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Evaluation of Asymptomatic Microscopic Hematuria in Adults
This is a corrected version of the article
that appeared in print.
TIMOTHY R. THALLER, M.D., University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
LESTER P. WANG, M.D., Valley Urology Center, Renton, Washington
Am Fam Physician. 1999 Sep 15;60(4):11431152.
See related patient information handout on microscopic hematuria (http://www.aafp.org/afp/1999/0915/p1154), written by the authors of this article.
In patients without significant urologic symptoms, microscopic hematuria is occasionally detected on routine urinalysis. At present, routine screening
of all adults for microscopic hematuria with dipstick testing is not recommended because of the intermittent occurrence of this finding and the low
incidence of significant associated urologic disease. However, once asymptomatic microscopic hematuria is discovered, its cause should be
investigated with a thorough medical history (including a review of current medications) and a focused physical examination. Laboratory and imaging
studies, such as intravenous pyelography, renal ultrasonography or retrograde pyelography, may be required to determine the degree and location of
the associated disease process. Cystourethroscopy is performed to complete the evaluation of the lower urinary tract. Microscopic hematuria
associated with anticoagulation therapy is frequently precipitated by significant urologic pathology and therefore requires prompt evaluation.
Microscopic hematuria is defined as the excretion of more than three red blood cells per highpower field in a centrifuged urine specimen.1 Because the degree of
hematuria bears no relation to the seriousness of the underlying cause, hematuria should be considered a symptom of serious disease until proved otherwise.
The widespread use of dipstick urinalysis in clinical practice and health screening has resulted in increased recognition of microscopic hematuria and has raised
concerns about the appropriate diagnostic investigation. The prevalence of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria in adult men and postmenopausal women has
been reported to range from 10 percent to as high as 20 percent.2–4 Routine screening of all adults for microscopic hematuria with dipstick testing is not currently
recommended because of the intermittent occurrence of this finding and the low incidence of significant associated urologic disease.
Detection of Hematuria
DIPSTICK TESTS FOR HEMATURIA
In clinical practice, dipstick urinalysis is the test most commonly used to detect urinary tract disorders in asymptomatic patients. In this test, cellulose strips dipped
into a urine specimen record the ability of hemoglobin to catalyze the reaction between hydrogen peroxide and a chromogen. The resulting reaction causes the
chromogen to turn green, with the degree of color change directly related to the amount of hemoglobin present in the urine specimen. A spotted pattern to the
dipstick indicates the presence of free hemoglobin.5,6
Dipstick testing has been shown to be 91 to 100 percent sensitive and 65 to 99 percent specific for the detection of hemoglobin.7 Falsepositive test results have
been reported in the presence of myoglobinuria and oxidizing contaminants (e.g., hypochlorite, povidone and bacterial peroxidases), contamination of the urine
specimen with menstrual blood, and dehydration with elevation of urine specific gravity.1,5 Falsenegative results have been reported in the presence of reducing
agents (e.g., ascorbic acid), a urinary pH of less than 5.1 and dipsticks that have been exposed to air.1,5
URINE SPECIMEN COLLECTION AND PREPARATIONS
Several factors can influence the microscopic detection of erythrocytes in urine. Procurement of a urine sample using a catheter may cause urethral trauma that
results in variable degrees of hematuria. A cleancatch midstream urine specimen should be obtained using aseptic technique to avoid contamination from the
external genitalia. The first urine in the morning is typically the best specimen because erythrocytes are heat preserved in acidic and concentrated urine.
A prolonged delay from specimen collection to analysis can result in a false test interpretation. When a urine specimen cannot be examined within one hour of
collection, it should be refrigerated to prevent overgrowth of bacteria, changes in urinary pH and disintegration of red and white cell casts. These conditions may
occur if the specimen remains at room temperature for a long period.
Standardization of the analysis procedure is also essential to achieve an accurate result. Centrifugation is typically performed on a fixed volume of urine (5 mL) for
five minutes at 3,000 rotations per minute, after which the supernatant is poured off and the remaining sediment is resuspended in the centrifuge tube by gently
tapping the bottom of the tube. A pipette is used to sample the residual fluid and transfer it to a glass slide; a coverslip is applied to the slide for the microscopic
evaluation.5 The specimen is examined under high magnification (× 400) to determine cell type and distinct morphologic features. Results are recorded as the
number of red blood cells per highpower field.
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FINDINGS ON MICROSCOPY
On phase contrast microscopy, erythrocytes may display morphologic features that are helpful in differentiating glomerular and nonglomerular causes of
microscopic hematuria8 (Figures 1 and 2).
View/Print Figure
FIGURE 1.
Typical morphology of erythrocytes from a urine specimen revealing microscopic hematuria. (phase contrast microscopy, ×100)
View/Print Figure
FIGURE 2.
Dysmorphic erythrocytes from a urine specimen. These cells suggest a glomerular cause of microscopic hematuria. (phase contrast microscopy, × 100)
Dysmorphic erythrocytes are characterized by an irregular outer cell membrane and suggest hematuria of glomerular origin. Red blood cell casts are also
associated with a glomerular cause of hematuria. Acanthocytes, which are ringformed erythrocytes with one or more membrane protrusions of variable size and
shape, may represent an early form of dysmorphic erythrocytes and are a marker for hematuria of glomerular origin.
Erythrocytes of uniform character are classified as isomorphic and suggest hematuria of lower urinary tract origin. Microscopic clots of clumped erythrocytes in
urine are also suggestive of lower urinary tract bleeding.
The presence of both dysmorphic and isomorphic erythrocytes in urine represents a mixed morphologic pattern of nonspecific origin.
Diagnosis of Hematuria
HISTORY AND PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
The initial step in the evaluation of microscopic hematuria is a thorough medical history, including a review of prescription and nonprescription medications, a
history of ingestion of certain foods and an inquiry for specific conditions (Tables 1 and 2).9,10
View/Print Table
TAL 1
Substances and Medications Affecting Urine Color
Artificial food coloring
Beets
Berries
Chloroquine (Aralen)
Furazolidone (Furoxone)
Hydroxychloroquine (Plaquenil)
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Nitrofurantoin (Furadantin)
Phenazopyridine (Pyridium)
Phenolphthalein
Rifampin (Rifadin)
Information from Restrepo NC, Carey PO. Evaluating hematuria in adults. Am Fam Physician 1989; 40(2):149–56, and Drugdex system. Englewood: Colo.: Micromedex, Inc., 1999.
Accessed Sept. 24, 1998.
View/Print Table
TAL 2
Mechanisms by Which Selected Drugs May Cause Hematuria
MECHANISM DRUGS
Interstitial nephritis Captopril (Capoten)
Cephalosporins
Chlorothiazide (Diuril)
Ciprofloxacin (Cipro)
Furosemide (Lasix)
NSAIDs
Olsalazine (Dipentum)
Omeprazole (Prilosec)
Penicillins
Rifampin (Rifadin)
Silver sulfadiazine (Silvadene)
Trimethoprimsulfamethoxazole (Bactrim, Septra)
Papillary necrosis Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin)
The information obtained in the medical history is used to screen for the multiple potential causes of both glomerular and nonglomerular conditions that can lead to
microscopic hematuria (Table 3).11–15 IgA nephropathy (Berger's disease) is the most common cause of glomerular hematuria. Druginduced glomerular causes of
hematuria include nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and certain antibiotics associated with analgesic nephropathy and interstitial nephritis (Table 2).9,10
View/Print Table
TAL 3
Glomerular and Nonglomerular Causes of Hematuria
Glomerular causes
Primary glomerulonephritis
IgA nephropathy (Berger's disease)
Postinfectious glomerulonephritis
Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis
Focal glomerular sclerosis
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Rapidly progressing glomerulonephritis
Secondary glomerulonephritis
Lupus nephritis
HenochSchönlein syndrome
Vasculitis (polyarteritis nodosa, Wegener's granulomatosis)
Essential mixed cryoglobulinemia
Hemolyticuremic syndrome
Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura
One common nonglomerular medical cause of hematuria is papillary necrosis. This condition should be considered in patients with diabetes mellitus, black patients
with sickle cell trait or disease, and patients known to be analgesic abusers. Other common nonglomerular causes of hematuria include urothelial tumors,
urolithiasis, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and urinary tract infection.
The physical examination should take into account the multiple potential causes of hematuria and include the following points: evaluation of the cardiovascular
system for irregular cardiac rhythm, heart murmur or hypertension; evaluation of the abdomen for organomegaly or flank mass; evaluation of the prostate and
external genitalia; and evaluation of the extremities for peripheral edema, petechiae or mottling (Table 4).
View/Print Table
TAL 4
Physical Examination Findings and Associated Causes of Hematuria
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION FINDING CAUSE OF HEMATURIA
General (systemic) examination
Severe dehydration Renal vein thrombosis
Peripheral edema Nephrotic syndrome, vasculitis
Cardiovascular system
Myocardial infarction Renal artery embolus or thrombus
Atrial fibrillation Renal artery embolus or thrombus
Hypertension Glomerulosclerosis with or without proteinuria
Abdomen
Bruit Arteriovenous fistula
Genitourinary system
Enlarged prostate Urinary tract infection
Phimosis Urinary tract infection
Meatal stenosis Urinary tract infection
Urothelial cancers should also be considered in the evaluation of microscopic hematuria. Risk factors for these malignancies, particularly transitional cell carcinoma,
are listed in Table 5.16
View/Print Table
TAL 5
Risk Factors for Urothelial Carcinoma
Cigarette smoking
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Occupational exposures
Aniline dyes
Aromatic amines
Benzidine
Dietary nitrites and nitrates
Analgesic abuse (e.g., phenacetin)
Chronic cystitis and bacterial infection associated with urinary calculi and obstruction of the upper urinary tract
Urinary schistosomiasis
Cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan)
Pelvic irradiation
Information from Messing EM, Catalona W. Urothelial tumors of the urinary tract. In: Walsh PC, ed. Campbell's Urology. 7th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1998:2327–410.
LABORATORY TESTS
The initial laboratory studies are determined by pertinent information obtained from the medical history and physical examination. Formal urinalysis is performed to
document the degree of hematuria, determine the morphologic features of erythrocytes and evaluate urinary crystals and casts. If pyuria or bacteriuria is present, a
urine culture with sensitivity testing should be obtained to rule out infectious urinary tract pathogens. Screening laboratory tests typically consist of coagulation
studies, a complete blood count, serum chemistries and serologic studies for glomerular causes of hematuria as directed by the medical history.
Further urologic evaluation is warranted if more than three red blood cells per highpower field are found on at least two of three properly collected urine specimens
or if highgrade microscopic hematuria (more than 100 red blood cells per highpower field) is found on a single urinalysis.17 The only exceptions are children with
persistent microscopic hematuria without proteinuria, in whom the most likely diagnoses include thin glomerular basement membrane nephropathy, idiopathic
hypercalciuria, IgA nephropathy and Alport's syndrome.
RADIOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATION
The initial radiographic study is intravenous pyelography (IVP), or excretory urography. The purpose of the study is to obtain an anatomic and functional evaluation
of the upper and lower urinary tract. Before IVP is performed, the collected urine specimen should undergo microscopic examination to exclude an infectious cause
of hematuria. Some centers use renal ultrasonography as an initial test to avoid exposing patients to intravenous contrast media; however, subtle findings in the
renal collecting system may be difficult to detect by ultrasonography alone.
Risk factors for contrast uropathy have been described (Table 6).18 Because preexisting renal insufficiency is the most important risk factor for renal failure, the
serum creatinine concentration should always be measured before any contrast examination is performed. Early studies reported a 4.7 percent overall incidence of
adverse reactions to conventional ionic highosmolar contrast media.19 Although most of these reactions were considered minor, true anaphylactic reactions have
been described. The incidence of death after the intravenous administration of conventional contrast media has been reported to be one case per 40,000 contrast
material injections.19 Newer, nonionic lowosmolar contrast media are associated with fewer adverse effects than traditional, less expensive, ionic highosmolar
agents.20
View/Print Table
TAL 6
Risk Factors for Contrast Uropathy
Dehydration
Diabetes with azotemia
Cardiac decompensation
History of allergy
Asthma
Hay fever
Seafood allergy
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Others, including allergic reactions to antibiotics
Previous reaction to contrast media
Renal insufficiency
Information from Friedenberg RM. Excretory urography in the adult. In: Walsh PC, ed. Campbell's Urology. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1992:412–34.
Metformin (Glucophage) is an oral antihyperglycemic agent commonly used in the management of type 2 diabetes (formerly termed non–insulindependent
diabetes). This drug is eliminated primarily by the kidneys. [corrected (http://www.aafp.org/afp/2000/0201/p647b.html)] Because of potential exacerbation of acute renal failure
and lactic acidosis, metformin should be discontinued at the time of radiologic studies involving intravascular administration of iodinated contrast materials and
withheld for 48 hours subsequent to the procedure. It should be reinstituted only after renal function has been reevaluated and found to be normal.21
With excretory urography, tomography is typically performed to increase recognition of renal masses, fine renal calcifications and paranephric structures. Oblique
images are obtained to assist in evaluation of ureteral lesions, differentiation of extrinsic and intrinsic renal or ureteral masses and visualization of the posterolateral
aspect of the bladder. Delayed images are helpful in cases of obstruction in which the nephrogram phase is seen on IVP but the collecting system is not yet
visualized.18
If the use of intravenous contrast material is contraindicated or if incomplete visualization of the lower urinary tract occurs, retrograde pyelography should be
performed. Typically, the combination of retrograde pyelography and ultrasonography is employed to increase sensitivity in the detection of solid renal masses.
However, renal ultrasonography cannot detect the subtle mucosal abnormalities that occur with transitional cell carcinoma or small, echogenic ureteral calculi.
Compared with renal ultrasonography, computed tomography (CT) is more sensitive in detecting renal masses and subtle filling defects of the renal collecting
system.22 Recently, unenhanced helical CT scans have provided accurate evaluation of patients with acute flank pain through the precise determination of calculus
size and location.23 Despite advancements in radiographic imaging, the role of CT or ultrasonography as the primary imaging modality in the workup of
microscopic hematuria has not been established.
LOWER URINARY TRACT INVESTIGATION
Whereas radiographic imaging allows evaluation of the upper urinary tract, cystourethroscopy provides definitive evaluation of the lower urinary tract. In addition to
direct visualization of the urethra, prostate and bladder, washings and biopsies of suspicious bladder lesions can be performed during cystourethroscopy.
Cytology obtained from washings is useful in detecting poorly differentiated sessile and in situ bladder lesions. With in situ bladder cancer, the results of cytologic
analysis are often positive before lesions are seen with cystoscopy.1
OTHER INVESTIGATIONS
When no cause for microscopic hematuria is found with cystourethroscopy and appropriate radiographic imaging, further studies may be considered. These studies
include CT scanning, renal angiography and flexible ureterorenoscopy. No consensus has been reached on the indications for renal biopsy in patients with
hematuria, but this procedure may be indicated to rule out glomerular causes of hematuria.1 Despite a complete and exhaustive workup, no specific cause is
identified in approximately 20 percent of patients with microscopic hematuria.24
Molecular markers recently introduced into clinical practice to assist with the followup evaluation of urothelial carcinomas have yet to be labeled for the evaluation
of hematuria. The two assays currently labeled for clinical use by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration are the bladder tumor antigen (BTA) test and the nuclear
matrix protein (NMP22) test.17,25 The BTA test is a latex agglutination assay for the qualitative detection of a basement membrane antigen in a voided urine
specimen. The NMP22 test involves the quantitative detection of a specific nuclear matrix protein in a voided urine specimen. Although these assays offer great
potential for the early detection of recurrent bladder carcinoma, their role in the evaluation of hematuria is still uncertain.
A standard reference algorithm for the evaluation and treatment of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria is presented in Figure 3. This systematic approach can be
useful in identifying and managing causes of hematuria ranging from infection to BPH26 to cancer.
View/Print Figure
Hematuria
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FIGURE 3.
Algorithm for the evaluation and treatment of hematuria. (RBC = red blood cell; WBC = white blood cell; BUN = blood urea nitrogen; CBC = complete blood count; PT = prothrombin
time; PTT = partial thromboplastin time; IVP = intravenous pyelography; KUB = plain radiograph of kidney, ureter and bladder; CT = computed tomography; TURP = transurethral
resection of the prostate)
Special Considerations
HEMATURIA DURING ANTICOAGULATION
Microscopic hematuria is commonly encountered in patients taking anticoagulant drugs. Although it may be easy to attribute this hematuria solely to anticoagulation
therapy, significant urologic causes have been reported in 13 to 45 percent of such patients.27,28 Current recommended anticoagulation schedules do not
predispose patients to hematuria.27 The most common causes of anticoagulantassociated hematuria include BPH, inflammatory conditions, urolithiasis, papillary
necrosis and cancers of the upper and lower urinary tract.
HEMATURIA FOLLOWING EXERCISE
Asymptomatic microscopic hematuria resulting from strenuous exercise has been well documented in association with a variety of contact and noncontact sports
activities.12–14 The degree of hematuria is believed to be related to the intensity and duration of exercise.12 Although exerciseinduced hematuria is typically a
benign, selflimited process, coexisting urinary tract pathology may exist and must be carefully excluded.
Exerciseinduced microscopic hematuria almost always resolves within 72 hours of onset in patients who do not have underlying urinary tract abnormality. However,
if the hematuria is present on repeat urinalysis after 72 hours of rest, further urologic evaluation may be indicated.
Final Comment
Asymptomatic microscopic hematuria is commonly nephric in origin, whereas gross hematuria is often uroepithelial in origin. Gross, painless hematuria is often the
first manifestation of a urothelial tumor. However, the degree of hematuria bears no relation to the seriousness of the underlying disease. Consequently, the
microscopic finding of blood in the urine should be considered a serious symptom until significant pathology has been excluded.
Phase contrast microscopy is currently the best initial method of documenting microscopic hematuria. The evaluation often includes intravenous pyelography,
cystourethroscopy and urinary cytology.
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Unfortunately, consensus is lacking regarding the management of persistent asymptomatic microscopic hematuria of unknown etiology. Recommended surveillance
schedules for patients with a previous negative evaluation for unexplained microscopic hematuria include urinalysis and voided urinary cytology annually until the
hematuria resolves, or for up to three years if microscopic hematuria persists. Any significant increase in the degree of microscopic hematuria (more than 50 red
blood cells per highpower field), an episode of gross hematuria or the new onset of irritative voiding symptoms in the absence of infection warrants a complete
reevaluation.17
Additional large populationbased studies of the prevalence of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria and its relationship with age and sex are needed before
definitive recommendations can be formalized to practice guidelines.
The Authors show all author info
TIMOTHY R. THALLER, M.D., is currently in private practice at Statesboro Urologic Clinic, P.C., Statesboro, Ga. He received his medical degree from Louisiana
State University School of Medicine in Shreveport and completed a residency in urology at the University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kan., where he
served as chief resident....
REFERENCES show all references
1. Sutton JM. Evaluation of hematuria in adults. JAMA. 1990;263:2475–80....
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