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A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of Life. Usually all cells consist of a membrane,
cytoplasm and a nucleus.
1. Cell membrane
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Structure:
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Also called plasma membrane.
A thin, delicate layer made of layers of proteins and fats.
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Completely surrounds and holds in the constituents of the cell.
Function:
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High surface area of the cell provides for absorption of nutrients and the disposal of wastes.
Differentially permeable, controlling the transport of materials in and out of the cell.
Allows certain small substances like glucose, water and oxygen to enter the cell.
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Prevents larger molecules like protein and starch from leaving the cell.
2. Nucleus
Structure: 01
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Most prominent structure of the cell
Usually spherical in shape.
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Nucleoplasm is the cytoplasm-like material that fills up the nucleus. It contains chromatin, which
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is made up of DNA.
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Function:
Involved in cell division.
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Nuclear pores act as channels, permitting certain molecules to enter or leave the nucleus.
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3. Cytoplasm
Structure:
Jelly-like substance.
Fills up the cell.
Suspension of various organelles.
Functions:
It is here that metabolism takes place.
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from glucose molecules in the cell.
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Involved in chemical energy conversion during metabolic activities of the cell.
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b) Protoplasm (Cell Membrane + Nucleus + Cytoplasm)
Structure:
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Combination of the living parts of the cell.
Functions:
Cells with protoplasm are regarded as living.
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c) Vacuoles
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Sacs filled with cell sap, a watery solution of sugars, salts and pigments.
d) Endoplasmic Reticulum
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Structure:
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absent.
Function:
They are assembly-lines for making fats and proteins out of smaller molecules in the cell.
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e) Ribosomes
Structure:
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2. Cell wall
Structure:
Rigid wall made up of a layer of cellulose.
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Function:
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Provides support and shape to the individual plant cell.
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3. Vacuole
Structure:
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Large components.
Known as the sap vacuole.
Filled with a fluid called cell sap.
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Membrane that surrounds a vacuole is called a tonoplast.
Function:
Plays a role in osmoregulation.
Maintaining the shape of the cell. 01
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4. Chloroplasts
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Structure:
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Similarities:
1. Cell membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Nucleus
Differences:
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determines the size and shape of the cell.
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It also helps to support and strengthen the
plant.
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Chloroplasts Stores food as starch. Can be found in Not present.
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plastids. It contains chlorophyll to trap
light energy for photosynthesis. Excess carbohydrate is stored as
glycogen granules.
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Sap vacuole Large and centrally located. It is usually Small in size. There may be some food
Tonoplast
filled with cell sap.
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This is the membrane that surrounds the
vacuole or contractile vacuoles present.
Not present.
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sap vacuole, formed by a layer of
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cytoplasm.
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TISSUES IN PLANTS
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a) Epidermal tissue
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Structure:
1.One layer of cells.
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Function:
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b) Meristamatic tissue:
Structure:
1.Is made up of undifferentiated cells.
Function:
1.Undergoes cell division to produce new cells.
d) Photosynthetic tissue
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Structure:
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1.Contains cells with chloroplasts.
Functions:
1.Cells with chlorophyll.
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2.Absorption of sunlight.
3.Carrying out photosynthesis.
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TISSUES IN ANIMALS (More important for Human Biology)
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a) Bone (connective tissue)
Structure:
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Bone is alive. It consists of living cells which are supplied with food and oxygen by blood vessels.
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The cells are arranged in rings around the blood vessels. Bone is mostly made of mineral substances
(such as calcium, phosphate with small amounts of magnesium salts) which make it very hard. Bone
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The hardest bone is called compact bone is on the outside. Underneath this is a layer of spongy
bone which has spaces in it and stops the bone from becoming too heavy. In the center is the bone
marrow which is very soft and has a good supply of blood. Red blood cells, white blood cells and
platelets are made here.
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Function:
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b) Muscle tissue
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i) Voluntary (striated muscle) e.g. all muscles attached to bones are striated.
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Structure:
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Function:
1. The striated muscles are under conscious control.
2. They help to carry out locomotion.
Functions:
1. Smooth muscles are involuntary muscles and carry out involuntary actions i.e. actions which
are not controlled by the will.
2. The elongated cell can shorten its length and so contribute to muscle contraction.
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3. Help in breathing and peristalsis.
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iii) Cardiac muscle (found only in the heart).
Structure:
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1. Adjacent cells in cardiac muscle are linked by bridges between cells.
2. They contain striated cytoplasm.
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Function:
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1. Cardiac muscle makes up the walls of the atria and ventricles.
2. It controls the movement of the heart.
cells.
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3.There are also small fragments formed from special cells in the bone marrow, called platelets.
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Function:
1.Red blood cells carry oxygen.
2.Glucose, amino acids, salts, hormones, blood proteins and antibodies are substances which are
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d) Nervous tissue
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Structure:
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Function:
1. Conducts nerve impulses throughout the body.
e) Epithelial tissue
i) Squamous surface for e.g. the cells lining the cheek are squamous.
Structure:
1.It is made up of sheets of cells.
Functions:
1. The cilia helps to sweep dust particles up the bronchi and trachea into the pharynx.
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2. The cilia are always moving and bacteria or dust particles get trapped in them in the mucus.
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3. Cilia in the nose also waft the mucus into the oesophagus where it is swallowed.
4. Some epithelial cells are specialized to secrete substances e.g. mucus in the lining of the nose.
These are gland cells. Gland cells may clump together in large groups forming the glands of
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the body.
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Specialization of cells: The changing of the shape and size (adaptation) of a cell for
performing a particular function is known as Specialisation or Differentiation of cells.
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[After MITOSIS, one of the cells retains the ability to divide further and the other cell
adapts for a particular task.]
In Plants
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1. Root hair cell: It has long hairs to increase surface area of the cell. It has a large number of
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mitochondria to provide energy for active up take.
2. Xylem vessels: It transports water and minerals to the plant. The xylem cells are dead and are
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made of long hollow tubes running throughout the root, stem, and leaves. It has thick cell walls.
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3. Phloem cells: They transport sugar and amino acids to the body from the place they were made
(the leaf). The phloem cells are long cells joined together. The cell wall where 2 phloem cells join
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together has holes which allows the cytoplasm of both cells to communicate passing down the
dissolved food.
4. Guard cell (stomata): Allows O2 and CO2 to pass in and out the leaf. They can change their
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In Animals
5. Red blood cells: It transports oxygen from the lungs to tissues. It has no nucleus, t has
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hemoglobin which absorbs oxygen, its shape gives it a high surface area and it is small to fit in
capillaries.
6. Nerve cells: they conduct electrical impulses which travel to & from the brain. They are very long
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and their chemical reactions cause impulses to travel through their fibers. They also have a layer of
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7. White blood cells: These occur in large amounts in the blood stream. They get rid of bacteria and
viruses. They are able to change shape and can penetrate the blood vassals to enter tissues. They also
contain enzymes that kill microorganisms in their cytoplasm.
8. Ciliated cell: These have cilia (hairs) which can move mucus away from the lungs by a wavy
motion.
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ORGAN SYSTEMS
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Organ system Function
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Integumentary Waterproof barrier.
system(skin) Regulate temperature.
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Respiratory system Takes in oxygen
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Releases carbon dioxide.
Circulatory system Regulates body temperature.
Transports food, wastes, and gases to and from cells.
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Muscular system Movements of parts of the body.
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Absorbs nutrients.
Undigested food is eliminated.
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Excretory system Removes wastes from the body (includes lung and skin).
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ANIMAL CELL
*The cover slip prevents the lens from coming in contact with the specimen. It also prevents the
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entry of dust, the cover slip should be lowered carefully, so that no air bubbles are trapped, using a
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sharp needle.
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*Chloroplast are absent in an onion cell as they do not photosynthesize.
STAINS:
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They allow the organelles to be vivid while observing under a microscope. The organelles like
nucleus, chloroplast, and cell membrane become clear as they absorb the stain.
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*Iodine is one of the more commonly available stains and is used to identify starch in a variety of
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samples. It will stain carbohydrates in plants and animal specimens brown or blue-black. Glycogen
will show as red.
*Methylene Blue is an alkaline stain useful in identifying acidic cell nuclei and DNA in animal,
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bacteria or blood samples. It’s also useful in aquariums to prevent the spread of fungal infections in
fish.
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*Eosin Y is an acidic stain which stains pink for alkaline cells (cytoplasm, for example). It colors
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red for blood cells, cytoplasm and cell membranes. Eosin's most important medical uses are in blood
and bone-marrow testing.
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*Gram's Stain is one of the most frequently used processes in identifying bacteria – used daily in
hospitals. It is a primary test that quickly and cost effectively divides bacteria into one of two types:
Gram positive or Gram negative.
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2. Animal Cell:
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i. Take some liver cells or using a cotton bud gently scrape the inner surface of your cheeks.
ii. Rub the glass slide using the cotton bud.
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Organizations of cells:
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