Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
by
RICHARD A. BARAZZUOL
OF MASTER OF ARTS
in
Department o f A n t h r o p o l o g y and S o c i o l o g y
We a c c e p t this t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g
February, 1988
c) Richard A. B a r a z z u o l , 1988
In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced
degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it
freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive
copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my
department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or
publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written
permission.
Department of
DE-6 (2/88)
ABSTRACT
woods. The Tlingit indicated that people who died in this manner
ABSTRACT i i
TABLE OF CONTENTS i i i
L I S T OF TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . v
INTRODUCTION . 1
The T l i n g i t L a n d O t t e r Theme 1
Methodology 8
Summary Of C h a p t e r s 9
T l i n g i t G e o g r a p h y and Economy 11
Chapter
I. TLINGIT SOCIETY AND B E L I E F S 12
Social Structure 12
C r e s t and Rank 15
Names and R e i n c a r n a t i o n 17
P o t l a t c h i n g : Remembering t h e A n c e s t o r s . . . 23
CONCLUSION . 97
Shamans, L a n d O t t e r s and S o c i a l I n t e g r i t y . . . . 97
D e a t h : The I n d e t e r m i n a t e D e t e r m i n a t i o n 97
The P o t l a t c h : D e a l i n g w i t h D e a t h S o c i a l l y . . . . 99
M y t h s : D e a l i n g w i t h Anamalous D e a t h s 101
Land O t t e r : D e a l i n g w i t h Death S p i r i t u a l l y . . . . 102
APPENDIX I 104
APENDIX I I 114
iii
L I S T OF TABLES
Table
1 Tlingit Eschatology 37
L I S T OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure
1. L a n d O t t e r Man Mask 43
2. Land O t t e r Mask 44
4. Shaman o f t h e Taku C l a n 51
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
v
INTRODUCTION
"The Tlingit have no consistent set of notions which can be invoked to explain the nature of
' the world and the ordinary regularities of natural events that take place in i t . There seens
to be no developed cosmological scheme. Rather, there are various uncoordinated Bets of
notions that are presented in the myths, some of which deal explicitly with the origins of
certain natural features or human customs, while others , in apparent unconcern with temporal
sequence, take these natural conditions and social institutions as already established, while
explaining the creation of others which appear logically antecedant" (De Laguna: 1974;792}.
otters.
1
(ibid.) which explains that their present bodies are d e r i v e d
this human f o r m . Now, however, she reports that only the Land
their cosmology.
2
Although some authors have emphasized d i s t i n c t i o n s between
of death.
different human k i n g r o u p s .
the Tlingit. Both the art and the myths employed images o f
than others.
4
One animal that appeared with great frequency on a r t
quest f o r power.
the Tlingit was their belief that the land otter spirits they
alive.
dead.
6
METHODOLOGY
which i s a l s o a r i c h source of m a t e r i a l , w i l l be i n c l u d e d o n l y as
an adjunct to t h i s a n a l y s i s .
7
body and s p i r i t , become apparent i n the e a r l y w r i t i n g s of Russian
Christian perspective.
SUMMARY OF CHAPTERS
the h y p o t h e t i c a l r o l e of the i d e a of r e i n c a r n a t i o n as a v i t a l
8
spirit. Tlingit v i e w s on what h a p p e n s t o t h i s s o u l upon d e a t h o f
will be e x a m i n e d as w i l l t h e phenomenon of s p i r i t i n t r u s i o n .
biological n a t u r e o f t h e o t t e r as a n i m a l , a n d some o f i t s n a t u r a l
behaviors w i l l be e x a m i n e d .
9
the Tlingit reconciled and dealt with the issue of death.
t h e y a l l s e r v e d as c o h e s i v e elements o f T l i n g i t cosmology.
10
a b r u p t l y and are so densely covered i n undergrowth and forests,
coastal waters.
11
CHAPTER I
"It is through his name, and the leaning of his name that a Tlingit knows himself. His name or
names indentifies the spirit or spirits, formerly animating a long line of forebears, that have
come to live again in him, shaping his body or lending character to his personality" (de
Laguna, 1972 ;790).
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
debtors served as h o s t s .
13
"A s i b of any s i z e i s composed of s e v e r a l l i n e a g e s
or house groups (hit-tan), and the l a t t e r i n t u r n may
c o n s i s t o f a s i n g l e house l i n e or a c l u s t e r made up of
"mother" and "daughter" houses. While some s i b s are
found only i n o n l y s i n g l e t r i b a l (kwan) d i s t r i c t s , most
s i b s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d i n s e v e r a l areas where they own
house s i t e s and t e r r i t o r i e s f o r hunting, f i s h i n g , and
gathering. The l o c a l segments o f such a widespread s i b
may or may not be able to form d i s t i n c t s u b s i b s ,
perhaps depending on the recency or circumstances of
their dispersal. On the other hand, a s i n g l e s i b i n
one l o c a l i t y may e x h i b i t two (or more?) f a i r l y i n -
dependent l i n e a g e s or c l u s t e r s o f houses, perhaps
r e f l e c t i n g the process o f s p l i t t i n g i n t o separate s i b s ,
or the incomplete f u s i o n o f two f o r m e r l y d i s t i n c t
groups. The r e l a t i v e independence o f these sub-
d i v i s i o n s may be seen in their historical traditions,
i n t h e i r s h a r i n g or e x c l u s i v e use o f totemic c r e s t s or
other p r e r o g a t i v e s , and i n whether or not they form
r i v a l groups a t l o c a l p o t l a t c h e s ( i b i d . : 2 1 2 ) .
14
cousin marriage preference was emphasized by the joking
leading to insanity.
lineage.
15
officially a war leader, his words carried weight i n these
and b u r i a l s .
in T l i n g i t society.
1
According to Olson (1961;207), a shanan accompanied a l l war parties; his power enabled him to
t e l l where the enemy was hidden, and also who and how many would be killed. In these revelations he
usually spoke in metaphoric or Delphic terms.
17
Part of t h e mechanism by w h i c h an i n d i v i d u a l i n h e r i t e d h i s
18
parents to whom t h e y w o u l d be r e b o r n a s l o n g a s t h e mother was a
previous life. 2
His "real" name carried with i t t h e the k i n
1
Stevenson's (1974;4) fieldwork suggests that the belief in reincarnation is s t i l l current among
the Tlingit in Alaska. In fact, he indicates that the world's highest number of reported cases is among
the Tlingit. Bis investigations suggest that theUncidence of reported cases is influenced by cultural
beliefs, but also that reincarnation occurs in families ignorant of the phenomenon or even opposed to
i t . Of the many cases which indicated a memory of past lives, more than half involved some kind of
birthmark or physical deformity of the present personality that related to wounds or illness of the past
person.
19
f a t h e r a n d mother o f one man gave presents to the
orphaned c h i l d r e n of their s o n ' s d e a d namesake, a s i f
t h e y were t h e t r u e g r a n d p a r e n t s . In turn, the son o f
the reincarnated "father" calls the daughter of h i s
f a t h e r ' s namesake " s i s t e r " a n d g i v e s h e r money a s a
true brother should (ibid.:184).
20
prerogatives of the predecessor were t r a n s f e r r e d with t h e name.
s u c h names a r e g i v e n . According t o de L a g u n a :
Because the i n d i v i d u a l i s so c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e d
w i t h h i s s i b and i t s o r i g i n s , t o t e m s a n d c r e s t s , some
names have been coined to refer to these, a n d so
express in analogous fashion this mythical-social
a s p e c t of t h e s e l f . A p e r s o n ' s names thus not only
embody o r s y m b o l i z e h i s " s o u l " o r " s o u l s " ; t h e y e x p r e s s
h i s p o s i t i o n i n s o c i e t y as d e f i n e d by the i n t e r s e c t i n g
c o o r d i n a t e s o f m a t e r n a l and p a t e r n a l l i n e s and o f rank;
they i n d i c a t e h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o those s e c t o r s and t h e
"natural" world associated with s i b mythology; and
l a s t l y , they portray h i s own individual personality
traits (ibid.:187).
21
Recent symbolic analyses o f T s i m s h i a n and Kwakiutl cultures
22
POTLATCHING: REMEMBERING THE ANCESTORS
(McClellan, 1954:77).
smaller f e a s t s m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d as p a r t of a series of r i t u a l
3
The category of 'potlatch' was created by Europeans. As Goldman pointed out for the
Kwakiutl (1975:131), "There never were, at least in precontact days, such events as 'potlatches'.
Rather there were specific ritual occasions commemorating marriage, death, the construction of a
house, investiture of an heir", and so on. However, following the usage by other anthropologists
and, in many cases, the natives themselves, I will use the term 'potlatch' to refer to a set of
ceremonies which shared certain basic features.
23
The fundamental c o r e of the T l i n g i t p o t l a t c h was the formal
opposite moiety. The primary purpose was to honor the dead and
"deer".i
includes not only the living hosts and guests, but also their
1
"Deer" also appear in the myths: Swanton (1908:59?), tells of a village visited by land
otter people who d m s up and dance for their hosts in an effort to make peace with them, since
their relatives (land otters) had been killed by the villagers. The guests (land otters) were all
killed, the "deer" being saved for last, In Tale 31 (ibid.:139), two high-caste land otters are
taken as peace hostages ("deer") to help settle a war between humans and land otters. The land otter
people then come to the village and perform the peace dance. In the morning when the people wake up,
they have disappeared, but the people remember the dance.
25
The death of a member o f t h e m a t r i l i n e a l group (especially
(Kan, 1986:196).
thanks-giving was over the hosts said that t h e y had "put their
the new lineage chief and bearing the o l d c h i e f ' s name - could
peace. Kan views the " l o v e and respect" of the living toward the
of the m a t r i l i n e a l group.
27
Kan (ibid.) warns us that it is incorrect to consider
to the n a t i v e i d e o l o g y , w h i c h e m p h a s i z e d commemorative a s p e c t s of
for power and prestige on the one hand, and the "love and
status and prestige. The Tlingit believed that the dead could
28
death, i f the l i v i n g d i d not show p r o p e r r e s p e c t and h e l p them
ritual e x c h a n g e o f t h e p o t l a t c h was e x p l a i n e d b y an i n f o r m a n t o f
further and further away from the fire, and thus suffered from
she claims that this did not interfere with nor did it
the dead) be held. Without a body, you may still have a feast,
30
CHAPTER I I
"Night is the tine for ghosts, spirits and animals; i f man is to triumph over them he must
perform the first crucial acts of ritual before raven's cries herald the approach of dawn. If
he is to escape from the land of the dead back to that of the living, he must hurry and reach
home before the raven calls" (de Laguna, 1972;835}.
were based on the idea that there are essential parts of the
will explore.
and the Tlingit term for 'flesh' and 'blanket' are identical
transform into anthropomorphic form, but now only land otter can
32
of the person. C e r e m o n i a l g a r m e n t s were a l s o considered another
T L I N G I T ESCHATOLOGY
the shaman "loses his feeling" when he threatens the land otter
the " i n s i d e " , from the pure bones. T h i s released the noncorporeal
33
noncorporeal replica o f the house o f the deceased i n the d i s t a n t
where p e o p l e rested. 2
1
Actually the Tlingit believed that a person possessed more than the three spiritual
entities mentioned by Kan, but he feels that they are the most important ones. Like the rest of
their cosmology, Tlingit beliefs about the spirit are sketchy and often contradictory. The
information in this chapter is an attempt to form a composite illustration of their beliefs drawing
from the principal ethnographic sources (Swanton, Emmons, De Laguna and Kan).
1
This implies that this was not an eternal place for the soul to dwell, but rather a
temporary respite in the journey of the soul after death. The ultimate goal was to be reincarnated
as a result of the proper treatment of the soul by the descendants residing in the village - i.e.
potlatching and passing on the name to appropriate heirs. There were techniques for insuring that a
34
The next higher r e g i o n , known as ki'waa ("way up") according
since food for spirits there had t o be put into the water).
(Swanton, 1908a:461).
particular individual would come back to a specific woman (see.De Laguna, 1974:777).
35
There i s c o n f u s i o n here e n g e n d e r e d by the m i s s i o n a r y concept
the sky and mov[ing] around with the clouds (ibid.)- Reincarnat-
Gus Wul
"cloud hole"
- g u a r d e d b y watchmen-
Kucda 'anika
"on t o p o f l a n d o t t e r s '
v i l l a g e " =smoke h o l e ?
drowned o r --not d e a d — water water,
lost i n below
woods Kucda Qwani
{body l o s t ) "Land O t t e r S p i r i t s "
A d a p t e d f r o m L o v e j o y , 1984.
37
In a l l o f t h e s t o r i e s about people r e i n c a r n a t e d f r o m Kiwa'a.,
that "after two years the kucda (land otters) l e t them go. De
Laguna 1972; 777) notes that the names of those who drowned and
reborn, she admits that there i s also a notion that these people
38
SHAMANS AND S P I R I T HELPERS
had h i s own kina yek, which always stayed with him. I f the
for help "to the c h i e f yek who belongs t o some renowned o r famed
undertakings. As Swanton d e s c r i b e s :
39
Swanton m e n t i o n s t h e T l i n g i t belief that the Sun and the
.fell into a trance and uttered i t s ' animal cry. He could also
vanquished yek may die. After the death o f an ixt, his yek
3
Land otter tongues are felt to be the strongest source of shamanic power. As we will see
in Chapter III, the shaman will ideally cut eight tongues and thus obtain eight spirit helpers. De
Laguna ( 1954;180) claims that other men (presumably non-shamans) might obtain lesser power from one
tongue.
40
yek sought by a shaman was the land o t t e r . The r a n k a n d power o f
humankind.
41
Most o f the T l i n g i t shaman's masks are r e a l i s t i c and many
was covered in fur except for her face. Qaka, who had been
42
43
Fig. 2 L a n d O t t e r Mask
Emmons, AMNH 19/87 3
A. Sawyer, A r c h i v e
44
Fig. 3. C h i l k a t Shaman's Mask
Emmons, FM 78147
A. Sawyer, A r c h i v e
45
The masks a n d o t h e r paraphernalia (and therefore t h e yek
47
CHAPTER I I I
"There was a man who had no arms, so Raven thought he would be a shaman and cure him. This is
how the Tlingit came to have shamans, After there was death he showed them how to dance over
the body placed in the middle of the floor" (Swanton, Tale 31 p.84).
they a t t a i n the help of " s p i r i t " entities who will augment their
1
The literal meaning of ecstasy is to be outside of one's body as a result of a profound
experience or emotion.
48
physical and p s y c h o l o g i c a l a i l m e n t s b e l i e v e d t o have been imposed
follows:
1
See Grace Jorgenson's 1970 H.A. thesis "A Comparative Examination of Northwest Coast Shamanism"
for a brief review of shamanism as i t manifests among the coastal cultural groups.
49
overthrows the f i e n d i s h m a c h i n a t i o n s o f w i t c h e s , and
makes p u b l i c d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f h i s powers i n many awe-
i n s p i r i n g ways. He i s t h e most p o w e r f u l f i g u r e i n h i s
own l i n e a g e , and sometimes e v e n i n h i s s i b . Though h i s
fame may have spread f a r to f o r e i g n t r i b e s , he i s
s e l d o m c o n s u l t e d when t h o s e of h i s own l i n e are s i c k
and d y i n g , f o r these he c a n n o t s a v e . Nor c a n he s a v e
h i s own c h i l d r e n i f t h e y a r e bewitched. His patients
a r e i n e v i t a b l y members o f a n o t h e r s i b , o f t e n r e s i d e n t s
i n another v i l l a g e . His professional rivals may be
c o l l e a g u e s i n any s i b e x c e p t h i s own; h i s most d e a d l y
enemies, l i k e those of any Tlingit, are the,traitor
w i t c h e s which l u r k among h i s c l o s e s t r e l a t i v e s
(de L a g u n a , 1972:670).
otter spirit.
50
Fig. 4 "Shaman o f t h e Taku Kwan d r e s s e d f o r p r a c t i c e ,
G a s t i n e a u Channel, near Juneau, A l a s k a . "
G.T. Emmons p h o t o , 1888.
A. Sawyer A r c h i v e .
51
THE ROLE OF THE SHAMAN
3
Olson ( 1967 ;207) indicates that Swanton's assertion must be qualified to some extent,-
Swanton's informant had claimed that about 1850 there were 30 shamans among the Tantakwan. Olson
suggests that this was an unintentional exaggeration or that i t represents an exceptional con-
dition. He estimates that there were from five to ten shamans per tribe [qwan] of one thousand.
The Tlingit shaman, i n common w i t h h i s counterparts i n other
spirits, when a t home, look like people and live i n houses and
SHAMANIC INHERITANCE
mean serious illness and even death. Yet, there were always
c o m i n g as a great blessing.
success with which i t was carried out, the number o f yek involved
d e s c r i p t i o n by Laguna:
55
something from the person they wished t o harm s u c h as some h a i r ,
t h e y were u s i n g .
56
someone o f h i g h c l a s s was suspected of w i t c h c r a f t , his relatives
57
SPIRIT INTRUSION
1
According to Laguna (1972;674 ), gallstones and tuiors Here attributed to inadvertant or
unauthorized contact with shamanic equipment. Such growths took the form of the shaman's para-
phernalia which had been handled, but ma; not manifest themselves until years later, when they might
or might not be removed by another shaman.
58
(ibid.) of an a n i m a l from which t h e new shaman d e r i v e d power.
were n o t a c t i v e l y s e e k i n g t h e power, t h e c o n d i t i o n m a n i f e s t e d as
drowned, and thus been ' t a k e n ' by land otters, reinforces the
1972:674).
i n h i s g r a v e was n e v e r t o u c h e d e x c e p t i n r e s p e c t by a sanctioned
animal itself.
60
CHAPTER IV
"It was believed by a l l the Tlingit that those who were drowned turned into Otter men, hair
came out over the body, the arms shortened into the otter's fore paws, a small tail appeared, and
they ran wild in the world about the sea shore. When people were upset in their canoes on the water
these spirits assumed the appearance of their friends and came to them offering assistance, but in
truth they only wished to cause them to drown and have them become as themselves" (Emmons, Field
Museum, Note 77884).
by a shaman.
61
before eating or partaking o f sexual liasons, they would i n t u r n
w o u l d do t h i s b y h o l d i n g a s e a n c e t o communicate w i t h the s p i r i t s
1
The effects of drumming, chanting and other methods of repetitious sensory stimulation are
known to induce trance states which ma; facilitate the 'inner' journey a shaman takes in order to
effect a cure or contact a spirit helper. The sound of the drum acts as a focusing device for the
shaman. This creates an atmosphere of concentration and resolve which enables h i i to sink deeper
into trance ae he shifts his attention to the inner journey of the spirit (Drury:1982;8).
62
LAND OTTERS AND SHAMANS
about t h e c h a r a c t e r o f Raven's r e s c u e r s :
1
In Tlingit mythology Raven's uncle was said to be the Controller of the Flood who unleased
the waters upon the world. Be is sometimes confused with Ms-caki-yel or Raven-at-the-Head-of-Nass,
the owner of Daylight, and may indeed be the same mythological figure. Jfas-calri-jel was, in a way,
the creator of Raven since he wished for the latter to be born that he might take Daylight to the
people. Raven went around the world apparently finishing the job of creation, which N&s-caki-yel
had begun. Be told people and animals what they should do and, in part was the instrument of the
Creator, a transformer and a bringer of culture. At any rate, i t is probable that Raven was visiting
him (them) in the sky realm when the flood was set upon the world.
63
Raven o f c o u r s e had no fear o f becoming a Land Otter Man
64
T h o s e who were a b l e t o e s c a p e , either with h e l p from a relative
"was t a k e n s o u t h f r o m S i t k a by t h e l a n d o t t e r s and s e n t
b a c k a g a i n by t h e husband of a woman who had b e e n
carried o f f like himself. What t h e y u s e d as a c a n o e
was a s k a t e , and they kept him c o v e r e d a l l t h e way.
After a t i m e one of h i s f r i e n d s h e a r d him s i n g i n g i n
the midst of a fog, but they c o u l d not get n e a r him
u n t i l they had f a s t e d two d a y s . Then t h e y f o u n d him
l y i n g on a l o g w i t h b l o o d r u n n i n g o u t of h i s n o s e and
mouth. They b r o u g h t him home, and he became a g r e a t
shaman" (Swanton, 1909:420; c f . Myth 1, A p p e n d i x I ) .
T h i s s t o r y o f Kaka i s a t r u e s t o r y and i t i s f r o m
him t h a t t h e T l i n g i t b e l i e v e i n shamans' s p i r i t s (yek).
I f t h e f r i e n d s o f t h o s e who have b e e n t a k e n away by t h e
land otters get them back, they become shamans,
t h e r e f o r e i t was t h r o u g h l a n d o t t e r s t h a t shamans were
f i r s t known. Shamans c a n s e e one a n o t h e r by means o f
the l a n d o t t e r s p i r i t s , but o t h e r s can not ( i b i d . ) .
The land otter yek was the most common and powerful spirit
65
De L a g u n a (1972:744) was told that the reason land otters
66
t r a n s f o r m e d woman t o l d h e r brother that "nothing had as high a
spirits.
3
A contemporary Tlingit carver indicated that he retrieves from these piles of excretement,
operculeum which is the shelly plate in gastropods such as mollusks that closes when the animal is
retracted (personal communication from James Lovejoy). These were traditionally used as teeth in land
otter masks according to Emmons (unpunished notes, AHNH E 410). For an example of these shells being
used as teeth in a land otter mask, see Fig. 3.
67
Fig. 5 Drowned Man T u r n i n g I n t o L a n d O t t e r
(Note t h e o p e r c u l e u m s h e l l t e e t h )
Emmons, AMNH E 410
A. Sawyer A r c h i v e
68
THE POWER OF SHAMANS
Krause t e l l s us:
69
he falls on his back and dies, with his tongue
extruding (1956:195).
was called a skutch and was felt to contain the power o f that
shamanism." 4
This statement indicates the great importance
4
According to Swanton (1970:446), breath was
c o n s i d e r e d t h e p r i m a r y l i f e r e q u i s i t e by the T l i n g i t . The l a n d
otter tongue was thought to be most efficacious in healing
b r e a t h i n g p r o b l e m s , and was c o n s i d e r e d t h e most p o w e r f u l m e d i c i n e
a shaman c o u l d h a v e . L a n d o t t e r s have a v e r y d i s t i n c t i v e " b r e a t h
call" which they will make when surprised by the sudden
appearance of a stranger in their midst. T h e y a l s o have a
p a r t i c u l a r w h i s t l i n g sound t h a t i s used as a warning s i g n a l .
Their frequent c h a t t e r i n g was i n t e r p r e t e d by t h e T l i n g i t as t h e
o t t e r s ' means o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h e a c h o t h e r .
70
There were many v a r i a t i o n s i n the basic procedure involved
his informants:
71
T h e y had t o w a i t on him i n much t h e same f a s h i o n a s a t t e n d e n t s o f
woods. Many shamans had one special assistant who was closely
or t e r m i n a l l y ill.
5
Swanton (1908a;451) reports that the reason a person who is sent as a peace hostage is
called a "deer" is because a bear once met a deer in the woods and expected i t to fight him, but i t
did not. The man who brought in the "deer" in a peace ceremony sang a grizzly-bear song,- so that the
"deer" would not be troubled. The "deer" was likened to a bear's head, which was always treated with
great respect after the animal was killed. Since the bear was an animal frequently associated with
Tlingit shamans, the relationship between the deer and bear can be likened to that between the
shaman and the animal whose spirit he was seeking on a power quest.
72
LAND OTTER PEOPLE
6
An informant of De Laguna's was given good fortune by her dead mother and father who appeared
to her in her dreams. Another informant whose son had drowned was said to have seen his ghost in human
form, In Angoon, De Laguna was told that the recently drowned might return to visit their village, and
cited an instance which occured while a potlatch was being held (De Laguna,.1972; 748)
73
P e a c e c e r e m o n i e s c o n c l u d e d wars between land otters a n d human
1909:142-44) .
function well b o t h on t h e l a n d a n d i n t h e w a t e r .
74
Land otters can remain underwater f o r long periods of time
otter. 1
Although they live primarily i n and near rivers, they
7
The land otter or Jutra canadensis is also commonly known as the river otter. In keeping with
the usage in the ethnographic documents being employed here, the term land otter will be used. The
scientific name for the sea otter is enhydra lutis and both of these animals belong to the family
known as Husteliade.
75
seek power from his spirits, the land o t t e r has t h e h a b i t o f
quickly.
76
CHAPTER V
"Myths cannot be separated from actuality. They serve many purposes and are part of the total
culture. They have many meanings and operate on several different levels of meaning. What
might be difficult to acknowledge openly, such as immoral behavior, can be handled
satisfactorily by myth. There are often many versions of one myth, and every version can be
authentic and therefore relevant" (Harris: 1974;XV},
(ibid.).
78
appreciated o n l y i f the t a l e s associated w i t h them were a l r e a d y
them.
According to de Laguna (1974;823), animal souls were called qwani or qu-hani uhich means
1
'inhabitants o f , since they were conceived of as being inside of the creature's fleshy body.
These terms can also be translated as 'people' as, for example 'Fish People' (xat qvani) or
'Mussel People' (yai qu-h&ni).
79
w h i c h humans, a n i m a l s and spirits continually confronted each
collected from the Haida, 2 from the Tsimshian, and the other 32
80
THE LAND OTTER MYTHS
boundaries.
81
The first myth to be examined is listed as Myth 2 in
sea, land otter people came t o him looking like his "mother o r
own s i b ) and i t was only when Kaka decided that he has been
82
was in line f o r i n h e r i t i n g from the land o t t e r c h i e f and possibly
own relatives. 2
What he s a i d to h i s f e l l o w land o t t e r s was that:
!
According to de Laguna (1972:480), a wife would be friendly to a husband's nephew, going
out camping and fishing with him. In fact, informants from Angoon confirmed that a nephew could
sleep with his maternal uncle's wife, a situation liable to result in jealousy as indicated in the
Raven myth cited by de Laguna (ibid.). This may explain why the land otter husbands were so helpful
in returning Kaka to his village.
83
knowledge to others, you w i l l eventually lose i t . 3
Yet there was
souls who had been l o s t among the land otters, back i n t o the
3
This is probably related to the fact that there was a tendency for the elderly, rather
than the adults, to teach young children many of the necessary life skills and to pass on to them
knowledge and awareness of social etiquette. They had passed the prime of their l i f e and were
giving to the next generation before they passed on themselves (personal communication, H.P.
Guedon).
84
There is evidence that a shaman's s p i r i t s were encouraged
Laguna, 1974;677).
well:
85
songs o f h i s s p i r i t s with h i s relatives, for in a sense, these
community. 4
* Note that, contrary to the custom of influencing spirits so that they remain within the
matrisib, Kaka. inherits from both his maternal uncles and his uncle's wife sib. This is another
example of the discrepancies found in myths which contradict the normal social order (in the Tlingit
case, matrilineal inheritance being the norm).
86
wealth and h i s f a m i l y w h i l e gambling, went o f f i n t o the bush and
and powerful again. One day he was " c a p t u r e d " by land otters and
87
Once t h e r e was a f a m i n e among t h e p e o p l e o f A l s e k
r i v e r . T h e r e were two shamans t h e r e , one o f whom began
singing to b r i n g up e u l a c h o n , w h i l e t h e o t h e r sang f o r
strength i n order to obtain bears and other forest
animals.
At t h e end o f f o u r d a y s t h e y h u n t e d a l l a r o u n d and
found him lying dead on the beach amid p i l e s of
e u l a c h o n . As soon as they brought him up, a l l the
eulachon that were i n the ocean s t a r t e d t o r u n up
r i v e r , and e v e r y o n e t r i e d t o p r e s e r v e as many o f them
as t h e y c o u l d (Swanton, 1909;64).
88
from the land otters. But his restoration t o human form was
(Swanton, 1909;188).
had just eaten the flesh of another land otter. After killing
After they killed the land otter man by throwing him into the
89
stressed kin relationships to an even g r e a t e r e x t e n t than the
not interfere. In the case of the land otter husband i n the myth
90
breached an i m p o r t a n t taboo because she and h e r b r o t h e r talked to
Laguna (ibid.).
92
from the land otter r e a l m , he was able t o become a shaman and
death i n the myths i n two ways. One way i s that a person who
way is that anyone who dies and then returns from the land otter
31, Appendix I). To be able to leave the land otter village and
cold and hungry and far from the fire i n the s p i r i t world
material abundance. But only people who had contact with the
5, 23, 24, 26, 31, 33, Appendix I).. By becoming a shaman, and
maintained.
95
the taboo, t h e y were a b s o r b e d by t h e w i l d n e s s and t h u s t a k e n o u t
by p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e examples r e s p e c t i v e l y .
s
According to Professor Halpin, the equation of land otter possession with a state of
mental disorder and even death may have some bearing on a physiological condition associated with
drowning or other situations where a person is subject to prolonged exposure to cold. Hypothermia
is a condition where a person's body temperature becomes abnormally low and one of the symptoms is
amnesia and/or distorted mental perceptions. If this state persists, death is inevitable. Yet, i f
a person were rescued from the water by friends, or i f they had great stamina and strength, they
could survive such an ordeal. However, they would likely have a distorted perception of what had
happened, i f they remembered i t at a l l (personal communication, Marjorie Halpin).
96
CONCLUSION
"Han does not stand apart from nature: in the Tlingit mind there is no dichotomy between the
human moral world and a nonmoral world of natural forces, inanimate phenomena and dumb brutes.
Hans essential self or spirit is identical in essence with the spirits or souls of animals,
birds, plants, rocks, and winds, and as they can or could at times assume human form, or
perhaps once possessed i t , so some men have the awful power of appearing in animal guise, or
may suffer this transformation. Han acknowledges his moral obligations towards these other
Belves in the world about him. He speaks to them and they to him. He fears their powers,
greater than his own, yet relies upon their conformity to the common law and upon their
reciprocal goodwill for his happiness and goodwill (de Laguna, 1972;836}.
happens a f t e r death.
97
when a v a i l a b l e , was s u b j e c t t o very particular rituals, and a
and on how t h e y h a d d i e d .
98
transformed into land otters; they became the spirits of the
society.
99
cousins). Thus i t was an opportunity to d i s p l a y c r e s t s , perform
order and placed him or her i n the transitional realm for the
order.
100
MYTHS: DEALING WITH ANOMALOUS DEATHS
101
that drew the connection between m a t e r i a l abundance a n d s p i r i t
102
Where t h e potlatch denied the ambiguity of T l i n g i t cosmology
caused.
Tlingit universe.
103
CONTENTS OF APPENDIX I :
SUMMARY OF MYTH AND STORIES
104
APPENDIX I SUMMARY OF LAND OTTER MYTHS
L a n d O t t e r s p o s i n g as r e l a t i v e s
Dog s k i n u s e d and bones hang f r o m a p r o n t o f r i g h t e n L a n d O t t e r
Shamanic s p i r i t p o s s e s s i o n as a f o r m o f r e i n c a r n a t i o n :
"the shaman who i s p o s s e s s e d by him d a n c e s i n t h e same manner"
L a n d - O t t e r p e o p l e have t h e i r own shamans and t h e i r own l a n g u a g e
L a n d - O t t e r p e o p l e meet on an i s l a n d n e a r S i t k a e v e r y y e a r
Canoe j o u r n e y w i t h h e a d c o v e r e d - L a n d O t t e r want t o keep s e c r e t s
L a n d O t t e r s h i d e i n dens a f t e r coming a s h o r e
R e t r i e v a l o f body - b r o u g h t d e l i g h t t o Kaka's f r i e n d s
M a s t e r / s l a v e : yek c a l l t h e shaman's r e l a t i v e s "my m a s t e r s "
Kaka's a u n t ' s l a n d o t t e r h u s b a n d i s a f r a i d t o l e t him l e a r n t h e i r
s e c r e t s - t h i s would cause the Land O t t e r s t o d i e
S t r o n g mind r e s i s t s Land O t t e r - Kaka d i d n o t b e l i e v e t h a t L a n d
O t t e r i s s t r o n g e r t h a n p e o p l e , t h u s t h e y h a d no c o n t r o l o v e r him
S p i r i t p o s s e s s i o n - Kaka was ' s a v e d ' by two s p i r i t s , t h u s he sang
t h e i r songs - i . e . i n h e r i t e d from h i s Land O t t e r ' u n c l e '
Kaka's s p i r i t s were a l l a r o u n d - wind, waves and s e a b i r d s
Sea b i r d s s i t t i n g on a l o g a r e shamans s p i r i t s .
L a n d O t t e r s p i r i t s a medium o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n
- a l l o w s shamans t o s e e e a c h o t h e r f r o m a f a r ,
p.139
L o s s o f w e a l t h > l o s s o f w i f e > becomes l i k e a w i l d a n i m a l
F o o l i s h p e o p l e were e q u a t e d w i t h d e a d p e o p l e
Drowned p e r s o n has " s t r e n g t h l i k e t h a t o f a shaman"
-uses i t t o 'get' o t h e r p e o p l e
F o u r b o y s ' t a k e n ' (drowned) by L a n d O t t e r s
- t h e y d i d n o t want t o r e t u r n when t h e p e o p l e went a f t e r them
W a r f a r e between l a n d o t t e r s and human b e i n g s
M i s h a p s , b o i l s and p i m p l e s c a u s e d by L a n d O t t e r a r r o w s
Land O t t e r ( h i g h - c a s t e ) equated w i t h "deer" (peace hostage)
L a n d O t t e r s d a n c e t h e p e a c e - m a k i n g dance
B i t t e r r o o t i n water r e n d e r s Land O t t e r u n c o n s c i o u s
A n i m a t e d shaman's r a t t l e and b e l t s e l e c t p a t i e n t t o c u r e
Shaman c u r e s h i g h - c a s t e L a n d O t t e r by r e m o v i n g i n v i s i b l e a r r o w
S p i r i t o f c l a m s as c a u s e o f s i c k n e s s
c l a m s l o o k t o t h e s p i r i t s l i k e human b e i n g s
Shaman c r e a t e s s a n d b a r on w h i c h he i s r e s c u e d
Shamans and b e l i e f i n s p i r i t s d i m i n i s h Raven's i m p o r t a n c e
105
APPENDIX I SUMMARY OF LAND OTTER MYTHS
Man f o r g e t s a b o u t h i s drowned s i s t e r
L a n d O t t e r s i s t e r b r i n g s him b a s k e t s o f f o o d
L a n d O t t e r nephews come t o h e l p t h e i r human u n c l e
L a n d O t t e r nephews p u t h a l i b u t on t h e i r u n c l e ' s l i n e
Man's c h i l d r e n b e g i n t o grow t a i l s - s t o p p e d by L a n d O t t e r a u n t
L a n d O t t e r c a l l e d bad w e a t h e r good and good w e a t h e r bad
F i r e threatens L a n d O t t e r nephew's t a i l s / c l o t h e s - t h e y l e a v e i n
a n g e r as t h e y f e e l - m i s t r e a t e d by t h e i r human u n c l e
L a n d O t t e r nephews use t h e i r t a i l s t o c a r r y new c a n o e t o w a t e r
New c a n o e c a r r i e s an abundance o f f o o d b a c k t o v i l l a g e
S u r v i v o r o f c a p s i z e d c a n o e d e c i e v e d by L a n d O t t e r s - t a k e n s o u t h
Land O t t e r s take i n a female l a n d o t t e r a t every s t o p
C o v e r d man w i t h mat d u r i n g journey
L a n d O t t e r a u n t i n g r o u n d hog r o b e has two L a n d O t t e r husbands
who h e l p him r e t u r n t o h i s own village
P e o p l e o f t h e v i l l a g e c a p t u r e him w i t h dog bones on t h e r o p e
Man r e s t o r e d f r o m h i s w i l d s t a t e by c u t t i n g h e a d w/ dog bones
Man l e a r n e d h a l i b u t f i s h i n g f r o m t h e L a n d O t t e r s
Man a t e o n l y raw f i s h and meat - d i e d when he a t e c o o k e d f o o d
106
APPENDIX I SUMMARY OF LAND OTTER MYTHS
L a n d O t t e r communicates w i t h men by w h i s t l i n g
H u n t e r s went crazy after eating a land otter and t h e n k i l l i n g a
l a n d - o t t e r - m a n by b u r n i n g him
Crazy equated with death
Famine among t h e p e o p l e
Two shamans s i n g i n g - one f o r e u l a c h o n s , t h e o t h e r f o r a n i m a l s
F i r s t shaman goes u n d e r t h e w a t e r i n a canoe t o b r i n g f i s h back
L a n d O t t e r s p i r i t s t a l k i n g i n s i d e o f two m e n s t r u a n t women
M e n s t r u a n t woman e n f e e b l e s t h e power o f a shaman's s p i r i t
L a n d - O t t e r - M e n were i n v i s i b l e
D i s r e s p e c t o f L a n d O t t e r s c a u s e a g r e a t a v a l a n c h e and f l o o d
107
APPENDIX I SUMMARY OF LAND OTTER MYTHS
Two a d o l e s c e n t g i r l s a r e c o n f i n e d f o r o n e y e a r
Holes i nt r e e s a r eLand O t t e r holes - g i r l s s i t on h o l e s
Land O t t e r s p i r i t s t r y t o e n t e r t h eg i r l s -
r e p e l l e d by d e v i l ' s club
R e l a t i v e s o f t h eg i r l s " k i l l " a s l a v e f o r Land O t t e r
Land O t t e r send two s l a v e s (mink) i n r e t u r n p o t l a t c h
L a n d O t t e r s t r y t o d r o w n t h e p e o p l e i n mud
People s e t f i r e t o t h eLand O t t e r holes w i t h p i t c h
[holes = t o po f land o t t e r ' s v i l l a g e ]
B o y i s t a k e n b y L a n d O t t e r s who l o o k l i k e h i s p a r e n t s
Shaman s i n g s a n d p u t s f o o d o n t h e f i r e t o s a v e t h e b o y
-seal o i l , seal f a t , bear o i land d r i e d f i s h
B o y s l e e p s w/ L a n d O t t e r s - t h e y l o o k l i k e p a r e n t s i n d a y t i m e
Boy g e t s s t u c k i n t h e L a n d O t t e r h o l e - r e l i e v e s h i m s e l f t h e r e
Land O t t e r a r ea f r a i d o f h i s body w a s t e s
108
APPENDIX I SUMMARY OF LAND OTTER MYTHS
Boy d i s a p p e a r s w h i l e f i s h i n g on a g r a v e l b a r
P e o p l e s e a r c h e d t h r u t h e woods w i t h p i t c h t o r c h e s f o r h i m
Shaman f o l l o w s t h e b o y ' s t r a c k s \
Land O t t e r s dragged him beneath the r o o t s o f a t r e e
b u t w o u l d n o t t o u c h h i m b e c a u s e he d e f e c a t e d on h i m s e l f
P e o p l e c a r v e d h i s f a c e on a b i g t r e e where t h e y f o u n d h i m
S e a l h u n t e r i s d e l a y e d b y s t o r m s a n d camps on a n i s l a n d
A t n i g h t he s l e e p s u n d e r h i s c a n o e - h e a r s h i s p a r e n t s
w h i s p e r i n g / w h i s t l i n g ( l i k e Land O t t e r )
T r i e s t o s h o o t h i s gun b u t hands go numb a n d he g e t s d i z z y
Shaman s e n d s h i s s p i r i t t o p r o t e c t t h e h u n t e r
109
APPENDIX I SUMMARY OF LAND OTTER MYTHS
Myth 23 THE STORY OF HIM WHOSE SISTER BROUGHT FOOD FROM L-0
A man l e a v e s town w/ w i f e a n d two c h i l d r e n t o make a c a n o e
H i s s i s t e r , who was t a k e n away b y L a n d O t t e r s i n t h e woods
b r i n g s them f o o d
Her L a n d O t t e r h u s b a n d t u r n s t h e c a n o e o v e r - t h e n b r i n g s i t o u t
They p a d d l e t o t h e L a n d O t t e r v i l l a g e f o l l o w i n g h e r d i r e c t i o n s
They l i v e d t h e r e a l o n g t i m e w h i l e f i n i s h i n g t h e c a n o e
A t n i g h t t h e y were i n t h e r o o t s o f a t r e e - b y d a y i t was a house
One o f f o u r L a n d Otter hunters i skilled b e c a u s e he f o r g o t t o
c o v e r h i s knees w h i l e i n a canoe
Land O t t e r b r o t h e r s - i n - l a w h e l p f i n i s h canoe
L a n d O t t e r s i s t e r gave them d i r e c t i o n s home - t o l d them not to
t a l k about Land O t t e r v i l l a g e
When c h i l d s p e a k s w e l l o f L a n d O t t e r v i l l a g e t h e y f i n d t h e m s e l v e s
back u n t i l f i n a l l y s h e f o r g e t s a n d t h e y g e t home
110
APPENDIX I SUMMARY OF LAND OTTER MYTHS
when t h e y were r e s c u e d by a c a n o e
Canoe o f L a n d O t t e r s a p p e a r and o f f e r w a t e r and t o h e l p him -
he r e f u s e s h e l p b e c a u s e he f e a r s them
Canoe o f O c e a n - P e o p l e o f f e r t o h e l p him - he r e f u s e s
He i s f i n a l l y r e s c u e d by h i s own p e o p l e who come i n a l a r g e c a n o e
Qaka jumped f r o m h i s c a n o e i n t o t h e w a t e r t o j o i n t h e L a n d O t t e r s
H i s w i f e went b a c k home w i t h h e r t h r e e c h i l d r e n f o r h e l p
i An o l d woman i n t h e L a n d Otter v i l l a g e a d v i s e s Qaka t o g e t wet
wood f o r t h e L a n d O t t e r ' s f i r e
Qaka c o n t r o l s when t h e L a n d O t t e r s c a n come o u t o f t h e w a t e r
Qaka worked f o r t h e L a n d O t t e r s l i k e a s l a v e
Qaka g e t s a spoon f r o m t h e o l d woman and e a t s t h e c h i e f ' s f o o d
The L a n d O t t e r s b e a t Qaka w i t h t h e i r t a i l s
Qaka t r i e s t o r u n away w i t h t h e i r s c e n t g l a n d s , b u t t h e y make t h e
doorway s m a l l and he I s s t u c k
Qaka i s f o u n d by f o u r f r i e n d s who c u t t h e r o o t s away f r o m him
Qaka and h i s p e o p l e p l a n t o k i l l t h e L a n d O t t e r s w i t h f i r e ,
urine & hellebore
They p o u r e d u r i n e i n t h e den h o l e s , l i t f i r e s and c l u b b e d Land
O t t e r s as t h e y came o u t
T h e y s k i n n e d t h e o t t e r s and t r i e d t o s e l l t h e s k i n s t o t h e w h i t e s
i n t h e i r " O t t e r Canoe" ( s t e a m b o a t " O t t e r " )
A shaman p r o p h e s i z e s t h e coming o f a c a n o e -
One s t a n d i n g i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e c a n o e i s d r e s s e d as a shaman
The p e o p l e i n t h e c a n o e s i n g a song i n T l i n g i t l a n g u a g e
When t h e y came a s h o r e t h e c a n o e became a r o t t e n t r e e
T h e s e were t h e r e l a t i v e s o f L a n d O t t e r s k i l l e d by t h e v i l l a g e r s
The v i s i t o r s d r e s s e d t h e m s e l v e s and d a n c e d and s a n g f o r t h e h o s t s
I n t h e m o r n i n g t h e v i l l a g e r s k i l l e d t h e L a n d O t t e r s as t h e y came
o u t . o f t h e h o u s e by c l u b b i n g them
At l a s t t h e " d e e r " ( i . e . p e a c e h o s t a g e ) came o u t b u t d i d n o t d i e
f r o m t h e i r c l u b b i n g so t h e y c u t o f f h i s h e a d
T h e y l e f t t h e b o d i e s o f t h e L a n d O t t e r s on an i s l a n d
112
APPENDIX I SUMMARY OF LAND OTTER MYTHS
Man c l a i m s he w o u l d n e v e r y e i l d t o L a n d O t t e r s
He and h i s s i s t e r c a p s i z e i n a c a n o e
He s e e s a f i r e moving away f r o m him, b u t makes h i s own
A c a n o e a r r i v e and he t h r o w s t h e p a d d l e s i n t o t h e f i r e
t h e y become mink
The p e o p l e i n t h e c a n o e d i s a p p e a r and i t becomes a d r i f t l o g
A woman come t o h i s f i r e and o f f e r s him f i s h and seaweed
He r e f u s e s f o o d f r o m h i s L a n d O t t e r s i s t e r - t h e n a c c e p t s
A f t e r a month, he i s r e s c u e d .
113
APPENDIX II LAND OTTER MYTH TEXT
114
APPENDIX I I LAND OTTER MYTH TEXT
A f t e r t h e p e o p l e had b r o u g h t Kaka t o a p l a c e j u s t a r o u n d t h e
p o i n t f r o m t h e i r v i l l a g e , he s a i d , "Leave me here f o r a l i t t l e
w h i l e . " So most o f his relations remained with him, w h i l e two
went home t o t e l l t h e p e o p l e who were there. They were n o t
allowed to keep i t from t h e women. Then t h e y made a h o u s e f o r
him o u t o f d e v i l ' s c l u b s and he was l e f t t h e r e f o r two d a y s w h i l e
t h e p e o p l e o f t h e town f a s t e d . They b e l i e v e d i n t h e s e s p i r i t s as
we now b e l i e v e i n God. B e f o r e he was b r o u g h t home t h e h o u s e and
the people i n i t had t o be v e r y c l e a n , b e c a u s e he w o u l d n o t go
where t h e r e was f i l t h . After they got him home they heard the
spirit saying f a r down within him: " I t i s I , O l d - l a n d - o t t e r -
s p i r i t ( K u c t a - k o c a n q o - y e k ) . " T h i s was t h e name of the o l d woman
who f i r s t t o l d him what t o do. The n e x t s p i r i t was T h e - s p i r i t -
that-saves (Qosinexe-yek). He sang i n s i d e o f him t h e same song
t h a t the l a n d o t t e r s sang. I t was h i s s p i r i t ' s song and has many
words t o i t .
115
APPENDIX I I LAND OTTER MYTH TEXT
116
APPENDIX I I LAND OTTER MYTH TEXT
So h e r b r o t h e r p r e p a r e d t o go. Before he s t a r t e d he g o t
some b l u e h e l l e b o r e ( s ! i k c ) , w h i c h he s o a k e d i n w a t e r t o make i t
v e r y s t r o n g and b i t t e r , and f i n a l l y h i s s i s t e r ' s b o y s came, f i n e -
looking young men who were p e c u l i a r only i n having very long
b r a i d s o f h a i r h a n g i n g down t h e i r b a c k s . In r e a l i t y t h e s e were
their tails. He showed them where h i s c a n o e was so t h e y c o u l d go
to work on i t , and, a f t e r t h e y had completed i t roughly, they
p u l l e d i t down f o r him.
117
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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
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120