Cell structure and function
filaments
Levels of organization:
 Cells
 Tissues
 Organs
 Organ systems
 Organism
The cell is the functional unit of all living organisms.
 Simple organisms - bacteria and algae consist of a
single cell.
 Multicellular organisms - more complex consist of
many cells as well as extracellular matrix.
 Cells with great variety of functional and
morphological specializations.
 Differentiation - process by which cells assume
specialized structure and function.
All eukaryotic cells conform to a basic structural model:
Eukaryotic cells consist of a nucleus and cytoplasm
The cytoplasm contains a number of organelles each
with a defined function.
 Organelles bounded by membranes
 Fatty acids and triglycerides are mostly synthesized
within the cytosol.
The nucleus may be considered the largest organelle.
 Its substance – nucleoplasm
 Bounded by a membrane system called the nuclear
envelope or membrane.
 Contains the genetic material of the cell.
Cytoplasm
Cytosol - fluid medium in the cytoplasm in which the
organelles are suspended and many metabolic reactions
take place.
Cytoskeleton - a network of minute tubules and
 Provides structural support for the cell and its
organelles
 Provides a mechanism for transfer of materials
within the cell and movement of the cell itself.
Organelles
Endoplasmic reticulum - an extensive system of
flattened membrane-bound tubules, saccules and
flattened cisterns.
Golgi apparatus – another discrete system of
membrane-bound saccules
 Typically located close to the nucleus.
Mitochondria - scattered free in the cytoplasm are a
number of relatively large, elongated organelles.
 Have a smooth outer membrane and a convoluted
inner membrane system.
Other membrane-bound structures
 Intracellular transport vesicles
 Lysosome - digestion and waste removal
 Peroxisomes - the breakdown of very long
chain fatty acids through beta-oxidation
Plasma membrane or plasmalemma
 An external lipid membrane
 Serves as a dynamic interface with the external
environment.
o Adjacent cells
o Extracellular matrix
Functions:
 Transfer of nutrients and metabolites
 Attachment of the cell to adjacent cells and
extracellular matrix
 Communication with the external environment.
Membrane structure
 Permeability to lipid-soluble molecules
 Permeability to non-lipid-soluble molecules
 Singer and nicholson (early 1970s) - proposed the
fluid mosaic model of membrane structure.
 A lipid bilayer sandwiched between two layers of
protein.
Fluid mosaic model of membrane structure
Cell membranes consist of a bilayer of phospholipid
molecules that are amphipathic
Polar, hydrophilic (water-loving)
head
 Derived from glycerol
conjugated to a nitrogenous
compound via a phosphate bridge.
Non-polar, hydrophobic (water-
hating) tail.
 Consists of two long-chain fatty
acids, each covalently linked to the
glycerol component of the polar
head.
 Straight-chain saturated fatty
acid
 Unsaturated fatty acid which is kinked at the
position of the unsaturated bond.
Phospholipid & cholesterol molecules:
Fluidity and flexibility of the membrane:
 Due to presence of unsaturated fatty acids
o Prevent close packing of the hydrophobic
tails.
 Due to cholesterol molecules in the bilayer
o Stabilize and regulate the fluidity of the
phospholipid bilayer
 Due to protein molecules incorporated in the
membrane.
o Intrinsic or integral proteins
o Extrinsic or peripheral proteins
o Transmembrane proteins
External surface of the plasma membranes of animal
cells
Glycocalyx - polysaccharide molecules projecting from
the surface of the bilayer forming an outer coating.
 Involved in cell recognition phenomena
 In the formation of intercellular adhesions
 In the absorption of molecules to the cell surface
 In some situations, provides mechanical and
chemical protection for the plasma membrane.
Glycocalyx
 Glycoproteins -membrane proteins conjugated with
short chains of polysaccharide
 Glycolipids -membrane lipids conjugated with short
chains of polysaccharide
Differential centrifugation – for cell fractionation
(isolation of subcellular components)
Nucleus:
 The most obvious feature of the cell seen under the
light microscope.
 Considered the largest organelle in the cell.
 “control center” of the cell
 Primarily contains deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
arranged in the form of chromosomes - the
“blueprint” from which all the other components of
the cell are constructed.
 When a cell divides, the first step in this process is
replication of the DNA so that a copy of the cell
blueprint goes to each of the daughter cells.
Nuclear contents:
 DNA - making up less than 20% of its mass
 Protein called nucleoprotein - synthesized in the
cytoplasm and imported into the nucleus.
 Histone proteins - low molecular weight, positively  Each subunit is composed of a
charged which bind tightly to DNA and control the strand of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
coiling and expression of the genes encoded by the with associated ribosomal
DNA strand. proteins forming a globular
 Non-histone proteins - including enzymes for the structure.
synthesis of DNA and RNA and regulatory proteins.  Ribosomes align Mrna strands
so that transfer RNA (tRNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules may be brought into
 Newly synthesized messenger – mRNA position and their amino acids added sequentially
 Transfer – tRNA to the growing polypeptide chain – protein
 Ribosomal - rRNA synthesis

Chromatins refers to chromosomes at interphase Polyribosomes -

chromatin in the nucleus forms 2 distinct dispersal ribosomes that are
patterns: connected to each
other by a fine thread
 Condensed areas – heterochomatin; not actively of mRNA.
producing RNA. (inactive)
Ribosomes are sites for protein synthesis
 Extended areas – (light) euchromatin; in the
process of producing RNA.(active)  Free ribosomes – sites
Nucleolus for protein synthesis that
are to be used within the
 Spherical, highly basophilic structure that is usually cell.
located eccentrically in the nucleus.  Attached ribosomes -
 Nuclei of cells highly active in protein synthesis, sites for protein synthesis
contain none or more dense structures called that are to be exported and
nucleoli also for protein to be used
 The sites of ribosomal RNA synthesis and ribosome within the cell
assembly.
Endoplasmic reticulum
Nuclear envelope (nuclear membrane)
 A system of interconnecting tubules, vesicles, and
 Visible in electron flattened sacs (cisternae).
micrographs.  The most extensive membranous structure in the
 Too thin to be resolved cell.
by lm.  Membrane units are
 Consists of two unit much thinner than the
membranes (outer and plasmalemma; not visible
inner) 7-8 nm each. by routine histo stains.
 Separated by 10-30 nm
ER consists of 2 contiguous
space (perinuclear space)
regions:
 Continuous with the
rough endoplasmic  Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER)
reticulum (rer).  Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (sER)
 Perforated by circular openings (nuclear pores), 70
nm Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER)
 Nuclear pores – provide a channel for the exchange  Receives the proteins that are synthesized by the
of substances between the cytoplasm and the ribosomes attached to it.
nucleus.  Proteins destined for export and lysosomal proteins
Ribosomes (enzymes) pass through the membrane into its
lumen.
 Minute cytoplasmic organelles, each composed of
two subunits of unequal size.
 Proteins are processed into the form of transfer
vesicles before handing them over to the Golgi
complex.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (sER)
 Continuous with and similar to rER except that it
lacks ribosomes.
Principal functions:
 Biosynthesis of cholesterol land phospholipids
 Membrane synthesis and repair.
Liver cells, sER is rich in cytochrome p450 and plays a
major role in the metabolism of glycogen and
detoxification of various noxious metabolic by-products,
drugs and alcohol.
Muscle cells: sarcoplasmic reticulum, sER is involved in
the storage and release of calcium ions that activate the
contractile mechanism
Golgi complex
 Consists of stacked, saucer-shaped membrane-
bound cisternae.
 The outermost cisternae take the form of a network
of tubules known as the cis and Trans golgi
networks.
Packaging of proteins in the Golgi complex (from rER)
1. Proteins synthesized in the rER are transported to
the Golgi apparatus in coated vesicles (transfer
vesicle).
2. On arrival at the convex cis Golgi network, the
coated proteins disengage and the vesicles fuse
with the membrane of the forming face.
3. Proteins are passed from cisterna to cisterna.
Glycosylation of proteins is completed by sequential
addition of sugar residues and the proteins are
packaged for transport to their final destination.
4. On arrival at the concave Tran Golgi network, the
proteins are accurately sorted into secretory
vesicles.
Group of plasma cells from inflamed tissue
 Cells are responsible for antibody production as
part of the body’s immune defense.
 The plentiful rer is strongly basophilic and the
protein is acidophilic so that there is staining with
both eosin and hematoxylin giving a purplish or
amphophilic color to the cytoplasm.
 The well-developed golgi complex g consists of lipid
(membrane), which is dissolved out during
preparation. Thus the golgi is unstained and
appears as a pale area (negative image) adjacent to
the nucleus
Lysosomes
 Membrane bound organelles containing an
amorphous granular material.
 Contain electron-dense particulate material
 Have more than 40 different degradative enzymes
including proteases, lipases and nucleases – come
from golgi complex.
Lysosomes are the principal organelles involved in:
 Heterophagy – digestion of phagocytosed material
from outside.
 Autophagy – digestion of unneeded or senescent
cell organelles.
Peroxisomes or microbodies
 Small, spherical, membrane-bound organelles that
closely resemble lysosomes in size and
ultrastructure.
Contain oxidases and catalases:
 Oxidases are utilized in catabolic pathways which
form hydrogen peroxide, a potentially cytotoxic by-
product
 Hydrogen peroxide is used by certain phagocytic
cells to kill ingested microorganisms.
 Catalase regulates hydrogen peroxide
concentration, utilizing it in the oxidation of a
variety of potentially toxic substances including
phenols and alcohol.
Inclusions:
 Temporary structures (may or may not be
membrane-bound).
 Not all cells contain inclusions.
 Fat droplets, glycogen granules, zymogen granules, Cytoskeleton
pigment granules, crystals, lipochrome pigments,
lipofuschin pigments and dust particles.  Supporting framework of minute filaments and
tubules.
 Maintains the shape and polarity of the cell.
 To accommodate the dynamic functions of cells:
 Sympathetic ganglion cells:
 Cells that propel themselves about by amoeboid
contains lipofuscin, accumulates as
movement (e.g. White blood cells)
brown granular material in the
 Cells that have actively motile membrane
cytoplasm (age pigment)
specializations such as cilia and flagella (tracheal
 Nerve cells: contain melanin, as
epithelial cells)
the substantia nigra
 Cells that are highly specialized for contractility (e.g.
 Basal layer of the skin contain
Muscle cells)
melanin, which is mainly responsible
 Cell division - a process that involves extensive
for skin color.
reorganization of cellular constituents.
 Fat droplets in adipocytes for
lipid storage. Cytoskeleton
 Pas stain reveal glycogen, the storage
form of carbohydrates in lever cells.
 Paneth cells in intestinal epithelium
contain zymogen granules.

Mitochondria
 Mitochondria are involved in cellular respiration
 Produce most of ATP
utilized by the cell
 Cristae – inner
membrane that encloses
Cytoskeletons:
matrix
 Matrix – contains 1. Microfilaments:
enzymes that break down  Extremely fine protein filament (5-7 nm)
nutrient molecules; also  Made up of f-actin filament – undergo frequent
contains mitochondrial dna assembly and disassembly to accommodate
and ribosomes changes in cell shape and cell movement.
Mitochondria  Abundant in the peripheral areas of the cell just
beneath the cell membrane.
 The principal organelles involved in cellular  Involved in the activities of the cell membrane such
respiration in mammals as exocytosis and endocytosis.
 Features: often “hot-dog” shaped, but can become  Less abundant in the central portion of the cell.
rod-like, filamentous, spherical, etc.  Probably involved in the movement of cell
 The number in the cell depends on its energy organelles.
requirement.  Involved in the locomotion of certain cells.
o Liver cell – 2000 m / cell 2. Intermediate filaments
o Resting lymphocytes – only a few m  Intermediate in size between microfilaments and
 Tend to aggregate in areas within the cell where microtubules (10-15 nm in diameter).
energy requirement is high.  Intermediate filaments have 5 types (morph.
 Sperm cell; m conc. At the mid piece of tail. Similar) but differ in protein contents:
a) Keratin – in keratinocytes of skin cells; for cell-to-
cell attachment.
b) Desmin – skeletin; in muscle cells; more numerous
in smooth than in striated muscles .
c) Vimentin – scattered all over cytoplasm of
fibroblasts and muscle cell.
d) Neuro filament - provide internal support for
neurons
e) Glial filament - provide internal support for glial
cells.
3. Microtubules
 Tubules that are much thicker than microfilaments
or intermediate filaments (25 nm).
 Formed in the centrosomes (microtubule organizing
center; MTOC).
o Attached to organelles – for movement
o Scattered in the cytoplasm – internal
support to cell
o Comprise centrioles – sources of mitotic
spindles, the cilia of ciliated cells and
flagellum of sperm cells.