Fluid-Mechanics - Discussion - Ahmad Agha

Fluid Mechanics Discussion
Prepared By:
Dr.Khalil M. Al-Astal
Eng.Ahmed S. Al-Agha
Eng.Ruba M. Awad
2014-2015
Chapter (1)
Fluids and their
Properties
Fluid Mechanics Fluids and their Properties
Compaction
Fluids
 (Liquids or gases) which a substance deforms continuously, or flows,
when subjected to shearing forces.
 If a fluid is at rest, there are no shearing forces acting.
 In fluids we usually deal with continuous streams of fluid without
beginning or end.
Shear Stress in Moving Particles

If fluid is in motion, shear stress are developed → this occur if the fluid
particles move relative to each other with different velocities.
However, if the fluid velocity is the same at every point (fluid particles are at
rest relative to each other), no shear stress will be produced.
The following figure exhibit the velocity profile in a circular pipe:

y
v=f(y)
Note that fluid next to the pipe wall has zero velocity (fluid sticks to wall),
But if the fluid moved away from the wall, velocity increases to maximum.
Change in velocity (v) with distance(y) is (velocity gradient):
dv
Velocity gradient =
dy
This also called (rate of shear strain)
Page (1) Dr.Khalil Al-astal Eng. Ahmed Al-Agha Eng. Ruba Awad
Compaction
Newton’s Law of Viscosity:
dv
τ=μ (Pa = N/m2 )
dy
τ = shear stress.
μ = dynamic viscosity (will be discussed later).
dv
= velocity gradient
dy
Newtonian & Non-Newtonian Fluid

Newtonian Fluids:
 Fluids obey (‫ )تتبع‬Newton’s law of viscosity are Newtonian fluids.
 For this type of fluids, there is a linear relationship between shear stress
and the velocity gradient.
 Dynamic viscosity (μ) is the slope of the line.
 Dynamic viscosity (μ) is constant for a fluid at the same temperature.
 As temperature increase → (μ) decreases → slope decreases.
 Most common fluids are Newtonian, for example: Air, Water, Oil, etc…
The following graph explains the linear variation of shear stress with rate of
shear strain (velocity gradient) for common fluids:
Slope = μ
Compaction
Non-Newtonian Fluids:
 Fluids don’t obey Newton’s law of viscosity are Non-Newtonian fluids.
 For this type of fluids, there is no linear relationship between shear
stress and the velocity gradient and the slope of the curves is varies.
 There are several types of Non-Newtonian fluids based on the
relationship between shear stress and the velocity gradient.
dv n
 The general relationship is τ = A + B ( ) , the values of A, B, and n
dy
depends on the type of Non-Newtonians fluid.
 For Newtonian fluids → A = 0.0 , B = μ , n = 1 → Newtonian fluids is
a special case from the above equation.
The following graph explains the variation of shear stress with rate of shear
strain (velocity gradient) for Different types of Non-Newtonian Fluids:
Compaction
Properties of Fluids
Density: There are many ways of expressing density:
1. Mass Density (𝛒): Mass per unit volume
M
ρ= (Kg/m3 )
V
Where, M = mass of fluid (Kg), V = volume of fluid (m3 )
Typical values:
Water= 1000 Kg/m3 , Mercury = 13546 Kg/m3 , Air = 1.23Kg/m3
2. Specific Weight (𝛄): also called (unit weight): is the weight per unit
volume.
W
γ=ρg= (N/m3 )
V
Where, W = weight of fluid(N) = M × g , V = volume of fluid (m3 )
Typical values:
Water= 9814 N/m3 , Mercury = 132943 N/m3 , Air = 12.07Kg/m3
3. Relative Density (𝛔): also called (specific gravity “SG”):
ρsubstance
σ = SG = (Unitless)
ρwater at 4℃
Typical values:
Water = 1 , Mercury = 1.3
4. Specific Volume (𝛎): is the reciprocal of mass density.
1 3
ν= (m /Kg)
ρ
Compaction
Viscosity: it’s the ability of fluid to resist shear deformation due to
cohesion and interaction between molecules of fluid.
There are two types of viscosity:
1. Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity (𝛍):
Force Force
dv τ Area Area Force × Time
τ=μ →μ= = = =
dy dv Velocity Distance Area
dy Distance Distance × Time
Mass×Lenght Mass×length×Time Mass
But Force = →μ= =
Time2 Length2 ×Time2 Length×Time
Kg
Units: = kg m−1 s −1
m×s
kg×m N×S2 Kg N×S2 N

Another Unit: N = → Kg = → = = . S = Pa. S
S2 m m×S m×m×S m2
Note that (μ) is often expressed in Poise (P) where 10P = 1Pa. S
2. Coefficient of Kinematic Viscosity (𝛎):

μ
ν=
ρ
Kg
m×S Kg m3 m2
Units: Kg = × =
m×S Kg S
m3
m2
Note that (ν) is often expressed in Stokes (St) where 104 St = 1
S
Surface Tension(σ): is a force per unit length (N/m)

∆pπ𝑅 2
Compaction
R is the radius of the droplet, 𝛔 is the surface tension, ∆𝐩 is the pressure
difference between the inside and outside pressure.
The force developed around the edge due to surface tension along the line:
𝐅𝛔 = 𝛔 × 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫 = 𝛔 × 𝟐𝛑𝐑
The force produced from the pressure difference ∆p:
𝐅∆𝐩 = ∆𝐩 × 𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 = ∆𝐩 × 𝛑𝐑𝟐
(Inside direction, because inside pressure largere thanoutside pressure)
Now, these two forces are in equilibrium so we equating them:
2σ
σ × 2πR = ∆p × πR2 → ∆p = = pi − po
R
Capillarity
Capillary effect: is the rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube
caused by surface tension.
h: is the height of water rises.
R: is the radius of the tube (d=2R). 2πRσ = πdσ
θ: is the angle of contact between θ
liquid and solid
The weight of the fluid is balanced

with the vertical force caused by
surface tension.
W = m×g= ρ×V×g
π
→ πdσcos(θ) = ρ × d2 × h × g
4
4σ cos(θ)
→h= (only for tube)
ρgd
if any thing else you should derive the equation with the same concept (see p. 12)
Notes:
 If θ < 90 → water is rise, If θ > 90 → water is fall, If θ = 90 →
no rise or fall (h = 0.0).
 If d is too small → θ is too small and may be neglected.
 For clean glass in contact with Water→ θ = 0.0 (rise).
 For clean glass in contact with Mercury→ θ = 130 (fall).
Compaction
Compressibility & Bulk Modulus
All materials are compressible under the application of an external force.
The compressibility of a fluid is expressed by its bulk modulus (K) such
Change in Pressure
that: K =
Volumetric Strain
Change in Pressure = ∆p = Pfinal − Pinitial
Vfinal − V ∆V
Volumetric Strain = =
V V
∆p
K=−
∆V/V
The –ve sign refer to the volume decrease as the pressure increase.
K can be expressed by another form as following:
∆p
K=ρ
∆ρ
Large values of bulk modulus refer to incompressibility which indicates the

large pressures are needed to compress volume slightly.
Famous Unit Conversion

 1m=0.3048 ft
 1ft=12 inch
 1inch=2.54 cm
 1Ib = 4.45 N
N Ib (0.3048)3 m3
 γw = 9810 3
× × = 62.4 Ib/ft 3
m 4.45N ft3
m ft
 g = 9.81 × = 32.2ft/S 2
S2 0.3048m
rev rad 2π
 To transform from to → multiply by
min S 60
m rad
 v ( ) = ω × r where, ω = velocity in , r = radius of rotation (m)
S S
 1slug = 14.59 Kg.
π
 Volume of cone (Vcone ) = R2 × h )‫(ثلث حجم االسطوانة‬
3
 1m = 10 Liter , 1Liter = 103 ml , → 1m3 = 106 ml.
3 3
 1m3 = 106 cm3 .
Compaction
Problems
1.
If 9 m3 of oil weighs 70.5 KN, Calculate its:
A. Specific Weight:
Weight 70.5
γ= = = 7.833 KN/m3 = 7.833 × 103 N/m3 ✓.
Volume 9
B. Density:
′
γ 7.833 × 103
γ(Newton s) = ρ × g → ρ = = = 798.47 Kg/m3 ✓.
g 9.81
C. Specific Volume:
1 1
ν= = = 1.25 × 10−3 m3 /Kg ✓.
ρ 798.47
2.
A cylindrical tube of volume 335 ml is filled with soda. If the Mass of tube
when it’s filled by soda is 0.37 Kg and the weight of tube when it’s empty is
0.155 N. Determine the specific weight, density, and specific gravity for
soda.
Solution
Wsoda
γsoda =
Vsoda
Vsoda = Vtube = 335ml = 335 × 10−6m3

Msoda+tube = 0.37Kg → Wsoda+tube = M × g = 0.37 × 9.81 = 3.63 N
Wtube = 0.153N → Wsoda = Wsoda+tube − Wtube = 3.63 − 0.153 = 3.47 N
3.47
→ γsoda = −6 = 10358.2 N/m3 ✓.
335 × 10
γsoda 10358.2
γsoda = ρsoda × g → ρsoda = = = 1055.88 Kg/m3 ✓.
g 9.81
ρsoda 1055.88
S. G = = = 1.0558✓.
ρwater@4℃ 1000
Compaction
3.
A quantity of soda of mass M is filled in a container having volume V. The
density of soda in this container is 1005 Kg/m3 . If the soda is distributed
from this container to three similar containers having the same volume V.
Calculate specific gravity and specific weight of the soda in each one of
three containers after distribution occurs.
Solution
The mass of soda (M) is the same before and after distribution
M1 = M2 (Solution Key)
M
ρ = → M = ρV
V
→ ρ1V1 = ρ2 V2 (ρ1 = 1005 , V1 = V , ρ2 =? ? , V2 = 3V)
→ 1005V = ρ2 × 3V → 1005 = 3ρ2 → ρ2 = 335 Kg/m3

ρ2 = 335 Kg/m3 (For soda in each container)
ρsoda 335
S. G = = = 0.335✓(For soda in each container).
ρwater@4℃ 1000
γsoda = ρsoda × g = 335 × 9.81 = 3286.35 N/m3 ✓.
4.
A 10-kg block slides down a smooth inclined surface as shown in Figure
below. Determine the terminal velocity of the block if the 0.1-mm gap
between the block and the surface contains oil having dynamic viscosity of
0.38 Pa.s. Assume the velocity distribution in the gap is linear, and the area
of the block in contact with the oil is 0.1 m2.
Compaction
Solution
Important Notes:
 In all problems, the direction of shear force is in reverse direction of
movement, because it’s the resistance of fluid against moving object. So
the shear force resists the movement of the object exactly like friction
force (if the object moves above rough surface).
 The summation of forces equal zero in all directions, because the
velocity is constant (we assume it constant) and so the acceleration is
zero.
Return to the above problem, the free body diagram of the block is:
Compaction
Wsin(20)
∑ Fx = 0.0 → Wsin(20) = τA → τ =
A
W = Mg = 10 × 9.81 = 98.1 N , A = 0.1 m2 (given)
98.1 × sin(20)
→τ= = 335.5 Pa.
0.1
v τ × y 335.5 × 0.1 × 10−3
τ=μ →v= = = 0.0883 m/s✓.
y μ 0.38
5.
A cylinder of 40 cm length and 10 cm diameter rotates about a vertical axis
inside a fixed cylindrical tube of 105 mm diameter, and 0.4 m length. If the
space between the tube and the cylinder is filled with liquid of dynamic
viscosity of 0.2 N.s/m2. Determine the external torque that led the cylinder
to rotate by speed of 700 rev. /min.
Solution
Torque = Shear force × radius of rotating cylinder
Shear force (F) = τ × Side Area of rotating cylinder (As )
du
τ=μ
dy
μ = 0.2N. s/m2
du = velocity of rotating cylinder in (m/s).

2π
ω = 700rev/min = 700 × = 73.3 rad/s.
60
0.1
v = ω × radius of rotating cylinder = 73.3 ×
2
→ v = 3.66 m/s.
dy = ( always is: distance perpendicular to the direction of shear force)

105 − 100
dy = = 2.5mm = 0.0025m
2
Compaction
3.66
→ τ = 0.2 × = 292.8 N/m2 105 mm
0.0025
As = πdL = π × 0.1 × 0.4 = 0.1256 m2
→ Shear force (F) = 292.8 × 0.1256 = 36.7 N.
→ Torque = 36.7 × 0.05 = 1.838 N. m ✓.
100 mm
6.
A cylindrical body of 70 mm diameter and 150 mm length falls freely in a
80 mm diameter circular tube as shown in the figure below. If the space
between the cylindrical body and the tube is filled with oil of viscosity 0.9
poise. Determine the weight of the body when it falls at a speed of 1.5
m/s.
Compaction
Solution
The weight of cylindrical body (downward) equals the resist shear force
(upward) due to the equilibrium.
∑ F = 0.0 → W = τ × A
The shear stress caused by cylindrical tube is:

du
τ=μ
dy
μ = 0.9 pois, but 10pois = 1pa. s → 0.9poise =
0.9
= 0.09 pa. s.
10
du = velocity of freely falling = 1.5m/s.
80 − 70
→ dy = = 5mm = 0.005m
2
1.5
→ τ = 0.09 × = 27 pa.
0.005
Shear force = side area of cylindrical body × τ
Fshear = π × d × L × τ = 3.14 × 0.07 × 0.15 × 27
→ Fshear = 0.89 N
The weight of cylindrical body = Fshear = 0.89 N✓.
7.
A movable plate of 0.5m2 area (for each face) is located between two large
fixed plates as shown in the figure below. Two different Newtonian fluids
having the viscosities indicated are contained between the plates.
Determine the magnitude of the force acting on the movable plate when
it moves at a speed of 4.0 m/s.
Compaction
Solution
The free body diagram of the plate is:
τ1 × A
A F
τ2 × A
∑ F = 0.0 → F = τ1 × A + τ2 × A → F = A × (τ1 + τ2)
u1 = u2 = 4m/s.
u1 4
τ1 = μ1 = 0.01 × = 13.33 Pa.
y1 0.003
u2 4
τ2 = μ2 = 0.02 × = 13.33 Pa.
y2 0.006
→ F = 0.5 × (13.33 + 13.33) = 13.33 N ✓.
Compaction
8.
Fluid flow through a circular pipe is one-dimensional, and the velocity
r2
profile for laminar flow is given by u(r) = umax (1 − 2 ) where R is the
R
radius of the pipe, r is the radial distance from the center of the pipe, and
umax is the maximum flow velocity, which occurs at the center. Determine:
(a). a relation for the drag force applied by the fluid on a section of the pipe
of length L.
(b). the value of the drag force for water flow at 20°C with R = 0.08m, L =
15m, umax = 3m/s, μ = 0.001kg/m. s.
Solution
a)
The shear stress at the surface of the pipe (at r = R) is given by:
du
τ = −μ → (Negative sign is because u decresed with r increased)
dr
d r2
τ = −μ × (umax (1 − 2 )) (But, umax is constant) →
dr R
d r2 2r
τ = −μumax × (1 − 2 ) = −μumax × (0 − 2 ) (because R is constant)
dr R R
2rμumax 2μumax
→τ= (at the surface of the pipe → r = R) → τ = .
R2 R
Compaction
Note: Always we calculate the shear stress at the fixed surface (like pipe
surface in the above problem) because it gives maximum shear stress.
The drag force that causes shear stress on the pipe surface is:
∑ F = 0.0 → FD = τ × A
2μumax
(A = side area of tube = 2πRL) → FD = × 2πRL
R
→ FD = 4πLμumax ✓.
b)
FD = 4πLμumax → FD = 4π × 15 × 0.001 × 3 = 0.565 N✓.
9.
A layer of water flows down an inclined fixed surface with the velocity
profile shown in Figure below. Determine the magnitude of shearing stress
that the water exerts on the fixed surface for U= 2m/s and h=0.1m μ =
1.12 × 10−3 pa. s
Solution
The shear stress at the fixed surface (at y = 0.0) is given by:
du
τ = +μ → (Positive sign is because u incresed with y increased)
dy
u y y2 y y2
= 2 − 2 → u = U (2 − 2 ) (But, U = 2m/s and h = 0.1m) →
U h h h h
Compaction
2y y2
u = 2( − 2
) → u = 40y − 200y 2
0.1 0.1
du du
→ = 40 − 400y (But, at the fixed surface y = 0.0) → = 40
dy dy
→ τ = 1.12 × 10−3 × 40 = 44.8 × 10−3N/m2 ✓.
10.
When a 2-mm-diameter tube is inserted into a liquid in an open tank, the
liquid is observed to rise 10 mm above the free surface of the liquid. The
contact angle between the liquid and the tube is zero, and the specific weight
of the liquid is 1.2 x 104 N/m3. Determine the value of the surface tension
for this liquid.
Solution
For tube the capillary rise can be expressed by the relation tha we previously
derived:
4σ cos(θ) hρgd
h= →σ=
ρgd 4 cos(θ)
h = 0.01m , ρg = γ = 1.2 × 104 N/m3 , d = 0.002m , θ = 0 →
0.01 × 1.2 × 104 × 0.002

σ= = 0.06 N/m✓.
4 cos(0)
11.
Derive an expression for the capillary height change h for a fluid of surface
tension σ and contact angle θ between two vertical parallel plates a distance
W apart, as in figure.
Compaction
Solution
Assume the side length of each plate is (b).
∑ F = 0.0 → Fσ = Weight of water column
Fσ = 2 × σ × b × cos(𝜃 ) (2 because there are two plates)
Weight = M × g = ρ × V × g (V = W × h × b)
→ Weight = W × h × b × ρ × g
2σ cos(θ)
→ 2 × σ × b × cos(𝜃 ) = W × h × b × ρ × g → h = ✓.
ρgW
12.
Assume that the surface tension of 7.34x10-2 N/m act at an angle θ relative
to the water surface as shown in Figure below.
a.
If the mass of the double-edge blade is 0.64 x 10-3 Kg, and the total length
of its sides is 206 mm. Determine the value of θ required to maintain
equilibrium between the blade weight and the resultant surface tension force.
b.
If the mass of the single-edge blade is 2.61 x 10-3 Kg, and the total
length of its sides is 154 mm. Explain why this blade sinks. Support
your answer with the necessary calculations.
𝛔 𝛔
Solution
Compaction
a.
Note: The surface tension σ exists about all sides of the blade so to calculate
the surface tension force Fσ we should multiply the value of σ by the total
length of blade sides as following:
Fσ = σ × total length = 7.34 × 10−2 × 0.206 = 0.0152 N
→ Fσ = 0.0152 N with inclination of θ with horizontal →→
The weight of the blade is:

W = Mg = 0.64 × 10−3 × 9.81 = 6.278 × 10−3N (downward)
By Equilibrium→ ∑ Fvertical = 0.0
→ 0.0152 sin(θ) = 6.278 × 10−3 → θ = 24.4° ✓.
b.
Fσ = σ × total length = 7.34 × 10−2 × 0.154 = 0.0113 N
Fσ,vertical = 0.0113 sin(θ)
W = Mg = 2.61 × 10−3 × 9.81 = 0.0256N
Now, the maximum value of sin(θ) = 1 so, the maximum value

of Fσ,vertical = 0.0113 N.
Note that the value of W = 0.0256N (downward) is greater than the value
of Fσ,vertical = 0.0113 N so, the blade will sink downward ✓.
13.
A rigid cylinder (15 mm inside diameter) contains column of water 500mm
length. If the bulk modulus of water is Kwater = 2.05 x 109 N/m2. What will
be the column length if a 2 KN force is applied it’s end by frictionless
plunger? Assume no leakage.
Compaction
Solution
∆p
K=−
∆V/V
K = 2.05 × 109 Pa.
∆p = Pf − Pi (Pi = 0.0 because no applied forces in first case)
Force 2 × 103
Pf = =π = 11.317 × 106 Pa.
Area × 0.0152
4
→ ∆p = 11.317 × 106 − 0 = 11.317 × 106 Pa.
∆V Vf − V L × A − 0.5 × A L − 0.5
= = =
V V 0.5 × A 0.5
∆p 9 11.317×106
→K=− ∆V → 2.05 × 10 = − L−0.5 → L = 0.497 m✓.
V 0.5
Chapter (2)
Pressure and Head
Fluid Mechanics Pressure and Head
Pressure
A fluid will exerts a normal force on any boundary it is in contact with, and
these boundaries may be varies and the force may differ from place to place.
So, it is convenient to work in terms of Pressure ( P ) which is the force per
unit area.
Force F
Pressure = →P=
Area over which the force is applied A
Unit:
N
= pascal (Pa)
m2
Also there is a famous unit used for expressing pressure which is bar such
that (1bar = 105 Pa).
Pascal’s Law for Pressure at a point

This law applies to fluid at rest and it says” Pressure at any point is the
same in all directions”
The following figure clarifies the concept of Pascal’s law:
As shown in figure above, a tank contains water and the vertical pressure at
depth (h) is PV and it’s applied on the bottom wall of the tank.
Also, the horizontal pressure at the same depth (i.e. same point) is PH and
it’s applied on the side wall of the tank.
The value of PV 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐥 the value of PH at the same point (same depth h) and
the values of pressure in all directions are the same. (This is Pascal’s Law)
Variation of Pressure Vertically in a Fluid under

Gravity
Consider the vertical cylinder immersed in fluid of mass density ρ as shown

in figure above. The fluid is at rest and in equilibrium so, all forces in the
vertical direction sum to zero. These forces are:
 Force due to pressure P1 at the bottom of the cylinder at level Z1 on area A
and directed upward = P1A.
 Force due to pressure P2 at the top of the cylinder at level Z2 on area A
and directed downward = P2A
 Force due to weight of element (cylinder) directed downward = mg
But, m = ρV = ρ × A × (Z2 − Z1) → mg = ρ × g × A × (Z2 − Z1).
From equilibrium → ∑ Fvertical = 0.0 → P1 × A − P2 × A − mg = 0.0
→ P1 × A − P2 × A − ρ × g × A × (Z2 − Z1) = 0.0 → (Divided by A)
→ P1 − P2 − ρ × g × (Z2 − Z1 ) = 0.0 → ∆P = P1 − P2 = +ρg(Z2 − Z1 )
→ P2 − P1 = −ρg(Z2 − Z1)
From the above derivation we note the following:

 P1 > P2 because the column height of fluid at 1 is larger than at 2
 So, as the depth (column height)increase, the pressure will also increase.
 Pressure difference (∆P) always equals (ρgh) such that the distance h
called (Pressure Head) and it’s the vertical distance (difference in elevation
with respect to a specific datum) between the two points that’s we want to
calculate the pressure difference between them.
 For example the pressure difference between points 2 and 3 is:
P2 − P3 = ρgL such that L = Z3 − Z2 and so on.
Equality of Pressure at the Same Level in a Static Fluid
The fluid is at rest and in equilibrium so, all forces in the horizontal
direction sum to zero.
∑ Fhorizontal = 0.0 → PL A − PR A = 0.0 → PL A = PR A → (Divided by A)
→ PL = PR
By another way, PL − PR = ∆P = ρgh (but h = 0) → PL − PR = 0 → PL = PR
From the above derivation we note that the pressure difference between any
points having the same elevation is the same but in two conditions:
 The flow is continuous through these points.
 The fluid is the same fluid at theses points (same mass density, ρ,).
Note: If these two conditions are satisfied the pressure at any points at the
same level is equal even if these points don’t have the same area because we
deal with pressure which not related to area.
Note that the conditions are satisfied (continuous fluid and same fluid), so
the pressure at points 1 and 2 is equal. But the forces at points 1 and 2 are
not equal because the area at point 1 doesn’t equal the area at point 2.
General Equation for Variation of Pressure in a Static

Fluid
(P + ∆P). A
P.
𝐏. A
𝐀
The fluid is at rest and in equilibrium so, all forces in the all directions
sum to zero.
∑ Foblique plane = 0.0 → PA − (P + ∆P)A − mg cos(θ) = 0.0
mg = ρVg = ρ. A. ∆S. g → PA − (P + ∆P)A − ρ. A. ∆S. g cos(θ) = 0.0
→ (Divided by A) → P − (P + ∆P) − ρ. g. ∆S. cos(θ) = 0.0
But, ∆S. cos(θ) = (Z2 − Z1 ) = vertical distance (difference in elevation)
→ P − P − ∆P = ρ. g. (Z2 − Z1 ) → ∆P = −ρg(Z2 − Z1 )
−ve Sign is because the pressure at elevation Z1 is larger than the pressure at
elevation Z2 .
Important Note: For all types of surfaces (vertical, horizontal, and oblique)
always the difference in pressure between any two points is measured by the
relation (∆P = ρgh) such that the distance (h) is the vertical distance
between these two points.
Pressure and Head

For a static fluid of constant density (ρ) the relation of vertical pressure can
dP
be expressed as: = −ρg → dP = −ρg. dz → by integrating both sides
dz
→ ∫ dP = ∫ −ρg dz → P = −ρgz + constant
As shown in figure above, distance z is measured from the free surface

→ z = −h → P = ρgh + constant.
The constant in the above equation is the pressure at the free surface of fluid
which normally is atmospheric pressure Patmospheric →→
P = ρgh + Patm
Atmospheric Pressure: Is the pressure which we live constantly under it,
and everything else exists under this pressure. So, it is convenient to take
atmospheric pressure as the datum. Thus, we measure pressure above or
below atmospheric pressure (i.e. atmospheric pressure is a datum).
This measured pressure is known as gauge pressure→ for example →
For the above figure, the atmospheric pressure is at the free surface of fluid
and the pressure measured from this surface (datum) is P = ρgh which is the
gauge pressure(Pgauge ).
Gauge pressure can be positive (above atmospheric) or negative (lower the
atmospheric).
Also negative gauge pressure is known as vacuum pressure.
Atmospheric pressure at any free surface exposed to atmosphere is zero
gauge pressure (because the atmospheric pressure is a datum for gauge
pressure).
Absolute Pressure: is the sum of gauge and atmospheric pressures and it is

always positive.
Pabsolute = Pgauge + Patmospheric
Notes:
 In most cases we deal with gauge pressure (i.e. taking atmospheric
pressure as a datum having zero gauge pressure).
 By taking Patm = 0.0 → P = ρgh → if the density of fluid is known, we
can measure pressure by head such that:
ρgh
Pressure head (h) = (m).
h
The Hydrostatic Paradox
The pressure exerted by the fluid depends only on:
 Vertical head of fluid (h).
 Type of fluid (mass density , ρ, )
 Not on the weight of the fluid present (because the weight is already
considered in h, ρ, and g).
Whatever the shape or size of the containers that contains the same fluid
with same head (h), the pressure at the bottom of all containers is the
same (this called Pascal’s Paradox). But the force at the bottom of each
container depends on the base area of the container.
Pressure Measurement by Manometers

Manometers are devices used to measure the pressure of fluid using the
relationship between pressure and head.
Different types of manometers will be discussed in problems of this chapter.
Problems
1.
Calculate gauge pressure at point A if (ρmercury = 13600 Kg/m3 )
Solution
Pressure exerted by metal cylinder:
Pmetal cylinder = ρgh
= 1.7 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.025
= 416.925 Pa. 2
1 3
Important Note:
Since the density of air is very small,
we can neglect the pressure exerted
by air inside the tube. →→
P1 = P2 = P3 (solution key)
416.935 + 1000 × 9.81 × 0.05 + 13600 × 9.81 × 0.1 = PA
PA = 14249 Pa = 14.249 kPa✓.
2.
Calculate the gauge pressure difference between A and B.
1 2
Solution
P1 = P2 (Solution Key)
Distance from point (2) to gauge (B) = 1.8-1.5= 0.3m
PA − 1000 × 9.81 × 1 − 0.9 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.8
+1000 × 9.81 × 0.3 = PB
→ PA − PB = 13,8930.2 Pa = 13.93 kPa ✓.
3.
In the figure shown, determine the reading of the gauge A.
Solution
Applying pressure equation from point (1) to gauge (A).
0 + (13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.7)
−(13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.5)
−(1000 × 9.81 × 2.7)
−(0.8 × 1000 × 9.81 × 2.4) = PA
→ PA = −18,639 Pa✓.
= −18.639 kPa✓. 1
Negative sign means lower than
atmospheric or (vacuum pressure)
4.
In the figure shown, the left reservoir contains carbon tetrachloride (SG=1.6)
and it is closed and pressurized to 55 kPa. The right reservoir contains water
and is open to atmosphere. Determine the depth of water h in the right
reservoir.
55 kPa
2 3
1 0.1m
0.2 m
SG=0.8 5
4
0.9 m 0.3 m
0.3 m
Solution
Important Notes:
 The best way to solve problems in this chapter is to make one equation
starting and ending by points of known pressure.
 And you should always remember (the pressure for two points at the
same level is the same, if the fluid is continuous) because this is the key for
solving all problems in this chapter, for example P1 = P2 = P3(in figure)
 Also there is a general rule in solving all problems which is (if you
directed downward you will sum the pressure, however if you directed
upward you will subtract the pressure) because pressure increase with depth.
Distance from surface to point (1) = 0.9 − (0.2 + 0.3 + 0.3) = 0.1m
55 × 103 + 1.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × (0.1) + 0.8 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.2
−1000 × 9.81 × (h − (0.3 + 0.3)) = 0.0 (Patm = zero gauge pressure)
Solve the equation for h→ h = 6.52 m ✓
5.
A closed cylindrical tank filled with water has a hemispherical dome and is
connected to an inverted piping system as shown in figure below. The liquid
in the top part of the piping system has a specific gravity of 0.8, and the
remaining parts of the system are filled with water. If the pressure gage
reading at A is 60 kPa, determine:
1. The pressure at point B.
2. The pressure head at point C in term of mercury (ρ = 13600 Kg/m3 )
1 2 3
Solution
1. PB =? ? ? (60 = P1 = P2 = P3 ) → solution key
60 × 103 + 0.8 × 1000 × 9.81 × 3 + 1000 × 9.81 × 2 = PB

→ PB = 103164 Pa = 103.164 kPa ✓.
2. hC (in term of mercury) =? ? ?
60 × 103 − 1000 × 9.81 × 3 = PC → PC = 30570 Pa = 30.57 kPa.

PC 30570
hC (in terms of mercury) = = = 0.229 m✓
ρmercury × g 13600 × 9.81
6.
An open tube is attached to a tank shown in figure below, if the water rises
to a height of 800 mm in the tube, what are the pressures PA and PB of the air
above the water?
1
Solution
To calculate PB , apply the pressure equation from point (1) to point (B):
0 + 1000 × 9.81 × 0.8 − 1000 × 9.81 × 0.3 = PB

→ PB = 4905 Pa = 4.905 kPa✓.
To calculate PA , apply the pressure equation from point (B) to point (A):
PB = P2 = 4905 Pa (because same fluid and continuous)

4905 − 1000 × 9.81 × 0.1 = PA → PA = 3924 Pa = 3.924 kPa✓.
7.
Calculate the gauge pressure difference between A and B.
2 2
3 4
2 2
1 2
Solution
Note that the pressure at A does not equal the pressure at B although the two
points have the same elevation, but the fluid does not continuous between
them.
P1 = P2 and P3 = P4 (Solution Key)
PA − 0.91 × 1000 × 9.81 × y − 13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.1
+0.91 × 1000 × 9.81 × (0.1 + y) = PB
→ PA − 8927.1y − 13341.6 + 892.71 + 8927.1 = PB
→ PA − PB = 13341.6 − 892.71 = 12448.89 Pa = 12.448 kPa✓.
8.
For the figure shown below, if the pressure reading at point A is 4.2 kPa.
Calculate the pressure at point B.
7.5 cm
20 cm
7.5 cm
Solution
As we discussed previously, always we deal with vertical distances between
the points that’s we want to calculate the pressure between them.
Vertical distance for the fluid of SG=2.6 = 0.2 sin(30) = 0.1m.
4.2 × 103 + 1000 × 9.81 × 0.075 − 2.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.1

⏟
PA
−1000 × 9.81 × 0.075 = PB → PB = 1649.4 Pa = 1.649 kPa✓.
9.
The cylindrical tank with hemispherical ends shown in figure below contains
a volatile liquid and its vapor. The liquid density is 800 Kg/m3
and its vapor density is negligible. The pressure in the vapor is 120 kPa
(abs), and the atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa . Determine:
(a). the gage pressure reading on the pressure gage.
(b). the height, h, of the mercury manometer.
Solution
(a).
Pabs = Pgauge + Patm

→ Pgauge = Pabs − Patm
2 3
For vapor: 1 4
Pgauge,vapor = 120 − 101

= 19 kPa.
To find gage reading:
19 × 103 + 800 × 9.81 × 1 = Pgage
→ Pgage = 26848 Pa = 26.848 kPa ✓.
(b).
Pgage = P1 = P2 = P3 = P4 = 26848 Pa.
26848 − 13600 × 9.81 × h = 0.0 (zero gauge pressure)
→ h = 0.2012 m✓.
10.
Determine the elevation difference (∆h) between the water levels in the two
open tanks shown in figure below.
4
3
d
1 2
Solution
P1 = P2 = 0.0 and P3 = P4 (Solution Key)
0.0 − 1000 × 9.81 × (d + 0.4) + 0.9 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.4
+1000 × 9.81 × d + 1000 × 9.81 × ∆h = 0.0
−9810 d − 3924 + 3531.6 + 9810 d + 9810 ∆h = 0.0
∆h = 0.04 m✓.
11.
A piston having a cross-sectional area of 0.07m2 is located in a cylinder
containing water as shown in figure below. What is the value of the applied
force?, F, acting on the piston? The weight of the piston is negligible.
100 mm
60 mm
1 2 3 4
Solution
The force applied on the piston exerts pressure on the piston and
this pressure will transfer to water.
F F
Ppiston = = = 14.28 F
Area 0.07
P1 = P2 = P3 = P4
14.28 F + 1000 × 9.81 × 0.06 − 13600 × 9.81 × 0.1 = 0.0
→ F = 893.067 N ✓.
12.
If the absolute pressure of air is 76 kPa and the atmospheric pressure is 100
kPa. Determine the specific gravity (SG2) for the right fluid.
Solution
Pgauge,air = 76 − 100
= −24 × 103 Pa
(−24 × 103
+13.55 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.22
−SG2 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.4 = 0.0)

22cm
SG2 = 1.34✓.
13.
A gas is contained in a vertical, frictionless piston– cylinder device. The
piston has a mass of 4 kg and a cross sectional area of 35 cm2. A
compressed spring above the piston exerts a force of 60 N on the piston. If
the atmospheric pressure is 95 kPa, determine the pressure inside the
cylinder.
Solution
The pressure inside the cylinder
equals the total applied pressure by
piston weight and spring force in
addition to atmospheric pressure to
get absolute pressure.
60 + (4 × 9.81)
Pabs = −4
+ 95 × 103
35 × 10
Pabs = 123354.28 Pa
= 123.35 KPa✓.
If we want to calculate gauge

pressure:
Pgauge = Pabs − Patm
Pgauge = 123.35 − 95 = 28.35 kPa✓.
Chapter (3)
Static Force on
Surfaces (Buoyancy)
Fluid Mechanics Static Forces on Surfaces-Buoyancy
Introduction
When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces develop on the surface due to
the fluid. The determination of these forces is important in the design of
storage tanks, ships, dams, and other hydraulic structures. For fluids at rest
we know that the force must be perpendicular to the surface since there are
no shearing stresses present. We also know that (from previous chapter) the
pressure will vary linearly with depth as shown in figures below.
The following figures exhibits the pressure distribution and the resultant
force of this pressure for different planes:
Note that the resultant force(FR ) always acting on the center of pressure
(c.p) of the surface.
Resultant Force and Center of Pressure on a Plane

Surface Immersed in a Liquid (General Case)
y̅
D
dA
c.g
c.p
1. Determining the resultant force (𝐅𝐑 ):

FR = ∑ dF but, dF = dP × dA and dP = ρg × h
→ FR = ∑ ρg × h × dA but, ρg is constant →→
FR = ρg × ∑ h × dA
The term ∑ h × dA is the first moment of 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 about the 𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐞 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞
∑ h × dA = Object Area × Distance from centroide to the free surface
∑ h × dA = A × y̅
→ FR = ρgAy̅
2. Determining the location of resultant force:

The resultant force act perpendicular to the immersed surface at the center of
pressure (c.p) at some depth (D) as shown in figure above, the following is
the derivation of the formula that used to calculate (D):
∑ Moment about free surface = 0.0
What is moment!!!
Moment = Force × Arm
Arm = is the distance 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 to the force
∑ Moment about free surface = 0.0 →→→
FR × yR = ∑ dF × y but, dF = dP × dA and dP = ρg × h
→ FR × yR = ∑ ρg × h × dA × y but h = y sin(θ)
FR × yR = ∑ ρg × y sin(θ) × dA × y but, ρg sin(θ) is constant →
FR × yR = ρg sin(θ) × ∑ y 2 × dA
The term ∑ y 2 × dA is the second moment of area about tha free surface
and it is also called (moment of inertia "I") →→
FR × yR = ρg sin(θ) × Io but → FR = ρgy̅A →→
(ρgy̅A) × yR = ρg sin(θ) × Io
Io sin(θ)
A × y̅ × yR = Io sin(θ) → yR =
A × y̅
Io
D = yR sin(θ) → D = sin2 (θ) ×
A × y̅
Io = Icg + Ad2 (Parallel axis theorem)

Icg = Moment of inertia about the center of gravity of the object
A = Area of the object
d = distance from center of gravity to point O

y̅
d = yc (as shown in figure above) → d = yc = → Substitute in D
sin(θ)
2
y̅
Icg + A ( )
2( ) sin(θ)
D = sin θ ×
A × y̅
[ ]
2( )
Icg 2( )
y̅ 2
→ D = sin θ × + sin θ × A ×
A × y̅ A × y̅ × sin2 (θ)
Icg
→ D = sin2 (θ) × + y̅
A × y̅
I advise you to use this equation when calculating (D).
The following figure shows the moment of inertia (Icg) for different shapes:
Pressure Diagram
For vertical or inclined walls of constant width it is possible to find the
resultant force and the location of center of pressure using a Pressure
Diagram.
Pressure Diagram: Is the graphical representation of the gauge pressure
change with vertical depth along the wall and this change is increasing
linearly from zero (at free surface) to the maximum at the base of the wall.
As we know, the relation of calculating gauge pressure at any depth is:
P = ρgh
How to calculate resultant force and center of pressure using pressure

diagram:
Case I:
Always, resultant force equals the volume of pressure diagram:

FR = volume of pressure diagram
1 1
FR = × γh × h × b = × γ × h2 × b (N) (γ = ρg)
2 2
If the width (b) is not known, we can represent the resultant force as force
per unit area:
1
FR = × γ × h2 (N/m)
2
Location of FR :
In the pressure diagram above is a triangle and the resultant force will be in
the center of this triangle:
h 2h
D=h− =
3 3
Case II:
Note that the object is fully immersed in fluid at distance h1from the free
surface.
Assume the width (b) is 1m inside the page:
FR = F1 + F2
Let the vertical length of the object is L = (h2 − h1 )
F1 = Volume of the rectangle = γ × h1 × L × 1
1
F2 = Volume of the triangle = × γ × L × L × 1
2
Location of (FR ):
D = h1 + yA h1is given, but how we can find yA
Take Moment about point A:
L
F1 at the center of rectangle ( ) from point A
2
2L
F2 at the center of Triangle ( ) from point A
3
L 2L
FR × yA = F1 × ( ) + F2 × ( ) → yA = ✓ → D = h1 + yA = ✓
2 3
Case III:
If the object is the same at the second case above, but is inclined in angle (θ)
with the horizontal, do the same in case two, but in finding the location of
center of pressure, find the inclined distance firstly (by taking moment about
a specified point ) and then calculate the vertical distance.
Case IV:
If there are two fluids or more, the pressure diagram will be as following:
FR = F1 + F2 + F3
Assume the width (b) is 1m inside the page
1
F1 = Volume of upper triangle = × ρoil × g × h1 × h1 × 1
2
F2 = Volume of rectangle = ρoil × g × h1 × h2 × 1
1
F3 = Volume of lower triangle = × ρw × g × h2 × h2 × 1
2
To find the location D, take moment about the free surface:

2h1 h2 2h2
FR × D = F1 × + F2 × (h1 + ) + F3 × (h1 + )→D=✓
3 2 3
Important Note:
Before solving any problem, if the width of the object is uniform (i.e. the
object is rectangle), it is preferable to use pressure diagram method.
However, if the object is not rectangle (width is not uniform) like triangle,
trapezoidal and circle you are strongly advise to use equations derived in the
beginning of this chapter.
Problems
1.
An open tank has a vertical partition and on one side contains gasoline with
a density 700 kg/m3 at a depth of 4 m, as shown in the figure below. A
rectangular gate that is 4m high and 2 m wide is hinged at one end and is
located in the partition. Water is slowly added to the empty side of the tank.
At what depth (h) will the gate start to open?
Solution
What is Hinge???
Is a type of supports that prevent objects to move in two perpendicular
directions (usually horizontal and vertical directions) so, this support having
two reactions against movement as shown in the following figure:
As shown the hinge support can’t resist any moments,
thus we take summation moments about hinge in most
cases to avoid reactions of hinge and because moment at
hinge is zero.
Because the width is uniform, we can solve the problem using pressure
diagram as following: the free body diagram for the gate is shown below:
Width = 2m
1
F1 = Volume of right triangle = × (700 × 9.81 × 4) × 4 × 2 = 109872 N
2
1
F2 = Volume of left triangle = × (1000 × 9.81 × h) × h × 2 = 9810h2 N
2
4 h
∑ M@hinge = 0.0 → 109872 × = 9810h2 × → h3 = 44.8
3 3
→ h = 3.55m✓.
2.
The 4-m-diameter circular gate in the shown figure below is located in the
inclined wall of a large reservoir containing water. The gate is mounted on a
shaft along its horizontal diameter, and the water depth is 10 m above the
shaft. Determine:
a) the magnitude and location of the resultant force exerted
on the gate by the water.
b) the moment that would have to be applied to the shaft to
open the gate.
Solution
Since the object is circle, (width is not
constant), we use equations.
The pressure distribution on the gate is

shown in the following figure:
h1 = 10 − 2 sin(60) = 8.268 m
h2 = 10 + 2 sin(60) = 11.732 m
From Equation:
FR = ρgAy̅
π 2 π
A= D = × 42 = 12.56 m2 , y̅ = 10m
4 4
→ FR = 1000 × 9.81 × 12.56 × 10 = 1232136 N✓.
Find the location of resultant force from the free surface:

Icg
D = sin2 (θ) × + y̅
A × y̅
θ = 60° , A = 12.56 m2 , y̅ = 10m
π 4 π
Icg (for circle) = R = × 24 = 12.56m4
4 4
12.56
D = sin2 (60) × + 10 = 10.075 m✓.
12.56 × 10
To find the moment about the shaft we want to find the distance between
centroid and center of pressure:
(D − y̅) 10.075 − 10
Inclined distance = = = 0.0866 m
sin 60 sin 60
Mabout shaft = FR × 0.0866 = 1232136 × 0.0866 = 106702.97 N. m✓.
3.
Two sides of the container are filled with two different liquids. Find the
resultant force exerted on the gate AB and the position of center of pressure.
Solution
Since the object is not rectangle, (width is not constant), we use equations.
The stress distribution along the gate AB is shown in figure below:
It is clear that the force F1 is larger than
force F2 →→→
FR = F1 − F2
F1 = ρ1 gAy̅1
ρ1g = γ1 = 9810 N/m3
A = Area of the gate
A = (rectangle area + triangle area )
1
A = 3 × 3 + × 3 × 1 = 10.5 m2
2
To calculate y̅, firstly we should calculate the distance (h) from the centroid
of the gate to point A by taking moment of area about point A.
A h = Arectangle × hrectangle + Atriangle × htriangle
hrectangle = distance from center of rectangle to point A
htriangle = distance from center of triangle to point A
1 1
10.5 h = (3 × 3) × 1.5 + ( × 3 × 1) × (3 + × 1) → h = 1.76 m
2 3
y̅1 = 1.76 + 5 = 6.76 m
→ F1 = 9810 × 10.5 × 6.76 = 696313.8 N
F2 = ρ2gAy̅2
ρ2 g = γ2 = 7847 N/m3 , y̅2 = 1.76 + 2 = 3.76 m
→ F2 = 7847 × 10.5 × 3.76 = 309799.56 N
→ FR = 696313.8 − 309799.56 = 386514.24 N✓.
To calculate the location of center of pressure firstly we should calculate the
values of D1 and D2 for each force:
Icg
D1 = sin2 (θ) × + y̅1
A × y̅1
θ = 90° , A = 10.5 m2 , y̅1 = 6.76 m , Icg =? ? ?
Now we want to calculate the moment of inertia about the centroid of the
gate.
Icg = (Irectangle + Arectangle × d2 ) + (Itriangle + Atriangle × d2 )
3 × 33
Icg = + (3 × 3) × 0.262
12
3 × 13
+ + (0.5 × 3 × 1) × 1.572
36
→ Icg = 11.14 m4
11.14
→ D1 = sin2 (90) × + 6.76 = 6.9 m
10.5 × 6.76
Icg
D2 = sin2 (θ) × + y̅2 y̅2 = 3.76 m
A × y̅2
11.14
→ D1 = sin2 (90) × + 3.76 = 4.042 m
10.5 × 3.76
Now to find the location of center of pressure from point A, take the moment
about point A.
Distance from F1 to point A = 6.9 − 5 = 1.9 m
Distance from F2 to point A = 4.042 − 2 = 2.042 m
∑ M@hinge = 0.0 → FR × Dc.p = F1 × 1.9 − F2 × 2.042
→ 386514.24 × Dc.p = 696313.8 × 1.9 − 309799.56 × 2.042
→→ Dc.p = 1.78 m from point A ✓.
4.
Calculate the minimum force F to keep the cover AB closed (the cover is
rectangular with 1.5m wide).
Solution
Important Note:
In problems similar to this problem, if you are not given any information
related to weight of the object, neglect the weight of the object, but if the
weight is given you must consider it.
Since the cover is rectangular, we can use pressure diagram method.

Firstly we want to calculate the pressure at points A and B using principals
that we learned in chapter (2).
PA = 1.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 1.85 − 0.825 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.86
= 22077.4 Pa.
PB = 22077.4 − 0.825 × 1000 × 9.81 × 1.04 = 13660.42 Pa.

Now we can draw the free body diagram for the cover:
Note that if we want to calculate the

resultant force (FR ):
FR = F1 + F2
But the required is (F) so we divide the
pressure diagram into rectangle (F1) and
triangle (F1) to find the location of each
force from the hinge easily.
Now, calculate the length of the cover:
L = √0.62 + 1.042 = 1.2 m
The distance (perpendicular to F1) to the
1.2
hinge is = 0.6 m.
2
2×1.2
The distance (perpendicular to F2) to the hinge is = 0.8 m.
3
The distance (perpendicular to F) to the hinge is 0.3m (given).
F1 = Volume of rectangle = area of rectangle × cover width
= 13660.4 × 1.2 × 1.5 = 24588.72 N.
F2 = Volume of triangle = area of traingle × cover width
1
= (22077.4 − 13660.4) × 1.2 × 1.5 = 7575.3 N.
2
To calculate force F, take summation moments about hinge:
∑ M@hinge = 0.0 → F × 0.3 = 24588.72 × 0.6 + 7575.3 × 0.8
→→ F = 69378.24 N ✓.
5.
For the system shown, water tank is pressurized to 90 cm Hg and 35 kPa.air
pressure. Determine the resultant hydrostatic force per meter width on panel
AB.
Solution
Since the required is force per meter length assume the width is constant and
it is equal 1m, so we can solve the problem using pressure diagram method.
To draw the pressure diagram along panel AB we must calculate the
pressure at points A and B from both sides (Right and Left).
From right side, the fluid is air and as we know the air pressure is constant
so the pressure at A equal the pressure at B = 35000 Pa.
From left side, we calculate the pressure at points A and B as we learned in
Chapter 2:
PA = 13600 × 9.81 × 0.9 + 1000 × 9.81 × 5 = 169124.4 Pa.
PB = 169124.4 + 1000 × 9.81 × 3 = 198554.4 Pa.
The free body diagram for panel AB is shown below:
FR = F1 + F2 − F3
F1 = volume of left rectangle
F1 = 169124.4 × 3 × 1 → F1 = 507373.2 N/m′
F2 = volume of triangle
1
F2 = × (198554.4 − 169124.4) × 3 × 1 → F2 = 44145 N/m′
2
F3 = volume of left rectangle
F3 = 35000 × 3 × 1 = 105000 N/m′
FR = 507373.2 + 44145 − 105000 = 446518.2 N = 446.52 kN✓.
6.
A 1.2 m wide gate of negligible weight shown in the figure pivots
about the frictionless hinge O. the gate is held in position shown by
the 1000 kg counter mass M. determine the water depth h.
Width = 1.2 m
0.6m
1m
M = 1000 kg
Solution
Since the gate having constant width (1.2m), we can use pressure diagram
method.
Pfree surface = 0.0
PO = 1000 × 9.81 × h = 9810 h
The free body diagram of the system is shown below:
FR = Volume of triangle
1
FR = × 9810h × h × 1.2 = 5886 h2
2
To calculate the value of (h) we take summation moment at hinge (O):
h
∑ M@O = 0.0 → 5886 h2 × = (1000 × 9.81) × 1
3
→→ 1962 h3 = 9810 → h = 1.71 m✓.
7.
The gate in figure below is 1.5 m wide, is hinged at point B, and rests
against a smooth wall at point A. Compute:
(a) The force on the gate due to water pressure.
(b) The horizontal force P exerted by the wall at point A.
(c) The reactions at the hinge B.
Water
4.5m
1.8 m
2.4m
Solution
Since the width of the gate is constant (1.5m), we can use pressure diagram
method.
PA = 0 + 1000 × 9.81 × (4.5 − 1.8) = 26487 Pa.

PB = 26487 + 1000 × 9.81 × 1.8 = 44145 Pa.
The weight of the gate is not given, so we neglect it.
The free body diagram of the gate is shown below:
Length of the gate (L) = √1.82 + 2.42 = 3m
FR = F1 + F2
F1 = volume of the rectangle = (26487 × 3) × 1.5 = 119191.5 N
F2 = volume of the triangle →→
1
F2 = ( × (44145 − 26487) × 3) × 1.5 = 39730.5 N
2
→ FR = 119191.5 + 39730.5 = 158922 N✓.
To calculate the force (P) take the moment at hinge (B):
∑ M@B = 0.0 → P × 1.8 = 119191.5 × 1.5 + 39730.5 × 1

→→ P = 121398.75 N✓.
1.8
∑ Fx = 0.0 → BX + F1 sin(θ) + F2 sin(θ) = P sin(θ) = = 0.6
3
→ BX + 119191.5 × 0.6 + 39730.5 × 0.6 = 121398.75
→ BX = 26045.5 N✓.
2.4
∑ Fy = 0.0 → By = F1 cos(θ) + F2 cos(θ) cos(θ) = = 0.8
3
By = 119191.5 × 0.8 + 39730.5 × 0.8 = 127137.6 N✓.
Force on a Curved Surface due to Hydrostatic Pressure

If the surface is curved, the forces on each element of the surface will not be
parallel (normal to the surface at each point) and must be combined using
some vectorial method.
The most significant method to solve these types of problems is to calculate
the vertical and horizontal components, and then combine these two forces
to obtain the resultant force and its direction.
There are two cases:
Case I: if the fluid is above the curved surface:
Horizontal Component (𝐑𝐡 ):

The resultant horizontal force of a fluid above a curved surface is:
𝐑𝐡 = Resultant force on the projection of the curved surface onto a
vertical plane (i.e. along line AC in the above figure).
We know that the force must be normal to the plane, so if we take the
vertical plane, the force will act horizontally through the center of
pressure of the projected vertical plane as shown in figure below, and we
can use pressure diagram method.
Rh
cp
Vertical Component (𝐑𝐯 ):

Because the fluid is at rest, there are no shear forces on the vertical edges, so
the vertical component can only be due to the weight of the fluid.
The resultant vertical force of a fluid above a curved surface is:
𝐑𝐯 = Weight of fluid directly above the curved surface and will act
vertically downward through the center of gravity of the mass of fluid as
shown in figure below.
R v = Weight of fluid above the curved surface = ρgV = γV
Resultant Force (𝐑):

The overall resultant force is found by combining the vertical and horizontal
components vectorialy:
R = √R2h + R2v
This resultant force acts through point O at an angle (θ) with R h
The position of O is the point of intersection of the horizontal line of action
of R h and the vertical line of action of R v as shown in figure below.
Rv
θ = tan−1 ( )
Rh
Case II: if the fluid is below the curved surface:
The calculation of horizontal force R h is the same as case I, but calculation

of vertical force R v will differ from case I.
Vertical force component in case of fluid below curved surface:
If the curved surface AB is removed, the area ABDE will replaced by the
fluid and the whole system would be in equilibrium.
Thus the force required by the curved surface to maintain equilibrium is
equal to that force which the fluid above the surface would exert (weight
of fluid above the curved surface).
I.e. The resultant vertical force of a fluid below a curved surface is:
R v = Weight of the imaginary volume of fluid vertically above the curved
surface.
Problems
1.
The gate shown in figure is 5.4 m wide and it is a quarter circle hinged at H.
Determine the horizontal force P required to hold the gate in place.
Solution
1. Calculate the horizontal component of hydrostatic force (R h ):
As stated above, the value R h is
calculated on the projection on vertical
plane as following:
R h = Volume of pressure diagram
= Area × width
1
R h = × (1000 × 9.81 × 1.8) × 1.8 × 5.4
2
→ R h = 65817.88 N
2. Calculate the vertical component of hydrostatic force (R v ):

R v = Weight of fluid above the curved surface = ρgV
V = Area of quarter circle × Width

π × 1.82
V= × 5.4 = 13.74 m3
4
→ R v = 1000 × 9.81 × 13.74 = 134789.4 N
4R 4 × 1.8
R v acts at distance = = 0.764m from the circle center
3π 3×π
The weight of the gate is not given, so neglect it.
The free body diagram of the whole system is:
By taking summation moment about the hinge:
∑ M@hinge = 0.0 → P × 1.8 = R h × 0.6 + R v × 0.764
→ P × 1.8 = 65817.88 × 0.6 + 134789.4 × 0.764
→ P = 79149.9 N ✓.
2.
The gate shown in figure below consists of a quarter of a circular cylinder
and is used to maintain a water depth of 4 m. Determine the weight of
the gate per meter of length.
Solution
Assume the width of whole system is 1m
1. Calculate the horizontal component of hydrostatic force (R h ):
R h = Volume of pressure diagram = Area × width
R h = F1 + F2
F1 = volume of rectangle
F1 = (1000 × 9.81 × 3) × 1 × 1
F1 = 29430 N
F2 = volume of triangle
1
F2 = [1000 × 9.81 × (4 − 3)] × 1 × 1
2
F2 = 4905 N
3. Calculate the vertical component of hydrostatic force (R v ):

R v = Weight of fluid 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐯𝐞 the curved surface = ρgV
Note that there is no water above the gate, so the value of R v equals the
weight of imaginary fluid above the gate as shown below:
The most important note that the imaginary fluid is above the gate to reach
free surface
w = w1 + w2
w1 = γ × rectangle volume
→ w1 = 9810 × (3 × 1) × 1 = 29430 N
w2 = γ × quarter circle volume

π × 12
→ w2 = 9810 × × 1 = 7704.7 N
4
→ R v = w1 + w2
→ R v = 29430 + 7704.7 = 37134.7 N.
Location of R v :
1
w1located at the center of rectangle at distance ( ) from hinge
2
4R
w2 located at the center of quarter circle at distance (1 − ) from hinge
3π
4×1
= 1− = 0.576 m
3×π
To find the location of R v take the moment about hinge:
R v × x = w1 × 0.5 + w2 × 0.576
37134.7 × x = 29430 × 0.5 + 7704.7 × 0.576 → x = 0.516 m
Now, draw the free body diagram for the entire system:
0.576
0.516
The weight of the gate is subjected on the center of the gate which is a
quarter circle (i.e. at distance 0.576 from hinge)
By taking summation moment about the hinge:
∑ M@hinge = 0.0 → w × 0.576 = F1 × 0.5 + F2 × 0.67 + R v × 0.516
→ w × 0.576 = 29430 × 0.5 + 4905 × 0.67 + 37134.7 × 0.516
→ w = 64490.48 N ✓.
3.
The hemispherical dome in below weighs 30 kN and is filled with water and
attached to the floor by six equally spaced bolts. What is the force in each
bolt required to hold down the dome?
Solution
The hemispherical dome tries to move up due to the vertical component of
hydrostatic pressure (R v ), but the bolts and the weight of the dome resist this
movement downward. So for equilibrium, summation of vertical forces
should be equal zero:
∑ Fvertical = 0.0 → R v = Fbolts + Fdome →→ (1)
Fdome = 30000N
Calculation of (𝐑𝐯 ):
Note that the fluid is below the curved surface, so to calculate R v we should
calculate the imaginary weight of water above the dome till reaching the
free surface as shown in figure:
To maintain equilibrium, the value of
R v upward, should equal the
imaginary weight of fluid downward
(weight of hatch volume).
Whatch = Vhatch × ρg
Vhatch = Vtotal − Vdome+tube
Vtotal = cylinder volume
π
→ Vtotal = × 42 × 6 = 75.4 m3
4
Vdome+tube = Vdome + Vtube
Vdome = hemisphere volume
2π 3 2π
→ Vdome = R = × 23
3 3
3
→ Vdome = 16.75 m
π
Vtube = × 0.032 × 4 = 0.00283 m3
4
→ Vhatch = 75.4 − (16.75 + 0.00283) = 58.65 m3
Whatch = 58.65 × 9810 = 575356.5 N

→→ R v = Whatch = 575356.5
Substitute in Eq.(1):
575356.5 = Fbolts + 30000 → Fbolts = 545356.5 N

Fbolts 545356.5
Force in each bolt = = = 90892.75 N = 90.89kN✓.
6 6
Buoyancy
When a body is submerged or floating in a static fluid, the resultant force
exerted on it by the fluid is called the buoyancy force.
Buoyancy Force= 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐥𝐮𝐢𝐝 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲
and this force will act vertically upward through the centroid of the volume
of fluid displaced, known as the center of buoyancy.
Archimedes’ principle
Archimedes’ Principle states that the buoyant force has a magnitude equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and is directed vertically
upward.
Fb = ρfluid × g × Vdisplaced by body (Upward ↑)
Problems
1.
A 1-m-diameter cylindrical mass, M, is connected to a 2-m-wide rectangular
gate as shown in figure below. Determine the required value for M if h =
2.5m.
Solution
Firstly, we calculate the tension in the cable.
The free body diagram for the gate is shown below:
FR = Volume of triangle
1
FR = × (9810 × 2.5) × 2.5 × 2 = 61312.5 N
2
∑ M@hinge = 0.0 → T × 4 = FR × 0.83
→ T × 4 = 61312.5 × 0.83 → T = 12722.34 N
Now we take the free body diagram for the

cylindrical mass:
The force Fb is buoyant force
Fb = ρfluid × g × Vdisplaced by body
Vdisplaced by body = volume of object immersed in water

π
Vdisplaced by body = × 12 × (2.5 − 1) = 1.178 m3
4
Fb = 1000 × 9.81 × 1.178 = 11557.16 N
∑ FY = 0.0 → T + Fb = Mg
→ Mg = 12722.34 + 11557.16 = 24279.5 N

24279.5
→M= = 2475 kg✓.
9.81
2.
A wooden rod weighting 25N is hinged at one end, the rod is 5m long and
uniform cross section, and the support is 3m below the free surface. At what
angle θ will it come to rest when it is allowed to drop from a vertical
position? The cross section of the rod is 10 cm2.
Solution
Let X is the length of rod immersed in water, the free body diagram of the
rod is shown below:
From the above figure, we note the following:

 The weight of the rod (25N) act at the centroid of rod (i.e. at distance 2.5
from hinge).
 The buoyant Force(Fb ) act at the centroid of the immersed volume of the
rod (i.e. at distance X/2 from the hinge).
Fb = ρfluid × g × Vdisplaced by body
Vdisplaced by body = volume of object immersed in water
Vdisplaced by body = 10 × 10−4 × X
Fb = 1000 × 9.81 × 10 × 10−4 × X = 9.81 X
Now, taking summation moment about hinge:

X
∑ M@hinge = 0.0 → 25 × 2.5 cos(θ) = 9.81 X × cos θ
2
X
→ 25 × 2.5 = 9.81 X × → X = 3.57m
2
3 3
From geometry → sin(θ) = → sin(θ) = → θ = 57.17° ✓.
X 3.57
Equilibrium of Floating Bodies:

To be the floating body in equilibrium, two conditions must be satisfied:
 The buoyant Force (Fb) must equal the weight of the floating body (W).
 Fb and W must act in the same straight line.
So, for equilibrium:
Fb = Wobject
The equilibrium of a body may be:
 Stable.
 Unstable.
 Neutral (could be considered stable)
Stability of a Submerge Bodies

Stable equilibrium: if when displaced, it returns to its original equilibrium
position.
Unstable equilibrium: if when displaced, it returns to a new equilibrium
position
Notes:
 In this case (body is fully immersed in water) when the body is tilted, the
shape of the displaced fluid doesn’t change, so the center of buoyancy
remains unchanged relative to the body.
 The weight of the body is located at the center of gravity of the body (G)
and the buoyant force located at the center of buoyancy (B).
Stable Equilibrium:
A small angular displacement υ from
the equilibrium position will generate a
moment equals: (W x BG x υ).
The immersed body is considered
Stable if G is below B, this will
generate righting moment and the
body will tend to return to its original
equilibrium position.
Unstable Equilibrium:
The immersed body is considered
Unstable if G is above B, this will
generate an overturning moment and
the body will tend to be in new
equilibrium position.
Stability of Floating Bodies

Here, the volume of the liquid remains unchanged since Fb=W, but the
shape of this volume changes and thereby its center of buoyancy will
differ.
When the body is displaced through an angle υ the center of buoyancy move
from B to B1 and a turning moment is produced.
Metacenter (M):
The point at which the line of action of the buoyant force (Fb) cuts the
original vertical line through G.
So, Moment Generated is (W x GM x 𝛖).
GM is known as a metacentric height.
Stability:
Stable
If M lies above G, a righting moment is produced, equilibrium is stable and
GM is regarded as positive. (GM=+VE)
Unstable
If M lies below G, an overturning moment is produced, equilibrium is
unstable and GM is regarded as negative. (GM= ‫ـــ‬VE).
Neutral:
If M coincides with G, the body is in neutral equilibrium.
Determination of the Position of Metacenter Relative to Centre of

Buoyancy:
I
BM =
Vdisplaced
I = the smallest moment of inertia of the waterline plane
Procedures for Evaluating the Stability of Floating

Bodies
1. Determine the position of the floating body (Draft) using the principles of
buoyancy (Total Weights = Buoyant Force).
2. Locate the center of buoyance B and compute the distance from some
datum to point B (yB). The bottom of the object is usually taken as a datum.
3. Locate the center of gravity G and compute (yG) measured from the same
datum.
4. Determine the shape of the area at the fluid surface (plane view) and
compute I for that shape.
5. Compute the displace volume (Vd)
6. Compute BM distance (BM = I / Vd).
7. Compute (yM = yB+BM)
8. If (yM > yG) >> the body is stable.(GM = +VE)
9. If (yM < yG) >> the body is unstable.(GM = ‫ـــ‬VE)
Important Note:
If yM = yG (GM = 0), this case is called neutral and the object could be
considered stable.
Problems
1.
A barge 6 m wide and 20 m long is loaded with rocks as shown below.
Assume that the center of gravity of the rocks and barge is located along the
centerline at the top surface of the barge. If the rocks and the barge
weigh 200,000 kg, would the barge be stable?
Solution
Assume the datum is at the bottom of the barge.
Firstly we calculate the draft from principles of buoyancy:
Fb = Total weight → γw × Vdis = 200,000 × 9.81

200,000 × 9.81
→ Vdis = = 200 m3
9810
200
→ Vdis = 6 × 20 × D → D = = 1.667m
6 × 20
D 1.667
→ yB = = = 0.833m (from datum)
2 2
yG = 2.4m (as given)
Calculation of BM:
I
BM =
Vdis
I = Moment of inertia for the water line ( smallest I for top view)
20 × 63
→I= = 360m4
12
360
→ BM = = 1.8 m
200
→ yM = yB + BM
→ yM = 0.833 + 1.8 = 2.633 m
GM = yM − yG = 2.633 − 2.4 = 0.233 (+VE) → 𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞✓.
2.
For the shown figure below, a cube of wood of side length (L) is float in
water. If the specific gravity of the wood is 0.88. Determine if this cube is
stable or not.
Solution
Assume the datum is at the

bottom of the cube.
Firstly we calculate the draft
(h=D) in terms of L from
principles of buoyancy:
Fb = Total weight
Fb = γw × Vdis = 9810DL2
Total weight = ρcube material (wood) × g × Vcube

Total weight = 0.88 × 1000 × 9.81 × L3 = 8632.8 L3
2 3
8632.8 L3
→ 9810DL = 8632.8 L → D = h = = 0.88L
9810L2
→ Vdis = DL2 = 0.88L3
D 0.88L
→ yB = = = 0.44L (from datum)
2 2
L
yG = = 0.5L
2
Calculation of BM:
I
BM =
Vdis
L × L3 L4
I= =
12 12
L4
→ BM = = 0.0947L
12 × 0.88L3
→ yM = yB + BM
→ yM = 0.44L + 0.0947L = 0.534L
GM = yM − yG = 0.534L − 0.5L = 0.034 L (+VE) → 𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞✓.
3.
A barge is 4.5m wide and 12m long and floats with a draft of 1.2m. It is
piled so high with gravel so that its center of gravity became
1m above the waterline. Is it stable?
Solution
Firstly, we draw a neat sketch for this problem:
Assume the datum is at the bottom

of the barge.
1.2
yB = = 0.6m
2
yG = 2.2m
Calculation of BM:
I
BM =
Vdis
12 × 4.53
I= = 91.125m4 , Vdis = 4.5 × 12 × 1.2 = 64.8m3
12
91.15
→ BM = = 1.4m → yM = 0.6 + 1.4 = 2m
64.8
GM = yM − yG = 2 − 2.2 = −0.2 (−VE) → 𝐔𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞✓.
4.
The figure below shows a cross section of boat. Show if the boat is stable or
not. If the boat is stable compute the righting moment if the angle of heel is
10o. The boat is float in water and its 6m long.
Solution
Assume the datum is at the bottom of the boat.
1.5
yB = = 0.75m
2
1.5 + 0.3
yG = = 0.9m
2
Calculation of BM:
I
BM =
Vdis
6 × 33
I= = 13.5 , Vdis = 3 × 6 × 1.5 = 27m3
12
13.5
BM = = 0.5m → yM = 0.75 + 0.5 = 1.25m
27
GM = yM − yG = 1.25 − 0.9 = 0.35 (+VE) → 𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞✓.
Important Note:
If the boat is orientated with any angle, the value of GM remains unchanged.
Now when the boat is orientated with an angle of 10 o the cross section will
be as following:
The righting Moment (M)= W × X
W = Fb = γw × Vdis = 9810 × 27 = 264870N
X = GM × sin(10) = 0.35 × sin(10) = 0.0607 m
→ M = 264870 × 0.0607 = 16077.6 N. m = 16.07KN. m✓.
5.
A wooden cone floats in water in the position shown in figure below. The
specific gravity of the wood is 0.6. Would the cone be stable?
Solution
Assume the datum is at the tip of the
cone.
The center of gravity of the cone is
3h
located at from the tip of the cone
4
Firstly we calculate the draft from
principles of buoyancy:
Fb = Total weight
Fb = γw × Vdis = 9810Vdis
Total weight = ρcone × g × Vcone
2
0.18
πr 2 h π × ( 2 ) × 0.25
Vcone = =
3 3
3
= 0.00212m
→ Total weight = 0.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.00212 = 12.48 N.
→ 9810Vdis = 12.48 → Vdis = 0.001272m3 →→ (1)
Let the diameter at the level of water is X→

0.18 X
By interpolation→ = → D = 1.388X
0.25 D
X 2
π × ( ) × 1.388X
Vdis = 2 = 0.363X 3 → substitute from (1)
3
0. 363X 3 = 0.001272 → X = 0.152m → D = 1.388 × 0.152 = 0.21m
3 × 0.21
yB = = 0.1575m (from tip of cone)
4
3 × 0.25
yG = = 0.1875m (from tip of cone)
4
Calculation of BM:
I
BM =
Vdis
I = Moment of inertia at the plane at the water line
The plane (top view) of the cone at the water line is a circle of diameter X
π 4 π
I= D = × 0.1524 = 2.62 × 10−5m4
64 64
Vdis = 0.001272m3
2.62 × 10−5
→ BM = = 0.02m → yM = 0.1575 + 0.02 = 0.1775m
0.001272
GM = yM − yG = 0.1775 − 0.1875 = −0.01 (−VE) → 𝐔𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞✓.
Chapter (4)
Motion of Fluid
Particles and Streams
Fluid Mechanics Motion of Fluid Particles & Streams
Read all Theoretical subjects from (slides Dr.K.AlASTAL)
Patterns of Flow
Reynolds Number (Re):
A dimensionless number used to identify the type of flow.
Inertia Forces ρ×V×D V×D
Re = = =
Viscous Forces μ ν
m
V = mean velocity ( ) , D = pipe diameter (m)
s
ρ = fluid density (Kg/m3 )
μ = Dynamic viscosity (Pa. s) , ν = kinematic viscosity (m2 /s)
For flow in pipe:
If (R e ≤ 2000) →→ The flow is laminar
If (2000 < R e ≤ 4000) →→ The flow is transitional
If (R e > 2000) →→ The flow is turbulent
Read the two Examples (in slides)
Discharge and Mean Velocity:

Discharge: The total quantity of fluid flowing in unit time past any cross
section of a stream is called the discharge or flow at that section (flow rate).
Discharge can be measured by one of the following two methods:
1. In terms of mass (Mass Flow Rate,𝐦,̇):
Mass of fluid dm
ṁ = = = ρ × Q (Kg/s).
time taken to collect the fluid dt
2. In terms of volume (Volume Flow Rate or discharge,Q,):
Volume of Fluid V
Q= = (m3 /s).
Time t
This method is the most commonly used method to represents discharge.
There is another important way to represents Q:
V Area×L
Q= = = Area × Speed → Q = A × v (m3 /s).
t t
Continuity of Flow
Matter cannot be created or destroyed (principle of conservation of mass)
Mass entering per = Mass leaving + Increasing of mass in the control

unit time per unit time volume per unit time
If the flow is steady, no increase in the mass within the control volume.
So,
Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time
Continuity Equation for Steady Flow and Incompressible Flow:

A1 v1 = A2 v2 = Q = constant
This equation is a very powerful tool in fluid mechanics and will be used
repeatedly throughout the rest of this course.
The following problems clarify the concept of continuity of flow
Problems
1.
Water flows through pipe AB 1.3m diameter at speed of 3m/s and passes
through a pipe BC of 1.6m diameter. At C the pipe branches. Branch CD is
0.7m in diameter and carries one third of the flow in AB. The velocity in
branch CE is 2.7m/s. Find the flow rate in AB, the velocity in BC, the
velocity in CD and the diameter of CE.
Solution
π
Q AB = AAB × vAB = ( × 1.32 ) × 3 = 3.982 m3 /s ✓.
4
Q AB = Q BC = 3.982 m3 /s
Q BC 3.982
Q BC = ABC × vBC → vBC = =π = 1.98m/s ✓.
ABC × 1.62
4
1
Q CD = Q AB ( as given)
3
1
Q CD = × 3.982 = 1.327m3 /s
3
Q CD 1.327
Q CD = ACD × vCD → vCD = =π = 3.45 m/s✓.
ACD × 0.72
4
2 2
Q CE = Q AB = × 3.982 = 2.65 m3 /s
3 3
Q CE π 2.65
Q CE = ACE × vCE → ACE = → × D2AB = → DAB = 1.11 m✓.
vCE 4 2.7
2.
Pipe flow steadily through the piping junction (as shown in the figure)
entering section (1) at a flow rate of 4.5m3/hr. The average velocity at
section (2) is 2.5 m/s. A portion of the flow is diverted through the
showerhead 100 holes of 1-mm diameter. Assuming uniform shower flow,
estimate the exit velocity from the showerhead holes.
Solution
By applying continuity equation for the system given:
Q1 = Q 2 + Q 3
4.5
Q1 = 4.5m3 /hr = = 1.25 × 10−3 m3 /s
60 × 60
Q 2 = A2 v2
π
A2 = × (0.02)2 = 3.14 × 10−4 m2 , v2 = 2.5m/s (given)
4
→ Q 2 = 3.14 × 10−4 × 2.5 = 7.854 × 10−4 m3 /s
→ Q 3 = Q1 − Q 2 →
Q 3 = 1.25 × 10−3 − 7.854 × 10−4 = 4.646 × 10−4m3 /s
Q 3 = Q in the 100 hole
Q3 4.646 × 10−4
Q hole = = = 4.646 × 10−6 m3 /s
100 100
Q hole = Ahole × vhole
π
Ahole = × (0.001)2 = 7.854 × 10−7 m2
4
Q hole 4.646 × 10−6
vhole = = = 5.68 m/s✓.
Ahole 7.854 × 10−7
3.
For the shown tank, if the inlet pipe is 40 cm in diameter and the outlet pipes
are 20 cm in diameter.
A. Is the tank filling or emptying and at what rate?
B. What should be the velocity of water at the inlet pipe to keep the water
level in the tank constant?
Solution
A.
π
Q1 = A1 v1 = ( × 0.42 ) × 3 = 0.377 m3 /s
4
π
Q 2 = A2 v2 = ( × 0.22 ) × 1.5 = 0.047 m3 /s
4
π
Q 3 = A3 v3 = ( × 0.22 ) × 2 = 0.063 m3 /s
4
Q1 − Q 2 + Q 3 = 0.377 − (0.047 + 0.063) = +0.267m3 /s
( )
Since the inlet flow rate is larger than outlet flow rate, the tank is filling and
with flow rate of 0.267 m3/s ✓.
B.
The water level in the tank will be constant if the inlet flow equals the outlet
flow.
π
Q1 = (Q 2 + Q 3 ) → ( × 0.42 ) × v1 = (0.047 + 0.063)
4
→ v1 = 0.875 m/s ✓.
4.
In the figure shown is the tank filling or emptying?
At what velocity is the water level rising or falling in this circular tank?
1
3
Solution
π
Q1 = Q in = ( × 0.12 ) × 3 = 0.0235 m3/s
4
π
Q 2 = ( × 0.152 ) × 2.1 = 0.0371 m3 /s
4
π
Q 3 = ( × 0.0752 ) × 1.2 = 0.0053 m3 /s
4
Q out = Q 2 + Q 3 = 0.0371 + 0.0053 = 0.0424 m3 /s
Q in − Q out = 0.0235 − 0.0424 = −0.0189 → Q in < Q out → 𝐄𝐦𝐩𝐭𝐲𝐢𝐧𝐠✓.
The rate of emptying is Q emptying = 0.0189 m3 /s

Q emptying = Atank × vemptying
π
0.0189 = ( × 1.82 ) × vemptying → vemptying = 0.0074 m/s ✓.
4
5.
In the figure shown below, the diameter of pipes (1) and (2) is 3cm and the
diameter of pipe (3) is 4cm. Alcohol (SG = 0.8) enters section (1) at 6m/s
while water enters section (2) at 10 m/s. Assuming ideal mixing of
incompressible fluids, compute the exist velocity and the density of the
mixture in section (3).
Solution
Calculation of velocity in section (3):
Q1 + Q 2 = Q 3
π
Q1 = ( × 0.032 ) × 6 = 0.00424 m3 /s
4
π
Q 2 = ( × 0.032 ) × 10 = 0.00706 m3 /s
4
π
→ 0.00424 + 0.00706 = ( × 0.042 ) × v3 → v3 = 9m/s✓.
4
Calculation of density of mixture (in section 3):
ṁ 1 + ṁ 2 = ṁ3
We know that ṁ = ρ × Q
ρ1 × Q1 + ρ2 × Q 2 = ρ3 × Q 3
800 × 0.00424 + 1000 × 0.00706 = ρ3 × (0.00424 + 0.00706)
→ ρ3 = 925 Kg/m3 ✓.
Chapter (5)
Momentum Equation
and Its Applications
Fluid Mechanics Momentum Equation & Its Applications
Momentum and Fluid Flow

In fluid Mechanics, the analysis of motion is performed in the same way as
in solid mechanics (by use of “Newton’s Laws of Motion”).
From solid mechanics (Newton’s Second Law) stated that:
Total Force(FT ) = ma , m = mass of the solid body , a = acceleration
But, in fluid mechanics, it is not clear what mass of moving fluid, thus we
should use a different form of the equation of Newton’s Second Law.
Newton’s 2nd Law (for fluids) can be written as following:
The rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the total force acting
on the body, and takes place in the direction of the force.
Rate of change of momentum is:

ṁ(v2 − v1 ) = Mass Flow Rate × Change of velocity
According Newton’s 2nd law:
FT = ṁ(v2 − v1 ) , ṁ = ρQ → FT = ρQ(v2 − v1)
This is the total force acting on the fluid in the direction of motion.
Momentum Equation for Two Dimensional Flow along

a Streamline (General Case)
In this case, momentum and total force can be resolving into components in
the x and y directions (since both momentum and force are vector quantities)
FT,x = Rate of change of momentume in x direction
→ FT,x = ṁ(v2,x − v1,x ) = ṁ(v2 cosθ − v1cosθ)
FT,y = Rate of change of momentume in y direction

→ FT,y = ṁ(v2,y − v1,y ) = ṁ(v2 sinθ − v1 sinθ)
ṁ = ρQ = ρ × (A1v1 ) = ρ × (A2 v2 )
FT = √FT,x 2 + FT,y 2
FT,y
θ = tan−1 ( )
FT,x
Important Note:
The force 𝐅𝐓 is made up of three components:
 F1 = FR = Force exerted in the direction of the fluid by any
𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐝 𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲 touching the control volume.
 F2 = FB = Force exerted in the direction of the fluid by a
𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 (gravity force).
FB = Fluid weight + object weight = (ρVg)fluid + (ρVg)object
 F3 = FP = Force exerted in the direction of the fluid by a
𝐟𝐥𝐮𝐢𝐝 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 outside the control volume
FP = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
FP,1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
FP,2 + ⋯ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
FP,n (If the flow is in two dimensional the pressure
will be analyze in x and y directions).such that FP = Pressure × Area
The final relationship for momentum equation will be as following:
𝐅𝐓 = 𝐅𝐑 + 𝐅𝐁 +𝐅𝐏 = 𝛒𝐐(𝐯𝟐 − 𝐯𝟏 )
FR = The force exerted by the 𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲 on the 𝐟𝐥𝐮𝐢𝐝

But, R = −FR = The force exerted by the 𝐟𝐥𝐮𝐢𝐝 on the 𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲
Usually the value of R is required for design purposes ∶
𝐅𝐓 = −𝐑 + 𝐅𝐁 +𝐅𝐏 = 𝛒𝐐(𝐯𝟐 − 𝐯𝟏 ) → 𝐑 = 𝐅𝐁 +𝐅𝐏 − 𝛒𝐐(𝐯𝟐 − 𝐯𝟏 )
→ 𝐑 = 𝐅𝐁 +𝐅𝐏 + 𝛒𝐐(𝐯𝟏 − 𝐯𝟐 ) = Resultant force acting on the body
Note:
When calculating FP the pressure at the inlet and outlet is always applied on
the fluid (if the pressure is positive “not vacuum”), however the velocity is
always in the direction of fluid.
The following figure clarifies this note:
Bernoulli’s Equation
This equation states the relationship between velocity (v), Pressure (P), and
elevation (z) for: steady flow of frictionless fluid of constant density.
This equation is one of the most important equations in fluid mechanics and
engineering applications (as we will discuss in Ch.6).
P v2
+ + z = constant = H (Total Head)
ρg 2g
Bernoulli equation can be written along a streamline between two points (1)
and (2) as following:
P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
ρg 2g ρg 2g
hL = head loss between 1 and 2 (due to friction in pipes)

Assuming no losses between points 1 and 2, the equation will be:
P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
z1 and z2 are elevations of points 1 and 2 from a specific datum usually

taken at point (1) → z1 = 0 and z2 = vertical distance between 1 and 2
𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐢𝐟 𝐲𝐨𝐮 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐠𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝐚𝐧𝐲 𝐢𝐧𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐭𝐡𝐢𝐬 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞, assume it
zero (i. e. assume the two points in the same level)and caculate the pressure.
Applications of the Momentum Equation

Momentum equation is used in several engineering applications as we will
discuss in the problems of this chapter.
Steps in Analysis:
 Draw the control volume.
 Decide on coordinate axis system.
 Calculate the total force FT = ρQ(v2 − v1 )
 Calculate the pressure force FP (usually the pressure is known at one point
and not known at the other point, so we use Bernoulli equation to find it).
 Calculate the body force FB (if you are given the volume of the fluid).
 Calculate the resultant force on the system R (usually it’s required).
Problems
1.
The figure below shows a smooth curved vane attached to a rigid
foundation. The jet of water, rectangular in section, 75 mm wide and 25 mm
thick, deflected on the vane with a velocity of 25m/s. Calculate the vertical
and horizontal components of the force exerted on the vane and indicate in
which direction these components act.
Solution
R = FB +FP + ρQ(v1 − v2 ), but FB = FP = 0.0
→ R = ρQ(v1 − v2 )
A1 = A2 = 0.075 × 0.025 = 0.001875 m2
Since A1 = A2 → v1 = v2 = 25 m/s(as given)
Q = A1 × v1 = 0.001875 × 25 = 0.0468 m3 /s
ρQ = 1000 × 0.0468 = 46.8 kg/s
R x = 46.8(v1,x − v2,x )
v1,x = +25 cos45 = 17.67 m/s , v2,x = +25 cos25 = 22.66 m/s
R x = 46.8(17.67 − 22.66) = −233.5 N (From right to left)✓.
R y = 46.8(v1,y − v2,y )
v1,y = −25 sin45 = −17.67m/s , v2,y = +25 sin25 = 10.56 m/s
R y = 46.8(−17.67 − 10.56) = −1321.16 N (downward)✓.
2.
A square plate of mass 12.7 kg, having uniform thickness and 300 mm
length of edge, is hinged so that it can swing freely about its horizontal edge.
A horizontal jet, 20mm in diameter, strikes the plate with a velocity of 15
m/s. the centerline of the jet is 150mm below the upper edge of the plate so
that when the plate is vertical the jet strikes the plate normally at the center.
Find:
(a)The force (P) must be applied at the lower edge of the plate to keep it
vertical.
(b) What inclination to the vertical the plate will assume under the action of
the jet if allowed to swing freely.
A B
Solution
(a)
Firstly we calculate the force (F) from the water to the jet:
F = R x = FB,x +FP,x + ρQ(v1,x − v2,x ) FB,x = 0.0 and FP,x = 0.0
→ F = R x = ρQ(v1,x − v2,x )
π
Q = Av = × 0.022 × 15 = 0.0047 m3/s
4
v1,x = 15 m/s (Inlet velocity)
v2,x = 0.0 m/s (velocity at the wall is zero)
→ F = R x = 1000 × 0.0047(15 − 0) = 70.5 N
Now by taking summation of moments about hinge equal zero:

∑ M@hinge = 0.0 → 70.5 × 0.15 = P × 0.3 → P = 35.25 N ✓.
(b)
Firstly we calculate the force (F) from the water to the jet:
Assume x-direction is in the same direction of the force F.
F = R x = FB,x +FP,x + ρQ(v1,x − v2,x ) FB,x = 0.0 and FP,x = 0.0
→ F = R x = ρQ(v1,x − v2,x )
π
Q = Av = × 0.022 × 15 = 0.0047 m3/s
4
v1,x = 15 cosθ (Inlet velocity)
v2,x = 0.0 m/s (velocity at the wall is zero)
→ F = R x = 1000 × 0.0047(15 cosθ − 0) = 70.5 cosθ N
The weight of the Plate is act at center G and is equal:
Wplate = mg = 12.7 × 9.81 = 124.58 N
Now by taking summation of moments about hinge equal zero:
0.15
∑ M@hinge = 0.0 → 70.5 cosθ × = 124.58 × 0.15 sinθ
cosθ
→ θ = 34.46° ✓.
3.
Water flows through the elbow as shown in figure below and exits to the
atmosphere. At a mass flow rate of 15 kg/s, the pressure P 1 is 233 kPa.
Neglecting the weight of water and elbow, estimate the horizontal force on
the flange bolts at section (1). [D1=10cm , D2=3cm]
Solution
The horizontal force on flange bolts equals the horizontal component of the
fluid force (Rx).
R x = FB,x +FP,x + ρQ(v1,x − v2,x )
but FB = 0.0 (neglect the wieght of water and elbow "as given")
→ R x = FP,x + ρQ(v1,x − v2,x )
𝐂𝐚𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐅𝐓,𝐱 = 𝛒𝐐(𝐯𝟏,𝐱 − 𝐯𝟐,𝐱 )
ρQ = 15 kg/s (as given) → 1000Q = 15 → Q = 0.015 m3 /s
Q 0.015 Q 0.015
v1 = =π = 1.9 m/s , v2 = =π = 21.22 m/s
A1 × 0.12 A2 × 0.032
4 4
v1,x = +1.9 m/s , v2,x = −21.22 cos40 = −16.25 m/s
→ FT,x = 15(1.9 − (−16.25)) = 272.25 N
𝐂𝐚𝐥𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐅𝐏,𝐱 :
The pressure at section (1) is 233 kPa and the pressure at section (2) is 0.0
because water in section (2) exposed to atmosphere.
π
→ FP,x = P1A1 + 0.0 = 233 × 103 × × 0.12 = 1830 N
4
→ Fbolts in flange = R x = 1830 + 272.25 = 2102.25 N✓.
4.
For the shown cart in the figure. Compute the force on the wheels caused be
deflecting the jet and the compression of the spring if its stiffness is 1.6
kN/m.
Solution
R = FB +FP + ρQ(v1 − v2 ), but FB = FP = 0.0
→ R = ρQ(v1 − v2 ) → force from wter to the jet
R y = ρQ(v1,y − v2,y )
∑ Fy = 0.0 → R y + Fwheels = 0.0 → Fwheels = −R y = ρQ(v2,y − v1,y )
π
Q = A × v = × 0.042 × 20 = 0.025 m3 /s
4
Since A1 = A2 → v1 = v2 = 20 m/s
v1,y = 0.0
v2,y = +20 sin45 = 14.14 m/s
→ Fwheels = 1000 × 0.025(14.14 − 0) = 353.55 N✓.
R x = ρQ(v1,x − v2,x )
∑ Fx = 0.0 → R x + Fspring = 0.0 → Fspring = −R x = ρQ(v2,x − v1,x )
Q = 0.025 m3 /s
v1,x = 20 m/s
v2,x = +20 cos45 = 14.14 m/s
→ Fspring = 1000 × 0.025(14.14 − 20) = −146.5 N
Fspring = −K X (Compression)
→ Fspring = −146.5 = −1.6 × 1000 X → X = 0.0915m = 91.5 mm✓.
5.
The 6-cm-diameter water jet shown in figure below strikes a plate containing
a hole of 4-cm diameter. Part of the jet passes through the hole, and part is
deflected. Determine the horizontal force required to hold the plate.
Solution
The most important note in this question is the flow is not the same at 1 and
2 because the flow at 1 divided into three parts (up, down and to the hole).
The force on the plate equals the horizontal component of the force of water
on the plate (Rx).

FB,x = 0.0 (No body force in x direction)
FP,x = 0.0 (No given presures)
→ R x = ρQ(v1,x − v2,x ) But‼ (Whats wrong )

since Q is not the same at 1 and 2 →→
FPlate = R x = ρQ1 v1,x − ρQ 2 v2,x
π
Q1 = v1 A1 = 25 × × 0.062 = 0.0706 m3 /s
4
π
Q 2 = v2 A1 = 25 × × 0.042 = 0.0314 m3 /s
4
→ FPlate = 1000 × 0.0706 × 25 − 1000 × 0.0314 × 25 = 980 N✓.
6.
In the figure shown below, what is the resultant force on the jets?
3
1 2
Solution
Here the fluid also divided into two components.
R y = FB,y +FP,y + ρQ(v1,y − v2,y )
No body force is given→ FB,x = FB,y = 0.0
R x = FP,x + ρQ(v1,x − v2,x )
R y = FP,y + ρQ(v1,y − v2,y )
But, because the value of Q is not constant→→
R x = FP,x + ρQ1v1,x − ρQ 2 v2,x − ρQ 3v3,x (1 is inlet, 2 and 3 are outlets)

R y = FP,y + ρQ1v1,y − ρQ 2 v2,y − ρQ 3v3,y
Q 2 = A2 v2 = 0.02 × 20 = 0.4 m3 /s
Q 3 = A3 v3 = 0.01 × 20 = 0.2 m3 /s
→ Q1 = Q 2 + Q 3 = 0.2 + 0.4 = 0.6m3 /s
Q1 0.6
→ v1 = = = 6 m/s
A1 0.1
𝐂𝐚𝐥𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐑 𝐱 :
FP,x =? ?
The pressure at 1 is 200 kPa (in x direction), however the pressure at 2 and 3
is 0.0 because they exposed to atmosphere.
FP,x = (200 × 103 ) × 0.1 + 0 + 0 = 20000 Pa
v1,x = +6 m/s , v2,x = +20 m/s , v3,x = +20 cos30 = +17.32 m/s
→ R x = 20000 + 1000 × 0.6 × 6 − 1000 × 0.4 × 20 − 1000 × 0.2 × 17.32
→ R x = 12136 N
𝐂𝐚𝐥𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐑 𝐲 :
FP,y =? ?
The pressure at 1 is 0.0 (in y direction), also the pressure at 2 and 3 is 0.0
because they exposed to atmosphere.
FP,y = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0
v1,y = 0 , v2,y = 0 , v3,y = +20 sin30 = 10 m/s
→ R y = 0.0 + 1000 × 0.6 × 0 − 1000 × 0.4 × 0 − 1000 × 0.2 × 10
→ R y = −2000 N
= √R x 2 + R y 2 = √121362 + −20002 = 12299.7 N✓.

Ry −2000
θ = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( ) = −9.36° ✓.
Rx 12136
7.
The discharge of water through a 140º bend, shown in figure below, is 0.03
m3/s. The bend is lying in the horizontal plane and the diameters at the
entrance and exit are 200mm and 100mm respectively. The pressure
measured at the entrance is 100 kN/m2, what is the magnitude and direction
of the force exerted by the water on the bend?
Solution
R = FB +FP + ρQ(v1 − v2 )
𝐂𝐚𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐅𝐓 = 𝛒𝐐(𝐯𝟏 − 𝐯𝟐 )
Q 0.03
Q = 0.03 m3 /s → v1 = =π = 0.955 m/s
A1 × 0.22
4
Q 0.03
v2 = =π = 3.82 m/s
A2 × 0.1 2
4
FT,x = ρQ(v1,x − v2,x )
ρQ = 1000 × 0.03 = 30 kg/s
v1,x = v1 = +0.955 m/s , v2,x = −v2 cos40 = −3.82 cos40 = −2.92 m/s
FT,x = 30(0.955 − (−2.92)) = 116.25 N
FT,y = ρQ(v1,y − v2,y )

ρQ = 30 kg/s
v1,y = 0.0 , v2,y = +v2 sin40 = 3.82 sin40 = 2.45 m/s
FT,y = 30(0 − 2.45) = −73.5 N
Calculation of Body force (𝐅𝐁 ):

The volume of the fluid in the pipe is not given, so we can neglect the body
force.
Calculation of Pressure force (𝐅𝐏 ):
FP = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
FP,1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
FP,2
P1 = 100 kPa = 10000 Pa , P2 =? ? we use bernoulli equation to find P2
P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2 (Assume no losses)
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Since the bend is in the horizontal plane , so the elevation of the two points
is the same (i.e. canceled each other from Bernoulli equation).
P1 v12 P2 v22 100000 0.9552 P2 3.822
+ = + →→ + = +
ρg 2g ρg 2g 1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81
→ P2 = 93160 Pa
FP,x = Pressure force applied on the x direction

π π
FP,x = 100000 × × 0.22 + 93160 cos 40 × × 0.12 = 3702.1 N
4 4
FP,y = Pressure force applied on the y direction
π
FP,y = 0.0 − 93160 sin 40 × × 0.12 = −470.3 N
4
Now,
R x = FB,x +FP,x + ρQ(v1,x − v2,x ) = 0 + 3702.1 + 116.25 = 3818.35 N
R y = FB,y +FP,y + ρQ(v1,y − v2,y ) = 0 + (−470.3) + (−73.5) = −543.8 N
R = √R x 2 + R y 2 = √3818.352 + −543.82 = 3856.9 N✓.

Ry −543.8
θ = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( ) = −8.1° ✓.
Rx 3818.35
8.
The outlet pipe from a pump is a bend of 45° rising in the vertical plane.
The bend is 150 mm diameter at its inlet (1) and 300 mm diameter at its
outlet (2). The pipe axis at the inlet is horizontal and at the outlet is 1m
higher. By neglecting friction, calculate the force on the bend and its
direction if the inlet pressure is 100 kN/m2 and the flow of water through the
pipe is 0.3 m3/s. The volume of the pipe is 0.075 m3.
Solution
𝐂𝐚𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐅𝐓 = 𝛒𝐐(𝐯𝟏 − 𝐯𝟐 )
Q 0.3
Q = 0.3 m3 /s → v1 = =π = 16.97 m/s
A1 × 0.152
4
Q 0.3
v2 = =π = 4.24 m/s
A2 × 0.32
4
FT,x = ρQ(v1,x − v2,x )
ρQ = 1000 × 0.3 = 300 kg/s
v1,x = v1 = +16.97 m/s , v2,x = +v2 cos45 = 4.24 cos45 = 3 m/s
FT,x = 300(16.97 − 3) = 4191 N
FT,y = ρQ(v1,y − v2,y )

ρQ = 300 kg/s
v1,y = 0.0 , v2,y = +v2 sin45 = 4.24 sin45 = 3 m/s
FT,y = 300(0 − 3) = −900 N
Calculation of Body force (𝐅𝐁 ):

The volume of the fluid in the pipe equals 0.075 m3
FB,x = 0.0 (no weight in x direction)
FB,y = −ρVg = −1000 × 0.075 × 9.81 = −735.75 N
Calculation of Pressure force (𝐅𝐏 ):

FP = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
FP,1 + F⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
P,2
P1 = 100 kPa = 100000 Pa , P2 =? ? we use bernoulli equation to find P2
P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2 (Assume no losses)
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Assume the datum is at the centerline of the inlet:

P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
100000 16.972 P2 4.242

→→ + +0= + +1
1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81
→ P2 = 225191.65 Pa
FP,x = Pressure force applied on the x direction

π π
FP,x = 100000 × × 0.152 − 225191.65 cos 45 × × 0.32 = −9488.5 N
4 4
FP,y = Pressure force applied on the y direction
π
FP,y = 0.0 − 225191.65 cos 45 × × 0.32 = −11255.65 N
4
Now,
R x = FB,x +FP,x + ρQ(v1,x − v2,x ) = 0 + −9488.5 + 4191 = −5297.5 N
→ R y = −735.75 + (−11255.65) + (−900) = −12891.4 N
R = √R x 2 + R y 2 = √−5297.52 + −12891.42 = 13937.4 N✓.

Ry −12891.4
θ = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( ) = 67.66° ✓.
Rx −5297.5
Chapter (6)
Energy Equation and
Its Applications
Fluid Mechanics Energy Equation & Its Applications
Bernoulli Equation
Bernoulli equation is one of the most useful equations in fluid mechanics
and hydraulics. And it’s a statement of the principle of conservation of
energy along a stream line.
Bernoulli Equation can be written as following:
P v2
+ + z = HT = constant
ρg 2g
All these terms have a unit of length (m)
P
 = pressure energy per unit weight = pressure head
ρg
P
We know that P = ρghpressure →→ hpressure = (m).
ρg
v2
 = kinetic energy per unit weight = velocity head
2g
1
1 mv 2 v 2
2
We know that K. E = mv → divided by weight → 2 = (m).
2 mg 2g
 z = potential energy per unit weight = (potential elevation head)
mgz
We know that P. E = mgz → divided by weight → = z (m).
mg
 HT = total energy per unit weight = total head (m).
By using principle of conservation of energy, we can apply Bernoulli

equation between two points (1 and 2) on the streamline:
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐝 𝐚𝐭 (𝟏) = 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐝 𝐚𝐭 (𝟐)

P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
But!!, this equation no energy losses ( e.g. from friction) or energy gains
(e.g. from a pump) along a stream line, so the final form for Bernoulli
equation is:
P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + z1 + hP = + + z2 + hL + hT
ρg 2g ρg 2g
hP = q = Energy supplied by 𝐩𝐮𝐦𝐩 per unit weight (m)

hT = w = work done by 𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐞 per unit weight (m)
hL = Total friction losses per unit weight (m)
Representation of Energy Changes in a Fluid System

(HGL and EGL)
It is often convenient to plot mechanical energy graphically using heights.
Hydraulic Grade Line or (HGL):
P
HGL = +z
ρg
It is the line that joins all the points to which water would rise if piezometric
tubes were inserted .
Energy Grade Line or (Total Energy Line) EGL:
P v2
EGL = total head = + +z
ρg 2g
It is the line that joins all the points that represent the total head (i.e. the
v2
EGL is always above HGL by a velocity head ( ) ).
2g
Important Notes (Guidelines) for drawing HGL and EGL:

 EGL and HGL are falls in the direction of flow due to friction losses (hL).
 EGL and HGL are vertically downward due to minor losses such as:
[ entrance, exit, elbow, valve, increasing or decreasing diameter] if exist.
 EGL and HGL are vertically upward due to the head supplied by pump (if
exist) and tend vertically downward due to head consumed by turbine (if
exist).
 If there exist a reservoir, the EGL and HGL are coinciding with the
surface of fluid in the reservoir because the velocity is zero and the pressure
is atmospheric pressure (zero gauge pressure).
 But if the water exits from a nozzle with a specific velocity the HGL will
coincide with the water because the pressure is zero, but the EGL will be
above HGL by a velocity head.
 Another notes will be described in the problems that we will solve.
Problems
1.
Water flows through the horizontal branching pipe shown below. Calculate:
a) The water speed at section (2).
b) The pressure at section (3).
c) Flow rate at section (4).
Assume no losses and branch in horizontal plane
A2 = 0.0065 m2
P2 = 35 kPa
Solution
a) (v2 =? ? )
Q1 0.28
v1 = = = 3.11 m/s
A1 0.09
By applying Bernoulli equation between sections (1) and (2):
P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
z1 = z2 = 0.0 (system is in horizontal plane)
70 × 103 3.112 35 × 103 v22

+ +0 = + +0
1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81
→ v2 = 8.9 m/s ✓.
b) (P3 =? ? )
By applying Bernoulli equation between sections (1) and (3):
P1 v12 P3 v32
+ + z1 = + + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
z1 = z3 = 0.0 (system is in horizontal plane)
70 × 103 3.112 P3 6.12

+ +0 = + +0
1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81
→ P3 = 5636.8 Pa = 56.37 kPa ✓.
c) (Q 4 =? ? )
Q 2 = A2 × v2 = 0.0065 × 8.9 = 0.0578 m3 /s
Q 3 = A3 × v3 = 0.018 × 6.1 = 0.1098 m3 /s
∑ Q in = ∑ Q out (continuity equation)
Q1 = Q 2 + Q 3 + Q 4 → 0.28 = 0.0578 + 0.1098 + Q 4
→ Q 4 = 0.1124 m3 /s ✓.
2.
For the shown figure below, if D1 > D2. Draw the HGL and EGL.
Solution
Notes:
v21 v22
Since D1>D2 → v1 < v2 → <
2g 2g
As the velocity increase, head losses increase and the line will be steeper.
3.
For the shown figure below, if D1 > D2. Draw the HGL and EGL.
Solution
Notes:
v21 v22
Since D1>D2 → v1 < v2 → <
2g 2g
The exit velocity is not zero, so EGL will not enclosed to HGL at the end.
4.
For the shown figure below, if D3 >D1 > D2. Draw the HGL and EGL.
Solution
Notes:
The new idea here, that there is enlargement as shown above and with this
enlargement, velocity will decrease and thereby head losses decreased as
shown.
The turbine is considered (power consumed) “i.e. losses”
5.
For the shown figure below. Draw the HGL and EGL.
Solution
Note that when the diameter is gradually decreased, the HGL and EGL also
will gradually decrease as a curved lines as shown.
6.
For the system shown below.
a) What is the direction of flow?
b) What kind of machine is at A?
c) Do you think both pipes, AB and CA, are the same diameter?
d) Sketch the EGL for the system.
Solution
a)
The flow direction is from right (point B) to left (point C) because the head
losses increased from right to left.
b)
The machine at A is a pump because it’s generating energy (rising head) as
shown.
c)
No, pipe CA has a smaller diameter than pipe AB because the slope of the
HGL due to pipe CA is steeper than HGL due to pipe AB and this means the
velocity in pipe CA is higher than velocity in pipe AB and thereby losses.
d)
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

There are several applications of Bernoulli equation and will be discussed in
the problems of this chapter.
Important notes before solving problems:
 Three equations should be in mind:
 Bernoulli equation.
 Continuity Equation.
 Up down method (Ch.2)
 When the fluid is flowing from section (1) to section (2), some losses of
energy will occur between sections (1) and (2), so we include a coefficient
of discharge (Cd) to get the actual discharge:
Q actual = Cd × Q Theoritical
Q Theoritical = the calculated discharge = Av
This will be clarified in problems later.
 Pump is a machine that consuming electricity power to produce a head of
water.
 Turbine is a machine that consuming energy from water to produce power
elevtricity.
 If we want to calculate the power:
Power = ρQgH (Watt)
746 Watt = 1 horse power
Power consumed by pump = ρQghp
Power generated by turbine = ρQght
If we need the power supplied by any object (machine, reservoir, jet, etc…)
just calculate the total head and apply in power equation above.
We can also calculate the efficiency of pump or turbine or any system:
Powerout
η=
Powerin
For pump:
Powerout = ρQghp Powerin = electricity power
For turbine:
Powerout = electricity power Powerin = ρQght
Problems
1.
What is the head that must be supplied by the pump to the water to pump 0.4
m3/s from the lower to the upper reservoir ?
Hint: [The head loss in the pipes is given in the figure as a function of water velocity].
Solution
Firstly we calculate the velocities of each pipe, assume the pipe in left side is
pipe (1) and the pipe in right side is pipe (2).
Q = 0.4 m3 /s
Q 0.4
v1 = =π = 12.73 m/s
A1 × 0.22
4
Q 0.4
v2 = =π = 22.64 m/s
A2 × 0.152
4
Now we calculate the head loss for each pipe (from given formulas):
V12 12.732
hL,1 = 22.5 × = 22.5 × = 185.84m
2g 2 × 9.81
V22 22.642
hL,2 = 45 × = 45 × = 1175.62m
2g 2 × 9.81
hL,total = 185.84 + 1175.62 = 1361.46m
Now apply Bernoulli equation between points (1) and (2):
P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + z1 + hP = + + z2 + hL + hT
ρg 2g ρg 2g
hT = 0.0 (because there is no turbine between 1 and 2)
P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + z1 + hP = + + z2 + hL
ρg 2g ρg 2g
P1 = P2 = 0.0 (1 and 2 are exposed to atmosphere)
v1 = v2 = 0.0 (surface of each reservoir is constant)
→ 0 + 0 + 100 + hP = 0 + 0 + 150 + 1361.46 → hP = 1411.46 m✓.
2.
A pipe of a diameter 6 mm connects tank A and open container B as shown
in figure below. The liquid having a specific weight of 9780 N/m3 and a
viscosity of 0.0008 kg/m.s.
v2
The pressure PA=34.5 kPa and the head loss from pipe CD is hL = 25
2g
a) Which direction will the water flow and what is the flow rate?
b) Is the flow in pipe CD laminar or turbulent?
Solution
a)
We calculate the head loss for pipe CD:
v2 v2
hL = 25 = 25 × = 1.274v 2
2g 2 × 9.81
Assume the fluid is moving from container B to tank A.
Now apply Bernoulli equation between points (1) and (2):
P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + z1 + hP = + + z2 + hL + hT
ρg 2g ρg 2g
hP = hT = 0.0 (because there is no pump and turbine between 1 and 2)
P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
ρg 2g ρg 2g
P1 = 0.0 (1 is exposed to atmosphere)
P2 = 34.5 kPa = 34500 Pa
v1 = v2 = 0.0 (surface of each reservoir is constant)
z1 (from datum) = 1.4 + 4.3 sin45 = 4.44m
z2 (from datum) = 1m
34500
→ 0 + 0 + 4.44 = + 0 + 1 + 1.274v2 → v2 = −0.06875
9780
→ v = −√0.06875 = −0.262m/s
The negative sign means, the fluid is moving opposite to the assumed
direction (i.e. the flow is from tank A to container B) ✓.
π
Q = A × v = × 0.0062 × 0.262 = 7.40 × 10−6 m3/s ✓.
4
b)
ρ×V×D
Re =
μ
9780
ρ= = 996.94 kg/m3
9.81
996.94 × 0.262 × 0.006
Re = = 1959 < 2000 → Laminar ✓.
0.0008
3.
When the pump shown in figure below draws 0.06 m3/s of water
from the reservoir, the total friction head loss is 5 m. The flow discharges
through a nozzle to the atmosphere. Estimate the pump power in kW
delivered to the water.
Solution
We apply Bernoulli Equation
between points (1) and (2) 2
Q = 0.06 m3 /s
1
Q 0.06
vexit = = = 30.6 m/s
Ae π × 0.052
4
vexit = v2
v1 = 0.0 (fluid is static in reservoir)
P1 = P2 = 0.0 (exposed to atm. )
Assume the datum at point (1), so:
z1 = 0.0, z2 = 2m
P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + z1 + hP = + + z2 + hL + hT
ρg 2g ρg 2g
hT = 0.0 (because there is no turbine between 1 and 2)
P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + z1 + hP = + + z2 + hL → Apply now:
ρg 2g ρg 2g
30.62
0 + 0 + 0 + hP = 0 + + 2 + 5 → hP = 54.72m
2 × 9.81
The pump power = ρQghP = 1000 × 0.06 × 9.81 × 54.72 = 32208.2 Watt
The pump power = 32.2 kW ✓.
4.
For the water system shown, the velocity at section (1) is v1=0.6m/s.
Calculate the mercury manometer reading, h.
Notes:
 Losses are neglected.
 Section 2 is opened to atmosphere.
 ρmercury = 13600 kg/m3 , ρwater = 1000 kg/m3
Solution
Apply Bernoulli equation between points (1) and
(2):
P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + z1 + hP = + + z2 + hL + hT
ρg 2g ρg 2g
hP = hT = hL = 0.0
P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Assume datum is passing through centerline of
section (1) → z1 = 0.0 , z2 = 3m
v1 = 0.6m/s (apply continuity equation to find v2 )
π 2
A1 × v1 4 × 0.075 × 0.6
A1 × v1 = A2 × v2 → v2 = = π = 5.4 m/s
A2 × 0.0252
4
P2 = 0.0 (opened to atmosphere)
To calculate P1 , use up down method:
P1 + 9810 × 0.6 − 13600 × 9.81 × h = 0.0 → P1 = 133416 h − 5886
Now apply in Bernoulli equation:
133416 h − 5886 0.62 5.42
+ +0 = 0+ +3
9810 2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81
→ h = 0.372 m ✓.
5.
Kerosine flows through the pump shown in figure below at 0.065 m3/s. Head
losses between 1 and 2 are 2.4 m, and the pump delivers 8 hp to the flow.
What should the mercury manometer reading h be?
 ρmercury = 13600 kg/m3 , ρkerosine = 804 kg/m3
1 y
Solution
Apply Bernoulli equation between points (1) and (2):
P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + z1 + hP = + + z2 + hL + hT
ρg 2g ρg 2g
hT = 0.0
hL = 2.4 m
Power = 8 hP = 8 × 746 = 5968 Watt
Power = ρQghP → 5968 = 804 × 9.81 × 0.065 × hP → hP = 11.64 m
Assume datum is passing through centerline of section (1) → z1 = 0.0 ,
z2 = 1.5m
Q 0.065
v1 = =π = 14.7m/s
A1 × 0.0752
4
Q 0.065
v2 = =π = 3.68m/s
A2 × 0.152
4
Apply in Bernoulli equation:

P1 14.72 P2 3.682
+ + 0 + 11.64 = + + 1.5 + 2.4
804 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 804 × 9.81 2 × 9.81
→ P2 − P1 = 142471.37 →→→ Eq. (1)
Now apply up down method between 1 and 2:
P1 + ρk gy + ρm gh − ρk g(h + y + 1.5) = P2
→ P2 − P1 = 125528.26 h − 11830.86
Substitute from Eq. (1):
125528.26 h − 11830.86 = 142471.37 → h = 1.23 m ✓.
6.
Oil flows through a pipe as shown in figure below. If the coefficient of
discharge (Cd) for the orifice in the pipe is 0.63. Calculate the discharge of
oil in the pipe.
Solution
Firstly we apply Bernoulli equation between points (1) and (2):
P1 v12 P2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
z1 = z2 = 0.0 (by assuming the datum passing through points 1 and2)
P1 −P2 v22 − v12
→ =
ρg 2g
Now, by applying continuity equation between (1) and (2):
A1 v1 = A2 v2
π
A1 = × 0.252 = 0.049 m2
4
π
A2 = × 0.12 = 0.00785 m2
4
→ 0.049 × v1 = 0.00785v2 → v1 = 0.16 v2
P1 −P2 v22 − 0.16v22 P1−P2 0.84v22
→ = → =
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Now, by applying up down method between (1) and (2):
P1 + 910 × 9.81 × y + 910 × 9.81 × 0.35 − 13600 × 9.81 × 0.35
−910 × 9.81 × y = P2 → P1 − P2 = 43571.115 Pa.
43571.115 0.84v22
→ = → v2 = 10.67 m/s
ρg 2g
→ Q theo = A2 v2 = 0.00785 × 10.67 = 0.0838 m3 /s
→ Q actual = Q theo × Cd = 0.0838 × 0.63 = 0.053m3 /s ✓.
7.
A weir of cross section shown below is used to measure the flow rate.
Calculate this value of flow rate (Q).
Solution
We divide this cross section for rectangle with dimensions of (0.2 x 0.4) and
triangle with dimensions of (0.4 x 0.1) and then we sum the two values of Q.
For rectangle:
The flow rate for the shown element is:
∆Q = ∆A × ∆v
∆A = 0.4 × ∆h
∆v = √2gh
∆Q = 0.4 × √2gh × ∆h
But the value of h is varies from
0 to 0.2m, so the value of v also
varies and thereby ∆Q is varies
with h, so, to find the total discharge for this rectangle we integrate from 0 to
0.2m to get total amount of discharge:
0.2 0.2
Q = ∫0 0.4 × √2gh × ∆h = 0.4 × √2g × ∫0 h0.5 ∆h
h1.5
→ Q = 1.77 × [ ] (from 0 to 0.2)
1.5
0.21.5
Q = 1.77 × [ − 0] = 0.106 m3 /s
1.5
For triangle:
Here the width of the triangle b(h) varies
with depth h so we find b(h) as a function
of h from trigonometry:
b(h) 0.4
= → b(h) = 1.2 − 4h
0.3 − h 0.1
∆Q = ∆A × ∆v
∆Q = (1.2 − 4h) × ∆h × √2gh
∆Q = √2g × (1.2h0.5 − 4h1.5) ∆h
Now the integration will be from (h=0.2
to h=0.3)
0.3
Q = √2g ∫ (1.2h0.5 − 4h1.5) ∆h
0.2
h1.5 h2.5
Q = 4.3 × [1.2 × −4× ] (from h = 0.2 to h = 0.3)
1.5 2.5
0.31.5 0.32.5 0.21.5 0.22.5
→ Q = 4.3 × ([1.2 × −4× ] − [1.2 × −4× ])
1.5 2.5 1.5 2.5
→ Q = 4.3 × (0.0526 − 0.043) = 0.0413m3 /s
The total value of Q is :
Q rectangle + Q triangle = 0.106 + 0.0413 = 0.147m3 /s ✓.

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Fluid Mechanics Discussion

Shear Stress in Moving Particles

The following figure exhibit the velocity profile in a circular pipe:

Newtonian & Non-Newtonian Fluid

kg×m N×S2 Kg N×S2 N

2. Coefficient of Kinematic Viscosity (𝛎):

Surface Tension(σ): is a force per unit length (N/m)

The weight of the fluid is balanced

Large values of bulk modulus refer to incompressibility which indicates the

Famous Unit Conversion

 1m3 = 106 cm3 .

Vsoda = Vtube = 335ml = 335 × 10−6m3

→ 1005V = ρ2 × 3V → 1005 = 3ρ2 → ρ2 = 335 Kg/m3

γsoda = ρsoda × g = 335 × 9.81 = 3286.35 N/m3 ✓.

du = velocity of rotating cylinder in (m/s).

dy = ( always is: distance perpendicular to the direction of shear force)

→ Shear force (F) = 292.8 × 0.1256 = 36.7 N.

→ Torque = 36.7 × 0.05 = 1.838 N. m ✓.

The shear stress caused by cylindrical tube is:

Fshear = π × d × L × τ = 3.14 × 0.07 × 0.15 × 27

The weight of cylindrical body = Fshear = 0.89 N✓.

∑ F = 0.0 → F = τ1 × A + τ2 × A → F = A × (τ1 + τ2)

→ F = 0.5 × (13.33 + 13.33) = 13.33 N ✓.

→ τ = 1.12 × 10−3 × 40 = 44.8 × 10−3N/m2 ✓.

h = 0.01m , ρg = γ = 1.2 × 104 N/m3 , d = 0.002m , θ = 0 →

0.01 × 1.2 × 104 × 0.002

∑ F = 0.0 → Fσ = Weight of water column

Fσ = 2 × σ × b × cos(𝜃 ) (2 because there are two plates)

→ Fσ = 0.0152 N with inclination of θ with horizontal →→

The weight of the blade is:

→ 0.0152 sin(θ) = 6.278 × 10−3 → θ = 24.4° ✓.

Fσ = σ × total length = 7.34 × 10−2 × 0.154 = 0.0113 N

Fσ,vertical = 0.0113 sin(θ)

W = Mg = 2.61 × 10−3 × 9.81 = 0.0256N

Now, the maximum value of sin(θ) = 1 so, the maximum value

K = 2.05 × 109 Pa.

∆p = Pf − Pi (Pi = 0.0 because no applied forces in first case)

Pascal’s Law for Pressure at a point

Variation of Pressure Vertically in a Fluid under

Consider the vertical cylinder immersed in fluid of mass density ρ as shown

→ P1 − P2 − ρ × g × (Z2 − Z1 ) = 0.0 → ∆P = P1 − P2 = +ρg(Z2 − Z1 )

From the above derivation we note the following:

Equality of Pressure at the Same Level in a Static Fluid

General Equation for Variation of Pressure in a Static

Pressure and Head

As shown in figure above, distance z is measured from the free surface

Absolute Pressure: is the sum of gauge and atmospheric pressures and it is

Pressure Measurement by Manometers

416.935 + 1000 × 9.81 × 0.05 + 13600 × 9.81 × 0.1 = PA

PA = 14249 Pa = 14.249 kPa✓.

Distance from point (2) to gauge (B) = 1.8-1.5= 0.3m

PA − 1000 × 9.81 × 1 − 0.9 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.8

+1000 × 9.81 × 0.3 = PB

→ PA − PB = 13,8930.2 Pa = 13.93 kPa ✓.

0 + (13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.7)

−(13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.5)

−(1000 × 9.81 × 2.7)

−(0.8 × 1000 × 9.81 × 2.4) = PA

Solve the equation for h→ h = 6.52 m ✓

60 × 103 + 0.8 × 1000 × 9.81 × 3 + 1000 × 9.81 × 2 = PB

60 × 103 − 1000 × 9.81 × 3 = PC → PC = 30570 Pa = 30.57 kPa.

0 + 1000 × 9.81 × 0.8 − 1000 × 9.81 × 0.3 = PB

PB = P2 = 4905 Pa (because same fluid and continuous)

P1 = P2 and P3 = P4 (Solution Key)