A short course in

Ecology and Environment

Pranav Kumar
A short course in
Ecology and Environment

Pranav Kumar
Former faculty,
Department of Biotechnology,
Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi, India

Pathfinder Publication
New Delhi, India
 Pranav Kumar
Former faculty,
Department of Biotechnology,
Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi, India

Ecology and environment: A short course

ISBN: 978-81-934655-0-9 (paperback)

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Copyright © 2017 by Pathfinder Publication, all rights reserved.

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Contents
Chapter 1
Basic Ecology
1.1 Level of organization 1
1.2 Environment 2
1.2.1 Soil 2
1.2.2 Air and atmosphere 4
1.2.3 Light 5
1.2.4 Temperature 6
1.3 Shelford’s law of tolerance 6
1.4 Habitat and niche 7
1.5 Ecological species concept 8
1.6 Ecosystem 8
1.6.1 Ecosystem components 9
Autotrophs 9
Heterotrophs 9
1.6.2 Ecosystem function 10
Productivity 10
Energy flow 12
Transfer efficiencies 13
Trophic level 14
Food chains 14
Autotroph and detritus-based ecosystem 15
Ecological pyramid 16
Nutrient cycling 17
Carbon cycle 18
Nitrogen cycle 19
Phosphorus cycle 20
Decomposition 21
1.6.3 Ecosystem services 21
1.6.4 Types of ecosystem 22
Aquatic ecosystem 22
Marine ecosystem 22
Estuary 25

v
 Freshwater ecosystem 25
Wetlands 26
Terrestrial ecosystem 28
Forest ecosystem 28
Deforestation 29
Afforestation 29
Social forestry 30
Desert ecosystem 30
Desertification 31
1.7 Biomes 32
1.8 Population ecology 35
1.8.1 Population characteristics 35
1.8.2 Population growth 38
1.9 Biotic community 41
1.9.1 Ecological characteristics 42
1.9.2 Ecological interdependence and interactions 44
Avoiding predation 48
1.10 Succession 48
1.10.1 Types of succession 49
1.10.2 Mechanism of succession 50
1.11 Adaptation 52

Chapter 2
Biodiversity
2.1 Levels of biodiversity 55
Genetic diversity 55
Species diversity 55
Ecosystem diversity 56
2.2 Gradients and Magnitude of biodiversity 56
2.3 Uses of biodiversity 57
Consequences of biodiversity loss 59
2.4 Threats to biodiversity 59
Habitat loss and fragmentation 59
Introduction of invasive species 59
Overexploitation 60
Climate change and pollution 60
2.5 Extinction of species 60
Natural extinction 60
Mass extinction 60
Anthropogenic extinction 61

vi
 Susceptibility to extinction 61
2.6 IUCN Red List categories and criteria 61
2.7 Conservation of biodiversity 65
Ex-situ and in-situ conservation 65
Biodiversity Hotspots 66
Flagship and Umbrella species 66
2.8 Protected Areas of India 68
National parks 69
Wildlife sanctuary 69
Conservation reserves and Community reserves 69
Marine protected areas 69
Biosphere reserves 69
Sacred groves 72
2.9 Biodiversity conservation: International and National efforts 72
International conservation strategies 72
Convention on Biological diversity 72
CITES 72
World Heritage Convention (WHC) 73
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals 73
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture 73
Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar Convention) 73
International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) 74
National conservation strategies 74
Biological Diversity Act 74
Wildlife (Protection) Act 74
Project Tiger and Project Elephant 74
National Wildlife Action Plan 75
Forest Conservation Act 75
Chipko movement 76
2.10 Biogeographic classification of India 76

Chapter 3
Pollution
3.1 Air pollution 79
3.1.1 Composition of air 79
3.1.2 Sources of air pollution 80
3.1.3 Types of air pollutants 80
3.1.4 Criteria air pollutants 81
3.1.5 Effects of air pollution 85
3.1.6 Air quality standards 86

vii
 WHO air quality guidelines 88
Air quality index 88
National Air Quality Monitoring Programme 89
3.1.7 Indoor air pollution 90
3.1.8 Acid rain 90
3.1.9 Control of air pollution 91
Automobile emission controls 93
3.1.10 Noise pollution 94
3.2 Water pollution 96
3.2.1 Causes of water pollution 96
3.2.2 Types of water pollutants 97
3.2.3 Indicators of water pollution 98
3.2.4 Groundwater pollution 98
3.2.5 Water quality parameters 99
3.2.6 Water quality standards 103
3.2.7 Effects of water pollution 104
3.2.8 Control of water pollution 106
3.2.9 Wastewater treatment 107
3.2.10 Bioaccumulation, bioconcentration and biomagnification 109
3.3 Soil pollution 109
3.4 Solid waste management 110
3.5 Bioremediation 115
3.6 Bioindicator 117
3.7 Environmental impact assessment 119

Chapter 4
Climate Change
4.1 Climate change 125
4.2 Greenhouse effect 127
Greenhouse gases 128
Global-warming potential of greenhouse gases 132
4.3 Global warming 133
4.4 Climate change: Impacts 134
4.5 Responding to climate change 136
4.6 Earth Summit 137
Rio Conventions 137
4.7 UNFCCC 138
Kyoto Protocol 139
Doha Amendment 139

viii
 Kyoto mechanisms 139
Copenhagen Accord 140
Paris Agreement 140
Emission trading/Carbon trading 142
4.8 Ozone depletion 142
Stratospheric ozone formation 142
Stratospheric ozone depletion 142
Antarctic ozone hole 144
Effect of ozone depletion 145
Montreal Protocol 145
4.9 Environmental Laws in India 146
4.10 Environmental footprints 149
Carbon footprint 149
Nitrogen footprint 150
Water footprint 150
Ecological footprint 151
4.11 Living Planet Index 152
4.12 Bioprospecting 152
Nagoya Protocol 153

ix
Chapter 1
Basic Ecology

Ecology is the study of relationships between living organisms and their environments, the
interaction of organisms with each other and the pattern and cause of the abundance and dis-
tribution of organisms in nature. Thus, ecology is the science that attempts to answer questions
about how the nature works. The term ecology was coined by German biologist Ernst Haeckel
combining two Greek words, oikos (meaning ‘house’ or ‘dwelling place’) and logos (meaning
the study of) to denote such relationship between the organisms and their environment.

1.1 Level of organization

Ecological patterns and processes vary as a function of the scale at which they operate. The
scales may be biological and spatial.
The biological scale includes individual organism, population and community. The basic level
of the ecological organization starts with the individual (a single plant, insect or bird). The
next level of organization is the population. Populations are a collection of individuals of the
same species within an area or region. The next, more complex, level of organization is the
community. Communities are made up of populations of different species within some defined
geographical area.
The spatial scale in ecology includes ecosystem, biome and biosphere.
An ecosystem is the interacting system made up of all the living and non-living components
in a physically defined space.
A biome is a distinct ecological community of plants and animals living together in a particu-
lar climate. It is characterized by distinctive vegetation distributed over wide geographical
area and defined largely by regional climatic conditions. A biome is the largest scale at which
ecologists classify vegetation.
In a strict sense, the biosphere represents all the living organisms of the Earth. But in ecol-
ogy, the biosphere is a functional concept which emphasizes the interrelationship between
all living organisms and their environment on a planetary scale. It is an ultimate ecosystem.

Based on the level of organization, ecology is classified into autecology and synecology. Aute-
cology is the study of interaction between organisms and their environments at the level of an
individual, a population or an entire species. Synecology is the study of a biotic community.

1
Basic Ecology
It is also called community ecology. It is the synecology which describes the biotic community
as a whole, especially the links between organisms.

1.2 Environment
Organisms and their environments are dynamic and interdependent. The term ‘environment’
etymologically means surroundings. Thus, the environment includes everything (biotic as
well as abiotic) that surrounds an organism. Any factor, abiotic or biotic, that influences living
organisms is called environmental factor (or ecological factor or ecofactor). Abiotic factors
include ambient temperature, amount of sunlight, pH of the water and soil in which an organ-
ism lives. Biotic factors include the availability of prey, competitors, predators and parasites.

1.2.1 Soil
Soil is the uppermost weathered layer of the earth’s crust. It is a mixture of weathered mineral
rock particles, organic matter (i.e. both living and dead), water and air. Soil is a biologically
active matrix and home for plant roots, seeds, animals, bacteria, fungi, algae and viruses.
The study of soil is called pedology.

Weathering and soil formation

The process of soil formation includes the formation of unconsolidated materials by the weath-
ering process and the soil profile development. Weathering refers to the physical disintegration
and chemical decomposition of the rocks and minerals contained in them.
Physical disintegration breaks down rock into smaller rocks and eventually into sand and silt
particles that are commonly made up of individual minerals. Simultaneously, the minerals de-
compose chemically, releasing soluble materials and synthesizing new minerals. New minerals
form either by minor chemical alterations or by complete chemical breakdown of the original
mineral and resynthesis of new minerals.

Soil composition
Soils are composed of mineral particles, organic matters, air and water. Soil mineral particles
include sand (0.05-2.0 mm), silt (0.002-0.05 mm) and clay (<0.002 mm). The relative pro-
portions of sand, silt and clay in a soil are referred as soil texture. Soils are also composed
of organic matter which include living biomass, detritus and humus. Humus is an amorphous
and a colloidal mixture of complex organic substances. It is made up of humic and non-humic
substances. Non-humic substances include carbohydrates, proteins, lignins, lipids, organic
acids etc. Humic substances are stable end products derived from the decomposition of plant
and animal residues. It comprises about 80 to 90% of the soil organic matter and character-
ized by dark colored amorphous substance. The three fractions of humic substances are fulvic
acid, humic acid and humin. Humin is the most insoluble fraction.
Soil air is the mixture of gases that are present in soil pores that are not filled with water. Oxygen
and carbon dioxide are important constituents and their concentration in the soil affects many
processes (e.g. nitrification and denitrification). Soil water can contribute up to 30% of soil
volume, and is essential for the activity and physiological functioning of organisms in the soil.

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 Basic Ecology
Similarly,

Stenohydric and euryhydric refer to narrow and wide tolerance, respectively, to water.

Stenohaline and euryhaline refer to narrow and wide tolerance, respectively, to salinity.

Stenophagic and euryphagic refer to narrow and wide tolerance, respectively, to food.

Stenoecious and euryoecious refer to narrow and wide tolerance, respectively, to habitat selection.

Ecological amplitude
Species differ from each other in terms of their demands (requirements) from their environments
and consequently also in respect of the extent to which they can tolerate the fluctuations in
their environmental conditions. This range of demands and consequent range of tolerance of
a species is known as its ecological amplitude. In other words, it is the range of environmental
factors that a particular species can tolerate.

1.4 Habitat and niche

Organisms do not live in isolation. They interact with other organisms, inhabit particular envi-
ronment and coevolve with other organisms and with changing environment. Niche represents
the place where members of a species live, the ways in which the environmental resources are
used and interactions with other individuals of their own or of other species. The term niche
was used for the first time by Grinnell (1971). It is the ultimate distributional unit, within which
each species is held by its structural and instinctive limitations. The term ecological niche is
frequently misunderstood and misused. It is often used loosely to describe the sort of place
in which an organism lives. Strictly, however, the place in which a particular organism lives
is its habitat. Niche is different from habitat. It is not simply a place where organism lives.
It is the sum total of all the ecological requisites and activities of a species. For example, the
habitat of a fish could be a whole lake. Lake, however, provides many different niches for
fish. The ecological niche of a species not only includes the physical space occupied by an
organism, but also the functional role of the species in its community i.e. its trophic position
and the position of the species along environmental gradients such as temperature, moisture,
soil pH, soil fertility and others. The three aspects of the ecological niche can be conveni-
ently designated as the spatial or habitat niche, the trophic niche and the multidimensional
or hypervolume niche. The concept of the multidimensional or hypervolume niche was first
described by American ecologist Hutchinson. Thus, a niche is defined by n variables, and can
be defined as the limits for all important environmental features within which individuals of a
species can survive, grow and reproduce.

Fundamental niche and realized niche

Hutchinson introduced the term ‘fundamental niche’ and ‘realized niche’. The fundamental
niche is the maximum theoretical inhabited hypervolume which a species can occupy. In other
words, it is the full range of environmental variables and resources that a species can possibly
tolerate and use which is free from any sort of interference from other species. On the other
hand, the realized niche is the actual smaller hypervolume which a species occupies under
interference and predation from the other species. Because of interspecific interactions, the
realized niche of a species is often smaller than its fundamental niche.

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 Basic Ecology
ronment interconnected by an ongoing flow of energy and cycling of materials. In the broadest
sense, an ecosystem is the interacting system made up of all the living and non-living objects
in a physically defined space. An ecosystem can be visualized as a functional unit of nature.
All ecosystems are ‘open’ systems in the sense that energy and matter are transferred in and
out. An ecosystem could be of any size depending on the communities to be studied and its
boundaries can be either real (natural) or arbitrary.
The ecosystem is the first unit, in the hierarchical organization of the living system from
molecule to biosphere, which is complete i.e. it has all components: biological and physical,
necessary for survival. Accordingly, it is the basic unit around which theories and experiments
of ecology are organized.

1.6.1 Ecosystem components

Ecosystem consists of various non-living, abiotic, and living, biotic components. The abiotic
components of an ecosystem include various physical and chemical factors. The physical fac-
tors having the greatest effect on the ecosystem are: light, temperature, precipitation, air,
soil, fire and water. However, the chemical factors are: pH, salinity, nutrient contents, moisture
contents (for terrestrial ecosystem), amount of toxic substances and level of dissolved oxygen
(in aquatic ecosystems).
Organisms that make up the biotic component of an ecosystem are usually classified as au-
totrophs and heterotrophs, based on how they get their food or organic nutrients they need
to survive.

Autotrophs
Autotrophs are organisms that can manufacture the organic compounds they need as nutrients
from simple inorganic compounds obtained from their environment. They are the ultimate
sources of organic compounds for all nonautotrophic organisms, and for this reason, biologists
refer to autotrophs as the producers of the biosphere. There are two kinds of autotrophs - pho-
toautotrophs and chemoautotrophs. Most autotrophs are photoautotrophs as they make their
organic nutrients through photosynthesis. In most terrestrial ecosystems, green plants are the
primary producers. In aquatic ecosystems, most of the primary producers are phytoplankton,
consisting of various species of floating and drifting bacteria and protist. Some autotrophs,
mostly specialized bacteria, can extract inorganic compounds from their environment and
convert them into organic nutrient compounds without using sunlight. These autotrophs are
called chemotrophs.

Heterotrophs
Heterotrophs are organisms which cannot synthesize the organic nutrients they need and get
them by feeding on the tissues of producers or other consumers. Fungi, animals and most
bacteria are heterotrophs. Heterotrophs can be classified into consumer and decomposer.
Consumers are organisms, such as animals, that feed on producers and other consumers.
There are several classes of consumers, depending on their food sources:

Herbivores (feed directly on plants),

Carnivores (feed on animals),

Omnivores (eat both plants and animals) and

Detritivores (eat detritus).

9
Basic Ecology
Phagotroph Detritus are the dead bodies and waste product of living and once living organisms or simply,
A heterotrophic decomposing organic material. Earthworms are a well-known example of detritivores (also
organism that obtains
known as detritus feeders), eating rotting plant leaves and other debris. Some detritus feed-
nutrients through the
ers, such as dung beetles, eat feces.
ingestion of solid organic
matters. Consumers can also be classified into primary, secondary and tertiary consumers based on
feeding level or trophic level. Primary consumers feed on producers and belong to the second
Osmotroph
trophic level. The secondary consumers feed only on primary consumers, and they belong to
A heterotrophic
organism that obtains the third trophic level. Producers belong to the first trophic level.
its nutrients by absorbing Some heterotrophs consume the dead organic matter, and, in doing so, carry out the natural
organic matter present process of decomposition. They are known as decomposers. Both decomposers and detriti-
in solution.
vores derive nutrition from dead organic matters. The difference is that detritivores actually
Parasite eat the organic matter and decomposers secrete enzymes to digest the organic matter and
A heterotrophic then absorb the resulting molecules (like bacteria and fungi).
organism that obtains
its nutrients from living
biomass.
1.6.2 Ecosystem function
Saprotrophs
All biological entities require matter for their construction and energy for their activities. This is
A heterotrophic
true not only for individual organisms but also for the populations and communities that they
organism that obtains its
nutrients from non-living form in nature. Ecosystems normally include primary producers, decomposers, detritivores,
organic matter, usually a pool of dead organic matter, herbivores, carnivores and parasites plus the physico-chemical
dead and decaying plant environment that provides the living conditions and acts both as a source and sink for energy
or animal matter, by and matter. The key functional aspects of the ecosystem are:
absorbing soluble
organic compounds.
I. Productivity and energy flow
II. Nutrient cycling
III. Decomposition
IV. Water dynamics

I. Productivity
The rate of biomass production per unit area is called productivity. The primary productivity
of a community is the rate at which biomass produced per unit area by plants, the produc-
ers. The biomass is a measure of the mass of the living organic material in a specific area or
ecosystem. The term ‘primary’ indicates that we are concerned with the first trophic level in
the system. It can be expressed either in terms of energy (e.g. Jm–2 day–1) or dry organic
matter (e.g. kg ha–1 year–1) or carbon (e.g. g Cm–2 year–1). The total fixation of energy by
photosynthesis is referred to as gross primary productivity (GPP). The proportion which re-
mains after respiration losses in the plant is termed net primary productivity (NPP). Thus, the
difference between GPP and respiration is known as net primary productivity. NPP represents
the actual rate of production of new biomass that is available for consumption by heterotrophic
organisms (bacteria, fungi and animals). An ecosystem’s NPP should not be confused with the
standing crop (a measure of total biomass of photosynthetic autotrophs present at a given
time). NPP is the amount of new biomass added in a given period of time. The rate of produc-
tion of new biomass by heterotrophs is called secondary productivity. The rate of storage of
organic matter not used by heterotrophs during the period under consideration is termed as
net community productivity.

Secondary productivity by herbivores is invariably less than that of the plants on which they
feed. Where has the missing energy gone? First, not all of the plant biomass produced is con-

10
 Basic Ecology
sumed alive by herbivores. Second, not all the plant biomass that is eaten by herbivores (or
herbivores biomass eaten by carnivores) is assimilated and made available for incorporation
into consumer’s biomass. Some are lost in the form of feces. Third, not all the energy that has
been assimilated is actually converted into biomass. A proportion is lost as respiratory heat.
This occurs because no energy conversion process is ever 100% efficient and also because
animals do work which requires energy, again released as heat.

Patterns in primary productivity

The net primary production of the planet is estimated to be about 105 petagrams of carbon per
year (1 Petagram, Pg=1015 g). Of this, 56.4 Pg C year–1 is produced in terrestrial ecosystems
and 48.3 Pg C year–1 in aquatic ecosystems. Thus, although oceans cover about two-thirds of
the Earth’s surface, they account for less than half of its production.
Terrestrial primary production varies considerably across the surface of the Earth and among
different ecosystem types. Terrestrial primary production, both NPP and GPP, vary from north
to south (or latitudinally) due to gradients in plant community composition, growing season
length, precipitation, temperature and solar radiation. NPP generally declines from tropical
regions to the poles because of temperature and light limitations. Tropical forests tend to be
much more productive than other terrestrial ecosystems, with temperate forests, tropical
savannah, croplands and boreal forests. Desert and Tundra biomes, limited by precipitation
and temperature respectively, contain the least productive ecosystems.

Open ocean 65.0 125 24.4

Continental shelf 5.2 360 5.6
Extreme desert, rock, sand, ice 4.7 3 0.04
Desert and semidesert scrub 3.5 90 0.9
Tropical rain forest 3.3 2200 22
Savanna 2.9 900 7.9
Cultivated land 2.7 600 9.1
Boreal forest (taiga) 2.4 800 9.6
Temperate grassland 1.8 600 5.4
Woodland and shrubland 1.7 700 3.5
Tundra 1.6 140 0.6
Tropical seasonal forest 1.5 1600 7.1
Temperate deciduous forest 1.3 1200 4.9
Temperate evergreen forest 1.0 1300 3.8
Swamp and marsh 0.4 2000 2.3
Lake and stream 0.4 250 0.3
Estuary 0.3 1500 1.2
Algal beds and reefs 0.1 2500 0.9
Upwelling zones 0.1 500 0.1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0 5 10 15 20 25

(a) (b) (c)

2
Terrestrial ecosystem Percentage of Earth’s Average NPP (g/m /yr) Percentage of Earth’s NPP
Aquatic ecosystem surface area

Figure 1.4 Net Primary Productivity (NPP) of different ecosystems. Different ecosystems vary consider-
ably in their NPP as well as in their contribution to the total production on the Earth. Tropical rain forests
and algal beds and coral reefs are among the most productive ecosystems. Although estuaries and coral
reefs have very high NPP, their total contribution to global production is relatively small because these
ecosystems are not very large. Similarly, the open ocean contributes maximum in terms of Earth’s total
NPP than any other ecosystem, because of its very large size but average NPP is small.

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Basic Ecology

Energy flow
The Earth is an open system for energy. Energy flow is the key function in the ecosystem.
The operation of an ecosystem, is consistent with the laws of thermodynamics that deal with
the relationships between energy and matter in a system. The behaviour of the energy in the
ecosystem is based on two basic laws of thermodynamics. The first law of thermodynamics
which states that energy cannot be created or destroyed but only transformed. The first law
is also called the law of conservation of energy.
The Sun is the ultimate source of energy for almost all ecosystems present on the Earth.
Photosynthetic organisms convert solar energy to chemical energy, but the total amount of
energy does not change. The total amount of energy stored in organic molecules synthesized
by the process of photosynthesis plus the amounts dissipated as heat must equal the total
solar energy intercepted by the photosynthetic organism. In other words, energy may change
form (e.g. from radiant to chemical) but not amount.
As the energy moves through an ecosystem, it does change form. During energy transforma-
tion, some amount of energy is converted to a form that’s unusable (unavailable to do work).
In most cases, this unusable energy takes the form of heat. So, every time an energy trans-
formation happens, some amount of useful energy will move from the useful to the useless
category. Energy in the form of heat that does not do work goes to increase the randomness
(disorder) of the universe. The degree of randomness or disorder in a system is called its
entropy. The second law of thermodynamics states that every energy transformation that
takes place will increase the entropy of the universe. In other words, energy transformations
cannot be 100% efficient; some energy is always lost as heat.
In ecosystems, energy flows unidirectionally. The conversion of solar energy to chemical energy
by the process of photosynthesis is the starting point of energy flow within ecosystems. The
fraction of incoming solar radiant energy that the producers capture is small. Only about 1–5
percent energy of incident solar radiation, or 2–10 percent of PAR (Photosynthetically Active
Radiation) is actually captured by the photosynthetic process. The solar energy not used for
photosynthesis is immediately converted to heat.
The producers carry out respiration simultaneously in which they break down some of the or-
ganic compounds in their bodies to release chemical energy. A portion of this chemical energy
is used to make ATP, which in turn uses to power various metabolic processes. Ultimately, the
chemical energy released by respiration is converted to heat. If organisms convert some chemi-
cal energy to heat, the conversion is one-way; they cannot use heat as a source of energy.
The chemical energy from producer passes from one heterotroph trophic level to the next.
As chemical energy move from one trophic level to the next, a great deal of the energy is
diverted all along the way. It means that, the amount of chemical energy available to second-
ary consumers (i.e. primary carnivores) is far less than that available to primary consumers
(i.e. herbivores) and the amount available to tertiary consumers (i.e. secondary carnivores)
is far less than that available to secondary consumers.

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 Basic Ecology
Sun

Solar energy

Producers
D R

D Primary consumers R
Herbivores
Heat Decomposers Heat

D R
Secondary consumers
Primary carnivores

D R
Tertiary consumers
R = Respiration | D = Death Secondary carnivores

Figure 1.5 The flow of energy through an ecosystem. The energy that enters the ecosystem as solar
energy (radiant energy) and is than passed along as chemical energy to successive trophic levels. At each
step energy is diverted, meaning that the chemical energy available to each trophic level is less than that
available to the preceding trophic level. Death at each level transfers energy to decomposers. Energy lost
as heat at each level is returned to the external environment.

Two aspects with respect to energy flow in the ecosystem need careful consideration. First,
the energy flows unidirectionally, i.e. from producers through herbivores to carnivores; it
cannot be transferred in the reverse direction. Second, the amount of energy flow decreases
with successive trophic levels.

Transfer efficiencies
In ecosystems, living organisms are linked together by feeding relationships. Producers (or
autotrophs) have the ability to fix carbon through photosynthesis. Herbivores are the primary
consumers of organic molecules fixed by the producers. Carnivores are secondary consumers,
living on the organic molecules of the herbivores. There may be several levels of carnivores
in any one ecosystem; in such cases, the ultimate level will be occupied by the top carnivore.
The final groups of organisms in an ecosystem are decomposers, which can break down the
complex organic chemicals of dead materials and waste products.
The proportions of net primary production that flow from one level to another depend on
transfer efficiencies i.e. the way energy is used and passed from one step to the next. After
Lindeman’s pioneering work, it was generally assumed that trophic transfer efficiencies were
around 10% (referred to a 10 percent law). However, there is certainly no law of nature that
results in precisely one-tenth of the energy that enters a trophic level transferring to the
next. It ranges from approximately 5% to 20%, depending on the type of the organisms in
the ecosystem. In other words, 90% of the energy available at one trophic level typically is
not transferred to the next. This loss is multiplied over the length of a food chain. For exam-
ple, if 10% of available energy is transferred from primary producers to primary consumers,
and 10% of that energy is transferred to secondary consumers, then only 1% of net primary
production is available to secondary consumers (10% of 10%).

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Basic Ecology

Provisioning services Regulating services Cultural services Supporting services

Products obtained from Benefits obtained from Non-material benefits Services necessary for the
ecosystem. regulation of ecosystem obtained from ecosystem. production of all other from
processes. ecosystem.

Food Climate regulation Spiritual and religious Soil formation

Fresh-water Disease regulation Recreation and ecotourism Nutrient cycling
Fuelwood Water regulation Aesthetic Primary production
Fiber Water purification Inspirational
Biochemicals Pollination Educational
Genetic resources Sense of place
Cultural heritage

1.6.4 Types of Ecosystem

Ecosystems are of different types. These can be categorized as follows:

A. Natural ecosystem

1. Aquatic ecosystem, which may be further distinguished as:

Freshwater, which may be lotic (running water such as a river) or lentic (standing water
such as lake, pond).
Marine, such as ocean, estuaries.

2. Terrestrial ecosystem, such as forest, grassland, desert.

A forest is an ecosystem with a high density of trees and other woody vegetation.
A grassland is an ecosystem where the vegetation is dominated by grasses and other
herbaceous (non-woody) plants. Grasslands occur in regions that are too dry for forests
but that have sufficient soil water to support a herbaceous plant canopy that is lacking in
deserts.
A desert is an ecosystem that receives an extremely low amount of precipitation, less
than enough to support the growth of most plants. Deserts are defined as areas with
an average annual precipitation of less than 250 millimetres per year, or as areas where
more water is lost by evapotranspiration than falls as precipitation.

B. Artificial or domesticated ecosystem

These are maintained artificially by man by the addition of energy. For example croplands
like maize, wheat, rice field etc., where man tries to control the biotic community as well
as the physico-chemical environment.

I. Aquatic ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems are commonly categorized on the basis of whether the water is moving
(streams, river basins) or still (ponds, lakes) and whether the water is fresh (ponds), salty
(oceans) or brackish (estuaries).

Marine ecosystem
Marine ecosystems are aquatic ecosystems whose waters possess a high salt content. Out
of all of the types of ecosystems on the planet, marine ecosystems are the most prevalent.

22
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Basic Ecology
The most remarkable are the very large (2 to 3 meters) tube worms, which, rather than feed
on the lithotrophic cells, live in symbiosis with them: specialized organs in the worms harbour
a huge number of symbiotic sulfur-oxidizing bacteria. These bacteria harness geochemical
energy and supply nourishment to their hosts, which have no mouth, gut, or anus.

Sea
Black smoker

Hydrothermal vent
Chimney made from
precipitated minerals

Oceanic crust
Percolation of
sea water from
cracks
Salinity is the measure Magma
700–1200°C
of all the salts dissolved
in water. Salinity is usu-
ally measured in parts Figure 1.13 A hot hydrothermal vent in the ocean floor. Water percolates down towards the hot molten

per thousand (ppt or rock upwelling from the Earth’s interior and is heated and driven back upward, carrying minerals leached

‰). The average ocean from the hot rock. A temperature gradient is set up, from more than 350°C near the core of the vent, down

salinity is 35 ppt and to 2–3°C in the surrounding ocean. Minerals precipitate from the water as it cools, forming a chimney.

the average river water Different classes of organisms, thriving at different temperatures, live in different neighborhoods of the

salinity is 0.5 ppt or less. chimney. Close to the vent, at temperatures up to about 150°C, various lithotrophic species of bacteria

This means that in one and archaea (archaebacteria) live, directly fuelled by geochemical energy.

kilogram (1000 grams)

of seawater, 35 grams
Coral reefs ecosystem
are salt. Because the
water in estuaries is a Coral reefs are a special subtype of ocean floor ecosystem. Found only in warm tropical wa-
mixture of fresh water ters and at relatively shallow depths, coral reefs are among the most productive ecosystems
and ocean water, the on the planet. About one-quarter of marine species depend on coral reefs for food, shelter or
salinity in most estuar-
both. Because of the diversity found in the habitats created by corals, reefs are often called
ies is less than the open
the ‘rainforests of the sea.’
ocean. Bottom water
almost always contains Corals are marine invertebrates in the class Anthozoa of phylum Cnidaria. More than 6,000
more salt than surface species of coral are known. Most structures that we call ‘coral’ are, in fact, made up of hun-
waters. The salt in the dreds to thousands of tiny coral polyps. Each soft-bodied polyp secretes a hard outer skeleton
ocean is mostly made up
of calcium carbonate that attaches either to rock or the dead skeletons of other polyps.
of sodium and chlorine.
Sodium chloride accounts Although various types of corals can be found from the water’s surface to depths of 6000 m,
for about 85% of the reef-building corals are generally found at depths of less than 45 m. One fascinating feature
dissolved salt. Salin- of shallow water, reef-building corals is their mutualistic relationship with photosynthetic algae
ity is often measured called zooxanthellae, which live in their tissues. Because reef-building corals have a symbiotic
by measuring how well
relationship with algal cells, their distribution is limited to depths where sufficient solar radia-
electricity travels through
tion is available to support photosynthesis. Deep sea corals occur in much deeper or colder
the water. This prop-
erty of water is called oceanic waters and lack zooxanthellae. The coral provides the algae with a protected environ-
conductivity. Water that ment and the compounds they need for photosynthesis. In return, the algae produce oxygen
has dissolved salt in it and help the coral to remove wastes. Precipitation of calcium from the water is necessary to
will conduct electricity form the coral skeleton. This precipitation occurs when water temperature and salinity are
better than water with no
high and carbon dioxide concentrations are low. These requirements limit the distribution of
dissolved salt. The more
reef-building corals to the shallow, warm tropical waters (20°C to 28°C).
salt dissolved in the wa-
ter, the better the water
conducts electricity.

24
 Basic Ecology

Estuary
An estuary (from Latin word means tide) is a transition area between river and sea. An estuary
begins where fresh river water meets the sea. These areas of transition between the land and
the sea are driven by tides, but sheltered from the full force of ocean wind and waves. When
freshwater meets salty seawater, both water combines into a brackish mixture. At estuary,
salinity is intermediate between salt- and fresh water. However, salinity varies spatially within
estuaries, from nearly that of freshwater to that of seawater. Salinity also varies with the rise
and fall of the tides. Estuaries are among the most productive ecosystems in the world and
are home to unique plant and animal communities that have adapted to brackish water.
However, estuaries are not only found where freshwater from rivers and salt water from the
ocean meet and mix. There are also several types of entirely freshwater ecosystems that have
many similar characteristics to the traditional brackish water estuaries. These freshwater es-
tuaries also provide many of the ecosystem services and functions that brackish estuaries do.

Mangrove
Mangroves are trees or large shrubs which are salt-tolerant and grow in intertidal zones in
tropical and subtropical regions. They form dense forests along many tropical and subtropical
coasts. Mangroves form two groups known as true mangroves and associate mangroves. True
mangroves are highly adapted to the intertidal zone where all or part of them are regularly
submerged in saltwater. The length of inundation tolerated varies between true mangrove
species. Plant species other than the true mangroves are known as associate mangroves. They
are also highly adapted to salty conditions, but less than true mangroves, and will only toler-
ate infrequent inundation by saltwater during extremely high tides. Mangroves host a wide
diversity of life, including sponges, shrimp, crabs, jellyfish, fish, birds and even crocodiles.

Freshwater ecosystem
Freshwater is so called because of its extremely low salt content. It exists in various forms
such as lakes, rivers, ponds or wetlands. The study of the physical, chemical, and biological
properties of freshwater is referred to as limnology. Freshwater ecosystems are characterized
as having running water (lotic ecosystem) or still water (lentic ecosystem).
Lentic ecosystem such as lakes and ponds like the oceans are divided into separate zones
which are defined by their distance from the shore. The littoral zone, which is closest to the
shore, is host to a wide variety of rooted plants species due to its warm, shallow environment.
The limnetic zone is the open water farther from shore and is dominated by plankton. The
deeper region of a lake or pond below the limnetic zone is called the profundal zone which
contains only heterotrophs. The littoral and limnetic zones have a ratio of P/R > 1 (production
is greater than respiration) whereas the profundal zone has P/R < 1 (respiration is greater than
production). The zone at the bottom of a lake or pond is termed benthic. The benthic zone
is occupied by communities of organisms collectively called the benthos. The terms benthic

Mangrove forest and benthos are derived from the Greek for depths of the sea, but the terms are also used
Natural forests with in freshwater biology to refer to the zone and organisms at the bottom of freshwater bodies.
> 30% canopy cover, Life-forms in a lentic ecosystem include plankton (free-floating organisms), nekton (free–swim-
composed of species of
ming organisms, such as fish), benthos (bottom-dwelling organism), neuston (the collective
mangrove tree, generally
term for the organisms that float on the top of the water, epineuston or live right under the
along coasts in or near
brackish or salt water. surface, hyponeuston), and periphyton (organisms attached to submerged surfaces).

25
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Basic Ecology

Lakes can be categorized Eutrophication

on the basis of their
richness in nutrients, Eutrophication is a process whereby water bodies, such as lakes, ponds, receive excess inorganic
which typically affects nutrients (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus containing compounds) that stimulate excessive
plant growth: plant and algal growth. A rapid increase in the population of algae in an aquatic system is
called an algal bloom. Algal blooms may occur in freshwater as well as marine environments.
Oligotrophic lakes
Eutrophication can be natural or cultural eutrophication.
These lakes are
nutrient poor and
Natural eutrophication
biologically unproductive.
It is a natural ageing process. It occurs as lakes and ponds age and is filled in with sediments.
Mesotrophic lakes It is a process that occurs in all lakes over time, as the weathering of rocks and soils from the
These lakes surrounding catchment area leads to an accumulation of nutrients and associated sediments
contain moderate in the water. Depending on climate, the size of the water bodies, the natural aging of a water
amount of nutrients and
body may span hundreds of years.
are biologically
productive.
Cultural eutrophication

Eutrophic lakes It occurs due to excessive discharge of inorganic nutrients into the water bodies due to human
These lakes are very rich activities. Nutrients can come from many sources, such as fertilizers applied to agricultural
in nutrients and bio- fields and sewage treatment plant discharges. Excessive algal growth eventually leads to
logically very productive.
death and decomposition of algae which reduce dissolved oxygen in the water. Depending on
High nutrient concentra-
the degree of eutrophication, subsequent negative environmental effects such as anoxia and
tion results in excessive
growth of algae (algal severe reductions in aquatic animal populations may occur.
bloom) and low oxygen
levels and undesirable II. Terrestrial ecosystem
water quality.
Terrestrial ecosystems are those that are found only on land. The key to the meaning of ter-
restrial ecosystems lies in the word ‘terrestrial’, which generally means anything occurring
on land. Therefore, terrestrial ecosystem refers to the interacting system made up of living
organisms and non-living objects occurring on land. Only 28 percent of the Earth’s surface
belongs to terrestrial ecosystems.

Forest ecosystem
A forest is a complex ecosystem which is predominantly composed of trees and shrubs. Forests
are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of Earth and are distributed across the globe. Forests
account for 75% of the gross primary productivity of the Earth’s biosphere and contain 80%
of the Earth’s plant biomass.
Based on canopy cover, forest can be very dense forest (all lands with tree cover of canopy
density of 70% and above), moderately dense forest (all lands with tree cover of canopy
density between 40% and 70% above) and open forest (all lands with tree cover of canopy
density between 10% and 40%). Forest types differ widely, determined by factors including
latitude, altitude, temperature, rainfall patterns and soil composition.
India has a diverse range of forests. Climate (temperature and rainfall), soil types and topog-
raphy are the main factors that determine the type of forest. Indian forests can be divided
into six broad types:

A. Tropical moist forests

1. Tropical moist evergreen
2. Tropical moist semi-evergreen

28

India ranks 10th
amongst the most forest-
ed nations of the world
(FAO, 2006) with 23.4 B.
percent (76.87 million
ha) of its geographical
area under forest and
tree cover (FSI, 2008).
Basic Ecology
3. Tropical moist deciduous
4. Littoral and swamp
Tropical dry forests
1. Tropical dry deciduous
2. Tropical dry evergreen
3. Tropical thorn forests

C. Sub-tropical dry forests

1. Sub-tropical broad-leaved hill forests
2. Sub-tropical pine forests
3. Sub-tropical dry evergreen forests
The UNFCCC defines D. Montane temperate forests
‘a forest as an area of
1. Montane wet temperate forests
land 0.05–1 hectare in
size, of which more than 2. Himalayan moist temperate forests
10–30% is covered by 3. Himalayan dry temperate forests
tree canopy. Trees must
also have the potential to E. Subalpine forests
reach a minimum height
F. Alpine forests
of 2-5 metres’.
1. Moist alpine
Primary forest 2. Dry alpine
A primary forest is a
forest that has never
been logged and has
Deforestation
developed following Deforestation is the permanent destruction of forests in order to make the land available for
natural disturbances and other uses. It is the ‘permanent removal of forest cover and withdrawal of land from forest
under natural processes,
use, whether deliberately or circumstantially.’
regardless of its age.
Cause of deforestation: The biggest driver of deforestation is agriculture. Subsistence farming
Secondary forest
is responsible for about 48% of deforestation (Source: United Nations Framework Convention
A secondary forest is
on Climate Change, UNFCCC). Subsistence agriculture is self-sufficiency farming in which the
a forest that has been
logged and has recovered farmers focus on growing enough food to feed themselves and their families. Logging opera-
naturally or artificially. tions for wood and paper products are second major reason for deforestation. Other causes
of deforestation may include population growth, urbanization and globalization.
Plantation forest
A plantation forest may Effect of deforestation: Deforestation can have a negative impact on the environment. The
be afforested land or a most dramatic impact is loss of habitat for millions of species. About eighty percent of Earth’s
secondary forest es- land animals and plants live in forests, and many cannot survive the deforestation that de-
tablished by planting or stroys their habitats.
direct seeding.
Deforestation is considered to be one of the contributing factors to global climate change. It
Degraded forest plays a critical role in absorbing the greenhouse gases that fuel global warming. Fewer forests
A degraded forest is a mean larger amounts of greenhouse gases entering the atmosphere—and increased speed
secondary forest that and severity of global warming.
has lost, through human
activities, the structure,
function, species com- Afforestation
position or productivity Afforestation is the establishment of a forest in an area where there was no previous forest
normally associated with
cover. The IPCC (Intergovernmental Pannel on Climate Change) Guidelines define afforesta-
a natural forest type ex-
tion as the ‘planting of new forests on lands which, historically, have not contained forests.’
pected on that site.

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Basic Ecology

1.7 Biomes
Flora is the all species The ‘biome concept’ was introduced by Clements and Shelford. A biome is a distinct ecological
occurring in a particu- community of plants and animals living together in a particular climate. Each biome has char-
lar region or time. It
acteristic appearance and distributed over wide geographical area defined largely by regional
represents the taxonomic
climatic conditions. It is a level of organization between the landscape and biosphere. It is
composition of plant
community in a the largest geographical biotic unit.
particular region. Biomes are defined by their characteristic vegetational types and associated climatic conditions

Vegetation, a general (mainly mean annual temperature and precipitation), rather than by the presence of particular
term, represents the plant species. Two regions assigned to the same biome thus may differ in the species that
plant community in a dominate the landscape. Tropical rain forests around the world, for example, are all composed
particular region without of tall, lushly vegetated trees, but the tree species that dominate a South American tropical
specific reference to par-
rain forest are different from those in an Indonesian one. Biomes are named according to their
ticular taxa. The vegeta-
vegetation types but they also include the animals that are present.
tion type is defined by
characteristic dominant
–15
species.
–10
Tundra
–5
Mean annual temperature, °C

Northern
0 coniferous
ean

5
erran
nd
ssla

10 Temperate
Medit

Gra

deciduous forest
15

20
Desert

Savanna
25 Tropical forests

30
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

Mean annual precipitation, cm

Figure 1.15 The distribution of vegetation types as a function of mean annual temperature and precipita-
tion. Both temperature and precipitation limit the distribution of plant communities.

Biomes are classified into aquatic and terrestrial biomes. Some of the major terrestrial biomes in
the world are tropical rainforests, deserts, tropical grasslands (savannas), temperate grasslands,
temperate deciduous forests, Mediterranean scrub, coniferous forests, chaparral and tundra.

Tundra biome
Tundra is a polar desert, with very low temperature and low precipitation. There are two
main types of tundra, arctic tundra and alpine tundra. The alpine tundra is found high on the
mountains. Tundra biome is characterized by a short growing season, low precipitation and
permanently frozen deeper soil (called permafrost). Plant life consists of grasses, sedges and
lichen (Reindeer moss). Trees are absent.

Desert biome
Deserts are found at latitudinal positions between 15° to 35° North and South of the equator
and also in rain shadows. Deserts have annual precipitation less than 30 cm. Low precipita-

32
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Chapter 2
Biodiversity

Biodiversity, short for biological diversity, refers to the sum total of all the variety and vari-
ability of life in a defined area. In contrast to the more specific term species diversity, the term
biodiversity was coined to emphasize the many complex kinds of variations that exist within
and among organisms at different levels of organization. It refers to the totality of genes, spe-
cies and ecosystems of a region. United Nations Earth Summit defined biological diversity as:
‘Biological diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including,
inter alia (among other things), terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the
ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between
species and of ecosystems.’
Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992

2.1 Levels of biodiversity

Biodiversity includes three hierarchical levels: Genetic, species and ecosystem diversity

Genetic diversity
Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes within a species. The genetic diversity enables
the population to adapt to its environment and respond to natural selection. The amount of
genetic variation is the basis of speciation. It has a key role in the maintenance of diversity
at the species and community levels. Genetic diversity within a species often increases with
environmental variability.

Species diversity
Species diversity refers to the variety of species within a region. The simplest measure of spe-
cies diversity is species richness, i.e. the number of species present in per unit area. Generally,
the greater the species richness, the greater is the species diversity. Number of individuals
among the species may also vary, resulting into differences in evenness, or equitability and
consequently in diversity.

Species richness and evenness

Species richness is only one aspect of diversity. Not all species exist in equal numbers: some
are rare, some are common but not numerous, and others are very abundant. Imagine two
forests, both of which contain a total of 100 individuals belonging to 5 different species. In one

55
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Biodiversity
Prevention and mitigation of natural disasters
Forests and grasslands protect landscapes against erosion, nutrient loss, and landslides through
the binding action of roots. Ecosystems bordering regularly flooding rivers (floodplain forests
and wetlands) help to absorb excess water and thus, reduce the damage caused by floods.

Source of economically important products

Food: About 150 crops feed most of the human population at present, but just 12 of them pro-
vide about 80% of food energy (with wheat, rice, maize and potato alone providing about 60%).
Also, about 30 mammalian and bird species are used extensively, but just 15 of them account
for over 90 percent of global livestock production. Biodiversity increases the range of food
products suitable for human consumption. Wild biodiversity provides a wide variety of important
foodstuffs, including fruits, meats, nuts, mushrooms, honey, spices and flavourings. These
wild foods are especially important when agricultural supplies fail. Indeed, wild biodiversity
guards against the failure of even the most advanced agricultural systems. For example, the
productivity of many of the developed world’s agricultural crops is maintained through the
regular assimilation of new genes from wild relatives of these crops. These wild genes offer
resistance to the pests and diseases that pose an ever-evolving threat to harvests.
Medicines: Biodiversity is also a rich source of substances with therapeutic properties like
morphine (used as an analgesic), quinine (used for the treatment of malaria) and taxol (an
anticancer drug). A significant proportion of drugs are derived, directly or indirectly, from
biological sources. Moreover, only a small proportion of the total diversity of organisms has
been thoroughly investigated for potential sources of new drugs.
Industrial materials: A wide range of industrial materials are derived directly from biological
resources. These include building materials, fibers, dyes, resins, gums, adhesives, rubber and
oil. There is enormous potential of obtaining economically important materials from a wider
diversity of organisms.

Aesthetic and cultural benefits

Biodiversity has also great aesthetic value. Aesthetic aspects include ecotourism, bird–watch-
ing, wildlife, pet keeping, gardening etc. The beauty of nature is something many people are
enthralled by. There is something within the natural environment which people really connect
to, and gives them an immense sense of satisfaction when they experience nature. For some,
there are cultural or spiritual meanings attached to the landscape, whereas for others it is
simply the aesthetic quality of the natural environment which they enjoy so much.

Total economic value of

Biodiversity

Direct use Indirect use

Support and regulate
ecosystem services

Consumptive use Non-consumptive use

Source of economically Eco-tourism
important products Education
such as food, Recreation
medicines Cultural and aesthetic value

58
 Biodiversity

Consequences of biodiversity loss

There is considerable evidence that contemporary biodiversity decline will lead to subsequent
decline in the functioning and stability of ecosystem. Biodiversity experiments have tested
whether biodiversity declines will influence ecosystem functioning or stability by manipulating
some component of biodiversity, such as the number of species, and measuring various types
of ecosystem functioning or stability. These studies have been conducted in lab, grassland,
forest, marine and freshwater ecosystems. From these studies, it is clear that ecosystem func-
tioning often depends on species richness, species composition and also on species evenness
and genetic diversity. Furthermore, stability often depends on species richness and species
composition. Thus, contemporary changes in biodiversity will likely lead to subsequent changes
in ecosystem properties. Further investigation at larger spatiotemporal scales in managed eco-
systems is needed to improve our understanding of the consequences of biodiversity declines.

2.4 Threats to biodiversity

The most obvious manifestation of biodiversity loss is the extinction of species. This is a natural
phenomenon: species have been going extinct since life began. Indeed, it is estimated that
many more species have gone extinct than exist at present. What’s worrying is the rate at
which species are currently dying out. Since the total number of species on the Earth can only
be estimated, the exact rate of current species loss is difficult to gauge. Working from the
conservative estimate that the Earth is home to 10 million species in all, it is estimated that
between 0.2 and 0.6 percent of species are being lost every year. This rate is at least 10,000
times greater than the ‘background’ or natural rate of species extinction, as estimated using the
fossil record. The main causes of biodiversity loss are considered under the following headings:

Habitat loss and fragmentation

Habitat means the place or type of site where an organism or population naturally occurs.
When a natural habitat, such as a forest or wetland, is altered so dramatically that it no longer
supports the species it originally sustained. Plant and animal populations are destroyed or
displaced, leading to a loss of biodiversity. It is called habitat loss or habitat destruction.
Habitat destruction is different from habitat degradation. According to IUCN, a decline in
species-specific habitat quality that leads to reduced survival and/or reproductive success in
a population is called habitat degradation. Habitat fragmentation is the ‘breaking apart’ of
continuous habitat into distinct pieces. The loss of habitats is the primary reason for the loss
of biodiversity. When people cut down trees, fill a wetland, plough grassland or burn a forest,
the natural habitat of a species is changed or destroyed. These changes can kill or force out
many plants, animals and microorganisms as well as disrupt complex interactions among the
species. With the fragmentation of a large forest tract, species occupying deeper parts of for-
est are the first to disappear.

Introduction of invasive species

An invasive species (also called introduced, exotic, non-native) can be any kind of living or-
ganism that is not native to an ecosystem and which has a tendency to damage the ecosys-
tem. Common characteristics of invasive species include rapid reproduction and growth, high
dispersal ability, phenotypic plasticity (ability to adapt physiologically to new conditions) and
ability to survive on various food types and in a wide range of environmental conditions. These

59
Biodiversity
Native species species grow and reproduce quickly, and spread aggressively, with potential to cause harm.
A species or lower taxon Invasive species are capable of causing extinctions of native plants and animals by competing
living within its natural
with them for limited resources and altering habitats. Thus, leading to loss of biodiversity.
range (past or present)
including the area which The sudden introduction of invasive species to a given ecosystem (especially on islands and
it can reach and occupy in freshwater habitats) causes disastrous consequences for native species. Such introductions
using its natural disper- are usually the result of human activities. The accidental introduction of an Atlantic comb jel-
sal systems. lyfish species to the Black Sea is a well-known example. These invaders have out-competed
Indigenous species is
native fauna, and now comprise some 95 percent of the Black Sea’s total biomass. In the US,
equivalent to native
meanwhile, the introduction of exotic species has been implicated in close to 70 percent of
species.
Source: Convention the past century’s freshwater fish extinctions.
on Biological Diversity
(CBD). Overexploitation
The term overexploitation refers to the human activities connected with excessive capturing
Endemic species
and harvesting (hunting, fishing, farming) of organisms. According to IUCN, it is an exploita-
Any species whose range
tion of (removal of individuals or biomass from) a natural population at a rate greater than
is restricted to a limited
geographical area. the population is able to match with its own recruitment, thus tending to drive the population
towards extinction. Overexploitation of a particular species reduces the size of its population
to an extent that it becomes vulnerable to extinction. The decline of the Earth’s largest ter-
restrial animal, the African elephant, is a classic example of the impact of overhunting. Largely
because of the trade in ivory, elephant populations have been declining in most of Africa.

Climate change and pollution

The link between climate change and biodiversity has long been established. Although through-
out Earth’s history the climate has always changed but rapid climate change due to man made
activities affects species ability to adapt and so biodiversity loss increases. In addition to global
warming, more frequent extreme weather and changing patterns of rainfall and drought have
significant impacts on biodiversity. Some species may benefit from rapid climate change but
most species will not find it as beneficial as they will not be able to adapt.

2.5 Extinction of species

Extinction is a natural process. Extinction (the complete disappearance of a species from
Earth) is an important part of the evolution of life on Earth. The current diversity of species is
a product of the processes of extinction and speciation operating throughout the previous 3.8
billion years of life. It is assumed that between 5 and 50 billion species have lived at some
time during the history of the Earth. Therefore, 99.9% of all the life that has existed is now
extinct. However, extinction has not occurred at a constant pace through the Earth’s history
and also not same for all species. There are three types of extinction processes:

Natural extinction
With the change in environmental condition, some species disappear and others, which are
more adapted to the changed conditions, replace them.

Mass extinction
There have been several periods in the Earth’s geological history when a large number of
species became extinct because of catastrophes. In Earth’s history, two most important mass
extinctions happened at the end of the Permian and the second at the end of the Cretaceous.

60
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Biodiversity
Data deficient
A category on the IUCN
Red List which indicates
there is inadequate
information to make a
direct, or indirect, as-
sessment of a taxon’s
risk of extinction based
on its distribution and/
or population status. A
taxon in this category
may be well studied, and
its biology well known,
but appropriate data on
abundance and/or distri-
bution are lacking.
IUCN 2012
Of the 47,677 species
in the International
Union for Conservation
of Nature (IUCN) Red
List of Threatened Spe-
cies of 2009, 17,291 are
deemed to be at serious
risk. The list reveals that
21 percent of all known
mammals, 30 percent of
all known amphibians,
12 percent of all known
birds, 28 percent of
reptiles, 37 percent of
freshwater fishes,
70 percent of plants
and 35 percent of
invertebrates assessed
so far, are under threat.
62
Structure of the categories
Extinct (EX)
Extinct in the wild (EW) Critically endangered (CR)
Adequate data
Threatened Endangered (EN)
Near threatened (NT) Vulnerable (VU)
Evaluated
Least concern (LC)
Species
Data deficient (DD)
Not evaluated (NE)
Extinct
A species is extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. Ex-
ample: Dodo and Passenger pigeon.
Extinct in the wild
Only survives in cultivation (plants) or in captivity (animals). Examples: Alagoas curassow.
Threatened species
For categorization of threatened species – critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable
– there is a range of quantitative criteria; meeting any one of these criteria qualifies a species
for listing at that level of threat. Each species should be evaluated against all the criteria. Even
though some criteria will be inappropriate for certain species. The relevant factor is whether any
one criterion is met or all are met. Because it will never be clear in advance which criteria are
appropriate for a particular species, each species should be evaluated against all the criteria.
Critically endangered
A species is critically endangered when it is facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the
wild in the immediate future. To be defined as critically endangered, a species must meet any
of the following criteria.
• Population reduction: ≥80-90% population decline
• Geographic range
Extent of occurrence: <100 km2
Area of occupancy: <10 km2
• Population size: <250 mature individuals
• Extinction probability (in the wild): at least 50% within 10 years or 3 generations.
Example: Gharial, Great Indian bustard, Ganges shark, Pygmy hog.
Reduction of population size causes loss of genetic diversity due to loss of some alleles from the
species. It also increases the chance of inbreeding and homozygosity. Increased homozygosity
increases mortality of young, and inbreeding depression leads to reduced offspring fitness.
Biodiversity
Conservation

In-situ conservation Ex-situ conservation

In the natural habitat and In an artificial environment
production environment (zoo, botanical garden etc.)

Figure 2.1 Overview of basic conservation schemes.

Gene banks are biorepositories where biological material is collected, stored, catalogued and
made available for redistribution. Gene banks are also known as germplasm banks. It func-
tions as ex-situ conservation, where a sample containing genetic material is preserved in an
artificial environment, outside of its normal habitat. The germplasm is stored in the form of
seeds, pollen or in vitro cultures. A seed bank preserves dried seeds by storing them at a
very low temperature. In general, the seeds of plant species are stored in environments at
low temperature and humidity. In these conditions, their viability can be preserved for several
decades.

Biodiversity Hotspots
The concept of biodiversity hotspots originated with British ecologist and writer Norman Myers
in 1988. A biodiversity hotspot is a relatively small area with an exceptional concentration of
endemic species and a large number of endangered and threatened species. To qualify as a
hotspot, a region must meet two strict criteria: it must contain at least 1,500 species of vas-
cular plants (>0.5 percent of the world’s total) as endemics, and it has to have lost at least 70
percent of its original habitat. Thus, hotspots are areas with the richest and most threatened
reservoirs of plants and animals life on Earth. Norman Myers developed the hotspot concept to
designate priority areas for in-situ conservation. A key criteria for determining a hotspot are:

1. Number of endemic species i.e. the species which are found nowhere else.
2. Degree of threat, which is measured in terms of habitat loss.

Currently, 35 biodiversity hotspots have been identified, most of which occur in tropical for-
ests. They represent just 2.3% of Earth’s land surface, but between them they contain around
50% of the world’s endemic plant species and 42% of all terrestrial vertebrates. Four of 35
globally identified biodiversity hotspots: The Himalayas, the Western Ghats, the North-East,
and the Nicobar Islands, are present in India.

Flagship and Umbrella species

A flagship species is a species chosen to represent an environmental cause, such as an eco-
system in need of conservation. These species are chosen for their vulnerability, attractiveness
or distinctiveness in order to generate support and acknowledgment from the public at large.
Thus, the concept of a flagship species holds that by giving publicity to a few key species, the
support given to those species will successfully leverage conservation of entire ecosystems.
Umbrella species are species selected for making conservation related decisions, typically
because protecting these species indirectly protects many other species that make up the
ecological community of its habitat.

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 Biodiversity

IUCN Protected Area Management Categories

The criteria used to define protected areas vary widely, depending on the objective and on
the mechanisms behind the establishment of the protected area. They are usually locations
of significant environmental, cultural or natural value that in most cases have some forms of
management authority in place for their protection.
The IUCN has developed six Protected Area Management Categories that define protected ar-
eas according to their management objectives, which are internationally recognised by various
national governments and the United Nations. The categories provide international standards
for defining protected areas and encourage conservation planning according to their manage-
ment aims.

IUCN Protected Area Management Categories

Category Ia Strict nature reserve

Category Ia are strictly protected areas set aside to protect biodiversity and also possibly geo-
logical/geomorphical features, where human visitation, use and impacts are strictly controlled
and limited to ensure protection of the conservation values. Such protected areas can serve
as indispensable reference areas for scientific research and monitoring.

Category Ib Wilderness area

Category Ib protected areas are usually large unmodified or slightly modified areas, retaining
their natural character and influence without permanent or significant human habitation, which
are protected and managed so as to preserve their natural condition.
Category Ib protected areas will generally be larger and less strictly protected from human
visitation than category Ia.

Category II National park

Category II protected areas are large natural or near natural areas set aside to protect large-
scale ecological processes, along with the complement of species and ecosystems characteristic
of the area, which also provide a foundation for environmentally and culturally compatible,
spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and visitor opportunities.
Category Ib and II protected areas are often similar in size and in their aim to protect functioning
ecosystems. But whereas II usually includes use by visitors, including supporting infrastructure,
in Ib visitor use is more limited.

Category III Natural monument or feature

Category III protected areas are set aside to protect a specific natural monument, which can
be a landform, sea mount, submarine cavern, geological feature such as a cave or even a liv-
ing feature such as an ancient grove. They are generally quite small protected areas and often
have high visitor value.
Management in category III is focused around a single natural feature, whereas in category II
it is focused on maintaining a whole ecosystem.

Category IV Habitat/Species management area

Category IV protected areas aim to protect particular species or habitats and management
reflects this priority. Many Category IV protected areas will need regular, active interventions
to address the requirements of particular species or to maintain habitats, but this is not a
requirement of the category.

67
Biodiversity

Category IV protected areas protect fragments of ecosystems or habitats, which often require
continual management intervention to maintain. These protected areas are also often estab-
lished to protect particular species or habitats.

Category V Protected landscape/seascape

A protected area where the interaction of people and nature over time has produced an area of
distinct character with significant, ecological, biological, cultural and scenic value: and where
safeguarding the integrity of this interaction is vital to protecting and sustaining the area and
its associated nature conservation and other values.
Category V protected areas are generally cultural landscapes or seascapes that have been altered
by humans over hundreds or even thousands of years and that rely on continuing intervention
to maintain their qualities including biodiversity.

Category VI Protected area with sustainable use of natural resources

Category VI protected areas conserve ecosystems and habitats together with associated cul-
tural values and traditional natural resource management systems. They are generally large,
with most of the area in a natural condition, where a proportion is under sustainable natural
resource management and where low-level non-industrial use of natural resources compatible
with nature conservation is seen as one of the main aims of the area.
Category VI protected areas contain natural areas where biodiversity conservation is linked
with sustainable use of natural resources.

2.8 Protected Areas of India

Protected areas are those in which human occupation or at least the exploitation of resources
is limited. The definition that has been widely accepted across regional and global frameworks
has been provided by the IUCN in its categorization guidelines for protected areas. The defini-
tion is as follows:

‘A clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated and managed, through legal or
other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated eco-
system services and cultural values.’

There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of protection depending on the
enabling laws of each country or the regulations of the international organizations involved.
The term ‘protected area’ also includes marine protected areas, the boundaries of which will
include some area of ocean, and transboundary protected areas that overlap multiple coun-
tries which remove the borders inside the area for conservation and economic purposes.
India has the following kinds of protected areas:

• National parks

• Wildlife sanctuaries

• Conservation reserves

• Community reserves

• Marine protected areas

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 Biodiversity

S.No. Name of the Biosphere Date of Location in the State/Union Territory

Reserve and total designation
geographical area (Km2)

1. Nilgiri (5520) 1.8.1986 Part of Waynad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Madumalai, Nilambur,
Silent Valley and Siruvani hills in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka.

2. Nanda Devi (5860.69) 18.1.1988 Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh and Almora districts in Uttarakhand.

3. Nokrek (820) 1.9.1988 Part of East, West and South Garo Hill districts in Meghalaya.

4. Manas (2837) 14.3.1989 Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamprup and
Darang districts in Assam.

5. Sunderban (9630) 29.3.1989 Part of delta of Ganges and Brahamaputra river system in West
Bengal.

6. Gulf of Mannar (10500) 18.2.1989 India part of Gulf of Mannar extending from Rameswaram island in
the North to Kanyakumari in the South of Tamil Nadu.

7. Great Nicobar (885) 6.1.1989 Southern most island of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

8. Similipal (4374) 21.6.1994 Part of Mayurbhanj district in Orissa.

9. Dibru-Saikhova (765) 28.7.1997 Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts in Assam.

10. Dehang-Dibang (5111.5) 2.9.1998 Part of Upper Siang, West Siang and Dibang Valley districts in
Arunachal Pradesh.

11. Pachmarhi (4981.72) 3.3.1999 Part of Betul, Hoshangabad and Chhindwara districts in Madhya
Pradhesh.

12. Khangchendzonga (2619.92) 7.2.2000 Part of North and West districts in Sikkim.

13. Agasthyamalai (3500.36) 12.11.2001 Part of Thirunelveli and Kanyakumari districts in Tamil Nadu and
Thiruvanthapuram, Kollam and Pathanamthitta districts in Kerala.

14. Achanakmar-Amarkantak 30.3.2005 Part of Anuppur and Dindori districts of Madhya Pradesh and
(3,835.51) Bilaspur district of Chattisgarh.

15. Kachchh (12,454) 29.1.2008 Part of Kachchh, Rajkot, Surendranagar and Patan districts in
Gujarat.

16. Cold Desert (7,770) 28.8.2009 Pin Valley National Park and surroundings; Chandratal & Sarchu;
and Kibber Wildlife sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh.

17. Seshachalam (4755.997) 20.9.2010 Seshachalam hill ranges in Eastern Ghats encompassing part of
Chittoor and Kadapa districts in Andhra Pradesh.

18. Panna (2998.98) 25.8.2011 Part of Panna and Chhattarpur districts in Madhya Pradesh.

Source: http://www.moef.nic.in/sites/default/files/annual_report/AR-2013-14.

71
Biodiversity
National Board for
Wildlife
National Board for
Wildlife (NBWL) is
a statutory Board
constituted on 22nd
September 2003 under
the Wild Life (Protection)
Act, 1972. The NBWL is
chaired by the Hon’ble
Prime Minister. Primary
function of the Board is
to promote the conserva-
tion and development of
wildlife and forests. It is
a very important body
because it serves as
apex body to review all
wildlife-related matters
and approve projects
in and around national
parks and sanctuaries.
72
Sacred groves
Sacred groves comprise of patches of forests of varying sizes that are protected by local
communities because of their religious beliefs and traditional rituals that run through several
generations. The degree of sanctity of the sacred forests varies from one grove to another.
People believe that any kind of disturbance will offend the local deity (devata), causing dis-
eases, natural calamities or failure of crops. For example, the Garo and the Khasi tribes of
North-Eastern India completely prohibit any human interference in the sacred groves.
2.9 Biodiversity conservation: International and National efforts
Biodiversity is a wealth to which no value can be put. In the final analysis, the very survival of
the human race is dependent on conservation of biodiversity. It is evident that this invaluable
resource is being destroyed at an alarming rate due to several reasons. Measures are being
taken up at national and international levels to address this issue. The Earth Summit produced
a plan of action on a number of issues (Agenda 21) including conservation of biodiversity
during the 21st century.
International conservation strategies
Conserving biodiversity is not an issue confined to any one country or community. It is a cru-
cial global concern. Several international treaties and agreements are in place in the attempt
to strengthen international participation and commitment towards conserving biodiversity.
Some of these are:
Convention on Biological diversity
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity Convention,
is a multilateral treaty. The notion of an international convention on biological diversity was
conceived at a United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) by Ad Hoc Working Group of
Experts on Biological Diversity in November 1988. The Convention was opened for signature
at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on 5 June 1992 and entered into force on 29 December
1993. It has three main objectives:
• The conservation of biological diversity.
• The sustainable use of the components of biological diversity.
• The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic
resources.
CITES
CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora), also known as the Washington Convention, is an international agreement to protect
endangered plants and animals. It was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963
at a meeting of members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The
convention was opened for signature in 1973 and CITES entered into force on 1 July 1975.
Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not
threaten the survival of the species in the wild, and it accords varying degrees of protection
to more than 35,000 species of animals and plants. India become party to CITES in 1976.
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Chapter 3
Pollution

Pollution is any undesirable change in the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of

the air, water and land that can harmfully affect the living organisms and the ecosystem as
a whole. Any substance introduced into the environment that adversely affects the physi-
cal, chemical or biological properties of the environment that have a harmful effect on the
ecosystem as a whole is termed as pollutant. There are three major types of environmental
pollution: air pollution, water pollution and soil pollution.

3.1 Air pollution

Air pollution may be defined as any atmospheric condition in which substances are present at
concentrations above their normal permissible levels to produce a measurable effect on man,
animals, vegetation or materials. Substances mean any natural or anthropogenic (man-made)
chemical compounds capable of being airborne. They may exist in the atmosphere as gases,
liquid drops or solid particles.
According to Air (prevention and control) act, 1981, an air pollutant is any solid, liquid or
gaseous substance (including noise) present in the atmosphere in such concentration as may
be or tend to be injurious to human being or other living creatures or plants or property or
environment.

3.1.1 Composition of air

Air is a non-homogeneous mixture of different gases that makes the atmosphere. Atmosphere
is the gaseous mass or envelope surrounding the Earth and retained by the Earth’s gravitational
field. The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth’s atmosphere. It contains approximately
80% of the atmosphere’s mass. By volume, dry air contains 78.08% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen,
0.9% argon, 0.033% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. There are two com-
mon ways by which one can represent the composition of air – percentage of gas by volume
or percentage of the gas by mass. It is important to note that, the composition of different
gases (in dry air) by mass is a fixed one whereas the percentage composition of the gases
by volume or mass in wet air (i.e. air containing moisture) is dependent on humidity or the
moisture in the air.

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Pollution
Table 3.1 Composition of clean, dry air (expressed in volume)

Constituent Concentration
Nitrogen 78.084%
Oxygen 20.9%
Argon 0.9%
Carbon dioxide 0.035% (355 ppm in year 1990)
Others 0.065%
Neon (18 ppm)
Helium (5.2 ppm)
Methane (1.8 ppm)
Krypton (1.1 ppm)
Nitrous oxide (0.3 ppm)
Hydrogen (0.5 ppm)

3.1.2 Sources of air pollution

There are two main sources of air pollution:

Natural sources – such as wind-blown dust, wildfires and volcanoes

Man-made (or anthropogenic) sources

Man-made sources can be mobile or stationary in nature.

Mobile sources: include motor vehicles, planes and trains.
Stationary sources: Air pollution sources that do not move from location to location. It can be
either point source or area source.
Point sources include pollution from power plants, oil refineries.
Area sources include pollution from agricultural fields, cities.

Mobile sources account for most of the air pollution and the primary mobile source of air pol-
lution is the automobile. Stationary sources, like power plants, emit large amounts of pollu-
tion from a single location, these are also known as point sources of pollution. Area sources
include emissions from many smaller stationary sources present in an industrial, commercial
and residential area.

3.1.3 Types of air pollutants

Air pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made. It can be classified on the following basis:
Aerosol
An aerosol is a colloid • the physical state of the pollutant
of fine solid particles or • the basis of origin
liquid droplets, in gas.
• the occurrence and nature of the threat
A colloid is a broad cat-
egory of mixtures, and
Classification based on the physical state of the pollutant
is defined as one phase
suspended in another. According to the physical state of pollutant, pollutants may be gaseous and particulate in nature.
Aerosol can be liquid Gaseous pollutants include carbon dioxide, sulfur oxides, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide,
aerosol (liquid suspended
volatile organic compounds, chlorofluorocarbons, ammonia and other gases.
in gas) and solid aerosol
(solid suspended in gas). Particulate matters are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in air.

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Pollution
Particulate matter Particulate matter
A suspension of fine solid Atmospheric particulate matter is defined as a complex mixture of extremely small particles and
or liquid particles in the
liquid droplets suspended in the air. Once inhaled, these particles cause serious health effects.
air such as dust, fume,
mist, smoke or sprays. It Particulate matter pollution includes:
is not a specific chemical
PM10 Particulate matters which are equal to or less than 10 microns and more than 2.5
entity but a mixture of
particles from different microns in diameter are known as PM10 (or respirable suspended particulate matter).
sources and of different
PM2.5 Particulate matters which are equal to or less than 2.5 microns in diameter are known
sizes, composition and
properties. Particulate as PM2.5 (or fine suspended particulate matter).
matter suspended in air
Particulate matters come in many sizes and shapes and can be made up of hundreds of dif-
is commonly known as
ferent chemicals. Particulate matters can be emitted directly or formed in the atmosphere.
an aerosol.
Primary particulate matters are those released directly to the atmosphere. These include dust
Dust
from roads and black and elemental carbon from combustion sources. Secondary particulate
Solid particles generated
by a mechanical pro-
matters, on the other hand, are formed in the atmosphere from chemical reactions involv-
cess such as grinding or ing primary gaseous emissions. Thus, these particles can form at locations distant from the
crushing operations. sources that release the precursor gases.

Fume
Solid particles gener- Oxides of sulfur
ated by condensation of Oxides of sulfur are produced when sulfur containing fossil fuel is burnt. It is also released
vapors in air. naturally by volcanic activity. The most common oxide of sulfur is sulfur dioxide. Sulfur dioxide,
Mist once released, can be converted to other sulfur oxides (SOx).
Liquid droplets of a
substance or mixture 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) 2SO3 (g)
(size up to 10 microme-
The reaction is also promoted by ozone and hydrogen peroxide.
ters) suspended in a gas
(usually air). SO2 (g) + O3 (g) SO3 + O2 (g)
Smoke
SO2 (g) + H2O2 (l) H2SO4 (aq)
Smoke is a complex
mixture of gases and fine SO2 can affect both animals and plants. It has been reported that even a low concentration
solid and liquid particles
of sulfur dioxide causes respiratory diseases e.g. asthma, bronchitis, emphysema in human
emitted when a material
beings. At high concentrations, gaseous SOx can harm plants by damaging foliage. SO2 and
undergoes combustion
or pyrolysis. The exact other sulfur oxides can contribute to acid rain which can harm sensitive ecosystems.
composition of smoke
depends on what is being Lead
burned.
Lead is a naturally occurring element found in small amounts in the Earth’s crust. Lead is
Soot emitted to the atmosphere primarily in the form of inorganic particulates. Most lead emis-
Fine black particles, sion occurred in the past from motor vehicles as a result of burning of leaded gasoline. Other
chiefly composed of
human activities include use of lead-based paint, pipes and plumbing materials, batteries,
carbon, produced by
ammunition and cosmetics.
incomplete combustion
of coal, oil, wood, or Lead can affect almost every organ and system in your body. Even low levels of lead in the
other fuels. blood of children can result in behavior and learning problems, lower IQ and slowed growth.
In the case of pregnant women, it causes reduced growth of the fetus and premature birth.
Lead is also harmful to adults. Adults exposed to lead can suffer from cardiovascular defects,
increased blood pressure, decreased kidney function and reproductive problems.

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 Pollution
In India, there are six air quality indices categories, namely Good, Satisfactory, Moderately
polluted, Poor, Very Poor and Severe. The existing air quality indices consider eight pollutants
(PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3 and Pb) for which short-term (up to 24 hourly averaging
period) National Ambient Air Quality Standards are prescribed.
Based on the measured ambient concentrations, corresponding standards and likely health
impact, a sub-index is calculated for each of these pollutants. The worst sub-index reflects
overall air quality indices. Associated likely health impacts for different air quality indices cat-
egories and pollutants have been also been suggested, with primary inputs from the medical
expert members of the group. The air quality indices values and corresponding ambient con-
centrations (health breakpoints) as well as associated likely health impacts for the identified
eight pollutants are as follows:

AQI Remark Possible health impacts

0-50 Good Minimal impact

51-100 Satisfactory Minor breathing discomfort to sensitive people

101-200 Moderate Breathing discomfort to the people with lungs, asthma and
heart diseases

201-300 Poor Breathing discomfort to most people on prolonged exposure

301-400 Very poor Respiratory illness to the people on prolonged exposure

401-500 Severe Affects healthy people and seriously impacts those with existing
lung/heart diseases

National Air Quality Monitoring Programme

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) is executing a nation-wide programme of ambient air
quality monitoring known as National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP). Under NAMP,
four air pollutants - SO2, NO2, PM10 and PM2.5 have been identified for regular monitoring at
different locations. The monitoring of meteorological parameters such as wind speed and wind
direction, relative humidity and temperature were also integrated with the monitoring of air
quality. The monitoring of pollutants is carried out for 24 hours (4 hourly sampling for gaseous
pollutants and 8 hourly sampling for particulate matters) with a frequency of twice a week,
to have one hundred and four (104) observations in a year.

Table 3.4 AQI category, Pollutants and Health breakpoints

AQI category (Conc. range) PM10 PM2.5 NO2 O3 CO SO2 NH3 Pb

Good (0-50) 0-50 0-30 0-40 0-50 0-1.0 0-40 0-200 0-0.5

Satisfactory (51-100) 51-100 31-60 41-80 51-100 1.1-2.0 41-80 201-400 0.5-1.0

Moderately polluted (101-200) 101-250 61-90 81-180 101-168 2.1-10 81-380 401-800 1.1-2.0

Poor (201-300) 251-350 91-120 181-280 169-208 10-17 381-800 801-1200 2.1-3.0

Very poor (301-400) 351-430 121-250 281-400 209-748 17-34 801-1600 1200-1800 3.1-3.5

Severe (401-500) 430+ 250+ 400+ 748+ 34+ 1600+ 1800+ 3.5+

• CO in mg/m3 and other pollutants in μg/m3;

• 24-hours average values for PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, NH3 and Pb and 8-hours average values for CO and O3.

89
Pollution
Infiltration is the term
used to describe the
natural air exchange that
occurs between a build-
ing and its environment
when doors and windows
are closed.
Natural ventilation is the
air exchange that occurs
when windows or doors
are purposely opened to
increase air circulation,
while forced ventilation
occurs when mechanical
air handling system in-
duces air exchange using
fans or blowers.
Indoor air quality (IAQ)
refers to the quality of
the air inside buildings as
represented by concen-
trations of pollutants and
thermal (temperature
and relative humidity)
conditions that affect the
health and performance
of occupants.
90
The objectives of the NAMP are:
• To determine status and trends of ambient air quality;
• To ascertain whether the prescribed ambient air quality standards are violated;
• To Identify non-attainment cities;
• To obtain the knowledge and understanding necessary for developing preventive and
corrective measures;
• To understand the natural cleansing process undergoing in the environment through
pollution dilution, dispersion, wind based movement, dry deposition, precipitation and
chemical transformation of pollutants generated.
3.1.7 Indoor air pollution
Indoor air pollution refers to the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of air in the
indoor environment within a home, building, institution or commercial facility. Different condi-
tions are responsible for indoor air pollution in the rural areas and the urban areas.
In the developing countries, it is the rural areas that face the greatest threat from indoor pol-
lution. This is mainly due to use of traditional fuels such as firewood, charcoal and cow dung
for cooking and heating. Burning such fuels produces large amount of smoke and other air
pollutants.
In urban areas, exposure to indoor air pollution has increased due to a variety of reasons,
including the construction of more tightly sealed buildings, reduced ventilation, the use of
synthetic materials for building and furnishing and the use of chemical products, pesticides
and household care products. Common indoor air pollutants include:
• Biological contaminants
It includes pollen from plants, mite, hair from pets, fungi, parasites and bacteria.
• Carbon dioxide
• Carbon monoxide
• Dust
• Tobacco smoke
• Fine particulate matter
• Lead
• Nitrogen oxides
• Pesticides
• Radon: Radon is a colorless, odorless radioactive gas that is formed in soil due to natural
breakdown of Uranium and is emitted naturally by the soil. Radon is the leading cause
of lung cancer among non-smokers. Due to modern houses having poor ventilation, it is
confined inside the house.
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs ): The main indoor sources for VOCs are perfumes, hair
sprays, furniture polish, glues, air fresheners, moth repellents, wood preservatives and
many other products used in the house.
3.1.8 Acid rain
Acid rain or acid deposition is a broad term refers to any form of precipitation (rain, snow, fog,
hail or even dust) containing higher than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. Forms
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 Pollution

Automobile emission controls

Vehicles are the principal cause of India’s urban air pollution problems. Vehicular emissions
are caused by both combustion and evaporation. To the extent that fossil fuels continue to be
used, there are three general approaches that can be used to reduce emissions from combus-
tion of fossil fuel.

Precombustion controls to reduce the emission potential of the fuel itself (for example, using
fuels with less sulfur or nitrogen content).
Combustion controls to reduce emissions by improving the combustion process itself.
Postcombustion controls to capture emissions after they have been formed but before they
are released to the air.

Most of the control of automobile emissions occur at the exhaust system. The approach most
favored by automobile manufacturers to achieve the emission standards has been the catalytic
converter (for CO, HCs and NOx). A catalytic converter is able to oxidize hydrocarbons and
carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide, while reducing NOx to N2 all in the same catalyst bed. For
pre-combustion controls, a number of alternatives to gasoline (petrol) are being investigated as
possible fuels for the future. These include ethanol, biodisel, CNG, LPG, hydrogen and electricity.

Ethanol, also known as grain alcohol, has long been used as an oxygenate to reduce CO emis-
sions, in which case the gasoline/ethanol mixture is usually referred to as gasohol. Ethanol
can be blended with gasoline with a range of mixture ratios. The two mixtures common in
the United States are E10 (10 percent ethanol, 90 percent gasoline, by volume) and E85 (85
percent ethanol, 15 percent gasoline).

Biodiesel can be created from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled restaurant greases. It
is a biodegradable, domestic, renewable energy fuel that has the potential to help reduce
the need for petroleum-based transportation fuels as well as helping farmers by providing a
market for excess soybean oil. As a renewable fuel whose production requires little or no fos-
sil fuel, its net CO2 emissions are only about one-fourth that of standard diesel. The oxygen
in biodiesel enables more complete combustion to take place, and the fewer sulfur content
reduces sulfate emissions.
Biodiesel can be blended with conventional diesel in mixture strength, with the most common
blend B2 (2 percent biodiesel, 98 percent standard diesel) being popular because of its supe-
rior lubricity compared to ultra-low-sulfur diesel fuels. Other common blends are B5 and B20.
Conventional engines can run on B20 without any modifications, but higher concentrations may
require certain engine modifications to avoid maintenance or operational problems. Biodiesel is
produced using a process called transesterification in which the unwanted glycerol in vegetable
oil or fat is removed by chemical reactions involving an alcohol, such as methanol or ethanol
and a catalyst. The catalyst is usually sodium or potassium hydroxide.

CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) is made by compressing natural gas which is mainly composed
of methane. CNG combustion produces fewer undesirable gases than petrol, diesel and LPG.
CNG is often confused with LNG (liquefied natural gas). While both are stored forms of natu-
ral gas (predominantly methane), the key difference is that CNG is gas that is stored at high
pressure, while LNG is stored at very low temperature, becoming liquid in the process. CNG is
a very clean fuel resulting in very low emissions of reactive hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide,
particulates and toxics.

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Pollution
LPG, (Liquefied Petroleum Gas), is the most popular cooking fuel. It is a mixture of gases, lique-
fied by compression, consisting of primarily propane or primarily butane or mixture of propane
and butane. It is obtained either from crude oil or from natural gas. Crude oil, recovered from
underground oil deposits, is a mixture of heavy hydrocarbons. In a petroleum refinery, this oil
is heated and turned into a mixture of gases and liquids. The mixture of gases become liquid
when kept under pressure. When pressure is released, they again turn into gaseous forms as
happens when the valve in the gas is released. LPG is volatile and highly inflammable. Since
the hydrocarbons do not have any smell a small quantity of powerful odorant, ethanethiol, is
added so that leaks can be detected easily.

Bharat stage emission standards

Fuel quality plays a very important role in meeting the stringent emission regulation. Bharat
stage emission standards (BSES) are emission standards adopted by the Government of India
to regulate the output of air pollutants from internal combustion engines and Spark-ignition
engines. The standards and the timeline for implementation are set by the Central Pollution
Control Board under the Ministry of Environment & Forests and climate change. The Bharat
stage emission standard is based on European emission standards. It was first introduced in
year 2000 (Euro-I and Euro-II equivalent norms). Progressively stringent norms have been
rolled out since then. Since October 2010, Bharat stage III (Euro-III equivalent) norms have
been enforced across the country. In 13 major cities, Bharat stage IV (Euro-IV equivalent)
emission norms have been in place since April 2010 and it is enforced for whole country from
April 2017. In 2016, the Indian government announced that the country would skip the Bharat
stage V (Euro-V equivalent) emission norms altogether and adopt Bharat stage VI (Euro-VI
equivalent) norms by 2020.

3.1.10 Noise pollution

Noise is defined as unwanted sound which causes undesirable physiological and psychologi-
cal effects in an individual. The word ‘noise’ descends from the Latin word ‘nausea,’ meaning
seasickness, or, more generally, any similar sensation of disgust, annoyance or discomfort.
Sound with frequency between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz are called audible sound. Frequencies
below the range of human audibility are called infrasound, and those above it are referred to
as ultrasound. Decibel (abbreviated dB) is a unit for measuring intensity of sound. A sound
of minimal audibility is assigned the value of 0 dB. The maximum decibel level that a human
ear can endure without experiencing damage is 120 dB.

Sources of noise pollution

The sources of noise pollution are divided into two categories– Natural sources and man-made
sources.

The natural sources include thunderstorms, tornado, cyclone, volcanic eruptions, Earthquakes,
landslides, sounds produced by animals and rapidly falling water.

The man-made sources include transport system, industrial activities, fireworks, construction
activities, commercial activities and others.

Effect of noise pollution

Noise pollution affects both health and behavior. Noise can cause annoyance and aggression,
hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep disturbances and other harmful
effects. High noise levels can also contribute to cardiovascular effects.

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Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 is an Act of the Parliament of India. It came into force on
19 November 1986 with the objective of providing for the protection and improvement of the
environment. The Act was last amended in 1991. The Act is an ‘umbrella’ legislation designed
to provide a framework for central government to coordinate the activities of various central
and state authorities established under previous laws, such as the Water Act and the Air Act.
It empowers the Central Government to establish authorities charged with the mandate
of preventing environmental pollution in all its forms and to tackle specific environmental
problems that are peculiar to different parts of the country.

3.2 Water pollution

Water pollution is the contamination or changes in the physical, biological and chemical prop-
erties of natural surface and ground water which makes water unsuitable for beneficial use.

‘Water pollution is the presence of any foreign substance (organic, inorganic, radiological or
biological) in water which tends to degrade the quality so as to constitute a hazard, or impairs
the usefulness of water.’
USPHS Drinking Water Standards.

Water pollution can be surface water pollution and groundwater pollution. The surface
water pollution can be further divided into freshwater pollution and marine water pollution.
The most obvious type of water pollution affects surface waters. Water stored underground
in aquifers is known as groundwater.

Water pollution can come from a number of different sources. The sources of water pollution
may be: point sources and non-point sources.
A point source is a single identifiable localized source of water pollution. Point sources of water
pollution include municipal sewage treatment plant discharges and industrial plant discharges.
A great deal of water pollution happens not from one single source but from many different
scattered sources. This is called non-point source. Non-point source is diffuse source (not a
single discrete source). Non-point source pollution is caused by rainwater moving over and
through the ground, it picks up and carries natural and human-made pollutants, depositing
them into lakes, rivers, wetlands, coastal waters and ground waters.

Non-point source pollution can include:

• Excess fertilizers, herbicides and insecticides from agricultural lands and residential areas.
• Oil, grease and toxic chemicals from urban runoff.
• Sediment from construction sites, crop and forest lands and others.
• Pathogens and nutrients from livestock and pet wastes.
• Atmospheric deposition.

3.2.1 Causes of water pollution

The causative agents of water pollution may be natural and man-made. Some of the major
causative agents of freshwater pollution are:

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Sources of dissolved oxygen in water is either air or photosynthetic activity of algae and plants.
The actual amount of dissolved oxygen (in mg/L) will vary depending on temperature, pres-
sure and salinity. First, the solubility of oxygen decreases as temperature increases. Second,
dissolved oxygen decreases exponentially as salt levels increase. Third, dissolved oxygen will
increase as pressure increases. In freshwaters dissolved oxygen at sea level ranges from 15
mg/L at 0° C to 8 mg/L at 25° C. Concentrations in unpolluted waters are usually close to,
but less than, 10 mg/L.

Biochemical oxygen demand

The amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) used up by aerobic microorganisms to decompose (oxi-
dize) the organic matters present in a sample of water is termed Biochemical Oxygen Demand
or Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD). It is an indirect measure of the concentration of the
total organic matter. Since aerobic microorganisms live by decomposing organic matters, the
amount of oxygen used is proportional to their number and metabolic rate.
BOD test evaluates the dissolved oxygen used up by aerobic microorganisms over a 5-days
period at 20°C. BOD concentration of wastewater is expressed in mg/L. BOD of clean freshwater
is 2 mg/L whereas value exceeding 5 mg/L indicates contamination. When BOD levels are high,
there is a decline in DO levels. It is an approximate measure of the amount of biochemically
degradable organic matter present in a water sample.
Oxygen-demanding wastes are usually biodegradable organic substances contained in mu-
nicipal wastewaters or in effluents from certain industries, such as food processing and paper
production. In addition, the oxidation of certain inorganic compounds may also contribute to
the oxygen demand.

Chemical oxygen demand

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is used as a measure of oxygen requirement of a sample

that is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant. Under controlled conditions of
time and temperature, a chemical oxidizing agent (potassium permanganate or dichromate) is
added to the sample of water, and the amount needed to oxidize the reducing materials present
is measured. From this, the chemically equivalent amount of oxygen can be calculated.
The test for COD is non-specific, in that it does not identify the oxidizable material or differ-
entiate between the organic and inorganic material present. Similarly, it does not indicate the
total organic carbon present since some organic compounds are not oxidized by the chemical
oxidizing agent whereas some inorganic compounds are oxidized. The concentrations of COD
observed in surface waters range from 20 mg/L O2 or less in unpolluted waters.

Heavy metals

The accumulation of heavy metals is a quality indicator. The presence of heavy metals causes
many problems to living organisms. Especially high levels of arsenic, cadmium, nickel, mer-
cury, etc. are very dangerous to freshwater ecosystems as for human if the water is being
used as drinking water.
In India, the states of West Bengal, Jharkhand, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Manipur and
Chhattisgarh are reported to be most affected by arsenic contamination of groundwater above
the permissible level. WHO’s provisional guideline value for arsenic in drinking water is 0.01
mg/l (10 μg/l) (Source: Guidelines for drinking water quality, 4th edition, WHO, 2011). Per-
missible limit of arsenic in India in absence of an alternative source is 0.05 mg/l (50 μg/l).
(Source: Indian Standards for Drinking Water, 2004).

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Phosphorus in wastewater exists in many forms but all of it ends up as orthophosphate. Re-
moving phosphate is most often accomplished by adding a coagulant, usually alum or lime.
Phosphate removal from wastewater by biological means involves assimilation or storage.

Sludge treatment

Primary and secondary (or biological) treatments remove solids and BOD from the wastewater
before the liquid effluent is released to the waterbodies. What remains to be disposed of is a
mixture of solids and water, called sludge, which is withdrawn from the bottom of the primary
and secondary clarifiers. The collection, processing and disposal of sludge can be the most
costly and complex aspect of wastewater treatment.
Sludge treatment process can be divided into two categories – aerobic treatment and anaerobic
treatment. In aerobic treatment, sludge is mixed with aerobic bacteria. During the process,
part of the biodegraded material is converted into carbon dioxide and a portion becomes new
biomass. A major problem associated with aerobic treatment is the disposal of excess biomass
produced during the degradation of waste. The traditional method of sludge processing utilizes
anaerobic treatment. It involves bacteria that thrive in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic di-
gestion is slower than aerobic digestion, but has the advantage that only a small percentage
of the wastes is converted into new bacterial cells. Most of the organics are converted into
carbon dioxide and methane gas.
The anaerobic digestion process is very complex and can be divided into two phases. In the
first phase, complex organic compounds such as proteins, lipids and carbohydrates are con-
verted into simpler organic materials. The bacteria that perform this conversion are commonly
referred to as acid formers. In the second phase, organic materials are converted slowly into
CO2, CH4 and other stable end products by methane forming bacteria. These bacteria are very
sensitive to temperature, pH, toxins and oxygen. The optimal temperature and pH range for
methanogenic bacteria are 35° to 40°C and pH 7 to 7.8. Methanogenic bacteria used for this
purpose are Methanobacterium, Methanobacillus and Methanococcus.

Acid-forming Methane-forming
bacteria bacteria CH4, CO2,
Complex organics Organic acids
and other end products
First stage Second stage
waste conversion waste stabilization

Figure 3.2 The two phases of anaerobic digestion.

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was enacted in 1974 to provide for the
prevention and control of water pollution, and for the maintaining or restoring of wholesome-
ness of water in the country. The Act was amended in 1988. The Water (Prevention and Control
of Pollution) Cess Act was enacted in 1977, to provide for the levy and collection of a cess on
water consumed by persons operating and carrying on certain types of industrial activities.
This cess is collected with a view to augment the resources of the Central Board and the State
Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution constituted under the Water (Preven-
tion and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.

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Digested sludge removed from the second stage of the anaerobic treatment is still mostly
liquid. The solids have been well digested, so there is little odor. Traditionally, dewatering was
accomplished by pumping the sludge onto large sludge drying beds where evaporation and
seepage removed the water. The digested and dewatered sludge is potentially useful as a soil
conditioner.

3.2.10 Bioaccumulation, bioconcentration and biomagnification

Bioaccumulation, bioconcentration and biomagnification are distinct phenomena.

Bioaccumulation is the intake and accumulation of a chemical in an organism by all routes

of exposure including transport across respiratory surfaces, dermal absorption and dietary
absorption.

Bioconcentration is the intake and accumulation of a chemical in an organism only through

its respiratory and dermal surfaces.

Biomagnification is the bioaccumulation of chemicals in organisms in increasingly higher

concentrations at successive trophic levels. It occurs when the chemical is entered into the
food chain. It occurs because the biomass at any given trophic level is produced from a much
larger biomass ingested from the level below. Consumers at higher trophic levels ingest a
significant biomass present at lower levels, along with the fat soluble pollutants stored in their
tissues. Biomagnification occurs in both aquatic and terrestrial habitats. An infamous case
of biological magnification that harmed top-level carnivores involved DDT, a chemical used
to control insects such as mosquitoes and agricultural pests. One of the first signs that DDT
was a serious environmental problem was a decline in the populations of ospreys and eagles,
birds that feed at the top of food webs. The accumulation of DDT in the tissues of these birds
interfered with the deposition of calcium in their eggshells. When these birds tried to incubate
their eggs, the weight of the parents broke the shells of affected eggs, resulting in catastrophic
declines in reproduction rates.

3.3 Soil pollution

Soil pollution, also commonly known as soil contamination, is a condition that occurs when
soil loses its structure, biological and chemical properties due to the use of various man-made
chemicals and other natural changes in the soil environment.
Occurrence of soil pollution is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensities
of chemical usage. Various human activities are causing soil pollution. These activities are:

Deposition of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen

The oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, chlorides, fluorides, etc., emitted into the atmosphere due
to combustion of fossil fuel from vehicles and various industries come down as dry or wet
deposition (acid rain) onto the soil and lower the soil pH.

Use of pesticides
Various pesticides used in agricultural practices cause soil pollution. Similarly, herbicides used
for weed control in agricultural practices affect biological and chemical properties of soil. These
substances pollute the soil depending on their volatility, biodegradability, persistence, leaching,
chemical reactivity and adsorption on the soil particles.

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It is important to be
aware that the definitions
of solid waste terms and
the classifications of solid
waste vary greatly in
the literature and in the
profession. Consequently,
the use of published
data requires consider-
able care, judgment, and
common sense.
110
Release of sewage matters and use of chemical fertilizers
Sewage matter is commonly used as fertilizer or deposited as waste on the soil. Decomposi-
tion of sewage may release various toxic heavy metals that cause an increase in heavy metal
toxicity. Detergent substances may also be released from sewage causing damage to the
soil. Chemical fertilizers are generally used far in excess of the requirements of the crop. The
unutilized fertilizers cause soil pollution.
Deposition of industrial effluents and solid wastes
Various inorganic and organic substances are present in the industrial effluents. They affect
various soil characteristics. Effluents affect the mineral structure, soil pH, exchangeable base
status etc., of the soil. Large quantity of solid wastes like unused and rejected chemicals (like
calcium carbonate, magnesium sulphate, ferrous chloride, ferrous oxide, radioactive wastes,
fly ashes, sludge, plastic materials) and unwanted industrial wastes generated during manu-
facturing processes (rejection, broken items of metal, plastic, wooden or chemical solids,
powders) are dumped over the surface of soil. All these solid materials are bound to change
the chemical and physical nature of the soil besides contributing large quantity of pollutants
to underground water – whenever rain water passes through them.
Radioactive pollutants
A variety of radioactive waste materials like Strontium-90, Cesium-137, Iodine-131, Plutonium,
Uranium, Neptunium etc., are added to soil from nuclear activities. These substances may
be washed into water or may be directly added to water that is used as a coolant in nuclear
power plants.
Control of soil pollution
Control measures for soil pollution and land degradation involve safer land use, planned ur-
banization, controlled developmental activities, safe disposal and managements of solid wastes
from industries and human habitations, afforestation and reforestation. Management of solid
wastes involves: collection and categorization of wastes; recovery of resources like scar metals
and plastics for recycling and reuse and safe disposals with minimum environmental hazards.
3.4 Solid waste management
Waste
‘Substances or objects which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required
to be disposed of by the provisions of the law.’ Disposal means ‘any operation which may lead
to resource recovery, recycling, reclamation, direct re-use or alternative uses.’
Annex IVB of the Basel Convention
Depending upon the physical states of wastes, there are two major types of waste— solid
waste and liquid waste. Solid wastes are any discarded or abandoned materials resulting from
industrial, commercial, mining, and agricultural operations, and from community activities.
Nearly everything we do leaves behind some kind of waste. It can be solid, semi-solid, liquid
or contained gaseous material. For waste to be considered non-liquid it must have a solids
content of at least 20% and liberate no free liquids when transported.
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Plastic waste Municipal solid waste consists of household waste and waste from streets. It is normally as-
Indiscriminate littering sumed to include all community wastes with the exception of wastes generated from munici-
and non-biodegradability
pal services, water and wastewater treatment plants, industrial processes, and agricultural
of plastic waste raise
operations.
several environmental
issues; such as choking
of drains, making land Integrated solid waste management
infertile and on inges- The Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) proposes a waste management hierarchy with
tion by cattle lead to the aim to reduce the amount of waste being disposed, while maximizing resource conservation
death; burning of plastic
and resource efficiency. The ISWM hierarchy ranks waste management operations according
generates toxic emis-
to their environmental, economic and energy impacts. Hierarchy of priorities in the ISWM:
sions. No organized/sys-
tematic system has been At source reduction and reuse: The most preferred option for waste management in the
developed by concerned
ISWM hierarchy is to prevent the generation of waste at various stages including in the de-
municipal authorities for
sign, production, packaging, use, and reuse of products. Waste prevention helps to reduce
collection, segregation,
transportation and dis- handling, treatment, and disposal costs and various environmental impacts such as leachate,
posal of plastics waste. air emissions and generation of greenhouse gases.
To tackle the menace of
Waste recycling: The next preferred option for waste management in the ISWM hierarchy
plastic waste manage-
is recycling of waste to recover material resources through segregation, collection, and re-
ment, the Ministry of
Environment, Forests & processing to create new products. For example,composting of organic matter of waste and
Climate Change notified recovery of material.
the Plastic Waste (Man-
Waste to energy: Energy recovery from waste through production of heat, electricity or fuel is
agement & Handling
Rules) 2011. The Gov- preferred where material recovery from waste is not possible. Biomethanation, waste incinera-
ernment has notified the tion, production of refuse derived fuel (RDF), co-processing of combustible non-biodegradable
Plastic Waste Manage- dry fraction from municipal solid waste in cement kilns and pyrolysis or gasification are some
ment Rules, 2016, in waste-to-energy technologies.
suppression of the ear-
lier Plastic Waste (Man- Waste disposal: Residual inert wastes at the end of the hierarchy are to be disposed in sanitary
agement and Handling) lined landfills. All over the world, landfills which integrate the capture and use of methane are
Rules, 2011. preferred over landfills which do not capture the landfill gas. As per the hierarchy, the least
preferred option is the disposal of waste in open dump sites.

Waste minimization and sustainable use/multi-use of products

Source reduction and Reuse
(e.g. reuse of carry bags/packaging jars).

Processing non-biodegradable waste to recover commercially val-

Recycling
uable materials (e.g. paper, metal, glass and e-waste recycling).

Processing organic waste to recover compost (e.g. windrow com-

Composting
posting, in-vessel composting, vermi composting).

Recovering energy before final disposal of waste (e.g. RDF, biom-

Waste to energy
ethanation, incineration).

Landfills Safe disposal of inert residual waste at sanitary landfills.

Integrated solid waste management system hierarchy.

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3.5 Bioremediation
Bioremediation is a biological process whereby organic wastes are biologically degraded under
controlled conditions. The process involves the use of living organisms, primarily microorgan-
isms, to degrade the environmental contaminants. In this process, contaminant compounds
are transformed by living organisms through reactions that take place as a part of their meta-
bolic processes. For bioremediation to be effective, microorganisms must enzymatically attack
the contaminants and convert them to harmless products. Hence it is effective only where
environmental conditions permit microbial growth and activity. Thus, its application involves
the manipulation of environmental parameters to allow microbial growth and degradation to
proceed at a faster rate. The control and optimization of bioremediation processes is a complex
phenomenon. Various factors influence this process. These factors include: the existence of a
microbial population capable of degrading the pollutants; the availability of contaminants to
the microbial population; the environment factors (type of soil, temperature, pH, the presence
of oxygen or other electron acceptors and nutrients).

Bioremediation strategies
Bioremediation strategies can be in-situ or ex-situ. In situ bioremediation involves treating
the contaminated material at the site while ex-situ bioremediation involves the removal of
the contaminated material to be treated elsewhere. In-situ bioremediation techniques are
generally the most desirable option due to lower cost and less disturbance since they provide
the treatment at a site avoiding excavation and transport of contaminants. Ex-situ bioreme-
diation requires transport of the contaminated water or excavation of contaminated soil prior
to remediation treatments.
In-situ and ex-situ strategies involve different technologies such as bioventing, biosparging,
bioreactor, composting, landfarming, bioaugmentation and biostimulation.

Bioventing is an in-situ bioremediation technology that uses microorganisms to biodegrade

organic constituents adsorbed on soils in the unsaturated zone (extends from the top of the
ground surface to the water table). Bioventing enhances the activity of indigenous bacteria
and stimulates the natural in-situ biodegradation of contaminated materials in soil by inducing
air or oxygen flow into the unsaturated zone and, if necessary, by adding nutrients.

Biosparging is also an in-situ bioremediation technology that uses indigenous microorganisms

to biodegrade organic constituents in the saturated zone. In biosparging, air (or oxygen) and
nutrients (if needed) are injected into the saturated zone to increase the biological activity of
the indigenous microorganisms.

Biostimulation involves the modification of the environment to stimulate the existing bacteria
capable of bioremediation. This can be done by the addition of various forms of rate limiting
nutrients and electron acceptors, such as phosphorus, nitrogen, oxygen, or carbon (e.g. in
the form of molasses).

Bioaugmentation is a process where selected, standardized bacteria (microbes) are added

to an area that has been contaminated with an unwanted substance. These bacteria cause
breakdown of contaminants.

Composting is a controlled decomposition of organic matters. It involves mixing of contami-

nated soil with non-hazardous organic materials such as manure or agricultural wastes. The
presence of these organic materials supports the development of a rich microbial population,
which causes decomposition of organic contaminants.

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3.6 Bioindicator
A bioindicator or biological indicator is an indicator species or group of species that are used
to assess the abiotic or biotic state of an environment, and how it changes over time.

According to United Nations Environment Programme (1996), ‘A bioindicator is a species whose

status provides information on the overall condition of the ecosystem and of other species in
that ecosystem. They reflect the quality and changes in environmental conditions as well as
aspects of community composition.’

It is fundamental to ecology that an organism cannot survive indefinitely in an environment that

does not provide suitable physical, chemical and nutritional requirements. Thus the presence
of a particular species, especially if it is reasonably abundant, indicates that its environmental
requirements are being met. Its absence, however, does not necessarily indicate the converse.
Nevertheless, within certain limitations the presence, absence or relative abundance of species
may be used as indicators of environmental quality. Changes in the presence, absence or rela-
tive abundance of species, whether sudden or gradual, may, therefore, imply a corresponding
change in environmental conditions.
In broadest sense, the term bioindicator can be used for any organism of a habitat. Some
organisms have such wide tolerances of different environmental conditions that their patterns
of distribution or abundance are only slightly affected by quite wide variations in environ-
mental quality. These species may tell us little about their changing environment. The term
‘bioindicator’ is therefore sometimes reserved for those species which have narrow and specific
environmental tolerances, so that they will show a marked response to quite small changes
in environmental quality. If the environmental factors which are most commonly limiting to
the species concerned are known, its presence will be indicative of a specific environmental
condition. For example, nymphs of stoneflies are not found in waters where the dissolved
oxygen concentration falls substantially below its saturation value for appreciable periods of
time. Hence, their presence indicates that the water is well oxygenated; and although their
absence does not necessarily indicate the converse, their absence from waters wherein they
might normally be expected at least suggests a possibility for further investigation. There are
very few organisms whose presence specifically indicates that the water is polluted. One ex-
ception may be, for example, the presence of coliform bacteria, indicating fecal contamination.
Thus, bioindicators are considered to be ‘those species which, by their presence and abun-
dance, provide some indication, either qualitatively or quantitatively or both, of the prevailing
environmental conditions’.

Within this framework, there are three main functions of bioindicators:

1. to monitor the environment (i.e. physical and/or chemical changes),

2. to monitor ecological processes, or

3. to monitor biodiversity.

For example, lichens and bryophytes serve as effective bioindicators of air quality. Lichens (a
symbiosis between fungi and algae, and or cyanobacteria) and bryophytes are often used to
assess air pollution because they have no roots, no cuticle, and acquire all their nutrients from
direct exposure to the atmosphere. Their high surface area to volume ratio further encourages
the interception and accumulation of contaminants from the air.

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Well-studied
• Ecology and life history well understood.
• Taxonomically well documented and stable.
• Easy and cheap to survey.
• Taxonomically well documented and stable.
• Easy and cheap to survey.

3.7 Environmental Impact Assessment

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an important management tool for ensuring optimal
use of natural resources for sustainable development. It is a process of evaluating the likely
environmental impacts of a proposed project or development, taking into account inter-related
socio-economic, cultural and human-health impacts, both beneficial and adverse.
EIA is a structured approach for obtaining and evaluating environmental information prior to
the development process. This information consists basically of predictions of how the envi-
ronment is expected to change if certain alternative actions are implemented and advice on
how best to manage environmental changes if one alternative is selected and implemented.
UNEP defines EIA as ‘a tool used to identify the environmental, social and economic impacts of
a project prior to decision-making. It aims to predict environmental impacts at an early stage
in project planning and design, find ways and means to reduce adverse impacts, shape projects
to suit the local environment and present the predictions and options to decision-makers’.

Steps in EIA process

EIA represents a systematic process that examines the environmental consequences of the
development actions, in advance. The emphasis of an EIA is on prevention and, therefore,
is more proactive than reactive in nature. Although legislation and practice vary around the
world, the fundamental components of an EIA would necessarily involve the following steps:
Screening is done to determine whether or not a proposal should be subject to EIA and, if so,
at what level of detail. Screening may be partly determined by the EIA regulations operating
in a country at the time of assessment. The screening process determines whether a particu-
lar project warrants preparation of an EIA. The threshold requirements for an EIA vary from
country to country – some laws provide a list of the types of activities or projects that will
require an EIA, others require an EIA for any project that may have a significant impact on the
environment or for projects that exceed a certain monetary value. In some cases, particularly
if the possible impacts of a project are not known, a preliminary environmental assessment
will be prepared to determine whether the project warrants an EIA.

Scoping seeks to identify at an early stage, from all of a project’s possible impacts and from
all the alternatives that could be addressed, those that are the crucial, significant issues.
Consideration of alternatives seeks to ensure that the proponent has considered other feasi-
ble approaches, including alternative project locations, scales, processes, layouts, operating
conditions and the ‘no action’ option.
Description of the project action includes a clarification of the purpose and rationale of the
project, and an understanding of its various characteristics—including stages of development,
location and processes.

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Climate Change

Climate is the long-term pattern of weather in a locality, region or even over the entire globe.
It is the statistics of weather, usually over a 30-year interval. It is measured by assessing the
patterns of variation in temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation and
other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods of time.

‘Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the average weather, or more rigorously, as
the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a
period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period for
averaging these variables is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization.
The relevant quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation
and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the
climate system.’
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2001

The terms climate and weather have different meanings. Weather is the short-term proper-
ties (such as temperature, pressure, moisture) of atmospheric conditions for a specific place
and time. Weather differs both spatially and temporally. Two of the most important factors
determining an area’s climate are air temperature and precipitation. The climate of a region
will determine which plants will grow there and which animals will inhabit it.

4.1 Climate change

Climate science is a
process of collective Climate change is a large-scale, long-term shift in the planet’s weather patterns. According
learning that relies on to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
the careful gathering and
‘Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g. by
analyses of data, the
formulation of hypoth- using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that
eses, the development persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate change may be due to
of models to study key natural internal processes or external forcings such as modulations of the solar cycles, vol-
processes and make canic eruptions and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere
predictions, and the
or in land use’.
combined use of observa-
tions and models to test The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines climate change
scientific understanding. as, ‘a change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters

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IPCC
Scientific consensus
The Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change ‘Climate change is real. There will always be uncertainty in understanding a system as com-
(IPCC) is the internation- plex as the world’s climate. However, there is now strong evidence that significant global
al body for assessing warming is occurring. The evidence comes from direct measurements of rising surface air
the science related to temperatures and subsurface ocean temperatures and from phenomena such as increases in
climate change. The IPCC
average global sea levels, retreating glaciers, and changes to many physical and biological
was set up in 1988 by
systems. It is likely that most of the warming in recent decades can be attributed to human
the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) and activities’.
United Nations Environ-
Joint science academies’ statement: Global response to climate change (2005)
ment Programme (UNEP)
to provide policymakers
with regular assessments
of the scientific basis 4.2 Greenhouse effect
of climate change, its
The Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of solar radiation. Various gases in the
impacts and future risks,
and options for adapta- atmosphere absorb incoming solar radiation. The ability of atmospheric gases to absorb radia-
tion and mitigation. The tion varies with the wavelength. All of the incoming solar radiation with wavelengths less than
IPCC produces reports 0.3 μm is absorbed by oxygen and ozone. This absorption occurs mainly in the stratosphere.
that support the United Most of the solar radiation passes through the atmosphere without being absorbed. A large
Nations Framework
fraction of this radiation is absorbed by land and oceans. This absorbed energy is then re-
Convention on Climate
radiated upward from the Earth’s surface in the form of longwave infrared radiation.
Change (UNFCCC), which
is the main international
treaty on climate change.
Some solar radiation
Sun Absorbed energy is
is reflected by the
Earth’s surface and re-radited from the
atmosphere. Earth’s surface in the
form of longwave
infrared radiation.
Most solar Some of the longwave
radiation is infrared radiation
absorbed by the passes through the
Earth’s surface atmosphere but most
and atmosphere are absorbed and
Atmosphere
and warms it. radiate back by
greenhouse gases.

Earth

Figure 4.1 Incoming shortwave solar radiations (ultraviolet, visible and a limited portion of infrared
energy) from the Sun drive the Earth’s climate system. Some of this incoming radiation is reflected by the
atmosphere and the Earth’s surface whereas some is absorbed by the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface.
The heat generated by this absorption is emitted as longwave infrared radiation. Some of which radiates
out into space but most of the Earth’s emitted longwave infrared radiation is absorbed by greenhouse
gases present in the atmosphere, which heats the lower atmosphere.

Most of these longwave infrared radiation (greater than 4 μm) re-radiated by the Earth’s surface
is absorbed by atmospheric gases, most importantly water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2),
nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4). Radiatively active gases that absorb wavelengths
longer than 4 μm are called greenhouse gases. This absorption heats the atmosphere, which
in turn, radiates energy back to the Earth. Thus, the greenhouse gases act as a thermal blanket
around the Earth, raising the Earth’s temperature. This effect is known as greenhouse effect.

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 Climate Change
into clouds, which are more able to reflect incoming solar radiation (thus allowing less energy
to reach the Earth’s surface and heat it up).

Carbon dioxide

A minor but very important component of the atmosphere, carbon dioxide is released through
natural processes such as respiration, volcano eruptions and through human activities such
as deforestation, land use changes, and burning fossil fuels.

Methane

A hydrocarbon gas produced both through natural sources and human activities, including the
decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture (especially rice cultivation), ruminant digestion
and manure management associated with domestic livestock. Over the last 50 years, human
activities such as growing rice, raising cattle, using natural gas and mining coal have added
to the atmospheric concentration of methane.

Nitrous oxide

A powerful greenhouse gas produced by soil cultivation practices, especially the use of commer-
cial and organic fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production and biomass burning.

Chlorofluorocarbons

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have no natural source, but were entirely synthesized for uses
as refrigerants, aerosol propellants and cleaning solvents. They are also greenhouse gases.
Their creation was marked in 1928 and since then concentrations of CFCs in the atmosphere
have been rising. Due to the discovery that they are able to destroy stratospheric ozone, a
global effort to halt their production was undertaken and was extremely successful. So much
so that levels of the major CFCs are now remaining level or declining. However, their long
atmospheric lifetimes determine that some concentration of the CFCs will remain in the at-
mosphere for over 100 years.

Tropospheric ozone

According to IPCC, tropospheric ozone is the third most important greenhouse gas after car-
bon dioxide and methane. The concentrations of tropospheric ozone have risen by around 30
percent since the pre-industrial era due to urbanization and industrial activity. Globally, the
amount of ozone in the troposphere has increased by about 3 percent between 1979 and 2014.

Increase in greenhouse gas concentrations

Human activities have increased the atmospheric concentrations of important greenhouse
gases. In last 100 years, as concentrations of heat absorbing greenhouse gases increase in
the atmosphere, Earth’s natural greenhouse effect is enhanced, causing surface temperatures
to rise.
Carbon dioxide levels have increased from 280 ppm in 1750 to over 390 ppm today (nearly
40% higher than pre-industrial levels). The first continuous, precise and direct measurements
of atmospheric carbon dioxide began in 1957 at the South Pole and 1958 at Mauna Loa, Hawaii.
At that time, the concentration in Mauna Loa was 315 ppm and growing at less than 1 ppm
per year. In 1979, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) began assembling
data from a network of sites to determine a global average value. The global average in 1990
was 354 ppm and growing at 1.6 ppm per year. In 2006, it reached 380 ppm and the rate of
growth had increased to about 2 ppm/yr.

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 Climate Change
years as the time duration for estimating the global-warming potential of greenhouse gases.
Multiplying the actual amount of greenhouse gas emissions by its global-warming potential
gives what is known as its carbon dioxide equivalent. Expressing all greenhouse gases in
terms of their CO2 equivalents is the technique used to show what impact each greenhouse
gas has on global warming.

4.3 Global warming
Global warming is defined as the increase in Earth’s average surface temperature due to rising
levels of greenhouse gases. Over the last 100 years (between 1906 and 2005), the average
temperature of the air near the Earth’s surface has risen more than 1.4°F (0.8°C). The rate of
warming over the last 50 years is almost double that for the period 1906-2005 as a whole. If
the world consumes ever more fossil fuel, greenhouse gas concentrations will continue to rise,
and Earth’s average surface temperature will rise with them. Based on a range of plausible
emission scenarios, average surface temperatures could rise between 2°C and 6°C by the end
of the 21st century. Climate change and global warming are often used interchangeably but
have distinct meanings. Climate change refers to a broad range of global phenomena. These
phenomena include global warming, but also encompass changes such as sea level rise; ice
mass loss in Greenland, Antarctica, Arctic and mountain glaciers worldwide; shifts in flower/
plant blooming and extreme weather events.
Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases
in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice and rising
global average sea level. The temperature increase is widespread over the globe and is greater
at higher northern latitudes.

°C Trend in global average surface temperature

0.6 15.68°C

0.4 15.48°C

0.2 15.28°C

0 15.08°C

-0.2 14.88°C

-0.4 14.68°C

-0.6 14.48°C
1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Positive deviation (in °C) Negative deviation (in °C)

Figure 4.5 The figure shows the combined land-surface air and sea surface temperatures for the period
(degrees centigrade) 1861 to 1998, relative to the average temperature between 1961 and 1990. The
mean global surface temperature has increased by about 0.3 to 0.6°C since the late 19th century and by
about 0.2 to 0.3°C over the last 40 years, which is the period with most reliable data.

Increasing greenhouse gas concentration resulting from human activity such as fossil fuel
burning and deforestation is mainly responsible for the observed temperature increase. Defor-
estation is responsible for 10 to 20% of the excess CO2 emitted to the atmosphere each year,
and, as already been discussed, agriculture contributes nitrous oxide and methane. Changes
in land use and land cover are another way that human activities are influencing Earth’s cli-
mate. Changes in land use and land cover modify the reflectivity of Earth’s surface; the more
reflective a surface, the more sunlight is sent back into space.

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Climate Change
Temperature and CO2 concentration in the atmosphere over the past 400000 years
(from the Vostok ice core)
CO2 concentration, ppmv

300
280
260
240
220
200
180
160
400000 350000 300000 250000 200000 150000 100000 50000 0

Year before present (present = 1950)

Temperature change from present, °C

4°C
2°C
0°C
-2°C
-4°C
-6°C
-8°C
-10°C
400000 350000 300000 250000 200000 150000 100000 50000 0

Year before present (present = 1950)

Figure 4.6 Over the last 400,000 years the Earth’s climate has been unstable, with very significant
temperature changes, going from a warm climate to an ice age in as rapidly as a few decades. These rapid
changes suggest that climate may be quite sensitive to internal or external climate forcings and feedbacks.
As can be seen from the black curve, temperatures have been less variable during the last 10000 years.
Based on the incomplete evidence available, it is unlikely that global mean temperatures have varied by
more than 1°C in a century during this period. The information presented on this graph indicates a strong
correlation between carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere and temperature. A possible scenario: an-
thropogenic emissions of GHGs could bring the climate to a state where it reverts to the highly unstable
climate of the pre-ice age period. Rather than a linear evolution, the climate follows a non-linear path with
sudden and dramatic surprises when GHG levels reach an as-yet unknown trigger point.

‘While year-to-year changes in temperature often reflect natural climatic variations such as El
Niño/La Niña events, changes in average temperature from decade-to-decade reveal long-term
trends such as global warming. Each of the last three decades has been much warmer than
the decade before. At the time, the 1980s was the hottest decade on record. In the 1990s,
every year was warmer than the average of the previous decade. The 2000s were warmer still’.
According to Scientists in 48 Countries, National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 2010

4.4 Climate change: Impacts

Global climate change has already had observable effects on the environment. Effects that
scientists had predicted in the past that would result from global climate change are now oc-
curring like loss of sea ice, accelerated sea level rise and longer and more intense heat waves.

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A carbon footprint
is defined as the total
amount of greenhouse
gas emissions caused by
an individual, organiza-
tion or community,
expressed as carbon
dioxide equivalent.
Usually, a carbon
footprint is calculated for
the time period of a year.
Climate Change
Less mitigation More mitigation
More greenhouse Less greenhouse
gases produced gases produced
More serious climate Less serious climate
change effects change effects
Greater impacts on humans Lesser impacts on humans
and natural environment and natural environment
More adaptation required Less adaptation required
Relationship between mitigation and adaptation
If we make fewer efforts to mitigate climate change, we will have to adapt to more serious
problems that impact food and water resources, biological diversity, and human health. If we
take aggressive mitigation measures, the long-range changes in climate will be less and have
less serious impacts on humans and the natural environment.
4.6 Earth Summit
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as
the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, Rio Summit, Rio Conference or Earth Summit, was a major
United Nations conference held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992. The focus of this
conference was the state of the global environment and the relationship between econom-
ics, science and the environment in a political context. The conference concluded with the
Earth Summit, at which leaders of 105 nations gathered to demonstrate their commitment
to sustainable development. All nations present accepted without change the Rio declara-
tion, a non-binding statement of broad principles for environmental policy. New international
networks, both formal and informal, were set up to carry out and oversee implementation of
the agreements.
The UNCED had several key outcomes for sustainable development articulated in the confer-
ence outcome document, Agenda 21. It states that ‘sustainable development should become
a priority item on the agenda of the international community’ and goes on to recommend that
national strategies be developed to address economic, social and environmental aspects of
sustainable development
Rio Conventions
Three major conventions, called the Rio Conventions, have come to be seen under the um-
brella of UNCED: the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the United Nations Convention
to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC). Each convention structures a framework around sustainable development in the
context of their respective themes of biodiversity, land management and climate change. In
2002 the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), known as Rio+10, was held
in Johannesburg to review progress in implementing the outcomes from the Rio Earth Sum-
mit. WSSD developed a plan of implementation for the actions set out in Agenda 21, known
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International emissions trading: Countries with commitments under the Kyoto Protocol can
acquire emission units from other countries with commitments under the Protocol and use
them towards meeting a part of their targets.

Clean development mechanism: The clean development mechanism allows emission-reduction

(or emission removal) projects in developing countries to earn certified emission reduction
(CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2. These CERs can be traded and sold, and
used by industrialized countries to meet a part of their emission reduction targets under the
Kyoto Protocol.

Joint implementation: Through the joint implementation mechanism, a country with an

emission-reduction limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol may take part in an
emission-reduction (or emission removal) project in any other country with a commitment
under the Protocol and count the resulting emission units towards meeting its Kyoto target.
Joint implementation projects earn emission reduction units (ERUs), each equivalent to one
tonne of CO2. As with the clean development mechanism, all emission reductions must be
real, measurable, verifiable and additional to what would have occurred without the project.

Copenhagen Accord
The 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference, commonly known as the Copenhagen
Summit, was held at the Bella center in Copenhagen, Denmark, between 7 and 18 December.
The Copenhagen Accord is a political (as opposed to legal) agreement of a novel form. The
Copenhagen summit marked the culmination of a two-year negotiating process to enhance
international climate change cooperation under the Bali Roadmap. Key elements of the Co-
penhagen Accord include: an aspirational goal of limiting global temperature increase to
2°C; a process for countries to enter their specific mitigation pledges by January 31, 2010;
broad terms for the reporting and verification of countries’ actions; a collective commitment
by developed countries for $30 billion in ‘new and additional’ resources in 2010-2012 to help
developing countries reduce emissions, preserve forests, adapt to climate change; and a goal
of mobilizing $100 billion a year in public and private finance by 2020 to address developing
county needs. The accord also calls for the establishment of a Copenhagen Green Climate
Fund, a High Level Panel to examine ways of meeting the 2020 finance goal, a new Technology
Mechanism, and a mechanism to channel incentives for reduced deforestation.

Paris Agreement
The Paris Agreement or Paris climate accord is an agreement within the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) dealing with greenhouse gas emissions
mitigation, adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020. The language of the agreement
was negotiated by representatives of 196 parties at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the
UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015. As of June 2017, 195 UN-
FCCC members have signed the agreement, 151 of which have ratified it. In 2017, President
Donald J. Trump withdrew the United States from the agreement.
In the Paris Agreement, each country determines, plans and regularly reports its own contri-
bution it should make in order to mitigate global warming. There is no mechanism to force a
country to set a specific target by a specific date, but each target should go beyond previously
set targets. The Paris Agreement builds upon the Convention and – for the first time – brings
all nations into a common cause to undertake ambitious efforts to combat climate change and

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Effect of ozone depletion
Since the ozone layer absorbs a great quantity of the harmful ultraviolet radiation present in
sunlight, the amount of harmful ultraviolet radiation reaching the ground will increase if the
ozone layer is depleted. It was recognized that the unprecedented and substantial increases
in UV radiation due to depletion of the ozone layer, would lead to major environmental ef-
fects including:

• Increased skin cancers and cataracts.

• Reduced growth and yield of crops.

• Threats to the productivity and biodiversity of natural ecosystems.

• Degradation of materials used in clothing and construction. Synthetic polymers, naturally

occurring biopolymers, as well as some other materials of commercial interest are adversely
affected by UVB radiation.

Montreal Protocol
Through the 1970s and the 1980s, the international community became increasingly concerned
that ODS would harm the ozone layer. In 1985, the Vienna Convention for the protection of
the ozone layer formalized international cooperation on this issue. This cooperation resulted
in the signing of the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer in 1987.
The Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer is a landmark international
agreement designed to protect the stratospheric ozone layer. The treaty was signed in Septem-
ber 1987 and became effective in 1989. The Montreal Protocol stipulates that the production
and consumption of compounds that deplete ozone in the stratosphere—chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform—are to be phased out by year 2000.

Amendments to the Montreal Protocol

The London Amendment (1990): The amendment to the Montreal Protocol agreed by the
Second Meeting of the Parties (London, 1990).

The Copenhagen Amendment (1992): The amendment to the Montreal Protocol agreed by
the Fourth Meeting of the Parties (Copenhagen, 1992).

The Montreal Amendment (1997): The amendment to the Montreal Protocol agreed by the
Ninth Meeting of the Parties (Montreal, 1997).

The Beijing Amendment (1999): The amendment to the Montreal Protocol agreed by the
Eleventh Meeting of the Parties (Beijing, 1999).

The Kigali Amendment (2016)

Kigali agreement is the amendment of the Montreal Protocol. In the 28th meeting of the Parties
to the Montreal Protocol, negotiators from 197 nations have signed a historic agreement to
amend the Montreal Protocol in Kigali, a capital city of a tiny African country, Rwanda on 15th
October 2016. As per the agreement, these countries are expected to reduce the manufacture
and use of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) by roughly 80-85% from their respective baselines,
till 2045. This phase down is expected to arrest the global average temperature rise up to
0.5°C by 2100.
The final deal divided the world economies into three groups, each with a target phase down
date. The richest countries, including the United States and those in the European Union, will
reduce the production and consumption of HFCs from 2019. Much of the rest of the world,

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including China, Brazil and all of Africa, will freeze the use of HFCs by 2024. A small group
of the world’s hottest countries such as Bahrain, India, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Pakistan,
Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates have the most lenient schedule and will
freeze HFCs use by 2028.

Environmental experts note that the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on substances
that deplete the ozone layer could be the single largest real contribution the world has made so
far towards keeping the global temperature rise ‘well below’ 2°C, a target agreed at the Paris
climate conference last year; this amendment is a huge step forward to achieving that target.

Treaty means an international agreement concluded between sovereign states and interna-
tional organizations in written form and governed by international law. A treaty may also be
known as an agreement, protocol, covenant, convention, pact or accord, among other terms.
A state party to a treaty is a country that has ratified or acceded to that particular treaty, and
is therefore legally bound by the provisions in the instrument.
Declaration is a document stating agreed upon standards but which is not legally binding.
Conventions are stronger than declarations because they are legally binding for governments
that have signed them.
Article is an international legal instruments generally include a Preamble (stating the reasons
for and underlying understandings of the drafters and adopters of the instrument) and a se-
ries of ‘articles’, which lay out the obligations of those States choosing to be bound by it and
procedural matters involving the treaty. The term ‘provision’ is often used as an alternative
when referring to the content of particular articles. The term ‘charter’ is used for particularly
formal and solemn instruments, such as the treaty founding an international organization like
the United Nations.

4.9 Environmental Laws in India

A global consciousness for the protection of the environment prompted the Indian Govern-
ment to enact the 42nd Amendment (1976) in the Constitution. The said amendment added
Article 48A to the Directive Principles of State Policy. It declares, ‘the state shall endeavor to
protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country’.
The constitutional provisions are backed by a number of laws – acts, rules and notifications.

Forest and Biodiversity

Indian Forest Act, 1927

Enacted to ‘consolidate the law related to forest, the transit of forest produce, and the duty
leviable on timber and other forest produce’.

Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

An act to provide the protection of birds and animals and for all matters that are connected
to it whether it be their habitat or the waterhole or the forests that sustain them. This act has
been last amended in 2006.

Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

An act to provide for the protection of and the conservation of the forests. This act has been
amended in 1988.

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recycle of plastic waste. Rural areas have been brought in ambit of these rules since plastic
has reached to rural areas also and the responsibility for implementation of the rules is given
to Gram Panchayat.

Law is a rule of conduct or procedure established by custom, agreement, or authority. In other

words, it is the body of rules and principles governing the affairs of a society. Law constitutes
Acts, Statues, Amendments, Notification, Rules and Bill in Parliament.

Legislation that has been passed by both the Houses of Parliament and has been approved by
the President thus becoming a law and termed as ACT. Until it is passed by the parliament,
an Act is known as a Bill. In other words, bills passed in parliament become ACT. Act is the
intention of law describing the applicability, definitions governing provisions and fines, penal-
ties and the way it is to be applied.

Rules are the standard methods and procedures in relation to any provision contained in the
act and these are framed by the inherent powers given in the act. In case of any contradiction
in rules and act the provisions of Act prevail and apply accordingly.

When both houses of parliament are not in session and there is need for urgent legislation, an
Ordinance is issued which has the same effect as an Act. Ordinances are temporary laws that
are promulgated by the President of India on the recommendation of the union cabinet. They
can only be issued when Parliament is not in session. If Government wants the provisions of
the ordinance to continue, it introduces it in the form of a Bill which must be passed by both
houses of Parliament. After receiving the assent of the President, it becomes law. Ordinances
cease to operate either if Parliament does not approve of them within six weeks of reassembly,
or if disapproving resolutions are passed by both Houses. It is also mandatory for a session of
Parliament to be held within six months of passing an ordinance. Notifications and circulars are
issued by a government under various Acts to clarify the provisions of law.

4.10 Environmental footprints

Carbon footprint
A ‘footprint’ is a quantitative measurement describing the appropriation of natural resources
by humans. The total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused directly and indirectly by an
individual, organization, event or product is commonly called their carbon footprint. The most
important greenhouse gas, arising from human activity, is carbon dioxide. Virtually all human
activities cause the carbon dioxide emissions that lead to climate change. Over the past few
years, the carbon footprint has become one of the most important environmental protection
indicators. It is a measure of the impact our activities have on the environment, and in par-
ticular climate change. It relates the amount of greenhouse gases produced in our day-to-day
lives through burning fossil fuels for electricity, heating and transportation etc.
Emissions of greenhouse gases are commonly converted into carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e)
based on their 100 year global warming potential. This allow to express emission of all green-
house gases in one standard unit. The ‘equivalent’ means that the footprint is made up of a
number of different greenhouse gases, which have been converted into the equivalent quantity
of carbon dioxide in order to show all emissions in a single number.

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A carbon footprint is made up of the sum of two parts, the primary footprint and the secondary
footprint. The primary footprint is a measure of our direct emissions of carbon dioxide from
the burning of fossil fuels including domestic energy consumption and transportation (e.g.
car and plane). The secondary footprint is a measure of the indirect carbon dioxide emissions
from the whole lifecycle of products we use – those associated with their manufacture and
eventual breakdown.
Why carry out a carbon footprint?
Carbon footprints are useful for a number of purposes:
1. For publicly reporting greenhouse gas emissions.
2. For setting a target for reducing emissions (in order to set a reduction target it is necessary
to know what current emissions are).
3. To identify which activities contribute the most to a footprint (in order to identify the
important areas for reduction efforts).
4. In order to measure changes in emissions over time and to monitor the effectiveness of
reduction activities.
5. To offset emissions (in order to offset emissions it is necessary to know how many reductions
credits to purchase).

Nitrogen footprint
Nitrogen is an important component in air, land and water. While necessary to life, reactive
nitrogen (all forms of the nitrogen except N2) can be detrimental to both ecosystem and human
health when present in excessive amounts. Different forms of reactive nitrogen contribute to
smog and reduced air quality, acid deposition, eutrophication, reduced drinking water quality,
biodiversity loss, global warming and more.
The nitrogen footprint is a measurement of the amount of reactive nitrogen released into the
environment as a result of human activities. It mainly includes NOx, N2O, NO3–, and NH3 emission.
The two main pathways through which we release reactive nitrogen to the environment are
fossil fuel combustion and food production. When a fossil fuel is burned, reactive nitrogen is
emitted to the atmosphere as a waste product. The use of nitrogen in food production, on the
other hand, is intentional. Nitrogen is a key nutrient for food production and is contained in
fertilizers. The nitrogen footprint includes nitrogen contained in consumed food, plus nitrogen
released during the whole chain of production, distribution and preparation of the food. The
other component of the nitrogen footprint determines the amount of nitrogen (as NOx emis-
sions) released from the burning of fossil fuels related to energy use in housing (e.g. cooking,
heating, cooling); transport (e.g. use of private or public transport) and the energy used to
produce goods and provide services.

Water footprint
The ‘water footprint’ concept was introduced by Hoekstra in 2002. It is defined as the total
volume of freshwater used to produce the goods and services consumed by the individual or
producer. It accounts for both the direct (domestic water use) and indirect (water required
to produce industrial and agricultural products) water use of a consumer or producer. Water
use is measured in terms of volumes of water consumed (evaporated or incorporated into a
product) and polluted per unit of time. It is an indicator of freshwater use that looks not only
at direct water use of a consumer or producer, but also at the indirect water use.

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To determine whether human demand for renewable resources and carbon dioxide uptake
can be maintained, the ecological footprint is compared to the regenerative capacity (or ‘bio-
capacity’) of the planet. Biocapacity is the total regenerative capacity available to serve the
demand represented by the Footprint. Both the Ecological Footprint (which represents demand
for resources) and biocapacity (which represents the availability of resources) are expressed in
units called global hectares (gha). The WWF claims that the human footprint has exceeded the
biocapacity (the available supply of natural resources) of the planet by 20%. Ecological footprint
analysis is now widely used around the globe as an indicator of environmental sustainability.
It can be used to measure and manage the use of resources throughout the economy. It can
be used to explore the sustainability of individual lifestyles, goods and services, organizations,
industry sectors, neighborhoods, cities, regions and nations.

4.11 Living Planet Index

The Living Planet Index (LPI) is a measure of the state of global biological diversity based
on population trends of vertebrate species from terrestrial, freshwater and marine habitats
around the world. It does this in much the same way that a stock market index tracks the
value of a set of shares or a retail price index tracks the cost of a basket of consumer goods.
The LPI was developed to measure the changing state of the world’s biodiversity over time. It
uses time-series data to calculate average rates of change in a large number of populations
of terrestrial, freshwater and marine vertebrate species. The global LPI is based on scientific
data from 14,152 monitored populations of 3,706 vertebrate species (mammals, birds, fishes,
amphibians, reptiles) from around the world. From 1970 to 2012 the LPI shows a 58 percent
overall decline in vertebrate population abundance.
The world’s biodiversity is declining at an alarming rate. Population sizes of vertebrate species
have, on average, dropped by more than half in little more than 40 years. The data shows
an average annual decline of 2 percent and there is no sign yet that this rate will decrease.
The global LPI is the aggregate of two indices — the temperate LPI (which includes polar
species) and the tropical LPI — each of which is given equal weight. In each of these two
indices, overall trends between terrestrial, freshwater and marine species’ populations are
given equal weight.
Tropical and temperate species’ populations show different trends: the tropical LPI has de-
clined by around 60 percent in less than 40 years, while the temperate LPI has increased by
29 percent over the same period. This difference is apparent for mammals, birds, amphibians
and fishes, for terrestrial, marine and freshwater species.

4.12 Bioprospecting
Bioprospecting or biodiversity prospecting is the systematic search for biochemical and genetic
information in nature in order to develop commercially-valuable products for pharmaceutical,
agricultural, cosmetic and other applications. It entails the search for economically valuable
genetic and biochemical resources from nature. So, in brief, bioprospecting means looking for
ways to commercialize biodiversity.
The rationale behind bioprospecting is to extract the maximum commercial value from genetic
resources and indigenous knowledge, while creating a fair compensation system that can ben-
efit all. Thus, bioprospecting touches upon the conservation and sustainable use of biological

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