro o
+ ¡o- ^l'o -u¡
-"¡
^A ^^\D on"¡
çDra)
ÇorôO
IL.
+¡^^ trIDn-r rñ-¡o
¡ ô- A/ ^ û I-
L.Dtô A/ ^r
4r o ro ro
¿a A^ Or¡¡ l6 O-
Æ ro ro
-0.s o
o
23 -0.5
0
Lt / Ltb
u/u.
(c) (d)
0.5 D
I a^ 0.5
o^^
tr^^
o¿^
O A,
n zrA
;lL
" --^
Y/H ¡ -^Ao
oa___
qq y/
.^A g
0.0 A o oro¡
A
'A
o o¡
o 0.0
^ tror
Dq
^ oo
o¡D
oq
DD
UlJ
o1
o
D¡Q
re
o
pt
o 1 2 3 4 -*"ffi
E
-0.s -0.5
<u /uu> <i/u.>
Figure 5'6 : Bulk velocity distributions for the case
of moåd porou, media unequal
ø

on both lower and upper walls of the channel. H

= 22.The symbols used are: ! ø,

= 0.05, ór: O.Cl O ór:0.05, ór: 0.49 A ór: 0.22, óu: 0.01; z þr:
þu: 0.22;
^ ór:
0.05, 0.22, óu: 0.05; (a, c) show the profiles in the plane
z/lro

: 0 and (b, d) 1n z/l y, / H:

Hó: 0.5. The dashed line is 0.

65
 larger filling fraction of the charmel
depth. in Figure 5.5, it is apparent
that the velocity
distributions are dependent on the
combinations of used. The following
/ examples from
Figure 5'5 (c) explain this point'
For þ¿: 0.01 and 0.05, for example,
there are negrigibre
channel wall effects inþuwhentheseporousmediaarecombinedwith
þu:0.22,0.49.
consequently' the effect of the high
þvis to produ ce a parabolic profile in the .ow
þ
porous medium and high shear
stress regions in the interfacial
region and rower channel
wall' In another exampre, for a
þ¿: 0.05 and þy: 0.0r pair, the verocity profires show
relatively higher wall effècts on
both channel wails as expected.
The ratio of <u,o,/u6> is
about l'69' Although this ratio is
higher than that observed for touching
pairs of porous
media of equal þ'itis close to the I.5 value for the case
of empty channel flow. This is
because the / values are not wide apart. For the
cases wher e the þvalues are wide apart,
the ratio {u'*/t't6} is greater' For a high
þt anda row þu (such as
ót: 0.22 and, þu:0.05
or 0'01), <u,*/u6) is about 4 whilst that
of an arrangement of a row
þ¿ and, a high þu
(such as ÓL:0'05 and, þr:0.22 or 0.49) is about 2. This is due to
the fact that the
greater the fraction of the chan¡el
depth filled by the higher
þ, themore blockage effect
results in that regio4, leading to
more bulk flow (and a greater 1u^*/u6)ratio)
in the
region of lower þ.

As indicated in Table 5'1, in each of the

cases of unequal þ pairsof touching porous
media cited' it is found that there is greater
flow in the porous medium with the
tower þ
if the difference in the magnitude of is high.
/ In that case, the proportional distribution
of flow is not affected by the filling fraction
of the porous medium of larger
þ. A Lypical

66
 (a)
(b)
0. 5-
0.5
A a
ô a
è
a
A
y/H
....-^ Y/ ^
^
0.0 ^
:-'--------f,----------------â------------
0.0

-0.5
-0.s
0246 10 23
(c) tt/uu u/uo
(d)
0.s

^^o^.^
Y/H F--

.^-.*-..-.............a.....-..-.^ ä^ Y/H
0.0
0.0

4
<u/uu>
4 6 I t0 12
<u /uu>
Figure 5.8: Bulk velocity distributions for the case ofmodel
porous media

of equal / on both lower and upper : walls. H = 25mm.The symbols used

are:

D þ:0.01,1:12.60mm,d: 1.59 mm; r

þ:0.025, l:g.90mm,d
: 1.59mm; O þ:0.05,1 :i2.60mm,d:3.lgmm; C
ó:0.10,1:
8.90mm, d :3.i8mm; A þ :0.22,1:6.03mm,d :3.Igmm; A :
ó
0.49 ,l: 6.03 mm, d :4.76mm; (a, c) are in a pBR, and (b, d) in a pTR.The
dashed line isy, / H = |whilst the solid line isy, / H 0.
=

69
 media' The relative distribution of flow rates as shown in Table 5.1, demonstrates that at

0 .025 t Ó .-0. 1 0, the percentage rates of flow in the lowe¡ porous medium, the free zone

and the upper porous medium, are nearly constant at about 57Yo, l5o/o and 21o/o

respectively.

Compared with the case of touching porous media in this range, the presence of the
þ
free zone reduces bulk flow in the upper porous medium by about 20%, whilst that in the

lower porous medium is reduced by just about l0%. At and 0.49 parabolic
þ:0.22 flow
prof,rles are observed in the free zone, where 67Yo artd, 7J%o of the bulk flow are
respectively channelled. For this boundary condition, as is increased from 0.22 to 0.49,
þ

the flow in the lower porous medium is reduced from 32Yo to 21%o whilst that in the
upper porous medium remains constant aI 2%o. These observations are of particular

importance to fluid flow through geological fractures formed when there is a. separation

or discontinuity plane in a geologic formation. Fractures can provide pathways for the

flow of fluid, such as water or hydrocarbons, since they may possess both signif,rcant

permeability and porosiry-. Holvever, they are largely regarded as barriers that prevent

flow across them by the reservoir engineer. The observations made for the flow through
porous media with an intermediate free zone indicates a significant communication

between the flow in a geological formation and an adjoining parallel fracture flow.

The profiles for unequal þ pairs of non-touching porous media are shown in Figures 5.9

and 5.10. As observed in the case of touching porous media, when the porous media on

the lower and upper walls are of unequal þ , thevelocity distributions are determined by

70
the combinations of / used. For cases where / magnitudes are wide apart (as in the þ :
0'22,0.01pair and þ:0.22,0.05 pair), the profiles obtained are similar to those of the

porous media flows bounded by a free zone, and that of touching unequal
þ pairs of
porous media. This is evident from Figure 5.9 where in each case, a distinct boundary

layer is formed at the interface between the higher þ and the free zone, with parabolic

profiles in the free zone and lower /porous medium. The communication between the

porous media are more clearly seen when the distributions of Figure 5.10 and Table 5.1

are examined. It is observed that the distributions obtained from combinations of fairly

low þ seem not to be affected by the fraction filled by the porous media. For example, for

flow in plane z/l¡16: 0, in the case of combinations of /: 0.01, 0.05 the lower and upper

porous media flow rates remain fairly constant at about 64%o and 28o/o respectively

regardless of the þ on the channel walls. However, for a combination of low and high þ

such as in 0.05 and 0.22 combinations, there is significant filling fraction influence.

When þ¡ : 0.05, the flow rate per unit span in the lower porous medium is 38% of the

bulk, but when þ7: 0.22, there is no flow through the lower porous medium.

71
 (a) (b)
0.5
AA b la u
I tt ! t." a
au ^-
¡I a u^^ ^
U
-^ :
^ o io
U _^ Z¡
^
¡I . -Z^
I
au
au
a 1!'.."oJl
t

f,L-
"l^^^a^
a
-+------l---+€
ottao^Â^a-'a
Y/ .^"4 l'u Y/H --;^i -'-' ----"
_,Ê. ^
^___---
^"r^
-{
--_-_____v__ölFÇ-_.. rÂa'Q^ -'-*P;'f
0.0 0.0 Ð'Ð

"-âî ê{
î^
¿)^
+^ o
o".3þo;
n
î^i .r'Ï
ê^
4^
+^
1l^
1+Ðao
14DaO
D
n
D! a . aI â¡ -*-þ's¡
oo r-o"o'f
a^
4^ n a rO
O ^^â
ê^DarO o a ro -
a^
-ô
.t'
400
AOD
Åto -o.,
-0.5 -0.5
0.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
u / tt^^ tt / u^^
(c) (d)
0.5
t'ef a\:: fÞo"lo-oo
t
ltaa c ^_^
^
'o^Âo
Ê

o^ I I ra îat u-
Y/H ig"¡ oAõ yra ! a
':4'-^ - - -- - - - - - - - -¡U ^ --+- -- aO-- - - - - -
-- -¡!--
Àura
0.0
4AD
r¿ D
n* d"i.
-^O
o aata
^ _O I r =
^^ o. !o"
^^or
^
_oo_"..t^ooto
^å;
i"â - +i "o
3 ¡Oa
¡OÓ
O
-0.5
0.5 0.0 0.5
1Lt / L1,,,^7 I Lt / Lln,or>.

Figure 5.9: Velocity distributions for the case of model porous media of unequal i/

on both lower and upper walls of the channel. H = 25 mm. The s¡rmbols used are:

! úr:0.05,þ;0.01; O ór:0.05,þr:0.49; A ór:0.22, ó;0.01; t øL

: 0.05, ór:0.22. o dr:0.07,6r: 0.05; ör: 0.22, ó;0.05;(a, c) are in a

^
plane z/lo;0.5 and (b, d) tn aplane z/lr, : 0. The dashed line is y lH :0 and the

solid iine is y1H : 0.

72
 (aJ
@)
0.5 0.5
oo
tt;t'=
ii¡ %
o, ota
8.t: .
o! ^^"

^ffi
"Á ^^-
Ân-
au- ,{_
a-u /l
Y/ Y/H
^l
"l
f_#,1_
i^
----i -.4-*o;--- ------ _
0.0 ^^
: oo 0.0 ¡-¡ S'Io^
a_o""i ¡
.. o ï^ ñ 'tÞ
iä
a_!
au r 'oo
^^
S"Þ
a- 1"o
au r o
^^ fþ
r¡ O r-Q-
au
au ¡ O ^^
^^
aC r O
o
O
^^ -tr- Jä"
o | ¡O
¡rO
-0.5 ,tå.i'o a'
-0.5
t2 12
u/ttu tt/uu

Y/H
0.0 o, t. na
nl
ta
tõa
trt3a
AA rìag^
A ;a
x?h-
AA
c-" !ó
a>
AA
f5
^
¡ô
rA
l^
c ^b'
tr^
UV lf
t^
IA
A c¡J w
o L)-

Al rDo
A
O

01234s I
<u/uu> <u/ur>
Figure 5.10: Bulk Velocify distributions for the case of model porous media of

unequal / on both lower and upper walls of the channel. H *25 mm. The symbols
used are: ! ór:0.05,þr:0.01; I úr:0.05,þ;0.49; A ú;0.22, ër:0..01;

O ór:0.05, óu:0.22. o ór:0.01,6r:0.05 A ór:0.22, ó;0.05; (a, c) are

in aplane t/lrfO and (b, d) in apiane z/ln, 0.5. The dashed line is y/H:0 and the

solid line isy/H = 0.

73
 5'2'3'7 Flow through Non-Touching Porous Media with Varying
Channel Depths
To explore the communication of flow further, the channel depth H was varied for the
same rod height h for flow through a non-touching pair of porous medium.

Measurements were taken for H 28 and 31 mm. The resurts

= for þ¿: 0.22, þ¡¡: 0.05

combination at H = 28 and3 I mm, are compared with that of H

= 25 mmin Figure 5.1 1.

From these results, it is seen that the variation of the filling fraction
significantly affects
the distribution of flow. At H=31 mm and 28 mm, most of the bulk flow (about 5g%) is
channelled through the free zone while 3870 is channelled through
the upper porous
medium (as shown in Table 5. r). As the free zone is reduced to 4 mm (H : 25 mm), the

flow distribution resembles more of an arrangement of a high

/ porous medium on the

channel lower wall only, or a combination of a low and hlgh

þporous media on the upper

and lower channel walìs, respectively, and touching each other. In

this case,36yo and
640/o of the flow are, respectively, channelled through the free zone and the upper porous

medium as indicated in Table 5.1. These observations imply that parallel flow
communication through a porous medium and an adjoining fracture
is effectively
enhanced when the fracture aperlure is increased, resulting in a massive influx of the
bulk flow into the fracture.

74
 (a)

Y/H
Y/H

-0.5
-0.5
<u/u n1ü <u/u mü
(c)
0.5
êb?,

{."'"; ' ., .
- *T-:i; -
Y/H
o
I
y/H
o
0.0
0.0

-0.5
12345
3
<u / uu>
<u / uo>
Figure 5.1 1: The effect of varying H forthe case ofporous :14 mm and, hu
media of h,
: 7 mm for: þ¡ : 0.22, óu : 0.05.In (a, c) measurements are in the prane z/r¡1p:
0, and in

(b, d) are in the plane z/l¡1p:0.5. The solid, dashed and

dotted lines are respectively are

lines representing. approximate positions of the slip planes for H

= 3l mm, 2g mm and,25

mm respectively.

75
Table 5.1: Summary results of percentage flow rate distributions for various boundary

conditions of porous medium flow in pBR and plane

z/l¡¡6= 0. LPM - Lower porous
Medium; FZ - Free Zone; UpM _ Upper porous Medium; TpM
- Touching Porous
Media; NTPM - Non-Touching porous Media.

Boundary
Condition
ót þu H LPM FZ UPM
(mm) (%) (%) (%)
Porous medium on 0.01 25 42 s8
lower wall only, 0.025 25 21 79
and FZ 0.05 25 38 62
0.10 )5 )) 78
0.22 25 I 99
0.49 25 100
TPM; equal / on 0.01 0.01 22 63 J/
both channel walls 0.025 0.025 22 67 JJ
0.05 0.0s 22 68 32
0.10 0.10 22 64 36
TPM; unequal / on 0.05 0.01 22 53 47
both channel walls 0.05 0.22 22 99 1
0.0s 0.49 22 98 2
0.22 0.01 22 5 95
0.22 0.05 22 1 99
NTPM; equal / on 0.01 0.0r 25 53 31 16
both channel walls 0.025 0.025 25 56 14 30
0.05 0.0s 25 s9 i5 25
0.10 0.10 25 59 15 26
0.22 0.22 25 32 67 2
0.49 0.49 25 2t 77 2
NTPM; unequal / 0.01 0.0s 25 64 9 27
on both channel 0.0s 0.01 25 63 8 29
walls 0.05 0.22 25 38 43 19
0.05 0.49 25 62 7 31
0.22 0.01 25 62 9 29
NTPM; unequal / 0.22 0,05 )< 36 64
on both channel 0.22 0.05 2g S 57 3g
walls, varyilig ll 0.22 0.05 31 2 59 39

76
 5.3 Fluid FIow at the Interface of a porous Medium

At the interface of a porous medium, the slip velocity, U, is perhaps the

most important
quantity of fluid flow. As already pointed out in Chapter
l, U" is required to assess the

penetration of the free zone into the porous medium. It is therefore the focus of
discussion in this section. In this study, U, is defined as
the streamwise velocity at the
interface between a porous medium and a free zone or
another touching porous media.

Only line-averaged slip velocities (<z¿) are reported. The

uncertainties in using the pIV

to determine this value arise from the fact that the data of particle
images are averaged

over a f,rnite region to obtain a local velocity. It was therefore

not always possible to
locate the centre of the interrogation region on the interface
itself. In the present work, it
was only possible to obtain the interface to within +0. i g
mm, which corresponds to half

of the side dimension of an iA. The associated relative error is

estimated to be about 3%

for þ < 0.10 and about 70o/o for ó: 0.ZZ and 0.49.

The slip velocities are discussed with respect to their normalization

by the respective
u^*, and the product of the square root of the specific Darcy permeability of the porous

medium and shear rate at the interfac e

U,J Ð. Whilst the former relates with the far-field

maximum velocity on the flow, the latter depends on the local shear
rate and

permeability conditions. In order to avoid errors associated with calculating velocity

gradients from experimental data, the shear rate ì, (that is, d<u>/dy
at the interface for

the present study) was obtained by least-squares fitting a curve (of fourth-order

polynomials) to the measured 1u), and then i was obtained from a smoothed

differentiation of the curve. The coefficient of determination of the curve

fits was always

77
 greater than 0'99' The smoothing was performed
over f,rve data points, fypically covering

a distance of 0'15 mm, which is comparable with half

the size of an IA. Typical plots,
showing curve fits have been shown in Appendix C.
The permeability of the model
porous medium, Æ was obtained from Eqn (1.2). The maximum relative error
due to
<tt,>/(z r/Æ; was estimated tobe l3yo.

Table 5'2' Summary results of slip velocity results for flow through
porous medium on

Iower channel wall only.

)
lLts -') 1urh,t^^)
Jk z (s <u,>/(r'lk)
(mm) mms-t
PBR PTR PBR PTR PBR PTR
0.01 4.302 0.8s 0.64 0.094 0.071 0.67 0.s3 2.11 2.09
0.025 2.668 0.47 0.43 0.087 0.080 0.35 0.32 2.03 2.01
0.0s 3.194 0.69 0.s4 0.1 0s 0.084 0.s0 0.40 2.06 2.02
0.10 1.784 0.36 0.32 0. l0l 0.093 0.22 0.20 2.02 1.93
0.22 0.798 0.19 0.16 0.r19 0.106 0.08 0.07 t .97 I .91
0.49 0.62s 0.04 0.01 0.031 0.013 0.02 0.01 1.91 I .80

The slip velocities for the flow through a porous medium

bounded by a free zone are

given in Table 5.2. As shown, the trends in both planes

are similar. Furthermore, the

velocities for the present boundary condition are greater in

the pBR than the pTR. The

values of <ur> decrease with A, showing that <ur> depends

not only on the solid volume

fraction but also on the rod diameter and the spacing of adjacent
¡ods of the porous
medium' For a given d, 1u, > decays as / is reduced as seen in the
case of d: r.59 mm
forporous media of þ:0.01 and 0.025 (where l= 12.6 mm and 8.9 mm respectively).

Similarly, 1!ts ) decreases as d is increased for a given /, as observed in

the case of þ:

78
 0.01 and 0.05 where d : 1.59 mm and 3.lg mm respectively, and t : l2.6mm. This is
expected since a decrease in / or an increase in d leads to
a more compact porous medium

alTangement, and thus a greater resistance to flow through

the porous medium. As shown

in table 5, lLt,lu^^) and <u,>/(z ./Æ¡ fottow similar trends as discussed for <zr, >. For

1ur /un *¿ there is over a 95%o d,ecrease

as / increases from 0.01 to o.49,whilst <ur>/(y

vȡ decays by just about l2Yowithinthat same range of

/. Because the decay in<u,>/(y
just about l2%o,
^/r; ls thte values may be considered constant (that is, <u,>l(r = 2¡
^ltc¡

within experimental error limits. It is arso important to note that at

þ:0.49the boundary
condition at the interface may be considered to be that of no-slip
since <2" > is no more

than2Yoof the maximum velocity.

Area-averaged values of Agelinchaab (2005) for the same :

filling fraction and at Re l
are compared with the present results in Figure 5.12(a). As
shown, the trends are similar.

As reviewed in Chapter 2, the slip velocity normalized by (r lt¡ is a very useful

parameter in comparing results obtained in previous experiments
since it is equivalent to

the inverse of the slip coefficient, a.It should be noted that the present results of <ur>/(

v ''lk¡ ar" nearly twice those predicted by the Brinkman model. Beavers and Joseph

(1967) obtained values equivalent to u, /(r ',ltr¡ : 0.25 to 10 for porous media of þ= g.2g
(Kim and Russel, 1985). This encompasses the values obtained in this work
at a

comparable /.

79
 (a) (b)
0.8
u Agelinchaab

0.6 U/U
snu

1u)2 b+= ----_----

(J /uktt2
0.4 '
s
s¡
u ' ,tt2
yK
urr^ 0.2 I

0.0
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Solid Volume Fraction (/) Solid Volume Fraction (/)

Figure 5.12: Resrrlts of present work forporous medium flow

bounded by a free zone

are compared with similar experimental study by Agelinchaab (2005).

The error bars
represent uncertainties at95o/o confidence level in each sfudy. Lines
are used in the plots

only to aid in identifying trends in studies. The trends in are in good agreement.

In their experimental sfudy of circular Couette flow through and over porous media
of
'cross-flow' arrangement, Tachie et at (2003) obtained values of u, /(i .,tk) reducing

from 0'30 to 0.24 as / was increased from 0.01 to 0.16.\n a later study,Tachie et
al
(2004) showed that for the case of rods mounted perpendicular to
the chamel wal;, (J, l(
i ^lþ varied from 1.062 to 1.013 as þwas increased from 0.025 to 0.10. Agelinchaab
(2005) reported values of U,l(i .,lt¡
= 2 for a similar experimental set-up as presented in

this work, and of the same f,rlling fraction. As shown in Figure 5.12(b), their results
are

in agreement with the present results within experimental error limits.

80
 For the touching and non-touching porous media, the dimensionless
slip velocities we¡e
found to be more complicated, and did not show any systematic trend.
in the former case,
for example, for unequal / combinations, filling fraction seemed to be a determining

factor in the magnitude of <u, /u^;>. However, for <ur>/(i negative values were
^ltc¡,

obtained due to negative shear rate values obtained for conditions

such as in þy: 0.49

and 0.22. For the non-touching porous media 1Lt, /u**) values were higher than that of
flow through porous medium on the lower channel wall only and
bounded by a f¡ee zone.

The values obtained ranged over an order of magnitude as

/ was varied within the range

0'01 sÓ O.qg' The dimensionless <u,>/(r "lk¡ was also observed to vary considerably,
=
not only by two orders of magnirude, but in signs and inconsistent
trends that are subject

to further experimental study. Due to these reasons, the slip values

obtained have been

omitted' It should however be noted that these complications are apparent at

the

interfacial regions of the velocity distributions in Figures 5.3 -5.I

1.

81
 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND COMMEI\TS

6.1 Introduction

This chapter presents conclusions drawn from the present experimental investigation. It

is followed by some recommendations for future study.

6.2 Summary and Conclusions

This thesis has been focused on investigating the effects of

þ, and the different boundary
conditions on the flow through and over the porous medium, and at the respective

interfaces. The modes of communication of flow between layers of porous media have

also been explored. This was done by means of PIV measurements made in a pressure-

driven flow through a model three-dimensional porous medium. Each model porous

medium was a square array of circular acrylic rods oriented across the flow in a

rectangular channel. The solid volume fraction, þ of the anays ranged from 0.01 to 0.49.

Th¡ee boundary conditions for flow through porous media have been considered in this

experimental study. The first is that of a free zone over a porous medium on the lower

channel wall only. It was founci lhat þ:0.22 is just sufficient to allow just lo/o or less of
the bulk flow to be channelled through the porous medium. At the interface, (¿¿,) and

1u,/u,oè decreased with È. Furthermore, the trends of <a, /u,oè and the dimensionless
<u,> l(v'lk) value of about 2 was in good agreement with area-averaged results of

82
 Agelinchaab (2005) for a similar experimental set-up of the same filling
fraction as in the
present case.

For the second boundary condition, the porous medium flow was bounded
by another
porous medium so that the two porous media were just touching each
other. The flow

communication between the porous media was observed to be dependent on the

combinations of / used. For a pair of equat þcombined, the flow through the lower

porous medium is about 62%

- 680/o of the overall flow, as expected, since the depth
filled by the lower porous medium is about 66% ofthe total channel depth. For unequal

þ paits of touching porous media, there is greater flow in the porous medium
with the
loyver þ when the difference in the magnitude of / is high. This phenomenon is not
affected by the fllling fraction of the porous medium of higher þ. A typical case is the

combination of þ = 0.05 and 0.22 where about 96% of the bulk flow is always
in the
porous medium of þ= 0.05 regardless of the filling fraction occupied by
a medium of

this /' However, it was noted that blockage effects increase with increasing filling

fraction of the higher þ. In conparison with the flow bounded by the free zone, the

similarity in flow communication lies in the fact that the bulk flow is skewed towards the

medium of lower þ,where u^*is reached. The interfacial flow of touching porous media

is more complicated than the case of the first boundary condition. For unequal pairs of

porous media, filling fraction seemed to be a determining factor in the magnitude

of <u,
/u*;>.

83
 In the last boundary condition, the porous medium flow was bounded by another porous

medium with the two porous media not touching each other. For the
cases of equal

porous media of þt = Óu : 0.22 and þ¡ = þtr:0.49, the flow rates in the test section

were maximum in the free zone befween the two media. For unequ at þ pairs of non-
touching porous media, when the porous media on the lower and upper
walls are of
unequal þ , the velocity distributions are determined by the combinations
of / used.

V/hen the þ magnitudes are wide apart (as in

þ: 0.22, 0.01pair and þ: 0.22,0.05 pair),
the profiles obtained are such that there is a distinct boundary layer formed
at the
interface between the higher þ and the free zone, with parabolic profiles
in the free zone

and lower /porous medium. For fairly low combinations of such

as ú:0.01,0.05 the

lower and upper porous media flow rates remain fairly constant (at about
640/o and,Zgyo,

respectively in this case), regardless of the on the channel walls. However,

þ for a

combination of porous media of wide range in

/ such as in þ= 0.05 and 0.22, there is a

significant f,rlling fraction influence. When þ¡: 0.05, the flow rate in the lower porous

medium is 38% of the bulk, but when þ¡:0.22, the flow in that region is nearly
zero. To

investigate fuither the communication of flow between layers of non-touching porous

media, the results for þ¡:0.22, þu:0.05 combination at H = 2g and 31 mm, were

compared with that of H = 25. The results indicate that the variation of the filling
fraction

significantly affects the distribution of flow. At H 31 mm and 28 mm, about 5go/o of

=
bulk flow is chan¡elled through the free zone while about 38% is channelled through the

upper porous medium' In H:25 mm, about 360/o and 64% of the flow are, respectively,

channelled through the free zone and the upper porous medium. This shows that flow

84
communication between layers of porous media improves with the depth of the free

zone.

These results have direct application in engineering systems such as heat exchangers.
However, they also provide essential insights into reservoir processes such as flow
in

fractured reservoirs, and flow in parallel zones which communicate.

6.3 Recommendations for Future Study

The results of the above study have generated a number of issues which are

recommended further research work:

(i) A study of inenial effects of flow through and over a model porous medium.

(ii) Flow phenomena in model porous medium when rods are in a staggered

array.

85
 REFERENCES
1' Agelinchaab, M. (2005) 'velocity measurements of flow th¡ough model three-

dimensional porous media using particle image velocimetry,'

Master of Science

Thesis, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba.

2' Beavers, G' S' and Joseph D. D. (1967) 'Boundary conditions at a naturally
permeable wall,'J Fluid Mech. Vol. 30, pp 197 _ 207.

3. Beavers, G.s., Sparrow, E.M. and Masha B.A. (1974) ,Boundary conditions at a

porous surface which bounds a floïv', AICH. E. J.

vor. z0,pp. 596-591.
4' Brinkman, H'C. (1941) 'A calculation of the viscous force
exerted by a flowing fluid

on a dense swarrn of particle,, Appl. Sci. Res., Sect. A, Vol.

l, pp.27 _ 34.
5. Carman, W. (1937) Trans. Inst. Chem. Engrs. Vol. 15, p. 150.

6' Coleman, w' H' and Steele, w. G. (1995) 'Engineering application of experimental

uncertainty analysis,,AIAA J. Vol. 33, pp.lggg _ 1g96.

7' Darcy, H. P'G' (1856) 'Les fontaines publiques de Ia ville de Dijon,,pa¡is:

Victor
Dalmont.

8. Davis, A. M. J. and James, D. F. (2003) ,The slip .relocify

at the edge of a porous

medium: effects of interior resistance and interface,' Transport

in porous Media, Vol.

53, pp. 175 - 196.

9' Davis, A' M. J' and James, D. F. (2004) 'Penetration of shear

flow into an array of
rods aligned with the flow,' can. J. chem. Eng. vor. g2, pp.
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 APPENDIX A
Table 4.1: Summary results of percentage flow rate distributions for: (a)
porous media
on lower wall only, and touching and non-touching porous media on
both channel walls
and of equal Ó: (b) touching and non-touching porous media on
both channel walls and
of unequal ø.LP}l - Lower porous Medium; FZ _ Free zone;upM
Medium; T - Touching porous Media; NT Non-Touching porous Media. - upper porous
-
(a)
H LPM (%) FZ (%\ UPM (%)
óL óu (,nm) PBR PTR PBR PTR PBR PTR
0.01 25 42 JJ 58 61
0.025 25 21 30 79 70
0.05 25 38 3l 62 69
0.10 25 22 r9 78 81
0.22 25 I 0 99 100
0.49 25 0 0 100 100
0.01 0.01 22 (T\ 63 66 37 34
0.02s 0.025 22 (T\ 67 68 JJ 32
0.05 0.0s 22 (T) 68 66 32 34
0.10 0.10 22 (T) 64 62 36 38
0.0i 0.01 25NT) 53 53 31 26 t6 25
0.02s 0.02s 25NT) s6 50 14 25 30 29
0.0s 0.0s 25NT) 59 62 l5 20 25 21
0.10 0.10 25NT) 59 5l 15 15 26 31
0.22 0.22 25NT) 32 l1 67 68 2
0.49 0.49 2srNT) 21 21 75 77 3 i

(b)
H LPM (%\ FZ (%\ UPM (%)
þt óu (**) z/lnø z/lnø z/lnø z/lnø z/lnø z/luø

0 0.s 0 0.5 0 0.5

0.0s 0.01 22 (T\ 53 s8 47 42
0.0s 0.22 22 (T) 99 97 I J
0.0s 0.49 22 (T\ 98 98 2 2
0.22 0.0 r 22 (T\ 5 l0 95 90
0.22 0.05 22 (T\ I 4 99 96
0.0r 0.0s 25rNT) 64 60 9 t5 27 25
0.0s 0.01 25CNT) 63 s6 8 l5 29 29
0.05 0.22 2srNT) 38 35 43 60 l9 5
0.05 0.49 25rNT) 62 65 7 4 31 31
0.22 0.01 25rNT) 63 61 9 r8 29 21
0.22 0.0s 25NT) 0 I 35 43 64 s6
0.22 0.0s 28NT) 6 5 57 60 37 35
0.22 0.0s 3INT) 2 5 59 63 39 32

90
 APPENDIX B

(a) &)
0.5,- 0.5.';
^^ A ofåâo \
^
LL^
L¡.t:
TAt
Âl.,
^n
Y/H aã
Ân
Y/H a^
%¿-^-

0.0 ^t'
^4 ?¡^_
Æt-
0.0
^
¡ â
&o*e^
ry^
îê\
:¡ô

^-

^od
â
^a-
4r
A
¿¿S\- '
,dP
^1 ^-
AA..l
-0.5 _0.5[+^ ¡ Âe

,1
u/u o u/u I

I
ma)i

(c) (d)
0.s 0.5
^-^ ¡A a^a

Y/H Y/H
0.0 â^{
0.0 t ^^a

-6.5r-__a_e=¿F*__J
oF=___--__J
_0.s

u/uu ' 2u/ru4 6

Figure 8.1 : Velocity distributions for model porous media of equal

/ on lower and

upper walls of the channel. H = 22mm. The symbols used are :A ø : 0.22, l:

6.03 mm, A ø : 0.4g , l: 6.03 mm, d : 4.76mm; (a, c) show the velocity pro-

files in a PBR, (b, d) velocity profìles in a prR. The dashed line is y, /

H : 0.

91,
 APPENDIX C

1. I^
ú:0.0r ó:0.4s
L
-* O¡rveFit
k
I Eçenrrrrfal 0.
CI
DataPoirfs ë
Ë È
È)
\
Èò ....(' FJ

0.

0.4- 0.
0.04 0.08 0.t2 0.04 0.08 0.12
Y/H Y/H

*0.
d þ:0.49
Ë
ñl) È)
\ S
U È) 0.

0.

I -02r I

0.08 O.tZ 0.04 0.08 0.1

Y/ÍT

Figure C.l: Curve fits for experiment al data for interfacial flow for flow bounded by a

free zone (PBR).

92
 1. 1.

ø:0.01 ó:0.02s ø:0.0s

0. CuveFit tl
,{-'
-¡ Eçerrrrntd c
Ë
FJ
DataPoínts 0. 0.
kd
d
è
0. s0.
ò
È)
0.2

3.#0.+
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.Ø 0.08 0.12
0.H
0.04 0.08 0.12
Y/H y/H Y/T.T

1. 0.2
þ:o.ro þ:0.22
0.
ó:0.49

xB
s)

S
=- 0.1
0. FJ

0.2

-0.04
0.06 0.08 0.r0o.tz o.t+ -
õ.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.02 0.06 0.10 0.14
Y/H Y/H YfiT

Figure C.2: Curve fits for experimental datafor interfacial flow for flow bounded by a

free zone (PTR).

93