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Department of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Technology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University (Virginia Tech), GA 30460-8045, USA
gmolina@georgiasouthern.edu
ABSTRACT
This paper discusses the tribological dynamics of electron triboemission and
after-contact emission during scratching of ceramics. The origin of such
triboemission is still unclear, but the author and colleagues consistently observed
two features that can explain the emission and its observed time evolution: that a
large fraction of electron is emitted for energies lower that the electron work
function of the bulk material, and that there is evidence of surface charge that
relaxes over a long period. These experimental findings and their analysis are
reviewed. Literature data on the reduction of electron work function during dry
sliding is correlated to the experimental observations. Surface charging is discussed
as a factor in triboemission: trapping and release of charges from the activation
and cancellation of surface lattice defects are connected to the relaxations of
mechanical energy and of polarization during wear. These phenomena can help
explaining the observed time evolution of electron triboemission from ceramics.
This preliminary study indicates that understanding of the electron triboemission
origin and evolution requires a mechanism that integrates the evolution of defects
during sliding and its effects on the dynamics of electron work function change and
of energy storage and release by charge trapping.
constant load and speed) of alumina, sapphire and and An example of data is presented in figure 2. The
Si3N4, and of the semiconductors Si and Ge. most important feature of the triboemission evolution
Triboemission rates and statistical significance of in figure 2 is that a considerable delay consistently
these experiments are presented by Molina et al. [9, occurs until the appearance of large bursts of
10]. They detected much lower levels of positively- triboemission for a ball-on-flat contact, when
charged emission from insulators [4] and reported the compared to scratching by a diamond-cone.
absence of semiconductor triboemission after the Description and discussion of this type of
contact ceased, when compared to significant post- experiments have been presented by Molina et al.
contact triboemission from all tested insulators [10]. [11].
For the contact conditions of Figure 2, samples
2. EXPERIMENTAL of alumina-ball on alumina disk contacts, each
obtained after different number of passes on the same
Molina et al. [11] also developed triboelectron wear track, were studied by wear-track profilometry
measurements from an alumina-ball sliding on an and microscopy [11]. That study showed that from
alumina-disk. The triboemission instrument start to about 14 passes the wear track barely outlined
developed by Molina et al. [4] was used for electron in isolated patches and no wear was measurable by
intensity measurements from scratching of alumina the used profilometry: surface contact was isolated
-6 around contact asperities with some wear debris
disks in a vacuum of 10 Pascal or better. A channel
electron multiplier (CEM) detector in the pulse- production by asperity crushing and fracture, and
counting mode was operated at 2750V and a +200V corresponding electron triboemission was low and
input bias. A grounded-grid was placed between seemingly diminishing. After such initial period (e.g.,
CEM and wear track. Individual charged-particles are from about 14 passes) the wear-track became fully
detected as counts in 10 msec windows. defined with surface plastic deformation and
The contact geometry consisted of rotating measurable increasing wear by particle detachment,
25.4mm-diameter-disks of amorphous alumina while large bursts of triboemission are simultaneous.
(99.5% isostatically pressed polycrystalline alumina) A decreasing wear rate was observed after this onset
scratched by a stationary 0.125-inch diameter of wear and the large bursts of emission diminished to
alumina-ball (99.5% alumina, grade 25). For each a lower level in following passes.
measurement an initial 30-second reference the
background-noise was less than 0.1count/sec.
Following figures 3 to 5 show examples of alu- previous to SEM; however, abundant wear debris is
mina-disk SEM photographs for the virgin surface, observed.
and for the center of the wear tracks for different Figure 5, for 114 passes on the same wear track,
number of passes of an alumina-ball on an alumina- shows an amorphous transfer film which presents
disk. For these SEM pictures, disk surfaces were some cracking and would detach by flaking; wear
gold-sputtered for 1 minute; employed film was debris is present but not as abundant as in figure 4.
Polaroid 55. This wear evolution is consistent with the work of
Ajayi and Ludema [12]; they found that for an
alumina pin sliding on an alumina disk a wear
transition from severe-to-mild regime occurred
because of the transfer film. This film builds up by
including wear debris. It would decrease contact
pressure (because the nominal contact area increases)
and the wear rate should decrease with time, as
observed in this paper experiments; further sliding
would result in surface flaking.
extract an electron from the solid to a point outside experiment are matched in the following table 1 to the
the surface where there are no interactions between wear states and triboemission features that were
the electron and the solid. The work function is observed in the Molina et al’s experiment of figure 2.
dependent on the atomic structure of the solid and it Five cha-racteristics maxima or minima are discussed
can show local variations. The WF is the difference in table 1.
between the electrostatic surface potential and the Table1 shows that when surface states (and
Fermi energy. For a metal, the Fermi energy is the pertaining WF values) are matched to corresponding
highest filled energy level in the conduction band. sliding-wear states of the triboemission experiments,
The seminal work of Zharin et al. [13] measured minima of WF values correspond to large intensity of
WF during tribological damage by the non-contacting electron triboemission. Similarly, maxima of WF
Kelvin probe (KP). Bhushan et al. [14] used KP correspond to lower or diminishing emission
signal to detect wear precursors at ultra-low loads for intensity. Discussion of Table 1 strongly suggests that
Au, Al and Si (but the technique was difficult for reduction WF by defect creation during wear is an
alumina). Li et al. [15] correlated elastic deformation important factor for the occurrence of electron
during sliding to decreasing WF for Cu, Al and steel, triboemission.
and plasticity to a stable WF value, of 0.3 to 0.4eV
lower than those of unworn surfaces. Voevodin et al
[16] used a KP for the characteri-zation of DLC
nanocomposite coatings during wear.
For metals, the contact potential difference
(CPD) can be readily measured, and it is the
difference in surface potential when the two metals
are electrically connected. The CPD method and a
Kelvin probe can be used to estimate WF, which is
proportional to the reciprocal of CPD, measured with
respect to a reference metal. This method was exten-
sively used by Shpenkov et al. [17] to correlate CPD
and WF to selected metal surface states (e.g., for Al,
Zn, bronze and brass). They found that the surface
roughness (obtained by mild abrasive grinding and
measured by surface Ra) relates to the WF in a
characteristics curve. That curve is sketched in figure
6 for aluminum.
The plot of surface roughness vs. WF in figure 6
Fig. 6. Characteristics plot of surface roughness vs.
shows characteristics minima and maxima when
WF for aluminum as per reference [17].
roughness is reduced from the typical value for virgin
surface at (a) to a polishing state at (e). The micro-
structures observed in the Shpenkov et al.’s
There are, however, important features of the experimentally showed that the energy relaxation at
electron triboemission phenomena that are not the onset of wear correlates to large bursts of low-
explained by WF change alone. The significant post- energy electron triboemission.
contact triboemission from insulators (i.e., after the There is abundant experimental evidence that
contact ceases) suggests that for triboemission to energy storage and relaxation and the respective
occur a factor is involved that relaxes over a long polarization and depolarization are factors in insulator
period of time. The possibility is following discussed mechanical behavior. Medevielle et al. [22] showed
that insulator surface charge can be such factor. that the relaxation of mechanical energy that occurs
from microfracture and wear is simultaneous to the
3.2. Surface Charging During Sliding relaxation of the polarization energy. Vallayer et al.
[23] hypothesized that insulator polarization and
There is extensive data on surface (i.e., depolarization could allow a dynamics of surface
electrostatic) charge measured during and after wear linear defects to explain the plastic behavior of brittle
of insulators: Molina et al [18] obtained evidence of ceramics on the surface of wear tracks.
surface and debris charging from diamond-on-disk Fast relaxation of mechanical energy that occurs
triboemission tests, which were carried out without during tensile or bending fracture of brittle materials
the customary grounded-grid between the CEM produces low-energy electron emission. The
charged-particle detector and the wear track. In those phenomenon is known as fractoemission. In a
experiments, significant wear debris was found in the relevant research work Dickinson et al. [24]
CEM-input as it was picked-up by this detector demonstrated a relationship between crack initiation
cathode-voltage; that charged-debris also showed as and propagation, and the simultaneous fracto-
augmented emission rates when compared to usual emission. They found for tensile-strained aluminum
grounded-grid measurements [18]. in atmosphere that the onset of plastic deformation
Insulator surface-charging that is observed at the and of surface-oxide cracking, which was detected by
macroscopical scale (e.g., when measured in a acoustic emission, was simul-taneous with a series of
continuum as insulator permittivity) can be bursts of electrons. Electron fractoemission began and
understood as the aggregate of microscopic surface was most intense during fracture. Such emission
states that are isolated from the bulk and originate slowly decayed after surface cracking if no added
from surface changes (i.e., from changes of strain was applied, indicating that the fractured
polarizability) [19]. A distinct characteristic of surfaces remained in an activated state. In that, an
insulators is that charges can be trapped in sites of the exponential decay was observed for the electron
lattice because of the existence or creation of lattice emission, with a relaxation mechanism slower than
defects (e.g., vacancies, interstitials, dislocations, that of most electron emission processes [25].
grain boundaries, etc). Mechanical energy is stored as This study discussed two factors that seem to be
potential energy around the trapped charges by of importance for triboemission under vacuum. Study
displacements of the lattice from their equilibrium of triboemission in atmospheres (e.g., in other than
sites [20]. The potential energy of these traps can be vacuum) is experimentally more complex, and other
estimated in between a few meV to 5 eV. Because of factors can have influence, namely gas desorption
the electrostatics nature of insulators, energy release from microfracture crack tip, gas adsorption on
and storage can result from electrostatic interactions. freshly exposed metal surfaces, species ionization and
In the case of sliding contact the input surface chemical reaction.
mechanical energy can be stored as potential energy
upon the creation of a new defect, to be released 4. CONCLUSIONS
when such defect is canceled. The dynamics of
insulator sliding includes the trapping of charge This paper discussed the possibility that two
(called polarization) in the presence of defects or factors, the reduction of WF and the surface charging,
upon the creation of them by surface modification, can explain the energy levels and the observed
followed by a detrapping of charge (by relaxation of evolution of the electron triboemission outputs from
the polarization energy) when defects are canceled insulators.
[21]. Comparison of surface states from literature data
Detrapping of charges has a twofold effect: and the corresponding sliding-wear states of the
charges are released and the lattice must reach a local author’s triboemission experiments indicates that
equilibrium while releasing energy. Therefore, energy minima of WF values correspond to large intensity of
is output and it may cause material breakdown (and electron triboemission, while maxima of WF
phonon emission) while detrapped charges are correspond to lower or diminishing emission
simultaneously produced for the low energy levels of intensity.
the insulators traps. This mechanism is consistent Insulators can store mechanical energy by
with the findings of Molina et al. [11], who trapping of charges in lattice defects. Insulator
THE ANNALS OF UNIVERSITY “DUNĂREA DE JOS “ OF GALAŢI 27
FASCICLE VIII, 2006 (XII), ISSN 1221-4590
TRIBOLOGY
mechanism of energy storage and release by, 6. Nakayama K., Hashimoto H., Susuki T., 1992, Triboemission
of Charged Particles and Photons from Solid Surfaces During
respectively, charge trapping and detrapping can be
Frictional Damage, J. of Physics D, Vol.25, pp. 303-308.
driving factors in the dynamics of electron triboemi- 7. Dickinson J.T., Scudiero L., Yasuda K., Kim K. W., Langford
ssion. In the case of sliding wear of ceramics, the S.C., 1997, Dynamic tribological probes: particle emission and
input mechanical energy can be stored as potential transient electrical measurements, Tribology Letters, 3, pp. 53-67.
energy by trapping upon the creation of new defects, 8. Molina G.J., Furey, M.J., Ritter, A.L., Kajdas, C., 2003,
Frequency analysis and modeling of charged-particle triboemission
and both energy and charge are released when such from ceramics, Wear, Vol.255, 1-6, pp. 686-694.
defect is canceled. Surface charging, which relaxes 9. Molina, G.J., Furey, M.J., Ritter, A.L. Kajdas, C., 2003, The
over a longer period of time, also can explain the Role of Triboemission in Ceramic Tribology: A Review,
significant post-contact triboemission from insulators Tribologia-Finnish J. of Tribology, Vol.21, 4, pp. 3-11.
10. Molina, G.J., Mazilu, D.A, Furey, M.J., Kajdas, C., On
after the contact ceases. triboemission from the sliding contact of Si and Ge, The Annals of
The two discussed factors for the occurrence of University “Dunarea De Jos“ of Galaţi, Romania, Fascicle VIII,
triboemission, the reduction of WF and the surface Tribology, 2004, pp. 22-29.
charging, are consistent with different features of the 11. Molina G.J., Furey M.J., Kajdas C., Steika N., On the
Mechanism of Electron Triboemission from Ceramics, The Annals
triboemission measurements, and this study suggests
of University “Dunarea de Jos” of Galati, Romania, Fascicle VIII,
that both are complementary needed for triboemission Tribology, 2005, pp. 17-23.
from insulators. It also indicates that understanding of 12. Ajayi, O.O., Ludema, K.C., 1990, Mechanism of transfer film
the electron triboemission phenomena requires formation during repeat pass sliding of ceramic materials, Wear,
experi-menttal work and modeling that integrate the 140, pp. 191–206.
13. Zanoria, E.S., Hamall, K., Daniluk S., Zharin, A., 1997, The
evolution of defects during sliding and their effects on non-vibrating Kelvin probe and its application for monitoring
the dyna-mics of electron work function and of surface wear, J. of Testing and Evaluation, 25, 2, pp. 233-238.
energy storage and release by charge trapping. The 14. Bhushan B., Goldade A.V., 2000, Kelvin probe microscopy
author plans to develop simultaneous measurements measurements at surface potential change under wear at low loads,
Wear, 244, 1, pp. 104-117.
of electron tribo-emission and electron work function 15. Li W., Li D.Y., 2000, Exploring the application of the Kelvin
for these required in-situ real-time characterizations method in studying the history prior to wear and the onset of wear,
of surface changes. Wear, 253, 7, pp. 746-751.
16. Wu J.-H., Sanghavi M., Sanders J.H., Voevodin A.A.,
Zabinski J.S., Rigney D.A., 2001, Sliding behavior of
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS multifunctional composite coatings based on diamond-like carbon,
Wear, 255, pp. 859-868.
The author gratefully acknowledges a 17. Shpenkov G.P., Friction Surface Phenomena, Elsevier Science
Publishers B.V., Tribology Series 29, Amsterdam, Holland, 1995,
Faculty Research Committee grant from Georgia
p.p. 35-51
Southern University and the generous encouragement 18. Molina G.J., 2000, Triboemission of Charged Particles from
from Dr. M.J.Furey and Dr. A. Ritter (Virginia Tech) Ceramics: Integrated Charge and Energy Distribution
and from Dr. C.Kajdas (Central Petroleum Institute, Characterizations, PhD dissertation, Dept. of Mechanical
Warsaw, Poland). Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
19. Saint Jean M., Hudlet S., Guthmann C. Berger J., 1999,
Local triboelectricity on oxide surfaces, The European Physical
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