Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Chapter 2

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Outline

1 Early Ideas in Atomic Theory

Democritus
Dalton
Thomson
Rutherford
Chadwick Beryllium

2 A few interesting notes on the elements...

3 Summary of atomic structure and symbolism

4 Periodic Table

5 Ionic compounds

6 Nomenclature

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 Early Ideas in Atomic Theory

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History of the Atom

From Atomism to the Nuclear Model

Adapted from the work of

Jack F. Eichler

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History of the Atom

1
Where did the idea of atoms originate?
2
What is the evidence that allows us to conclude
that atoms exist?
3
How have our models of the atom evolved over
time?

Let’s take a tour through a history of scientific

discovery and find answers to these questions...
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Democritus – Atomism (5th Century BCE)

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What “evidence” did Democritus use to conclude that
atoms exist?

(A) Since matter is not empty space, it must be made of

uncuttable particles (atoms).
(B) The Greeks observed that chemical reactions could take
place; reactions cannot take place unless matter is made up
of uncuttable particles (atoms).
(C) If you divide up matter into smaller pieces for infinity, you end
up with essentially nothing; since matter cannot be made up
of nothing, it must have a small fundamental unit of matter
that is uncuttable (atoms).
(D) A and B are both correct.
(E) A and C are both correct.

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Democritus – Atomism

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1805)

1
Matter is composed of indivisible
particles called atoms.
2
Atoms of the same element have
the same chemical properties.
3
Compounds are made of
combinations of atoms of different
elements, and are formed in
reactions where rearrangements
or separations of atoms occur
(atoms are not created or
destroyed in chemical reactions).

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Dalton’s Atomic Theory – Mass of Oxygen and

Chromium in Two Samples of Chromium Oxide
Sample # Appearance Mass of Cr (g) Mass of O(g)
1 orange crystals 1.3509 0.9319
2 red powder 0.6441 0.1481
2 red powder 1.3509 ?

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Dalton’s Atomic Theory – Mass of Oxygen and

Chromium in Two Samples of Chromium Oxide
Sample # Appearance Mass of Cr (g) Mass of O(g)
1 orange crystals 1.3509 0.9319
2 red powder 0.6441 0.1481
2 red powder 1.3509
Sample #2: If we have 1.3509 g of Cr, how many grams of O?
1.3509 gCr 0.6441 gCr
x gO
= 0.1481 gO
→ x = 0.3106 gO

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Dalton’s Atomic Theory – Mass of Oxygen and

Chromium in Two Samples of Chromium Oxide
Sample # Appearance Mass of Cr (g) Mass of O(g)
1 orange crystals 1.3509 0.9319
2 red powder 0.6441 0.1481
2 red powder 1.3509
Sample #2: If we have 1.3509 g of Cr, how many grams of O?
1.3509 gCr 0.6441 gCr
x gO
= 0.1481 gO
→ x = 0.3106 gO

Sample #1: If sample #2 is CrO, what is the formula of sample #1?

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Dalton’s Atomic Theory – Mass of Oxygen and

Chromium in Two Samples of Chromium Oxide
Sample # Appearance Mass of Cr (g) Mass of O(g)
1 orange crystals 1.3509 0.9319
2 red powder 0.6441 0.1481
2 red powder 1.3509
Sample #2: If we have 1.3509 g of Cr, how many grams of O?
1.3509 gCr 0.6441 gCr
x gO
= 0.1481 gO
→ x = 0.3106 gO

Sample #1: If sample #2 is CrO, what is the formula of sample #1?

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What evidence did Dalton use to conclude that atoms
exist?

(A) Since chromium oxide had two different types of compounds,

it must be made up of chromium and oxygen atoms.
(B) Since the mass of chromium was the same in each sample,
that indicates chromium must be made up of identical atoms.
(C) Since the two chromium oxide samples had different masses
of oxygen, and oxygen masses differed in whole number
ratios, that suggests the compounds had different numbers
of oxygen “units” (atoms); if the atoms could be “cut” up into
different sizes, these whole number ratios would not exist.
(D) A and B are both correct.
(E) A, B and C are all correct.

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Dalton’s Atomic Theory – Mass of Oxygen and

Chromium in Two Samples of Chromium Oxide
Sample # Appearance Mass of Cr (g) Mass of O(g)
1 orange crystals 1.3509 0.9319
2 red powder 0.6441 0.1481
2 red powder 1.3509 0.3106

Sample #1: CrO3 Sample #2: CrO

Whole number ratio of oxygen mass between the two compounds

suggests there must be units (atoms) of oxygen that combine.

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Thomson Cathode Ray Tube (1897)

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Thomson Cathode Ray Tube (1897)

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Which model of the atom is confirmed by the
data/observations from the cathode ray tube
experiment?

(A) (B)

(C) (D)
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Rutherford Gold Foil Experiment (1911)

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Which model of the atom is confirmed by the
data/observations from the gold foil experiment?

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

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α-particle Trajectory in Gold Foil Experiment

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Chadwick Beryllium Experiment (1932)

Nuclear Model of the Atom: nucleus possesses positively charged particles

(protons) and neutral particles (neutrons), an “electron cloud” surrounds the
nucleus.
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Nuclear Model of the Atom

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We know about the basic structure of atoms.... but
how are atoms of different elements differ from
one another? How were they organized?

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Relative Atomic Mass

Example: H2 O

In the late 1700’s and 1800’s, scientists such as Dalton were

able to determine experimentally that when water formed, it took
two “parts” of hydrogen by volume and one “part” of oxygen by
volume. This suggested water was made of two hydrogen atoms
and one oxygen atom. How does this relate to relative atomic
mass?

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Which of the following best explains how relative
atomic mass could be determined from the type of
data available to Dalton?

(A) By determining the mass of oxygen contained in a sample of

water, its exact atomic mass could be determined.
(B) By comparing the masses of hydrogen and oxygen contained
in a sample of water, the exact atomic masses could be
determined.
(C) By comparing the mass of hydrogen in the two “parts” of
hydrogen and the mass of oxygen in the one “part” of oxygen
in water, the relative atomic masses could then be
determined.
(D) A and B are correct.
(E) A,B and C are all correct.

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Relative Atomic Mass

Example: H2 O

If one part of oxygen weighs 8 times are much as two parts of

hydrogen in a sample of water, then one oxygen atom weights 8
times as much as 2 hydrogen atoms... this is relative atomic
mass.
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Mendeleev and the Periodic Table (1869)

Mendeleev used relative atomic mass and periodic trends to

order the elements; his table predicted the existence of elements
not yet discovered at the time (Ga, Sc, Ge...).

Periodic trends trumped relative atomic mass in some cases.

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Mass Spectrometry

Identifying Masses of Atoms

(J. J. Thompson – 1910)

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Moseley’s Determination of Atomic Number (1913)

Number of protons in nucleus corresponded to shift in energy of

spectral lines (shift in wavelength)

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How is it possible that the atomic number increases in
order, yet the atomic masses do not?
(A) There is no relationship between the atomic number and
mass of the atom.
(B) The masses of the protons for Te, I, and Xe have slightly
different masses.
(C) Since the numbers of neutrons do not necessarily increase
from one atom to the next, it is possible for the atomic
number to increase while the total mass does not increase.
(D) A and B are both correct.
(E) B and C are both correct.

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Atomic Mass vs. Mass Number

Mass number is the total number of

protons AND neutrons
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Neutrons, Atomic Number, Mass Number, and
Average Atomic Mass

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The average mass (amu) of hydrogen is listed as
1.001 amu on the periodic table. If the three isotopes
of hydrogen have a a mass of 1 amu, 2 amu, and 3
amu, respectively, how is this average atomic mass
possible?
(A) Hydrogen-1, hydrogen-2 (deuterium), and hydrogen-3 (tritium) must have
different numbers of neutrons, which then shifts the mass closer to 1.001
amu.
(B) The natural abundance of hydrogen-1 must be higher than the natural
abundance of the other two isotopes of hydrogen.
(C) The average atomic mass is a weighted average of the three isotopes,
and since there is more hydrogen-1 in nature than either of the other two
isotopes, the average is thus less than the simple average of the three
isotope masses.
(D) A and B are both correct.
(E) B and C are both correct.
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The Nuclear Model of the Atom:
Atomic Mass and Atomic Number

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Use the mass symbol to determine the number of
neutrons and protons in the following atom:

12
Carbon-12: 6 C

(A) 12 protons; 6 neutrons

(B) 12 neutrons; 6 protons
(C) 6 neutrons; 6 protons
(D) 12 neutrons; 12 protons

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The next step... how do we get from the nuclear
model of the atom to the current model of the
atom?

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The next step... how do we get from the nuclear
model of the atom to the current model of the
atom?

Quantum Theory! (Chapter 6)

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A few interesting notes on the elements...

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Where did these elements come from anyway!?

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The Elements of Life

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Summary of atomic structure and symbolism

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Definitions

Chemical symbol: a one- or two-letter abbreviation unique to each element

Atomic number: is the number of protons in a given element. There is
one-to-one correspondence between atomic number and chemical symbol,
i.e. the number of protons defines the element.
Mass number: is the number of neutrons and protons

Isotope: each of two (or more) forms of an element that contain equal
numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

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Working with atomic number, mass number and
chemical symbol

Determine the atomic number and

How many protons, electrons, and
mass number for the chlorine isotope
neutrons are present in an atom of
with 18 neutrons. 52
24 Cr ?
The atomic number of chlorine is 17,
The atomic number is located on the
so chlorine has 17 protons, i.e.
lower left: 24
atomic number = 17
Since the atom is neutral, # proton =
mass number = number of proton +
# electrons = 24
number of neutrons = 17 + 18 = 35:
Number of neutrons = mass # -
35 atomic # = 52 - 24 = 28
17 Cl

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Atomic Mass
Dalton concluded that all atoms of a given element have the same mass.
The atomic mass represents the average mass of the isotopes the compose
the element weighted according to the natural abundance of each isotope.

Naturally occurring chlorine consists of 75.77%

chlorine-35 (mass 34.97) and 24.23% chlorine-37
atoms (mass 36.97).
Atomic mass = 0.7577(34.97 amu) + 0.2423 (36.97
amu) = 35.45 amu

General formula for calculating atomic mass:

X
Atomic mass = (fraction of isotope n) × (mass of isotope n)
n
= (fraction of isotope 1 × mass of isotope 1)
+ (fraction of isotope 2 × mass of isotope 2)
+ (fraction of isotope 3 × mass of isotope 3) + ...
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Sample atomic mass calculation
Copper has two naturally occurring isotopes: Cu-63 with a mass of 62.9291
amu and a natural abundance of 69.17%, and Cu-65 with a mass of 64.9278
amu and a natural abundance of 30.83%. Calculate the atomic mass of
copper.
Step 1: Convert percent natural abundance to decimal form
69.17
Fraction Cu-63 = 100 = 0.6917
30.83
Fraction Cu-65 = 100 = 0.3083
Step 2: Use the formula on the previous slide to calculate the atomic mass:

Atomic mass = 0.6917(62.9296 amu) + 0.3083(64.9278 amu)

= 43.5284 amu + 20.0172 amu
= 63.5456 amu
= 63.55 amu

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Representing Molecules Using Chemical Formulas

(a) A molecular formula uses chemical symbols to indicate the types of

atoms followed by subscripts to show the number of atoms of each type
in the molecule.
(b) A structural formula for a compound gives the same information as its
molecular formula but also shows how the atoms are connected in the
molecule.

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Representing Molecules Using Chemical Formulas
An empirical formula provides the types of atoms present and the simplest
whole-number ratio of the number of atoms (or ions) in the compound.
Example: benzene
Benzene contains two elements, carbon (C) and hydrogen (H).
For every carbon atom in benzene, there is one hydrogen atom. Therefore,
the empirical formula for benzene is CH.
Experimental analysis of the molecular mass reveals that a molecule of
benzene contains six hydrogen atoms and six carbon atoms, molecular
formula for benzene is C6 H6

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Determining empirical formulas

Given that molecules of glucose contain 6 carbon atoms, 12

hydrogen atoms and 6 oxygen atoms. What are the molecular
and empirical formulas of glucose?
From the given information, the molecular formula is:

C6 H12 O6
The simplest whole-number ratio of C to H to O is: 1:2:1, so the
empirical formula is:

C1 H2 O1
Can you see why glucose is called a carbohydrate?

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 Periodic Table

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Sorting the elements

We can sort the elements into classes with common

properties:

Metals: shiny, malleable, good conductors of heat and electricity

Nonmetals: dull, poor conductors of heat and electricity
Metalloids: conduct heat and electricity moderately well,
possess some properties of metals and some properties of
nonmetals

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Trends among the elements
Periodic law: the properties of the elements are periodic functions of their
atomic numbers.
periodic table arranges the elements in increasing order of their atomic
numbers and groups atoms with similar properties in the same vertical
column.
Periods: seven horizontal rows
Groups: 18 vertical columns

MEMORIZE
The elements can be further classified into:
Main-group elements (columns 1,2,13-18):
Group 1: Alkali metals
Group 2: Alkali earth metals
Group 17: Halogens
Group 18: Nobel gases
Transition metals (columns 13-12), inner transition metals (bottom of
table).
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Further classification of the elements

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 Ionic compounds

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Ions

In a neutral atom, the number of protons equals the number of electrons.

During chemical reactions, atoms can gain or loose electrons and become
charged particles called ions.
Examples:
Neutral Li contains three protons and three electrons. However, Li often
losses one electron to form Li + ions.

Li → Li + + 1e−

NOTE: The charge of an ion is indicated in the upper right corner of the
chemical symbol.
Ions can also be negatively charged. Fluorine often forms a negatively charge
ion during the course of chemical reactions:

F + 1e− → F −

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Predicting Ion Stability

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Monoatomic and polyatomic ions

Monoatomic ions
are ions form from
only one atom.
F − , Cl − , Na+ ....

Polyatomic ions
are electrically
charged
molecules

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Predicting the Formula of an Ionic Compound
The gemstone sapphire is a
compound of aluminum cations
(Al 3+ ) and oxygen anions (O 2− ).
What is the formula of this
compound?
The ionic compound must be
electrically neutral.
Two Al 3+ would give us +6 charge,
and three O 2− would give us six
negative charges.
Chapter 2 <Atoms, Molecules, and Ions>
Predict the formula of the ionic
compound formed between the
sodium cation, Na+ and the sulfide
anion S 2− .
Two Na+ cations give a 2+ charge
which will balance the 2− charge
from the sulfide.
Na2 S
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 Nomenclature

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Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal
That Forms Only One Type of Cation

Binary compounds contain only two

different elements.

Examples:

KCl Potassium Chloride

CaO Calcium Oxide
Table 3.2 Nivaldo, 4th Edition

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Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal
That Forms More Than One Kind of Cation

The name of the cation is followed by a

Roman numeral in parentheses that
indicates the charge of the metal.

Fe2+ → iron(II)
Fe3+ → iron(III)

Examples:
CrBr3 chromium(III)bromide
CuO copper(II)oxide

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Some Common Polyatomic Ions (Memorize)

Nivaldo 4th ed. Table 3.4

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Some Common Polyatomic Ions

Many polyatomic ions are oxyanions.

Oxyanions are anions containing oxygen and another element.
When a series of oxyanons contains different numbers of oxygen atoms they
are named systematically according to the number of oxygen atoms.

Two Ions in Series More than Two Ions in Series

ClO − hypochlorite
NO2− nitrite ClO2− chlorite
NO3− nitrate ClO3− chloate
ClO4− perchlorate

If there are only two ions in the If there are more than two ions in the
series, the one with more oxygen series then the prefixes hypo−
atoms as the ending −ate and the meaning less than and per −
one with fewer has the ending −ite. meaning more than.

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Naming Molecular Compounds

First list the more metal-like element (toward the bottom left of the
periodic table).
Generally, write the name of the element with the smallest group number
first.
If the two elements lie in the same group, write the element with the
greatest row number first.
Use prefixes on each element to indicate the number of atoms present.
mono = 1 di = 2 tri = 3 tetra = 4 penta = 5
hexa = 6 hepta = 7 octa = 8 nona = 9 deca = 10
If there is only one atom of the first element the prefix mono− is normally
not used.
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Naming Molecular Compounds

Name each of the following compounds.

(a) NI3

(b) PCl5

(c) P4 S10

(d) NO2

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Naming Acids

We will have a lot more to say about acids next semester, for now we define
an acid as a molecular compound that releases hydrogen ions (H + ).

Acids...
have a sour taste
have the ability to dissolve many
metals
are present in foods such as
lemons and limes
are present in household
cleaners
are generally categorized into
two type, binary acids and
oxyacids.

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Naming Acids

Naming Oxyacids

Oxyacids contain hydrogen and an

oxyanion (an anion containing a
nonmetal and oxygen).
Naming Binary Acids
If the oxyanion ends with −ate:
Binary acids are composed of
hydrogen and a non-metal.

If the oxyanion ends with −ite:

HCl hydrochloric acid

HBr hydrobromic acid
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Naming Acids

We will have a lot more to say about acids next semester, for now we define
an acid as a molecular compound that releases hydrogen ions (H + ).

Acids...
have a sour taste
have the ability to dissolve many
metals
are present in foods such as
lemons and limes
are present in household
cleaners
are generally categorized into
two type, binary acids and
oxyacids.

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Naming Oxyacids

Oxyacids contain hydrogen and an oxyanion (an anion containing a nonmetal

and oxygen).

If the oxyanion ends with −ate: If the oxyanion ends with −ite:

HNO3 (aq) nitric acid H2 SO3 (aq) sulfurous acid

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Summary: Naming Flowchart

Figure 3.11 Nivaldo 4th ed.

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Naming Acids Example Problems

Name the following compounds.

(a) SO2

(b) HClO4 (aq)

(c) CoF2

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