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PREFACE
This Bridge Design Manual-2002 is one of the series of “Design Manuals, Standard Contract
Documents and Specifications” prepared under a credit financing of the International
Development Agency (IDA). The consulting services were provided by the Louis Berger
Group, Inc.
This manual has been developed from current international practice appropriately modified
to take account of local experience and conditions. It is written for the practicing Engineer.
ERA formed a Working Group charged with evaluating and commenting upon the draft
manual and guiding the Consultant on the preparation of the final manuals. Members of the
Working Group and the Louis Berger Group/SABA team for this manual consists of the
following:
Companion Documents and Manuals prepared under the same service are the following:
10. Standard Tendering Documents For Road Work Contracts National Competitive
Tendering (NCT) - 2002
11. Standard Bidding Documents For Road Work Contracts
International Competitive Bidding (ICB) - 2002
Appropriate reviews and comments were also provided by agencies and individuals through
ERA’s Project Working Group. The Working Group wishes to acknowledge for the
contributions made by all other specialists within ERA and outside of ERA in the
preparation of these Manuals and Documents.
The layout of this Manual has been arranged with the following hierarchy:
• Chapter
• Major heading or Section (level one)
• Sub-Section within the major heading (level two)
• Sub-sub-Section within the second level subject matter (level three)
All tables are described by number beginning with one (1) at the first of each Chapter.
Figures are described in a similar manner.
Updates:
This manual will be updated and revised from time to time, as deemed appropriate.
Significant changes to criteria, procedures or any other relevant issues related to the new
policies or revised law of the land, ERA, or that is mandated by the relevant Federal
Government Ministry or Agency, should be amended and incorporated in the manual as soon
as possible after their date of effectiveness.
Other minor changes, not affecting the whole nature of this manual, may be accumulated and
made periodically. When a change is approved, new page(s) instituting the revisions,
together with the revision date, will be issued and inserted in to the relevant Chapters.
All revisions to the Bridge Design Manual will be made strictly in accordance with the
following procedures:
(1) Any proposed change will be submitted by or through the Head of the Design
(Branch, Division) of ERA.
(2) The proposed change, addition, or deletion will be submitted on a Manual Change
form 1-1(see the attached form) and forwarded with an explanation of its need and
purpose.
(3) If the change is approved, the General Manager will sign the Manual Change form
and return a copy to the Head of the Design (Branch, Division), who will arrange for
the change to be incorporated into the Bridge Design Manual.
(4) The Head of the Design (Branch, Division) will re-issue all effected pages of the
manual showing the proper revision date as shown on the Manual Change form.1-1.
Section
Table Explanation To be deleted To be inserted
Figure
FOREWORD
This is the first comprehensive Bridge Design Manual prepared for the use and technical
guidance of design personnel of the Ethiopian Roads Authority and consultants doing Bridge
Design for the Authority. However, it may also be used as a guide by other agencies
undertaking relevant work in the road sector.
The Ethiopian Roads Authority has prepared this Manual under a credit from the
International Development Agency (IDA) for design of roads in order to standardize design
practices in all ERA design works.
The road network comprises a huge national asset that requires adherence to appropriate
standards for design, construction and maintenance in order to provide a high level of
service. As the length of the engineered road network is increasing, appropriate choice of
methods to preserve this investment becomes increasingly important.
This Manual has particular reference to the prevailing conditions in Ethiopia and reflects
ERA’s experience gained through activities within the road sector during the last 50 years.
The design standards set out in this Manual shall be adhered to unless otherwise directed by
the concerned bodies with in ERA. However, I will like to emphasize that careful
consideration to sound engineering practice shall be observed in the use of the Manual, and
under no circumstances shall the Manual waive professional judgment in applied
engineering. For simplification in reference this Manual may be cited as “ERA Bridge
Design Manual - 2002.”
It is my sincere hope that this Manual will provide all users with both a standard reference
and a ready source of good practice for the design of roads, and will assist in a cost effective
operation, and environmentally sustainable development of our road network.
I look forward to the practices contained in this Manual being quickly adopted into our
operations, thereby making a sustainable contribution to the improved infrastructure of our
country.
As this Manual due to Technological development and change, requires periodic updating,
comments and suggestions on all aspects from any concerned body, group or individual as
feedback during its implementation is expected and will be highly appreciated.
Tesfamichael Nahusenay
General Manager
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This Bridge Design Manual - 2002 is based on a review of the design standards of several
countries, among which are AASHTO, ITE, FHA and TRB (USA), TRRL (UK), EBCS
(Ethiopia), Swedish standards, Australian Standards and EUROCODE 1,2,3 (Europe).
In the selection of the appropriate bridge standards for Ethiopia, material from these and
other sources have been gleaned and evaluated to determine the set of standards most
appropriate for Ethiopia and Ethiopian conditions.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface... .....................................................................................................................................i
Foreword...................................................................................................................................iv
Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................v
List of Illustrations ................................................................................................................. xii
Glossary ... ..............................................................................................................................xix
Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................xxvi
1 Introduction
1.1 Units..................................................................................................................... 1-2
1.2 Conversion Factors: (Metric to/from SI-units) .................................................... 1-2
2 General Requirements
2.1 Design Philosophy ............................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 Notations.............................................................................................................. 2-1
2.3 Geometric Requirements ..................................................................................... 2-2
2.4 Minimum Dimensions ......................................................................................... 2-4
2.5 Load Assumptions ............................................................................................... 2-8
2.6 Deflection .......................................................................................................... 2-10
2.7 Design Working Life ......................................................................................... 2-11
2.8 Limit States........................................................................................................ 2-11
2.9 Ductility ............................................................................................................. 2-13
2.10 Redundancy ....................................................................................................... 2-14
3 Load Requirements
3.1 Scope.................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 Notations.............................................................................................................. 3-1
3.3 Load Factors and Combinations .......................................................................... 3-4
3.4 Load Factors for Construction Loads .................................................................. 3-9
3.5 Load Factors for Jacking and Posttensioning Forces .......................................... 3-9
3.6 Dead Loads (DC = Structural Component; DW = Wearing Surface;
EV = Vertical Earthfill) ....................................................................................... 3-9
3.7 Earth Loads (EH = Horizontal Earth; ES = Earth Surcharge;
DD = Downdrag) ............................................................................................... 3-10
3.8 Gravity Loads: (LL = Vehicular Live Load; PL = Pedestrian Live Load) ........ 3-10
3.9 Application of Design Vehicular Live Loads .................................................... 3-17
3.10 Fatigue Load ...................................................................................................... 3-19
3.11 Rail Transit Load ............................................................................................... 3-22
3.12 Pedestrian Loads ................................................................................................ 3-22
3.13 Dynamic Load Allowance (IM = Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance) ......... 3-23
3.14 Centrifugal Forces (CE = Vehicular Centrifugal Force) ................................... 3-24
3.15 Braking Force (BR = Vehicular Braking Force) ............................................... 3-25
3.16 Vehicular Collision Force (CT = Vehicular Collision Force) ........................... 3-25
3.17 Water Loads (WA = Water Load and Stream Pressure) .................................... 3-26
3.18 Wind Load (WL = Wind on Live Load; WS = Wind Load on Structure)..........3-29
3.19 Earthquake Effects (EQ = Earthquake)..............................................................3-34
3.20 Earth Pressure (EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure; ES = Earth Surcharge;
Ls = Live Load Surcharge; DD = Downdrag)....................................................3-50
3.21 Force Effects Due to Superimposed Deformations: TU, TG, SH, CR, SE ........3-68
3.22 Friction Forces: FR.............................................................................................3-70
6 Substructure Design
6.1 Scope......................................................................................................................6-1
6.2 Notation .................................................................................................................6-1
APPENDICES
CB Composite Bridge 24.0-m span, 7.32-m width ................................................CB1-CB63
EB Steel Reinforced Elastic Bearings ...................................................................... EB1-EB3
GB Girder Bridge................................................................................................... GB1-GB28
MB Masonry Bridge 12.0-m span & 7.32-m width .............................................. MB1-MB37
RB Roller Bearings...................................................................................................RB1-RB2
RW Design of RC Cantilever Retaining Wall...................................................... RW1-RW12
SB Slab Bridge 6.0-m clear span & 4.5-m width....................................................SB1-SB10
TB Timber Bridge 12.0-m span & 4.5-m width....................................................... TB1-TB5
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figures
Figure 3-1 Moment and Shear Ratios: Exclusion Vehicles to HS20 (truck or lane)
or Two 110 kN Axles at 1.2m .....................................................................3-13
Figure 3-2 Moment and Shear Ratios: Exclusion Vehicles to National Model ...........3-14
Figure 3-3 Moment and Shear Ratios: Notional Model to HS20 (truck or lane) or
Two 110 kN Axles at 1.2m..........................................................................3-14
Figure 3-4 Characteristics of the Design Truck ............................................................3-15
Figure 3-5 Design Tandem Load...................................................................................3-16
Figure 3-6 Debris Raft for Pier Design .........................................................................3-28
Figure 3-7 Plan View of Pier Showing Stream Flow Pressure .....................................3-28
Figure 3-8 Flow Chart for Seismic Design of Bridge Components ..............................3-36
Figure 3-9 Earthquake Zones ........................................................................................3-37
Figure 3-10 Seismic Response Coefficients, CSM for Various Soil Profiles,
Normalized with Respect to Acceleration Coefficient “A”
(CSM on the left axis)...................................................................................3-39
Figure 3-11 Hold down device ........................................................................................3-44
Figure 3-12 Longitudinal loading....................................................................................3-46
Figure 3-13 Effect of Groundwater Table .......................................................................3-52
Figure 3-14 Location of Resultant for Horizontal Earth Pressure...................................3-53
Figure 3-15 Notation for Coulomb at Earth Pressure......................................................3-55
Figure 3-16 Application of Coulomb Earth Pressure Theories in Retaining
Wall Design .................................................................................................3-56
Figure 3-17 Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Sloping
Wall with Horizontal Backfill .....................................................................3-57
Figure 3-18 Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Vertical
Wall with Sloping Backfill ..........................................................................3-58
Figure 3-19 Settlement Profiles Behind Braced or Anchored Walls ..............................3-61
Figure 3-20 Earth Pressure Distribution for MSE Wall with Level Backfill Surface.....3-62
Figure 3-21 Earth Pressure Distribution for MSE Wall with Sloping Backfill Surface .3-62
Figure 3-22 Earth Pressure Distribution for MSE Wall with Broken Back
Backfill Surface ...........................................................................................3-63
Figure 3-23 Horizontal Pressure on Wall Caused by Uniformly Loaded Strip ..............3-64
Figure 3-24 Horizontal Pressure on Wall Caused by a Point Load.................................3-64
Figure 3-25 Horizontal Pressure on Wall Caused by an Infinitely Long Line
Load Parallel to the Wall ............................................................................3-65
Figure 3-26 Horizontal Pressure on Wall Caused by a Finite Line Load
Perpendicular to the Wall ............................................................................3-66
Figure 3-27 Positive Vertical Temperature Gradient in Concrete and Steel
Superstructures ............................................................................................3-69
Figure 6-1 Procedure for Estimating Sliding Resistance for Walls on Clay ................... 6-6
Figure 13-1 Notional Model for Applying Lever Rule to Three-Girder Bridges............ 13-8
Figure 13-2 Common Deck Superstructures ................................................................. 13-12
Figure 13-3 Values of θ and β for Sections with Transverse Reinforcement ................13-21
Figure 13-4 Values of θ and β for Sections without Transverse Reinforcement...........13-22
Figure 13-5 Illustration of Ac .........................................................................................13-24
Figure 13-6 Flow Chart for Shear Design......................................................................13-25
Figure 13-7 Guide to the Selection of Sx .......................................................................13-26
Figure 13-8 Forces Assumed in Resistance Model Caused by Moment and Shear.......13-27
Tables
Table 5-1 Maximum Design Water Velocity at Different Scour Protections ................... 5-8
Table 5-2 Normal Thickness of Arch Barrel (Arch Ring) .............................................. 5-19
Table 5-3 Suppliers of Premade Bridges ........................................................................ 5-26
Table 6-1 Resistance Factors for Strength Limit State for Shallow Foundations............. 6-3
Table 6-2 Resistance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit State in
Axially Loaded Piles......................................................................................... 6-4
Table 6-3 Resistance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit State in
Axially Loaded Drilled Shafts .......................................................................... 6-5
Table 7-1 Values for Cohesion Factor, c, and Friction Factor, µ ......................................7-5
Table 7-2 Material Properties of Different Arch Bridge Stones......................................7-13
Table 8-1 Permissible Stresses (Mpa) for Filled PTFE Bearings ......................................8-8
Table 8-2 Design Coefficients of Friction – Service Limit State ......................................8-9
Table 8-3 Shear Modulus G.............................................................................................8-10
Table 8-4 Low-Temperature and Minimum Grades of Elastomer ..................................8-11
Table 8-5 Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing – Balanced Design .............................8-16
Table 13-7 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Shear in Interior Beams ................. 13-16
Table 13-8 Distribution of Live Load Per Lane for Shear in Exterior Beams ................ 13-17
Table 13-9 Correction Factors for Load Distribution Factors for Support
Shear of the Obtuse Corner........................................................................... 13-17
Table 13-10 Values of θ and β for Section with Transverse Reinforcement.................... 13-23
Table 13-11 Values of θ and β for Section without Transverse Reinforcement............... 13-23
Forms
GLOSSARY
Bridges may be categorized according to their main use, such as highway bridges, railway
bridges, pedestrian bridges, etc. They may also be sorted according to the material used in
their construction, such as reinforced concrete bridges, steel bridges, stone bridges, timber
bridges, etc. They may also be sorted into rigid, removable and floating bridges.
In this manual, the type of design is used to categorize the bridges: slab bridges and girder
bridges, which are called framed if the slabs or beams are rigid at the supports, tube bridges,
arch bridges, truss bridges, cable bridges and suspension bridges.
Apart from these means of grouping bridges, there are a great number of combinations and
variations.
Active Earth Pressure – Lateral pressure resulting from the retention of the earth by a
structure or component that is tending to move away from the soil mass.
Active Earth Wedge – Wedge of earth with a tendency to become mobile if not retained by
a structure or component.
Accidental design situation – Design situation involving exceptional conditions of the
structure or its exposure, e.g. collision, explosion, impact or local failure.
Aeroelastic Vibration – Periodic, elastic response of a structure to wind.
Anchorage – In post-tensioning, a mechanical device used to anchor the tendon to the
concrete; in pretensioning, a device used to anchor the tendon the tendon until the
concrete has reached a predetermined strength and the prestressing force has been
transferred to the concrete; for reinforcing bars, a length of reinforcement, or a
mechanical anchor or hook, or combination thereof, at the end of a bar needed to
transfer the force carried by the bar into the concrete.
Appurtenances – Curbs, parapets, railings, barriers and lighting posts attached to the bridge
deck
Arching Action – A structural phenomenon in which wheel loads are transmitted primary
by compressive struts formed in the slab.
Axle Unit – Single axle or tandem axle.
Band – A strip of laminated wood deck within which the pattern of butt joints is not
repeated.
Basal Heave – The inflation at the bottom of a wall
Bolster – A spacer between a metal deck and a beam.
Bridge – A structure with a of total clear opening above 6.0-m. A structure with a clear span
opening less than that is a culvert. Small bridge 6-15 m, Medium 15-50 m and Large
bridge above 50 m total length.
Bulkhead – A steel element attached to the side of stress laminated timber decks to
distribute the prestressing force and reduce the tendency to crush the wood.
Deck System – A superstructure, in which the deck is integral with its supporting
components, or in which the effects or deformation of supporting components on the
behavior of the deck is significant.
Design criteria – The quantitative formulations, which describe for each limit state the
conditions to be fulfilled.
Design Lane – A notional traffic lane positioned transversely on the roadway.
Design span – The center-to-center distance between the adjacent supporting components
(i.e. bearings), taken in the primary direction (= theoretical span length).
Design Water Depth – Depth of water at mean high water.
Design Water flow – The statistical flow, which occurs in a certain design period, usually
every 50 or 100 years.
Design Water level – The statistical water level, which occurs in a certain design period,
usually every 50 or 100 years. Sometimes called highest high water level or
maximum water level.
Design working life – The assumed period for which a structure is to be used for its
intended purpose with anticipated maintenance but without substantial repair being
necessary, usually 100-120 years for bridges.
Dynamic Load Allowance – An increase in the applied static force effects to account for the
dynamic interaction between the bridge and moving vehicles.
Effective Length – The span length used in the empirical design of concrete slabs.
Elastic – A structural response in which stress is directly proportional to strain and no
deformation remains upon removal of loading.
Engineer – Person responsible for the design of the bridge
Equilibrium – A state where the sum of forces parallel to any axis and the sum of moments
about any axis in space, are 0.0.
Equivalent Strip – An artificial linear element, isolated from a deck for the purpose of
analysis, in which extreme force effects calculated for a line of wheel loads,
transverse or longitudinal, will approximate those actually taking place in the deck.
Equivalent Fluid – A notional substance whose density is such that it would exert the same
pressure as the soil it is seen to replace for computational purposes.
Extreme – A maximum or a minimum.
Falsework – A framework of wood or steel used to support forms for the construction of RC
slab spans or girders, or to provide temporary support for structural units (stone
masonry arch) during the construction or reconstruction of permanent supports.
Flexural Continuity – The ability to transmit moment and rotation between components or
within a component.
Floorbeam – The traditional name for a cross-beam.
Footprint – The specified contact area between wheel and roadway surface.
Form of structure – The arrangement of structural elements, such as beam, column, arch
and foundation piles. Forms of structure are, for example, frames, suspension bridges.
Frame Action – Transverse continuity between the deck and the webs of cellular cross-
section or between the deck and primary components in large bridges.
Free (clear) opening – Same definition as clear span
Freeboard – The clearance (clear height) between the design water level and the bottom
surface of the superstructure of the bridge.
Friction Pile – A pile whose support capacity is derived principally from soil resistance
mobilized along the side of the embedded pile.
Frontwall – The part of a frame bridge below the bridge deck; or the abutment facing the
opening (stem).
Global – Pertinent to the entire superstructure or to the whole bridge. The opposite to local.
Glued Laminated Deck Panel – A deck panel made from wood laminations connected by
adhesives.
Governing Position – The location and orientation of a transient load to cause extreme force
effects.
Gusset plate – Plate material used to interconnect vertical, diagonal and horizontal truss
members at a panel point.
Inelastic – The structural response in which stress is not directly proportional to strain and
deformation may remain upon removal of loading.
Influence Surface – A continuous or discretized function over a bridge deck whose value at
a point, multiplied by a load acting normal to the deck at that point, yields the force
effect being sought.
Interface – The location where two elements and/or components are in contact.
Internal Composite Action – The interaction between a deck and a structural overlay.
Isotropic Plate – A plate having essentially identical structural properties in the two
principal directions.
Isotropic Reinforcement – Two identical layers of reinforcement, perpendicular to and in
touch with each other.
Lateral – Any horizontal or close to horizontal direction.
Laminated Deck – A deck consisting of a series of laminated wood elements that are tightly
abutted along their edges global analysis.
Lever Rule – The statical summation of moments about one point to calculate the reaction at
a second point.
Liquefaction – The loss of shear strength in a saturated soil due to excess hydrostatic
pressure. In saturated, cohesionless soils, such a strength loss can result from loads
that are applied instantaneously or cyclicly, particularly in loose fine to medium
sands that are uniformly graded.
Load – The effect of acceleration, including that due to gravity, imposed deformation, or
volumetric change.
Load arrangement – Identification of the position, magnitude and direction of a free action.
Point Bearing Pile – A pile whose support capacity is derived principally from the
resistance of the foundation material on which the tip rests.
Reliability – Reliability covers safety, serviceability and durability of a structure.
Reliability Index – A quantitative assessment of safety expressed as the ratio of the
difference between the mean resistance and mean force effect to the combined
standard deviation of resistance and force effect.
Resistance – Mechanical property of a component, a cross-section, or a member of a
structure, e.g. bending resistance, buckling resistance.
Roadway – The portion of the highway within the limits of construction and all structures,
ditches, channels and waterways that are necessary for the correct drainage thereof.
Roadway Width – Clear space between barriers and/or curbs.
Scupper – Drain outlet in bridge deck without (sand) trap.
Segmental concrete bridge – A concrete bridge made up of individual elements, either
precast or cast-in place, and posttensioned together to act as a monolithic unit under
loads.
Setting Temperature – A structure's average temperature, which is used to determine the
dimensions of a structure when a component is added or set in place.
Serviceability limit states – States, which correspond to conditions beyond which specified
service requirements for a structure or structural element are no longer met.
Shear Key – A preformed hollow in the side of a precast component filled with grout or a
system of match-cast depressions and protrusions in the face of segments that is
intended to provide shear continuity between components.
Shoulder – The portion of the roadway contiguous with the traveled way for
accommodation of stopped vehicles, for emergency use and for lateral support of
base and surface courses.
Skew or skew angle – The acute angle between two centerlines which cross.
Sidewalk – The portion of the roadway constructed primarily for the use of pedestrians and
or bicycles.
Span length – For simple spans: the distance center to center of supports but need not
exceed clear span plus thickness of slab. For members that are not built integrally with their
supports: the clear span plus the depth of the member but need not exceed the distance
between centers of supports
Spandrel walls – The sidewalls parallel to the alignment, resting on the arch barrel (arch
ring).
Stage Construction – Construction taking place over fixed and distinct time frames.
Strategic bridges – Bridges across wide, flowing rivers (Blue Nile, Awash, Omo) which
cannot easily be replaced by a temporary bridge such as a 40 m span double Bailey
truss bridge.
Strategic roads – Important roads very far away from parallel, alternative roads (e.g.- the
Addis-Gondar road).
Strength – Mechanical property of a material, usually given in units of stress.
ABBREVIATIONS