Eukaryotic cells

STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS DRAWING EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Using a light microscope it is possible to see that The drawing shows the types o organelle that occur in eukaryotic
eukaryotic cells have cytoplasm enclosed in a plasma cells. Chloroplasts and cell walls are part o plant cells but not
membrane, like prokaryotic cells. However, unlike animal cells.
prokaryotic cells, they usually contain a nucleus.
Under the electron microscope details o much
smaller structures within the cell are visible. This chromosomes
is called the ultrastructure o a cell. There are a consisting of
nuclear
number o diferent types o organelle that orm DNA and histones
membrane
compartments in eukaryotic cells, each bounded by
nuclear pore
either one or two membranes: rough
Organelles with a single membrane: endoplasmic
Rough endoplasmic reticulum lysosome reticulum
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum cell wall
Golgi apparatus
mitochondrion
Lysosomes
Vesicles and vacuoles chloroplast
Organelles with a double membrane:
cytoplasm Golgi apparatus
Nucleus
Mitochondrion vesicles plasma membrane
Chloroplast
Advantage of compartmentalization: PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
Enzymes and substrates used in a process can
be concentrated in a small area, with pH and other
conditions at optimum levels and with no other
enzymes that might disrupt the process.

IDENTIFYING ORGANELLES AND DEDUCING FUNCTIONS

The electron micrograph shows the structure o a cell in the pancreas.

Golgi apparatus

mitochondrion
nucleus

vesicle

rough endoplasmic
reticuluma

The presence o large amounts o rough endoplasmic reticulum and many Golgi apparatuses shows that the main unction o
this cell is to synthesize and secrete proteins, presumably the enzymes in pancreatic juice.

C E LL B I O LO G Y 7
Models of membrane structure
THE DAVSONDANIELLI MODEL THE SINGERNICOLSON MODEL
In this model o membrane structure there is a bilayer o In the 1950s and 60s evidence accumulated that did not t
phospholipids in the centre o the membrane with layers the DavsonDanielli model:
o protein on either side. It was developed by Davson and 1. Freeze-racture electron micrographs showed that
Danielli in the 1930s. globular proteins were present in the centre o the
phospholipid bilayer (below) .
layer of protein

phospholipid
bilayer

Reasons or the model:

1. Chemical analysis o membranes showed that they were
composed o phospholipid and protein.
2. Evidence suggested that the plasma membrane o red 2. Analysis o membrane proteins showed that parts o
blood cells has enough phospholipids in it to orm an their suraces were hydrophobic, so they would be
area twice as large as the area o the plasma membrane, positioned in the bilayer and in some cases would
suggesting a phospholipid bilayer. extend rom one side to the other.
3. Experiments showed that membranes orm a barrier to Non-polar amino acids in the
the passage o some substances, despite being very centre of water-soluble proteins
thin, and layers o protein could act as the barrier. Polar amino stabilize their structure.
acids on the
Testing the model: Non-polar amino acids
surface of
High magnication electron micrographs were rst produced proteins make cause proteins to remain
in the 1950s. In these micrographs membranes appeared as them water embedded in membranes.
two dark lines separated by a lighter band. soluble.
This seemed to t the DavsonDanielli model, as proteins
usually appear darker than phospholipids in electron Polar amino acids
micrographs. The electron micrograph below shows create channels
membranes both at the suraces o cells and around vesicles through which
with the appearance that seemed to back up the Davson hydrophilic
Danielli model. substances can Polar amino acids cause
Electron micrograph of biological membranes diuse. Positively parts of membrane proteins
charged R groups to protrude from the
allow negatively membrane. Transmembrane
charged ions through proteins have two such regions.
and vice versa.

3. Fusion o cells with membrane proteins tagged with

diferent coloured uorescent markers showed that these
proteins can move within the membrane as the colours
became mixed within a ew minutes o cell usion.
red

cell 40
fusion minutes

green red and green

mixed

This evidence alsied the DavsonDanielli model. A new

model was proposed in 1966 by Singer and Nicolson.
This model is still used today. It is called either the
SingerNicolson model or uid mosaic model.

8 C E LL B I O LO G Y
Membrane structure
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL OF MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
Phospholipid molecules are shown as an oval with two parallel lines because they have a phosphate head with two atty
acid tails attached. Proteins occupy a range o dierent positions in the membrane. Integral proteins are embedded in the
phospholipid bilayer. Peripheral proteins are attached to an outer surace o the membrane. Glycoproteins have sugar
units attached on the outer surace o the membrane.

glycoprotein
hydrophilic hydrophobic cholesterol
phosphate head hydrocarbon tail pump or
channel protein

phospholipid
bilayer

integral proteins embedded peripheral protein

in the phospholipid bilayer on the surface
of the membrane

PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Phospholipids are the basic component o all biological
membranes. Phospholipid molecules are amphipathic.
This means that part o the molecule is attracted to water
(hydrophilic) and part is not attracted to water (hydrophobic).
The phosphate head is hydrophilic and the two atty acid
tails, which are composed o hydrocarbon chains, are
hydrophobic. When phospholipids are mixed with water they
naturally become arranged into bilayers, with the hydrophilic
heads acing outwards and making contact with the water and
the hydrocarbon tails acing inwards away rom the water. The
attraction between the hydrophobic tails in the centre o the
phospholipid bilayer and between the hydrophilic heads and
the surrounding water makes membranes very stable.
CHOLESTEROL
Cholesterol is a component o animal cell membranes.
Most o the cholesterol molecule is hydrophobic but, like
phospholipids, there is one hydrophilic end; so cholesterol
ts between phospholipids in the membrane.
Cholesterol restricts the movement o phospholipid
molecules. It thereore reduces the fuidity o the
membrane. It also reduces the permeability o the
membrane to hydrophilic particles such as sodium ions
and hydrogen ions. This is important, as animal cells need
to maintain concentration diferences o these ions across
their membranes, so difusion through the membrane must
be restricted.

MEMBRANE PROTEINS
Membrane proteins are diverse in structure, unction and position in the membrane. The diagram above shows a
glycoprotein, used or cell-to-cell communication. The diagram below shows examples o other membrane proteins.

Insulin receptor  an Cytochrome c  a Calcium pump  an integral

integral protein that peripheral protein used protein for active transport
is a hormone receptor for electron transport of calcium ions

e-
OUTSIDE

INSIDE

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor  an

Cadherin  an integral Cytochrome oxidase  an integral protein that is both a receptor
protein used for integral protein that is an for a neuro transmitter and a channel
cell-to-cell adhesion immobilized enzyme for facilitated diusion of sodium ions

C E LL B I O LO G Y 9
Difusion and acilitated difusion
DIFFUSION
Solids, liquids and gases consist o particles  atoms,
ions and molecules. In liquids and gases, these particles
are in continual motion. The direction o movement is
random. I particles are evenly spread then their movement
in all directions is even and there is no net movement 
they remain evenly spread despite continually moving.
Sometimes particles are unevenly spread  there is a
higher concentration in one region than another. This
causes difusion.
Difusion is the passive movement o particles rom a region
o higher concentration to a region o lower concentration, as
a result o the random motion o particles.
Difusion occurs because more particles move rom
the region o higher concentration to the region o lower
concentration than move in the opposite direction. Difusion
can occur across membranes i there is a concentration
gradient and the membrane is permeable to the particle.
For example, membranes are reely permeable to oxygen,
so i there is a lower concentration o oxygen inside a cell
than outside, it will difuse into the cell. Membranes are not
permeable to cellulose, so it does not difuse across.
SIMPLE AND FACILITATED DIFFUSION
Membranes allow some substances to difuse through but
not others  they are partially permeable. Some o these
substances move between the phospholipid molecules in
the membrane  this is simple difusion. Other substances
are unable to pass between the phospholipids. To allow
these substances to difuse through membranes, channel
proteins are needed. This is called acilitated difusion.
Channel proteins are specic  they only allow one type o
substance to pass through. For example, chloride channels
only allow chloride ions to pass through. Cells can control
whether substances pass through their plasma membranes,
by the types o channel protein that are inserted into the
membrane. Cells cannot control the direction o movement.
Facilitated difusion always occurs rom a region o higher
concentration to a region o lower concentration. Both simple
and acilitated difusion are passive processes  no energy
has to be used by the cell to make them occur.
There are sodium and potassium channel proteins in the
membranes o neurons that open and close, depending on
the voltage across the membrane. They are voltage-gated
channels and are used to transmit nerve impulses.

membrane consisting
higher lower membrane containing
of phospholipid bilayer
concentration concentration channel proteins

solute able to diuse facilitated diusion through membrane

solute unable to diuse through membrane through membrane containing channel proteins

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF 2 Channel briey open net negative charge

POTASSIUM CHANNELS IN AXONS - - - -
+
- - - - OUTSIDE
The axons o neurons contain potassium channels that are +
+ +
+
+ +
used during an action potential. They are closed when the axon +
is polarized but open in response to depolarization o the axon
membrane, allowing K+ ions to exit by acilitated difusion, which + + + + + + + INSIDE OF AXON
repolarizes the axon. Potassium channels only remain open or
a very short time beore a globular sub-unit blocks the pore. The K+ ions net positive
charge
channel then returns to its original closed conormation.

1 Channel closed 3 Channel closed by ball and chain

+ + + + + + + + - - - - - - - -
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +

++ + + +
+ ++
- - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + +
chain
net negative charge inside hydrophobic core
ball hydrophilic outer
the axon and net positive of the membrane
parts of the membrane
charge outside

10 C E LL B I O LO G Y