GENETICS = Heredity + Variation THOMAS hunt MORGAN (1910) CALVIN BRIDGES

Greek work “GEN” (1916)

To become or to grow Chromosome contained not one but many GENES.
Coined by William Bateson (1906) FREDRICK GRIFFITH (1928)
History Focused on the Molecular aspect.
HIPPOCRATES & ARISTOTLE (384-322 BC) Trying to prove the DNA.
Theory of Pangenesis Conjugation (Exchange of genetic material between
Gemmules or Semen bacteria or the transfer of plasmid)
JEAN BAPTISTE DE LAMARCK (1744-1829) OSWALD AVERY, COLIN MAC LEOD AND MACLYN MC
Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics CARTY (1944)
Giraffe experiment Identified the transforming agent as the genetic
AUGUST WEISMANN (1834-1914)
material of an organism.
Germplasm theory
Germplasm – Sex cells Used ‘restriction enzymes’ – capable of degrading
Contradicts the theory of pangenesis another compound or molecule.
GREGOR MENDEL (1822-1884) GEORGE BEADLE and EDWARD TATUM
Austrian Monk One gene one enzyme
Garden Peas experiment Neurospora, a mold that grows on bread in the tropics.
Father of Genetics ERWIN CHARGAFF (1950)
Mendelian factor Developed the ‘Chargaff rule’- The ration of purine
Mathematical basis of transmission of traits and pyrimidine.
1868 FRIEDRICH MIESCHER (1:1)
Isolated nuclein a compound that includes nucleic Purine = Adenine (A), Guanine (G)
acid, from pus cells obtained from discarded Pyrimidine = Cytosine (C), Thymine (T)
bandages. JAMES WATSON and FRANCIS CRICK (1953)
1870 WALTHER FLEMMING Molecular structure of the DNA
Discovered mitosis ROSALIND FRANKLIN
1900 CARL CORRENS in Germany, ERICK VON X-ray diffraction data of DNA
TSCHERMAK in Australia, HUGO DE VRIES in Holland FRANCIS CRICK and GEORGE GAMOV (1957)
Studies on Maize, Primrose, Poppies and other Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
flowering plants using mendel’s theory FRANCOIS JACOB and JACQUES MONOD
WILLIAM BATESON, Edith REBECCA SANDERS and Established the existence of genetic regulation
LUCIEN CUENOT 1902 mechanism of chromosomes / DNA in order to turn on
Same ratios obtained in Animals using mendel’s theory and off genes.
WALTER SUTTON and THEODOR BOVERI (1903) MARSHALL NIRENBERG, HEINRICH MATHAEI, and
Study about chromosomes and meiosis using fruit fly SEVERO OCHOA (1966)
EDMUND WILSON and NELLIE STEVENS (1905) Genetic code cracked – different combinations of
Proposed the idea that separate X and Y nitrogenous bases
One of the greatest discoveries in the field of genetics.
chromosomes determine sex. The ‘Triplet code’
WILLIAM BATESON and REGINALD crudell PUNNETT 1 codon = 3 nitrogenous bases = 1 amino acid
(1905-1908) PAUL BERG
Demonstrated that some genes modify the action of Isolated and employed a restriction enzyme to cut
other genes. Modifier gene DNA.
WILHELM JOHANNSEN Berg used ligase to paste two DNA strands together to
Coined the terms: ‘Gene' to describe the carrier of form a hybrid circular molecule.
heredity; ‘
1972 – Recombinant Insulin
Genentech, Inc. and The City of Hope National Medical
Center
A synthetic version of the human insulin gene was
constructed and inserted into the bacterium Escheria
coli.
1985
Genetically engineered plants resistant to insects,
viruses, and bacteria were field tested for the first time.
The NIH approved guidelines for performing
experiments in gene therapy on humans.
1988
Harvard molecular geneticists PHILIP LEDER AND
TIMOTHY STEWART awarded the first patent for a
genetically altered animal, a mouse that is highly
susceptible to breast cancer.
1998
A rough draft of the human genome map is produced,
showing the locations of more than 30,000 genes.
Three Great Milestone in GENETICS
1. GREGOR MENDEL
Rules of Inheritance
2. JAMES WATSON and FRANCIS CRICK
Model for DNA structure
3. HUMAN GENOME PROJECT
Applications of Genetics
. Plant and animal improvement
. Medicine
. Genetic Counseling
. Legal Applications
. Genetic Engineering
Genetics play a huge part in who we are. But we also
have free will. Most of us hate GENETICS, because this
will reveal the truth in us.
Solenoid = layers of beads on a string
Locus = position of genes in the chromosome
Eukaryotic = DNA + Histones
Prokaryotic = DNA is naked (nucleoid region)
CHROMOSOME
1. Centromere/ Kinetochore/ Primary constriction
- For the attachment of spindle fibers in cell
division
2. Secondary constriction/ satellite
- Attachment of nucleolus, for protein synthesis
3. Nucleolus organizing region
- Where you can found in nucleolus
- Region designated for the satellite
4. Chromomeres (smaller) & Knobs (larger)
Types of chromosomes:
Metacentric
Centromere is positioned at the center
Arms are in equal length
Submetacentric
Centromere near at the center
Have short (p-arm) and long (q-arm) arms
Acrocentric
Centromere near the terminal region
Presence of satellite
Telocentric
Centromeres at the end/terminal region
CELL CYCLE:
1. Interphase (non-dividing phase)
a. G1 = Growth of the cell due to inhibition
of water
Start of RNA synthesis and protein synthesis
Building of protoplasm and cytoplasmic organelles
b. Synthesis stage = most critical period
DNA duplication and synthesis
Centriole reproduction (animal cell)
RNA synthesis and protein synthesis continues.
Synthesis of histones.
c. G2 = Finalization stage
Intense protein synthesis
Completion of DNA synthesis and replication
Chromosomes starting to condense
Formation of microtubules
Prepares the cell for division
2. Mitotic phase (dividing phase) Anaphase I: The whole chromosome move on the
a.Mitosis – for somatic cells opposite pole.
(Equational division) (Note: The whole chromosome moves on the end pole,
Cytoplasmic division that occurs in somatic cells (body there is no splitting)
cells) Telophase I: cytokinesis occurs.
Produces two identical daughter cells. (Note: The no. Of paired chromosomes/II in this stage is
Important in repairing tissues 0) no homlogus pairs
b. Meiosis – for sex cells MEIOSIS II:
(Reductional equational division) Prophase II: Condensation of cell coming from
telophase I.
Involves two divisions = Meiosis I and II that
Metaphase II: Chromosomes aligned at the equatorial
produces 4 haploid daughter cells. plate.
Occurs in Sex cells (Egg and sperm cells) Anaphase II: Separation of chromosomes that move
Important in production of gametes. towards each pole.
Mitosis: (Note: Centromere becomes functionally doubled)
Prophase: Nucleolus disappear and condensation of Telophase II: Cytokinesis occurs.
chromosomes.
Metaphase: Chromosomes moved at the equatorial
plate.
Anaphase: Centromeres split and chromatids move on
opposite pole.
Cytokinesis = Prophase, Metaphase, and Anaphase
Telophase: Cytokinesis occurs
Animals: Furrowing – force cutting from out to inside
Plants: Cell plate formation – outward movement,
from inside to outside.
MEIOSIS:
MEIOSIS I:
Prophase I: composed of substages.
Leptonema – chromosomes are concentrated in one
area. This is called “synizesis” = clamping on one side.
Zygonema / zygotin – pairing of homologous
chromosomes or the formation of bivalence (II). This
is called “synapsis” – the paired chromosomes check
one another.
Pachynema – formation of “chiasmata” – also known
as the crossing over and exchange of genetic material
between the homologous chromosomes.
Diplonema – Separation of bivalence and becomes
“univalent”.
Diakinesis – condensed form of chromosomes.
Metaphase I: Alignment of chromosomes at the
equatorial plate.