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PHONOLOGY created
by Cristian C Cuesta
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martes, 11 de agosto de 2015
PHONETICS VS PHONOLOGY
WEEK 1
In the previous image of the page popplett.com explain in the concept map the components of the
linguistics and the explication of the phonetics and phonology.
Having preliminarily discussed vowel length and aspiration, let us now consider the sound system of
English more systematically. We would like to understand what information about English pronunciation is
incorporated in a speaker's knowledge of language--a central question of phonetics.
EXAMPLES:
VOCAL TRACK:
The airway used in the production of speech, especially the passage above the larynx, including the phar
ynx, mouth,and nasal cavities.:
EXAMPLE:
ENGLISH VOWELS:
Open syllable: Kate [keit], Pete [pi:t], note [nout], site [sait], cute [kyu:t].
Closed syllable: cat [kæt], pet [pet], not [not], sit [sit], cut (the neutral sound [ə]).
CONSONANT SOUND:
EXAMPLE:
MINIMAL PAIRS:
A minimal pair is a pair of words that vary by only a single sound, usually meaning sounds that may
confuse English learners, like the /f/ and /v/ infan and van, or the /e/ and /ɪ/ in desk and disk
EXAMPLE:
DIPTHONGS:
A gliding monosyllabic speech sound (as the vowel combination at the end of toy) that starts at or near
the articulatory position for one vowel and moves to or toward the position of another
EXAMPLE:
TRIPHTHONGS:
A compound vowel sound resulting from the succession of three simple ones and functionig as a unit.
EXAMPLE:
SYLLABES:
an uninterrupted segment of speech consisting of a vowel sound, adiphthong, or a syllabic consonant, wit
h or without preceding orfollowing consonant sounds:
EXAMPLES:
WORD STRESS:
the stress accent on the syllables of individual words either in a sentence or in isolation
EXAMPLE:
ASSIMILATION:
the act or process by which a sound becomes identical withor similar to a neighboring sound in one or mo
re defining characteristics, as place of articulation, voice or voicelessness, or manner of articulation.
EXAMPLE:
PROSODY:
EXAMPLE:
INTONATION:
the sound changes produced by the rise and fall othe voice when speaking, especially when this has
an effect on the meaning of what is said:
CONNECTED SPEECH:
When we speak naturally we do not pronounce a word, stop, then say the next word in the sentence.
Fluent speech flows with a rhythm and the words bump into each other. To make speech flow smoothly
the way we pronounce the end and beginning of some words can change depending on the sounds at the
beginning and end of those words.
EXAMPLE:
ENGLISH VOWEL SYSTEM: - WEEK 2
LONG AND SHORT VOWELS:
When a vowel sounds like its name, this is called a long sound. A vowel letter can also
have short sounds. Whether a vowel has a long sound, a short sound, or remains silent, depends on its
position in a word and the letters around it. Click on the following vowel letters to hear their long and short
sounds.
EXAMPLES:
Now this is my video explication in and summary about in the topic:
A group of two or more consonant sounds that come before (onset), after (coda), or between
(medial) vowels. Also known as cluster.
EXAMPLES:
Observations:
"English can actually have larger onset clusters, as in the words stress and splat,
consisting of three initial consonants (CCC). The phonotactics of thee larger
onset clusters is not too difficult to describe. The first consonant must always be
/s/, followed by one of the voiceless stops (/p/, /t/, /k/) and a liquid or glide (/l/, /r/,
/w/). You can check if this description is adequate for the combinations
in splash,spring, strong, scream and square."
(George Yule, The Study of Language, 4th ed. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2010)
"In some instances the consonant cluster may coincide with a cluster which can occur at
the end of a word without a suffix; for example the words lapseand laps end with the
same consonant cluster and in fact are homophonous, and the same is true
ofchaste and chased." (Charles W. Kreidler, The Pronunciation of English: A Course
Book. Blackwell, 2004)
Consonant Cluster Reduction:
- "Consider the example of word-final consonant cluster reduction as it affects
sound sequences such as st, nd, ld, kt, and so forth in various English dialects.
The rule of word-final consonant cluster reduction may reduce items such
as west, wind, cold, and act to wes', win', col', and ac' respectively. The incidence
of reduction is quite variable, but certain linguistic factors systematically favor or
inhibit the operation of the reduction process. . . . With respect to the
phonological environment that follows the cluster, the likelihood of reduction is
increased when the cluster is followed by a word beginning with a consonant.
This means that cluster reduction is more frequent in contexts such aswest
coast or cold cuts than in contexts like west end or cold apple."
(Walt Wolfram, "Dialect in Society." The Handbook of Sociolinguistics, ed. by
Florian Coulmas. Blackwell, 1997)
EXAMPLES:
CONSONANT SOUNDS PRODUCE AND CLASSIFICATED - WEEK 4
A consonant is a letter of the alphabet that represents a speech sound produced by a partial
or complete obstruction of the air stream by a constriction of the speech organs.
CLASSIFICATION:
In the following video I explain some examples about the previous topic keep in mind the chart 13 that is
into of webgraphy information:
2 WHAT IS THE WORD STRESS?
In English, we do not say each syllable with the same force or strength. In one word, we
accentuate ONE syllable. We say onesyllable very loudly (big, strong, important) and all the
Let's take 3 words: photograph, photographer andphotographic. Do they sound the same when
spoken? No. Because we accentuate (stress) ONE syllable in each word. And it is not always
This happens in ALL words with 2 or more syllables: TEACHer, JaPAN, CHINa, aBOVE,
The syllables that are not stressed are weak or small or quiet. Fluent speakers of English listen
for the STRESSED syllables, not the weak syllables. If you use word stress in your speech, you
will instantly and automatically improve your pronunciation and your comprehension.
Try to hear the stress in individual words each time you listen to English - on the radio, or in
films for example. Your first step is to HEAR and recognise it. After that, you can USE it!
1. One word, one stress. (One word cannot have two stresses. So if you hear two stresses,
ASSIMILATION:
A general term in phonetics for the process by which a speech sound becomes similar or
identical to a neighboring sound. In the opposite process, dissimilation, sounds become less
similar to one another.
"Assimilation is the influence of a sound on a neighboring sound so that the two become
similar or the same. For example, the Latin prefix in- 'not, non-, un-' appears in English as il-
, im-. and ir- in the wordsillegal, immoral, impossible (both m and p are bilabial consonants),
and irresponsible as well as the unassimilated original form in- in indecent and incompetent.
Although the assimilation of the n of in- to the following consonant in the preceding
examples was inherited from Latin, English examples that would be considered native are
also plentiful. In rapid speech native speakers of English tend to pronounce ten bucks as
though it were written tembucks, and in anticipation of the voiceless s in son the final
consonant of his in his son is not as fully voiced as the s in his daughter, where it clearly is
[z]." 33
Direction of Influence
"Features of an articulation may lead into (i.e. anticipate) those of a following segment, e.g.
English white pepper /waɪt 'pepə/ → /waɪp 'pepə/. We term this leading assimilation.
"Articulation features may be held over from a preceding segment, so that the
articulators lag in their movements, e.g. English on the house /ɑn ðə 'haʊs/ → /ɑn nə 'haʊs/.
This we term lagging assimilation.
"In many cases there is a two-way exchange of articulation features, e.g. English raise your
glass /'reɪz jɔ: 'glɑ:s/ → /'reɪʒ ʒɔ: 'glɑ:s/. This is termed reciprocal assimilation."34
ELISION:
In phonetics and phonology, the omission of a sound (a phoneme) in speech. Elision is common
in casual conversation.
More specifically, elision may refer to the omission of an unstressed vowel, consonant,
or syllable. This omission is often indicated in print by an apostrophe.
"Elision of sounds can . . . be seen clearly in contracted forms like isn't (is not), I'll (I
shall/will), who's (who is/has), they'd (they had, they should, or they would), haven't (have
not) and so on. We see from these examples that vowels or/and consonants can be elided.
In the case of contractions or words like library(pronounced in rapid speech as /laibri/), the
whole syllable is elided." 37
The Nature of Reduced Articulation
"It is easy to find examples of elision, but very difficult to state rules that govern which
sounds may be elided and which may not. Elision of vowels in English usually happens
when a short, unstressed vowel occurs between voiceless consonants, e.g. in the first
syllable of perhaps, potato, the second syllable ofbicycle, or the third syllable
of philosophy.38
WEAK FORMS:
Weak forms are syllable sounds that become unstressed in connected speech and are often then
pronounced as a schwa.
Example
In the sentence below the first 'do' is a weak form and the second is stressed.
In the classroom
Structural words, such as prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles are often pronounced in
their weak form, since they do not carry the main content, and are therefore not normally stressed.
Learners can find them difficult to hear and this interferes with understanding. Counting the number
of words in a sentence, or sentence dictations can help raise awareness of weak forms. 41
EXAMPLES:
In the following spidermap explain the topic corresponding of the WEEK 8:
for view better the spider map this is the website:
https://bubbl.us/?h=2d1b9d/5a9cb1/29GWVDx8QaK0I&r=460553451
PROSODY - WEEK 9
What is Prosody?
One way to appreciate prosody is to listen to sentences where the prosody is
not quite right. For this, we'd like you to meet two robots, each with differently
deficient prosody: R1D1 has defective speech rhythm. R1P1 has defective
pitch control.
R1D1 has two moods: when he is playful, he picks a random
R1D1 is
number between 10 and 400 milliseconds and use that for the
playful
Duration phone duration.
R1D1 is When he is serious, he assigns the same duration value to
serious each phone.
R1P1 is R1P1 doesn't know how to control pitch: when he is playful,
playful he creates random melody for his sentence.
Pitch
R1P1 is When he is serious, he uses the same pitch values, or
serious monotone.
We use the term "prosody" broadly, meaning a time series of speech-related
information that's not predictable from a reasonable window (i.e. word-sized or
sentence-sized) applied to the phoneme sequence. This could include pitch,
duration, amplitude, and gestures.
Clearly, with our broad definition of prosody, hand gestures, eyebrow and face
motions, can be considered prosody, because they carry information that
modifies and can even reverse the meaning of the lexical channel. In this
tutorial, however, we concentrate on pitch (f0) modeling.
INTONATION - WEEK 10
Intonation
Intonation describes how the voice rises and falls in speech. The three main patterns of intonation in
English are: falling intonation, rising intonation and fall-rise intonation.
Falling intonation
Falling intonation describes how the voice falls on the final stressed syllable of a phrase or a group of
words. A falling intonation is very common in wh-questions.
EXAMPLES:
We also use falling intonation when we say something definite, or when we want to be very clear about
something:
EXAMPLE:
Rising intonation:
Rising intonation describes how the voice rises at the end of a sentence. Rising intonation is common in
yes-no questions:
EXAMPLES:
I hear the Health Centre is expanding. So, is that the new d↗octor?
Fall-rise intonation:
Fall-rise intonation describes how the voice falls and then rises. We use fall-rise intonation at the end of
statements when we want to say that we are not sure, or when we may have more to add:
EXAMPLE:
I do↘n’t support any football team at the m↘om↗ent. (but I may change my mind in future).
It rained every day in the firs↘t w↗eek. (but things improved after that).
We use fall-rise intonation with questions, especially when we request information or invite somebody to
do or to have something. The intonation pattern makes the questions sound more polite:
EXAMPLE:
Is this your cam↘er↗a?
Tone, in linguistics, a variation in the pitch of the voice while speaking. The word tone is usually applied
to those languages (called tone languages) in which pitch serves to help distinguish words and
grammatical categories—i.e., in which pitch characteristics are used to differentiate one word from
another word that is otherwise identical in its sequence of consonants and vowels.
For example:
PITCH HEIGHT:
PRINCIPLES OF THE CONNECTED SPEECH AND SONG THE HALLOWEEN - WEEK
14:
1.1 Assimilation
Sounds that belong to one word can cause changes in sounds belonging to other words. When a word’s
pronunciation is affected by sounds in a neighbouring word, we call this process assimilation. We find
that sounds in the affected word become more like sounds in the neighbouring word. The two sounds
can become more alike in terms of voice, place or manner. Assimilation occurs when speech is rapid and
casual. Changes in sound that occur in rapid speech are said to be due to gradation.
Direction of change
If a phoneme is affected by one than comes later in the sentence, the assimilation is termed
regressive. If a phoneme is affected by one that came earlier in the utterance, the assimilation is termed
progressive.
It is never the case that a word final voiceless consonant becomes voiced because of a word initial voiced
consonant (although this does happen in many languages).
Examples:
Cats kQts voiceless final consonant and suffix
Dogs d•gz voiced final consonant and suffix
The same is true when an <s> is added to a noun to make a possessive suffix or to a verb to make the
third person singular suffix.
Examples:
Possessive
Jack’s dZQks voiceless final consonant and suffix
John’s dZ•nz voiced final consonant and suffix
Examples:
That person DQt pÎ:s•n DQp pÎ:s«n final alveolar changes to bilabial
That thing DQt TIN DQt 9TIN final alveolar changes to dental
Good night gUd gÎl gUg gÎ:l final alveolar changes to velar
Within words
Within codas, if a nasal comes before a plosive or a fricative, its place of articulation is determined by that
of the other consonant. This process is fixed in English as there are very few exceptions.
Examples:
Bump bÃmp bilabial nasal and plosive
Bank bQNk velar nasal and plosive
Hunt hÃnt alveolar nasal and plosive
1.1.3 Assimilation of manner
Assimilation of manner is only found in very fast casual speech. In general speakers change sounds to
sounds that are ‘easier’, those that obstruct the airflow less and therefore require less energy.
Examples:
Good night gUd naIt > gUn naIt a final plosive becomes a nasal (regressive)
That side DQt saId > DQs saId a final plosive becomes a fricative (regressive)
Read these ri:d Di:z > ri:d9 d9i:z an initial fricative becomes a plosive (progressive), this only
happens when a word final nasal or plosive is followed by a word initial D
1.1.4 Coalescence
Coalescence is a special type of assimilation process. In coalescence, the process of assimilation is bi-
directional and two segments combine to produce one. In English this often happens when an alveolar
plosive is followed by a palatal approximant (j) and they combine to form a palato-alveolar affricate.
Example:
Did you dId ju: > dIdZu:
1.2 Elision
Elision is the loss of a phoneme. In technical language we say that the phoneme is deleted or is realised
as zero. Elision occurs more in fast casual speech, thus elision is a process of gradation. There are
many examples of elision in English, a few are given below.
Example:
1.3 r sandhi
Sandhi is a process where a sound is modified when words are joined together Some linguists
distinguish two types of r sandhi,, linking and intrusive r.
1.3.1 Linking r
You will remember that for speakers of non-rhotic accents r is not pronounced after vowels. So the
pronunciations of ‘car’ is kA: and of ‘more’ is m•: However, in these accents, when words that are
spelled ending with an <r> or an <re> come before a word beginning with a vowel, the r is usually
pronounced. This is linking r. In rhotic accents the r is also pronounced when the words are in isolation
so cannot be termed linking.
Examples:
Far away fA: «wQy > fAr «wQy
More ice m•: aIs > m•:r aIs
1.3.2 Intrusive r
Intrusive r also involves the pronunciation of an r sound, but this time there is no justification from the
spelling as the word’s spelling does not end in <r> or <re>. Again this relates to non-rhotic accents; rhotic
accents do not have intrusive r.
When Caxton brought his printing press to London, spelling gradually became stabilised and
the London dialect was used as standard. Some other continental conventions were introduced however,
and sometimes printers would miss letters out of words so they would fit on the line.
Silent letters are a similar case. Letters such as <k> in ‘knee’ and <e> in ‘time’ were pronounced at the
time spelling was standardised but were lost from pronunciation later on.
2.3.1 Etymology
In the 16th century many scholars decided that spelling should be altered to reflect the roots of words. So,
for example, a <b> was added to ‘debt’ to reflect its origins in the Latin word ‘debitum’.
2.3.2 Borrowings
In the 16th and 17th centuries, many non-English words were introduced into the language from French,
Latin, Greek, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese. Often the spelling was left unchanged from the foreign
spelling. The problem continues today as we still borrow extensively (think about ‘quesadillas’).
There is, however, regularity to some extent as the length of the vowel is usually indicated by either:
Consonant doubling indicates a short preceding vowel cp. ‘coma’ and ‘comma’
or
A final <e> after a consonant marks the previous vowel as long cp. ‘win’ and ‘wine’(49)(50)
ˈevrɪbɒdɪ skriːm ˈevrɪbɒdɪ skriːmɪn ˈaʊə taʊn I am the clown with did there
əv Halloween way face
High in a flag and gone without
aɪ æm ðə klaʊn wɪð ðiː tərəˈweɪfeɪs a trees
I am the hot when you call hurts
hɪə ɪn ə flæʃ ənd gɒn wɪˈðaʊt ətreɪs deal
I am the wind blowing truth jay
aɪ æm ðə huː wen jʊ kɔːl huːz ðeə/ hill
I am the shadow in the moon at
aɪ æm ðə wɪnd ˈbləʊɪŋ θruː jə heə night
Feeling yet dreams to the brain
aɪ æm ðə ˈʃædəʊ ɒn ðə muːn ət naɪt with frate
1. LINKING
2. LINKING OF VOWEL TO VOWEL
3. LINKING OF CONSONANT TO CONSONANT (GEMINATION)
4. ELISION
5. SYNCOPE
6. APHESIS
7. ASSIMILATION
8. PROGRESIVE ASSIMILATION
9. REGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION
I am the shadow
This is Halloween ,
this is Halloween, on the moon at
Halloween Halloween, night
Halloween, Halloween Filling your
In this place we could dreams to the
home everyone jail to brim with fright
the pumpkin song This is
Halloween, this is
Halloween
Halloween!
Halloween!
Halloween!
Halloween!
Tender lump
lings everywhere
Life's no fun
without a good
scare
INTONATION:
Intonation describes how the voice rises and falls in speech. The three main patterns of intonation in
English are: falling intonation, rising intonation and fall-rise intonation.
Falling intonation
Falling intonation describes how the voice falls on the final stressed syllable of a phrase or a group of
words. A falling intonation is very common in wh-questions.
EXAMPLES:
Where’s the nearest p↘ost-office?
What time does the film f↘inish?
We also use falling intonation when we say something definite, or when we want to be very clear about
something:
EXAMPLES:
I think we are completely l↘ost.
OK, here’s the magaz↘ine you wanted.
Rising intonation
Rising intonation describes how the voice rises at the end of a sentence. Rising intonation is common
in yes-no questions:
EXAMPLES:
I hear the Health Centre is expanding. So, is that the new d↗octor?
Are you th↗irsty?
Fall-rise intonation
Fall-rise intonation describes how the voice falls and then rises. We use fall-rise intonation at the end of
statements when we want to say that we are not sure, or when we may have more to add:
EXAMPLES:
I do↘n’t support any football team at the m↘om↗ent. (but I may change my mind in future).
It rained every day in the firs↘t w↗eek. (but things improved after that).
We use fall-rise intonation with questions, especially when we request information or invite somebody to
do or to have something. The intonation pattern makes the questions sound more polite:
EXAMPLES:
Is this your cam↘er↗a?
Would you like another co↘ff↗ee?(57)
SUPRASEGMENTALS:
The term suprasegmental (referring to functions that are "over" vowelsand consonants) was
coined by American structuralists in the 1940s.
"It a'int what you say but the way you say it." This familiar comment, immortalized in song, is the time-
honored way of briefly indicating what suprasegmental analysis is all about.
The segments of spoken language are the vowels and the consonants, which combine to produce
syllables, words, and sentences.
But at the same time as we articulate these segments, our pronunciation varies in other respects. We
make use of a wide range of tones of voice, which change the meaning of what we way in a variety of
different ways. Suprasegmental features operate over longer stretches of speech, such as rhythm and
voice quality as opposed to segmental features, which are the individual sounds.
Students of language and those who plan careers in language teaching, coaching, therapy, acting, and
speaking will benefit greatly from understanding how they can influence meaning by things like length,
intonation, stress, and tone and other suprasegmental features.
lolo "brain"
lōlō "slang - hardheaded
kala "to forgive"
kāla "money"
ka lā "the sun"
pau "finished"
pa'u "soot"
pa'ū "skirt"
In English, you can express your emotions by lengthening certain sounds in sentences. By varying the
tempo of words (such as lengthening specific sounds) you can communicate your feelings.
Intonation - the rising and falling of the voice (pitch) over a stretch of sentence
If pitch varies over an entire phrase or sentence, we call the different pitch curves by the
term intonation. Intonation conveys the speaker's attitude or feelings. In other words, intonation can
convey anger, sarcasm, or various emotions.
How do these sentences - with the exact same words -- mean very different things with different
intonation?
Other languages don't use intonation in this way. "John told me to leave" is "Jose me mando a salir"
in Spanish. But it's not possible to say Jose me mando a salir or Jose me mando a salir, as we can in
English. Instead of raising your voice to emphasize a word, Spanish uses word order and places the word
to be emphasized at the end of the sentence (note: the written accent marks are left out below):
White House (the US President's house) white house (a house that's white)
nitrate night rate
record (noun) record (verb)
address (noun) address (verb)
When combined with pausing after certain words, the meaning of the whole sentence can completely
change. Click the underlined words to hear the phrases, paying attention to the pauses. Sometimes the
resulting change of meaning is funny, as examples 1 and 2 below demonstrate. (Click the underlined
words to hear them pronounced.)
Example 1: A tight-rope walker is an acrobat. A tight ropewalker is a drunk ropewalker.
WEBGRAPHY:
WEEK 1:
http://www.mind.ilstu.edu/curriculum/theory_of_language/23/
5 What Are the Consonant Sounds and Letters in English? (n.d.). Retrieved November
17, 2015, from http://grammar.about.com/od/c/g/consonaterm.htm
WEEK 2:
6 ABC FAST Phonics - 11: Long and Short Vowels. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17,
2015, from http://www.abcfastphonics.com/long-short-vowels.html
7 (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from http://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/diphthong
8 (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015,
from http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/features/connected.shtm
WEEK 3 & 5
9 What Are Consonant Clusters in English? (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
http://grammar.about.com/od/c/g/Consonant-Cluster-Cc.htm
10 What Are the Consonant Sounds and Letters in English? (n.d.). Retrieved November
17, 2015, from http://grammar.about.com/od/c/g/consonaterm.htm
WEEK 4:
25 Crystal,D. (2003). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics (4th ed.). Oxford, UK:
Blackwell.
26 Denham, K., & Lobeck, A. (2010). Linguistics for everyone: An introduction. Boston,
MA: Wadsworth/ Cengage Learning.
27 Finegan, E. (2012). Language: Its Structure and Use, (6th ed). Wadsworth
28 Knowles, G.,& McArthur, T. (1992). The Oxford Companion to the English Language,
edited by Tom McArthur. Oxford University Press,
29 Parker, F., & Riley, K , (1994). Linguistics for Non-Linguists, (2nd ed.). Allyn and Bacon
30 What Is a Syllable? (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
http://grammar.about.com/od/rs/g/syllableterm.htm
31 What is Word Stress? (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
https://www.englishclub.com/pronunciation/word-stress-2.htm
WEEK 9:
WEEK 10:
43 Intonation - gramática inglés en. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/es/gramatica/gramatica-britanica/intonation
44 Linguistics 001 -- Lecture 15 -- Language and Gender. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
http://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_2011/ling001/gender.html
45 Making a chart to help us learn the tone rules in Thai. Wow, they are ridiculously complicated. I
appreciate Hmong more. | Travis Gore: Illustration and Design. (2013, June 23). Retrieved November 17,
2015, from http://travisgore.com/making-a-chart-to-help-us-learn-the-tone-rules-in-thai-wow-they-are-
ridiculously-complicated-i-appreciate-hmong-more/
46 Part 6.0: Using PRAAT to analyze tonal languages. (2014, June 6). Retrieved November 17, 2015,
from https://colangpraat.wordpress.com/part-6-0-using-praat-to-analyze-tonal-languages/
47 Tone | speech. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
http://global.britannica.com/topic/tone-speech
WEEK 14:
49 Clear Language, Clear Mind. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
http://emilkirkegaard.dk/en/?tag=english-spelling-reform
50 Linguistics hanoi university. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
http://www.slideshare.net/tungnth/linguistics-hanoi-university
51 (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from http://www.rachaelanne.net/teaching/uev/uev4.doc
52 (n.d.). Retrieved November 18, 2015, from http://www.incatena.org/viewtopic.php?f=4&t=39704
53 Processes of Connected Speech. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
http://www.slideshare.net/Adri_Gonzalez/processes-of-connected-speech
54 Rachael-Anne Knight, 2003, University of Surrey - Roehampton Understanding English Variation, Week
4
55 Speech phenomena. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
http://www.slideshare.net/Kengiro/speech-phenomena
WEEK 15:
65 What Are Suprasegmentals in Speech? (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2015, from
http://grammar.about.com/od/rs/g/Suprasegmental.htm
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