Life Cycle Assessment of Concrete 

Structures

Sivakumar Palaniappan
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
E-mail: sp @ iitm . ac . in
 Resource use in the building life cycle
g y

• B
Buildings‐
ildi consumes significant amount of energy and 
i ifi t t f d
materials

fresh water  material and  wood‐ 1/4

consumption‐
p energy flow‐
energy flow
1/6 2/5 1- building
sector
1
2- others
1 1 2
2 2
 Building Life Cycle

Production

Construction/
Assembly

Use / 
Operation

End‐of‐
service life
i lif
 Building Life Cycle

Production
Construction versus manufacturing
g

Construction/
Assembly

Use / 
Operation

End‐of‐
service life
i lif
 Different levels of processes

• Direct processes
• Indirect process
• Supply chain process
Supply chain process
• Extended supply chain process
 What is Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)?

A framework or a method used for evaluating 
the resource inputs and environmental
the resource inputs and environmental 
outputs and environmental impacts of a 
product or a process by considering the entire
product or a process by considering the entire 
life cycle of that product or a process in a 
holistic manner
holistic manner. 
 Role of LCA towards Sustainable Development

Transferring the environmental impacts from 
Transferring the environmental impacts from
one life cycle phase to another life cycle phase 
is NOT true sustainability
is NOT true sustainability.
 1. Cradle to Gate
Life cycle of a detergent  2. Cradle to Site
3
3. Cradle to Grave
4. Cradle to Cradle

Source: Proctor and Gamble, www.scienceinthebox.com

 Spider chart: comparison of environmental 
profile of multiple Ariel products

Source: An evaluation of the environmental profile of laundry detergents for washing at

low wash temperatures.Proctor and Gamble, www.scienceinthebox.com
Steps in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

Goal and 
scope 
definition

Inventory 
Interpretation
analysis

Impact 
p
assessment

Source: ISO  14040, 2006
 Goal and Scope Definition
• Goal
– Purpose
– N df h
Need for the study
d
– What questions are we trying to answer?
– Users

• Scope
– Boundary conditions
– Assumptions 
 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis
• Resource inputs
– Energy
– Material
– Water
– Land

• Outputs released into environment
p
– Emissions to air
– Wastes
Product life cycle, showing inputs and outputs

Raw material extraction & 
Emissions
Raw  processing
i
materials
Waterborne 
wastes
Manufacturing & 
g
assembly
Energy   Solid wastes

Use and maintenance

Water
Disposal or recycling
 Life Cycle Impact Assessment

• The life cycle inventory data  • Global warming
is translated into  • Resource 
environmental impacts depletion
• Land use
L d
• Evaluate the magnitude and  • Water use
the significance of 
environmental impacts. • Eutrophication
• Acidification
• Ozone depletion
Ozone depletion
 Life Cycle Impact Assessment
• Parameters that influence impact assessment

– Energy source / fuel mix
– Green house gas emission intensity of the fuel
Green house gas emission intensity of the fuel
– Energy generation process and technology
– Production and consumption
Production and consumption efficiencies 
efficiencies
 Life Cycle Impact Assessment
Four Steps
• Selection and definition of impact categories
Selection and definition of impact categories
• Classification
• Characterization
• Normalization
 Interpretation and Improvement
• Determine the most significant inputs, 
outputs and impacts of a product or process
outputs and impacts of a product or process 
(ISO 14043, 2000).

• Conclusions and recommendations

• Identify hotspots / areas of improvement 
(improvement analysis)
 Use of LCA results
• Environmental improvement
• Strategic planning
Strategic planning
• Public policy making
• Marketing and eco‐labeling
 Types of LCA methods
• Application
– Baseline LCA
Baseline LCA
– Comparative LCA
– Streamlined LCA
Streamlined LCA

• Calculation
C l l ti
– Process LCA
– EIO LCA
 ISO standards for LCA

ISO 14040 – 2006 Life Cycle Assessment –
y
Principles and Framework

ISO 14044 – 2006 Life Cycle Assessment –
Requirements and Guidelines

Available through Central Library website
 LCA case study
Guggemos A and Horvath A (2005)
Comparison of nvironmental ffects of Steel
Comparison of Environmental Effects of Steel
and Concrete Framed Buildings, 
Journal of Infrastructure Systems
Journal of Infrastructure Systems, 
Vol. 11, No. 2, June 1, 2005., 93–101.
 LCA case study

To quantify the energy use and the

environmental emissions during the
construction phase of two typical office
buildings, one with a structural steel frame
and one with a cast‐in‐place concrete frame
Process LCA
 BUILDING DESCRIPTION

Location Mid western United States

Area 4400 mm2
Number of story 5
Expected life
Expected life 50 years
50 years
Interior finishes Painted partition walls, acoustical 
drop ceilings, carpet or ceramic tile 
flooringg
Mechanical systems Heating and cooling
Others Concrete mat foundations, 
aluminum‐ framed glass panel 
aluminum framed glass panel
curtain walls and built‐ up roofing
 BUILDING DESCRIPTION
• The difference between the two buildings is the type of 
structural frame: STEEL AND CONCRETE
• The steel structure includes special moment‐resisting frames 
and braced frames. The floor slabs are lightweight reinforced 
concrete over steel deckingg
• The concrete structural frame consists of reinforced‐concrete 
columns, beams, shear walls, and slabs.
MATERIALS MANUFACTURING 
MATERIALS MANUFACTURING
PHASE
 MATERIALS MANUFACTURING PHASE
The materials that differ in the structural frame are shown
 MATERIALS MANUFACTURING PHASE

 Comparison
C i off steel
t l and
d concrete
t fframed
dbbuildings
ildi

Structural frame Steel Concrete

T t l t i l
Total material cost $
t$ 1764120 1546080
Mass kg 3852230 5630710

 Di
Direct and
d supply
l chain
h i iimpacts ffrom material
i l extraction
i and
d
manufacturing phase are quantified using EIO-LCA

 Recycling of steel and concrete has been accounted for by

assuming that these materials contain on average 25% scrap
steel and up to 10% crushed concrete
 CONSTRUCTION PHASE
• Transportation of materials, equipment and 
labour to the site
labour to the site
• Usage of equipment during the building 
construction phase both at the steel
construction phase, both at the steel 
fabrication shop and the jobsite
 CONSTRUCTION PHASE
• Transportation
 Materials: shipping from the manufacturers to the construction 
pp g
site
 equipment
• For transportation of the above two, 3 types 
of trucks are assumed to be employed
 Concrete mixer
 Small capacity truck
 Large capacity truck
Large capacity truck
CONSTRUCTION 
PHASE
 It is assumed that the delivery
trucks return to the
manufacturer empty, thus both
the delivery and return-trip
impacts are attributed to the
construction phase
CONSTRUCTION PHASE
 CONSTRUCTION PHASE

• Th
There are temporary and consumable materials at the 
t d bl t i l t th
steel fabrication shop and the construction site that are 
used in the construction process, but do not become part 
of the completed building
p g
• Environmental effects are obtained from EIO‐LCA
 USE PHASE
• For a 50 year life cycle, the use phase includes
 Electricity‐
y 184 kWh/m2/yr
/ /y
 Natural gas‐ 17.5 kWh/m2/yr

• Environmental effects are obtained from EIO‐
LCA

• Th
There is no difference in the use phase 
i diff i th h
impacts between the steel‐ and concrete‐
f
framed buildings
d b ildi
 MAINTENANCE PHASE

• It considered separately. 
(
(not included in the use 
phase)
• Focuses on the building 
i t i therefore no 
interior‐ th f
difference between the steel 
and concrete framed 
buildings
• Transportation and 
equipment impacts
equipment impacts
 END‐OF‐LIFE PHASE
• It is inclusive of
• Demolition of the building
• Removal of the demolished materials off‐site
• Assumption‐ material are transported off‐site 32 km on a 
a erage
average
• Transportation and equipment effects
 END‐OF‐LIFE PHASE
• Effects of treatment of the demolished 
materials are not considered.
materials are not considered.

• The reasons are:
Th
 Determination of future values of the demolished materials is 
not an easy one
not an easy one
 These benefits may be looked upon in the materials 
manufacturing phase
STEEL VERSUS CONCRETE FRAME RESULTS
• Comparison are done at two levels
• Construction phase
Construction phase
• Overall life cycle comparison
This is done so as to see the results variation 
between looking separately at each phases and 
an overall life cycle.
CONSTRUCTION PHASE COMPARISON 
OVERALL LIFE‐CYCLE COMPARISON
 RECYCLING
• Average recycling rates are considered
• 25 % scrap steel
25 % scrap steel
• 10 % crushed concrete
• This plays an important role in accessing the 
environmental effects of the end‐of‐life phase
List any three steps that you would 
Li t th t th t ld
undertake to reduce the impacts of 
concrete buildings
 Challenges in applying LCA

• Lack of knowledge and awareness

• Geographic issues – Location, Technology, Fuel 
mix, Source of raw materials

• Boundary conditions 
• Quality of data
y
Questions