Reference grammar uis 3f. (s.) ‘force’, (pl.) ‘strength’ s. nom. wis acc. vim gen, — dat. — abl. ui némo 3 m.f. ‘no-one’, ‘none’, ‘no’ (pronoun) 5. nom. némo acc. néminem gen. niillius dat. némini abl. null Notes 1 Consonant- and i-stem nouns can be masculine, feminine or neuter, The following clues can help: Masculine: nouns ending in -ds, -6, -or, -er (main exceptions: dés ‘dowry’, £.; ds dris ‘mouth’, n.; arbor ‘tree’, £.) Feminine: nouns ending in -x, -as, -d6, -g6, is (if polysyllabic), -ns (main exceptions: dux ‘leader’, m.; fas ‘right’, n ordi ‘rank’, m.; mons ‘mountain’, pons ‘bridge’, fons ‘fountain’; dens ‘tooth’; all m.) Neuter: nouns ending in -us, -iis (if monosyllabic), -en, -al, -ar,-re, cle 2 Finding the nominative can be difficult with such nouns. Note the following clues: Gen. s. ending in -cis, -gis: nominative in -x (e.g. pacis—pax) Gen. s. ending in -tis, -dis: nominative in -s (e.g. uirtiitis—>uirtis) Gen. s. ending in -pis: nominative in -ps (e.g. principis— princeps) Gen. s. ending in -ris: nominative in -s, -r (e.g. temporis—>témpus, matris— mater) (v) Gen. s. ending in -lis: nominative in -I (e.g. sélissdl) 3 Asa general rule (a) nouns with the same number of syllables in the nominative singular as in the genitive Singular (parisyllabic) have genitive plurals in -ium, e.g. ciuis, gen. s. ciuis, gen. pl. ciuium. These are #-stem. (b) nouns with more syllables in the genitive singular than in the 496H3-4 Nouns no! inative (imparisyllabic) have gen. pl. in -um, e.g. ufrtils, gen. s. uirtutis, gen. pl. uirtittum. These are consonant stem. The major exceptions to (a) are canis cén-is m. or f. ‘dog’, iduenis iduen-is m. ‘young man’, sénex sén-is m. ‘old man’, sedés sed-is: f. ‘abode’, pater patr-is m. ‘father’, mater matr-is £. ‘mother’, frater fra “is m. ‘brother’, accipiter accipitr-is m. ‘hawk’, all of which have gen. pl. in -um. The rule for major exceptions to (b) is given in the note under fiir. H4 Nouns: fourth declension (a) mén-us iis 4f. ‘hand’ s. pl. tom. manus — minis ac. minum minis gen. manis — maénuum dat. minut ménibus) «4. abl. mani ménibus f (™4nubus) Notes 1 Most 4th decl. nouns are masculine. 2 The gen. s. in ~i is found in early Latin. (b) (Neuter) corn-ii iis 4n. thorn’, ‘wing of army’ s. pl. nom. cori — cérnua acc. cOrmai —cornua gen. cérniis — cornuum dat. cérma — cérnibus abl. cérni —cérnibus (©) Grregular) démus 4f. ‘house’ 5. pl. nom. démus démis ac. démum démiis or démés gen. démiis or démi domérum or démuum dat. démui or démé démibus abl. domo démibus 497Reference grammar H5 Nouns: fifth declension rés vé-i 5f. ‘thing’, ‘matter’, ‘business’, ‘affair’ ‘. pl. nom. rés rés acc. rem res gen. réi(ré) rérum dat. réi (Fé) rébus abl. 38 rébus NB. 5th decl. nouns are mostly feminine, but diés ‘day’ is usually m. (£ when it means the goddess ‘Diés’, or a special day) and its compound meridiés ‘midday’, ‘south’ is always m. H6 Greek declensions Roman poets often use the Greek forms of Greek nouns, especially for names. Mostly only nom., acc. and gen. s., nom. and acc. pl. are found. The other cases have the normal Latin forms. Here are some examples. 1st declension Aené-ds ae m. ‘Aeneas’, Pridmid-és ae m. ‘son of Priam’, Eurjdic-2 és f. ‘Eurydice’ nom. Pridmid-és _ Eurydic-é voc. Pridmid-é Eurfdic-é ace. Pridmid-én — Eurydic-én gen. Pridmid-ae —_ Eurydic-és dat. Priémid-ae _Eurydic-ae abl. Pridmid-é (-a) Eurydic-é Notes 1 The pl. ofsuch nouns is as for séru-a, except that nouns in -dés have gen. pl. in -um, e.g. Aenéad-um ‘of the followers of Aeneas’. 2 The Latin form of names like Eurpdicé is often found e.g. Cfbel-a Cybel-am etc. ‘Cybele’. 498HS5-6, 11 Pronominal nouns/adjectives 2nd declension Dél-os 7 f. ‘Delos’, Péli-on in. ‘Pelion’ gen. dat.fabl. Dél-d is m. ‘mixing-bowl’ nom.|voe. ace. gen. dat. abl. cratér-c NB. Other 3rd declension Dean Ihérbs, acc. . forms are e.g. ‘hero’ m.: nom. herds héro-a, en. ‘Orpheus’ m.: nom. Orpheus, voc. Orpheu, ace. Cee pheos; ‘Paris’ m.: nom. Péris, voc. Péri, acc. Parin/Périda, gen. ‘Socrates’ m.: nom. Sécratés, voc. Sécraté, acc. Sécratem. Tl Personal pronouns () ego ‘I’, ti ‘you" 5. pl. & pl. po) nom. égo ‘I’ nds ‘wet ti you’ uds ‘you acc. mé nds te wos istri gen. mai néstrum/néstri tat uéstrum/ués dat. mihi (mi) nébis tii uobis abl. me nébis te udbis : ere (b) Reflexive pronoun sé thimself”, ‘herself”, ‘itself’, “themselves” spl. tom. — . acc. s8 (sés2) ‘himself’, *herself”, ‘itself”, ‘themselves gen, sti dat. sibi abl. sé (sés@) 499Notes Reference grammar 1 Possessive adjectives based on personal pronouns are: mé-us a um ‘my’, ‘mine’ | declining like léng-us a um J1(a) (but ti-us a um ‘your’, ‘yours’ J note mi voc. s. m. of mé-us) néster néstr-a um ‘our’, ‘ours’ | declining like piilcher pillchr-a uéster uéstr-a um ‘your’, ‘yours’ f um J1(b) st-us a um ‘his’, ‘hers’, ‘its’, ‘theirs’ (reflexive — i.e. the ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘it’, ‘them’ being referred to are the same person as the subject of the clause in which they stand, but see ‘reflexives’ in the Index of Grammar for five important exceptions.) These usually follow their noun (unless emphatic). But mi (vocative s. of méus) usually precedes. 2 cum ‘with’ is linked with the ablative on the pattern mécum, técum, sécum etc. I2 Demonstrative pronouns (a) is ea id ‘that’, ‘those’, ‘that person’, ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘it? nom. ace. gen. dat. abl. éa a edrum <— &is (fis) —> <— is (fis) —> Compare the definitive pronoun fdem éadem idem ‘the same’: abl. 500 s. pl. m. f 1 m. ; a idem fadem_— idem m (idem) caédem éadem eGndem eindem idem edsdem eisdem éadem +—eitisdem — eérindem ——_eardindem eérindem «— idem — +——eisdem (isdem) ——>+ eSdem eddem —eddem +———eisdem (isdem) ——I1-2 Pronominal nouns/adjectives (b) hic haec hoc ‘this’, ‘this person’, ‘this thing’, ‘the latter’, pl. ‘these’ s. pl. mf n. m. f 1. nom. hic hace hoc hi hae haec acc. hunc hance hoc hés has haec gen. +—hiius — hérum harum = hérum dat. <— huic — —his ——> abl. hdc hac hdc —his —— NB. Originally hi-ce, hae-ce, hod-ce etc. The strengthened forms huitisce, hosce, hasce, and hisce are reasonably common. (c) ille illa illud ‘that’, ‘that person’, ‘that thing’ ‘the former’, pl. ‘those’ Ss. pl. mf. n. m. f n. nom. ille ila illud Mt illae ila acc. illum illam illud lds ills —_—_ fla gen, = <——illfus— ilérum illirum_illérum dat. =

istd +—istis> (©) ipse ipsa ipsum ‘very’, ‘actual’, ‘self? s. pl. m. Sf n. aan f a nom. ipsc ipsa ipsum ipse ipsa acc. ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsis ipsa gen. +— ipsius —> ipsdrum ipsdrum = ipsorum dat. +<— ipsi—— +— ipss ———> abl. ipsé ipsa. ipsé — ipsis ——> 50113 Relative pronoun Reference grammar qui quae quod ‘who’, ‘which’, ‘what’ nom. ace. gen. 5. mf. a. qui quae quod quem quam quod <—ctiius —> pl. m. Sf qui quac qués quis quérum = quérum 8. quae quae quérum dat. <— cui —— +— quibus (quis) —> abl. quo qua qud +— quibus (quis) —> Notes 1 quécum, quacum, quibuscum ‘with whom|which’. 2 qui as an old abl. form is found mostly in the word quicum ‘with whom’, where it is m. f. or n. s., and even occasionally pl. 14 Interrogative (indefinite) pronoun/adjective quis|qut, quae/quis, quid/quod ‘who?’, ‘which?’, ‘what?’ s pl. mf. n. m. f 1 nom. pron. quis quis quid 7 adj. qui quae (qua) quod} quae quae (qua) ace. py ype quam ed qués quas que (qua) gen. — cus ——> quérum = quirum quérum. dat. +—cui ——— «— quibus (quis) —> abl. qué qua qué +— quibus (quis) —+ Notes 1 After si, né, nisi, num, the meaning of quis (Indefinite) is ‘any’, ‘anyone’, and nom. s. f. and n. pl. nom./acc. are always qua. 2 quis is quite often used for qui (adj.) e.g. quis . . . pier? “What boy? (Horace) Cf. dliquis 15(b) Note 2 below. 3. qui, an old ablative form, as an interrogative means ‘how?’, e.g. quifit, Maecénas? ‘How does it come about, Maecenas?” (Horace). 50213-5 Pronominal nouns/adjectives I5 Compound pronouns (@) quidam quaédam quéddam ‘a’, ‘a certain’ s. m. f n. nom. quidam quaedam _quéddam (quiddam) quéndam quandam quéddam (quiddam) gen. <—cuitisdam ———> dat. . — chidam——___ abl. quédam quidam —_ quédam pl. m. S n. nom. quidam quaédam —quaédam ac. quésdam = quisdam = —quaédam gen. quérandam = quirandam quérindam dat. ——- quibusdam ——+ abl. +—— _quibusdam + (b) aliquis dliqua liquid ‘someone’ and dliqui dliqua aliquod ‘some’ dliquis ‘someone’ Gliqui ‘some’ (adj.) m, f n. m. f eo nom. aliquis liqua liquid iqut_aliqua_sliquod acc. dliquem Aliquam liquid liquam liquam Aliquot gen. +— alictius— +<—alicéius——> dat. —-Alicui ——, —alicui —— _ abl. aliqué liqua = 4liquo—aliquo—liqua_—_liquo Notes 1 The pl. is the same as for ali-+ qui (Id above), except that the n. pl is aliqua. TL 2 dliquis is quite often used for dliqui (adj). e.g. num igitur Aliguis délor in i igitur cérpore est ‘Surely there isn’t any pain in your body? (Cicero). CE. quis, 14 Note 2. 503Reference grammar (c) Other compound pronouns (i) quisque quaéque quddque ‘each and every’, ‘everyone’. ésque is very often used to mean ‘every(one)’, e.g. stia culque nationi religié est, ndstra ndbis ‘every nation has its own religion, and we have ours’ (Cicero). Note éptimus quisque ‘all the best men’ and quétus quisque ‘how few!” (i) quisquam quisquam quicquam ‘anyone’, ‘any’. quisquam is normally found in negative contexts (or in questions where a negative is implied, e.g. quid quisquam suspicari dliud pétest? ‘what else can anyone suspect?’ (Cicero). (iii) quisquis ‘whoever quidquid or quicquid ‘whatever’, quicimque quaecimque quodcimque ‘whoever’, ‘whatever’. quisquis and quiciimque are used to introduce relative clauses; e.g. Jérreus est, heu, heu, quisquis in arbe manet ‘anyone who stays in Rome (oh dear, oh dear) is made of iron’ (Tibullus). di tibi dent quaectimque 6ptés ‘may the gods give you whatever you want’ (Plautus). (iv) écquis ‘anyone?’ adj. écqui écqualécquae écquod ‘any?’ ecquis introduces questions and means ‘Is there anyone (who)?’, e.g. heus, écquis hic est? ‘Hey, is there anyone here?’ (Plautus). NB. Compounds of quis decline like quis. See above 14. Compoundsof. qui decline like qui. See above I3. But not all forms are found in all of these Ppronoun/adjectives. 16 Special pronoun-adjectives (a) dlius alia dlind ‘other’, ‘another’ ‘ pl. mf. 1 m. f n nom. alius lia liud i dliae lia ac. alium liam dliud alias lia gen, <——alfus—> aliérum alidram —alidrum dat. <—Alii ——> —Aliis ——— abl. aiid lid ali6 ——Aliis ———+ NB. Genitive and dative s. are not common, and occasionally the 2nd declension forms (gen. s. m./n. dli7. dliae; dat. s. m. alié f. dliae) are found. alterius (gen. s. of dlter) is also used for gen. s. 50415-7 Pronominal nouris|adjectives (b) niill-us a um ‘no(one)’, ‘not any’, ‘no man’ s. m. Sf n. nom. nillus ndlla — ndéllum ac. nillum nillam ndllum gen. — ni dat. | <———nailti —__ abl. nalld ndlla nll pl. a f n. nal niillae nila os —_oniillis nallérum = niillarum _niilloram wall <—-niillis ———> . . ‘ , (©) alter dlter-a dlter-um ‘one (of two)’, ‘the one . . . thé other ‘ pl. m. f n. m. f " tom. alter tera alterum — teri. «—slterae ‘tera ac. Alterum alteram dlterum —dlterds_—alterds-~—«ltera gen. +— alterius alterérum alterarum alterorum dat. = —~Alteri ——_ +<—— Alters ———> abl. alterd Altera Alter ——Alteris > (a) utérque ‘both’, ‘each (of two)’ s pl. im f n m. f . nom. utérque —Gtraque —utramque —_utrique utrgéque pte acc. utramque utramque utrimque utrésque —_utrasque imgue gen. sque ——+ utrérdmque utririimqueUtO lat. _f——utrique—__ ere abl utréque —utréque _utréque ——utrisque > NB. The following special pronoun/adjectives also decline like léng-us aum elsewhere, but have gen. s. in -iusand dat.s.in ‘neusaum ‘one’, sol- f Sipe 7 iter vitr-a um us a um ‘alone’, tot-us a um ‘the whole’, iill-us a um ‘any’, ter ita w ‘which of two?’, ‘whichever of two’, neiter nesitr-a um ‘neither’. 17 Numerals ala Cardinal Ordinal im. f a . 11 fnus ina dinum? 1a primus (prior) 2. nom. dio die do 2nd secindus (Alter) acc. diés/dio dias dio gen. duérum dudrum duérum datjabl. duébus duibus —dudbus 505Iv v 4 5 6 vI 7 vil 8 vill 9 IX/VUl 10 X 11 XI 12 XI 13° XI 14 XIV 15 XV 16 XVI 17 XVI 18 XVII 19 XIX 20 XX 30 XXX 40 XL 50 L 60 LX 70 LXxX 80 LXXX 90 XC 100 C 200 CC 300 CCC 500 D 1,000 M milf. 1 tres tria trés (tris) tria trum tribus> +tribus+ iindecim duédecim trédecim quattuérdecim quindecim sédecim septéndecii duodéuigintt andéuiginti uiginti triginta quadraginta quinquaginta octégint’ nénagintd céntum ducént-i ae a (like pl. of long- us) trecént-i ae a quingént-i ae a mille (indecl. adj.) pl. milia gen. milium dat.jabl. milibus (see Note 1) 1 These decline like léng-us a um. 2 Like tdtus i.c. gen. s. Hnius, dat. s. dni; pl. ini, dinae, fina, like pl. of léngus (16(d) Note). Notes Reference grammar 3rd 4th Sth 6th 7th 8th Hh 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 30th 40th 50th 60th 70th 80th 90th 100th 200th 300th 500th 1,000th tértius quirts quintus séxtus séptimus octauus nénus décimus aindécimus duodécimus tértius décimus quartus décimus quintus décimus séxtus décimus séptimus décimus duodéuicénsimus iindéuicénsimus quinquagénsimus sexagénsimus septuagénsimus octdgénsimus ducenténsimus simus quingenténsimus millénsimus 1 Normally, mille is used as an adjective and milia as a noun, e.g. mille dio milia m trla milia militum 506 ne thousand soldiers wo thousand(s) (of) soldiers =three thousand(s) (of) soldiers etc.17,J Adjectives, adverbs 2 Latin has three other sets of numerals. One answers the question ‘How many each?’, e.g. singul-i ae a ‘one each’, then -ni. e.g. bi Tae.a “two each’ (distributive adjectives). A second answers the question ‘How many times?’, e.g. sémel ‘once’, bis ‘twice’, ter‘three times’, qudter, then ~iéns, e.g. miliéns ‘a thousand times’ (numeral adverbs). A third answers the question ‘Of how many parts”, e.g. triplex triplic-is ‘threefold (multiplicative adjectives). . The ending -énsimus was, after the Augustan period, often written ~ésimus. wo J-K Adjectives, adverbs and prepositions J Introduction (a) Adjectives agree with the word they describe in gender (m., iS me case (nom., acc., gen., dat., abl.) and number (s. or. pl.) tHe adjective which is genitive plural masculine can only agree noun which is genitive plural masculine. . ing from (b) Adjectives in agreement with no nouns will take their meaning context. They will usually refer to a person or thing, ¢.8- b6ni (nom. pl. m.) “good men’. bénae (nom. pl. £) ‘good women’. béna (nom. pl. n.) ‘good things’ ‘goods’. , JSugiéntés (nom. pl. m. or £) ‘people as they are fleeing’ roganti (dat. s. m. or f.) ‘to the person asking’. mors mdlum est ‘death is a bad thing’. (©) Some adjectives are often used predicatively. That is instead et best translated as adjectives (e.g. uir bénus ‘a good man’), a vas be translated as adverbs (e.g. uir laétus dbiit ‘the man went aeey happily’) or nouns (e.g. stimmd ménte ‘at the top of the mountain’). The words most commonly used thus include those denoting Position (e.g. siimmus, médius, préximus), quantity or order he primus, sdlus, totus), and attitude of mind or manner (e.g. laétus ‘happily’, inuitus ‘unwillingly’). 507Reference grammar (d) Some words commonly double as nouns or adjectives, e.g. hic, ille, is (etc.). Note that uétus ‘old’, ‘old man’, paiiper ‘poor’, ‘poor man’, diues ‘rich’, ‘rich man’ are like this. They decline like third declension nouns, but they often perform as adjectives, e.g. sibi patiper est? ‘where is the poor man?’ cum diuite senatore dmbulat ‘he walks with the rich senator’ Ji Adjectives: first/second declension (a) léng-us a um ‘long’ ‘ pl. m. f fn m. f 1 nom, léngus lénga longum —_—léngi longae —lénga acc. léngum léngam léngum léngds —léngis_-—slénga gen. longi léngae_— longi Jongérum longirum longérum dat. longs léngae lng longis léngis léngis abl. léngs lénga_ longo. longis longis longis (b) pilcher puichr-a um ‘beautiful’, ‘handsome’ 5 pl. m. f 1 m. f 1 nom. pilcher piilchra.—piilchrum _pilchri palchrae —_pilchra acc. pilchrum pilchram palchrum piilchrés_—puilchras_—_pailchra gen. piilchri —pilchrae —_pilchri pulchrérum pulchrarum _pulchréram dat. pilchrd —palchrae__piilchré «<— piilchris ——— abl. pilchré —piilchr.~—pailchro + piilchris ————+ (c) miser miser-a miser-um ‘unhappy’ % m. f 1 nom. miser misera_—_miserum acc, miserum miseram miserum gen. miseri —miserae__miseri dat. miserd miiseraemiserd abl, miseré —misera—miserd 508 pl. m. f n. miseri miserae —_misera miserds—_misei misera miser6rum mise! miserorum +— miseris ———> +—— miseris ————>Ji-2. Adjectives, adverbs J2 Adjectives: third declension (a) omnis émne ‘all’, ‘every’ s . pl. m.lf. n mf. n. tom. omnis émne —_ émnés émnia ac. émnem omne — émnis (émnés) émnia gen. = <6mnis> +é6mnium> dat. = <6mni> +“émnibus> abl. = Smni> émnibus> (b) ingéns ingens (ingént-) ‘huge’ s. pl. mf. n, mf. a nom. ingéns ingéns _ingéntés ingéntia acc. ingéntem ingéns ingéntis (ingéntés) ingéntia gen. = ingéntis> “ingéntium> dat. = ingénti> ingéntibus> abl. ingénti> “ingéntibus—> (c) céler céler-is céler-e ‘swift’, ‘fast? s. pl. m. f n. mif. " tom. céler céleris célere —_célerés celéria acc. célerem célerem célere _céleris (célerés) _celéria gen. <—— céleris—— dat. <— céleri —— +celéribus> abl. <—céleri —— «celéribus> (A) acer dcris acre ‘keen’, ‘sharp’ s. pl. n, mif. nom. cer fcre fcrés ficria acc. fcrem crem cre cris (fcrés) feria gen. — Acris — “acrium> dat. —Aicti—> Acribus> abl. = + —cri > +icribus> NB. All these are i-stems. 509Reference grammar (e) Consonant-stem adjectives: diues and paiiper s. pl. mf. 1. mff. 0 nom. diues (dis) diues (dite) __iuités (dités) diuita (ditia) acc. diuitem (ditem) _ diues (dite) diuites (dités) diuita (ditia) gen. itis (ditis) > +-diuitum (ditium)—> dat. ti (ditt) > +-diuitibus (ditibus) > abl. +diuite (dit) > «diuitibus (ditibus) + 5. pl. mif. n. mf. n. nom. padper —paiiper_—patiper@s_patipera acc, patiperem padper —patiperés_paiipera gen. patiperis> “padperum— dat. +paiperi> abl. — —padpere> “paupéribus> Notes 1 diuveshas also a set of i-stem endings (in brackets), which are commonly used. Both diues and pauper are often used as nouns. See 47. 2 Other consonant-stem adjectives are caélebs caélib-is ‘unmarried’, cémpos cémpot-is ‘possessing’, inops inop-is ‘poor’ (abl. s. -i), mémor mémor-is ‘mindful’ (abl. s. -i), particeps particip-is ‘sharing’, sdspes sbspit- is ‘safe’, supérstes supérstit-is ‘surviving’, uétus uéter-is ‘old’. J3 Comparative and superlative adjectives These are formed as follows: Comparatives (‘more —’, ‘rather —’, ‘quite —’): gen. s. stem + -ior, (neuter -ius) Superlatives (‘very —’, ‘—est’, ‘most —’, ‘extremely —’): gen. s. stem + -fssimus, or nom. s. +-rimus (in the case of adjectives which end in -er in the nominative, e.g. piilcher—> (comparative) piilchrior—» (superlative) pulchérrimus) Note also the irregular superlative, gen. s. stem + -limus, of six adjectives in -ilis, viz. facilis ‘easy’, difficilis ‘difficult’, similis ‘similar’, disstmilis ‘dissimilar’, gracilis ‘slender’, huimilis ‘lowly’: e.g. facil-limus, 510J2-3 Adjectives, adverbs The declension of comparative and superlative forms is as follows: (a) Comparative adjectives: Iéngior léngius ‘longer’ s. mf. n. n. nom. léngior léngius longiéra ac. longidrem léngius —_longidrés _ longiéra gen. +longiéris> +“longiérum> dat. longidri> «longiéribus> abl. +longidribus> 4 (e} NB. These adjectives are consonant-stems. (cf. dives, patiper, Re above). (b) Superlative adjectives: longissimus a um ‘longest’ (sometimes ~issumus) s. us f n. nom. longissimus longissima longissimum acc. longissimum longissimam _longissimum longissimae _longissimi longissimae _longissimé gen. longissimi dat. longissima abl. longissimd —_longissima _longissim6 pl. m. f n nom. longissimi longissimae _longissima acc. longissimés longissimas _longissima gen. longissimGrum longissimarum _longissimérum dat. —— longissimis ————> abl. + longissimis ————> oat malus, (c) Irregular comparatives and superlatives: bén#s, miltus, magnus, paruus bén-us a um mélior Sptim-us aum ‘good’, ‘beucr, ‘bes ¢- (meliér-is) ameliorate, optimist) st (of. mil-usaum _ péior péssim-us a um ‘bad’, worse wo (peidr-is) pejorative, pes SitReference. grammar milt-us aum pls plirim-us aum ‘much’, ‘more’, ‘most’ (of. (plir-is) plus (+)) magn-us aum maior maxim-us a um ‘big’, ‘bigger’, ‘biggest’ (¢f. major, (maidr-is) maximise) piru-usaum minor minim-us a um ‘small/few’, ‘smaller/fewer/less’, (minér-is) ‘smallest/fewest/least’ (cf. minor, minimise) NB. These decline quite regularly (see Iéngior longissimus) except for plas: s. pl. (pliis here= noun) m.lf. fn nom, plas plires = plidra acc. plas pliris (plarés) plira gen. pliris i dat. — abl. plare NB. _pliisis really the comparative of the adverb muiltum ‘much’, while pliirés is the comparative of the plural miilt-i ae a. The s. miiltus has no true ‘comparative, J4 Adverbs (a) Regular and irregular positive adverbs 1 Regular adverbs A common way of forming adverbs in English is to add ‘“—ly’ to an adjective (e.g. ‘slow-ly’, ‘quick-ly’, ‘passionate-ly’). In Latin, adverbs (which never change) are also regularly formed from adjectives as follows: Adverbs based on 1st/2nd declension adjectives: add -é to the stem, e.g. stuiltus— stilt? ‘foolishly’; miser—>miseré ‘unhappily’; pilcher—pilchré ‘beautifully’. A very few end in -ter, eg. hiimanus— himaniter ‘gently’, and some in -d, e.g. cértd ‘for a fact’. Adverbs based on 3rd declension adjectives: add -(i)ter to the stem, e.g. fortis—fortiter ‘bravely’; avidax—audacter ‘boldly’; céler—>celériter ‘swiftly’. But note an important exception: facile ‘easily’ 512J#5 Adjectives, adverbs 2 Irregular adverbs bénus—béne ‘well’. paruus— pavilum *(a) little’, ‘slightly’. miltus— muiltam ‘much’. mdgnus—> magndpere ‘greatly’. NB. léngé (regularly formed from [éngus ‘long’) ‘far’. (b) Regular comparative and superlative adverbs ‘more —ly’, ‘most —ly” . . ymparative Comparative and superlative adverbs are formed from the comp: and superlative adjectives. ‘foolishly’ ‘more foolishly’ ‘most foolishly’ Adjective stalt-us —stalt-ior stultissim-us Adverb stalt-€ ——stalt-ius stultissim-€ ‘quickly’ ‘more quickly’ ‘most quickly’ Adjective céler celér~ior celérrim-us Adverb celér-iter celér-ius celérrim-€ of the NB. The comparative adverb has the same form as the neuter comparative adjective. (c) Irregular comparative and superlative adverbs ing adjective Most of these are only irregular in so far as the corresponding adj hasirregular com: adjective forms, the adjective: béne most of these adverbs are formed quite ow 'the parative and superlative forms. Ifyou already kn regularly from ‘well’ mélius ‘better’ 6ptimé ey iy. mile ‘badly’ —péius ‘worse’ —_péssimé worse 00 padlum ‘alittle’ minus ‘less’ minime very ty lo . méltum ‘much’ pls ‘more’ —_plrimum ‘most’ tach’; ‘most’; ‘yes’. magnépere ‘greatly’ migis ‘more’ maxim ‘very ™ J5 ‘Comparative’ constructions (a) Comparative it ive, e.g. tii sanior es 1 quam means ‘than’ when it is used with a comparative, ¢ si ‘t prefer quam égo ‘you are saner than I’. Cf. mald pacem quam 513Reference grammar peace to war’ (malé= mégis uélo ‘I want x more than y’). Observe that the two things compared are in the same case, e.g. maidrem habed librum quam tium (Iibrum) ‘I have a larger book than yours’. 2 But Latin can also compare two items by dropping quam and putting the item compared in the ablative, e.g. ti mé sdnior es ‘you are saner than I’ quis sapiéntior sapiénte est? ‘who is wiser than the wise?’ o Note the use of the comparative + quam qui + subjunctive in the idiom ‘too — to do something’, e.g. sapiéntior est quam qui hoc faciat ‘(lit.) he is wiser than one who would do that’, i.e. ‘he is too wise to do that’ 4 Note the use of the ablative of the measure of difference (see L(£)4(iv)) with comparative adjectives or adverbs in sentences meaning ‘the more . . . the more . . fae e.g. quo propius éa conténtid accédit . . 1us id periculum apparet ‘the closer that fight comes, the more clearly that danger appears’ (Caelius) tantd bréuius dmne quantd félicius tempus ‘the happier a period (is), the shorter it (is)” (or ‘seems to be’) (Pliny) y so much shorter every (time is), by how much the hay the time Gs)’, ie. ‘time flies when you're enjoying yourself’). (b) Superlative quam with the superlative means ‘as — as possible’, e.g. cénam quam maximam hdbe6 ‘I have the largest dinner possible’ This usage applies equally to adverbs, e.g. quam celérrimé ‘as fast as possible’ (c) Other ‘comparative’ constructions 1 Atque/ac dtque/ac is used after adjectives or adverbs which express ‘likeness’ or ‘unlikeness’, such as idem ‘the same’, dlius ‘different’, ‘other’, dliter, ‘differently’, céntra ‘opposite’, ‘contrary’, par ‘equal’, pariter ‘equally’, perinde ‘in like manner’, similis ‘like’, ‘similar’. E.g. 514JS Adjectives, adverbs iussérunt simulacrum Ibuis, contra dtque dnted fierat, ad oriéntem conuértere ‘They ordered (them) to tam the satue of Jupiter towards the East, contrary to what it had been before’ (Cicero). perinde égit ac dixit ‘He acted just as he said’. 2 Correlatives - ut meaning ‘as’ acts as a ‘correlative’ to sic or ita ‘thus’, e.g. ut ti imperas, sic[ita égo facid ‘as you order, so I do’. In the same way, tam ‘so’ is answered by quam ‘as’, e.g. tam beatus érat ille quam miser égo ‘he was as (lit. so) happy as ! unhappy’ tot ‘so many’ is answered by quot ‘as many’, e.g. tot uirt sunt quot féminae ‘so many men there are as many (as) (there are) women’, ‘there are as many men as women CE. tdntus ‘so great’... quéntus ‘as great’, ‘as’; talis‘ofsuch a sort’. . . qualis ‘of which sort’, ‘as’, e.g. tanta sapiéntia & inest quanta uis ‘there is so great wisdomin him 2s _ Steat (as there is) force’, ‘he has as much brain as brawn A talem uirtiitem praebébat qualem Horitius ‘he showed bravery . such a sort as the sort (which) Horatius (showed) NB. See J5(a)4 above for other correlative usages. 3 Unreal comparisons . 7 quasi, uélut, tdmquam mean ‘as if*, ‘as though’ and (with oF wither added) take a subjunctive where the comparison is unreal or hypothetical Constructions under J5(c)1 add si. Eg, ita sé gérit qudsi stiltus sit he is behaving as though he were a foo! (but he is not). , perinde dgit ac si hdstis sit he acts just as though he were an enemy (but he is not). NB. témquam, qudsi, uélut, sicut and ut are all used with nouns to ExPFess ‘like’, ‘as it were’, e.g. ménte déctirréns uélut dmnis ‘like a river as it runs down from the mountain’ (Horace — speaking of Pindar). 515