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This essay will focus on discussing the effectiveness of the choice of tempo and
tempo rubato employed by the performer. Tempo is a considerable aspect of all music;
misinterpreting the composer’s tempo markings will certainly distort the character and
intention of the piece. Any piece played in strict time without any form of freedom in tempo
tempo within the music, or tempo rubato (literally ‘robbed time’) is applied frequently
regardless of any indication by the composer, and used in fairly subtle ways to enrich the
For this research I have selected Frédéric Chopin’s Barcarolle (1845-46) recorded
Conservatoire, and specialises in the works of Messiaen and Skryabin. He has collaborated
with artistes of other disciplines with uncommon repertoire and his discography includes
Chopin’s Barcarolle
lilting rhythm depicting the gentle rocking of a boat. Composed in 1845, Chopin’s Barcarolle
customary 68 .The main edition used for reference in this study is the Polish National Edition,
with Jan Ekier as the editor. An average performance lasts about eight and a half minutes.
Tempo
works on a deeper level; the markings in the Barcarolle carry a similar importance (Hood,
2014: 196). Tempo, dynamic markings and other performance directions have to be read
within the context of some understanding of common practices and influences during the
period of composition. An appropriate tempo is one that falls within plausible parameters
rather than a defined absolute tempo, and the performance should stick close to the chosen
tempo until another is indicated (Davies, 2001: 59). In Koch’s Musikalisches Lexicon (1802:
62), it is stated that tempo terms can be used to indicate the speed, or merely the style of the
performance, or both.
performance, rather than fixed prescriptions (Butt, 2002: 112), and often made changes to his
tempo marking. In some works, the metronomic markings are said to be more credible when
performing on a Pleyel due to the lighter keys as compared to the modern piano. In his earlier
works we can find exact values for the tempo along with Italian tempo directions, and by
1836 Chopin has eliminated his tempo markings altogether (Jackson, 2005: 88). From these
earlier works it is possible to deduce and establish a range of limits for the tempo of his later
Chopin’s metronome markings for Allegro ranges from = 92 (Etude Op. 10 No. 9)
to = 192 (Mazurka Op. 24 No. 2), and Allegretto from = 76 (Etude Op. 10 No. 11) to
___= 60 (or = 180: Menuetto from Sonata No. 1 in c minor, Op. 4). These extreme ranges
complicates the method of deducing the tempo for later works. Assuming the tempo markings
were authorised by Chopin, we can conclude that Chopin saw radical differences between the
various genres (Higgins, 1973: 108) and that tempo directions could be seen more as a
Chopin’s Rubato
In the 18th century, rubato may be notated by grouping and rhythmically diminishing
notes, but it was to imply the idea of an accelerando instead of a strict rhythmic diminution
(Figure 1). By the 19th century, composers began notating rubato, and the practice of rubato
was applied to both the melody and accompaniment (Gunn, 2015: 137).
One of the most distinctive musical qualities of Chopin was his two types of rubato.
The first kind of rubato was found to be more common, which is described as the ‘agogic
modification of pace relative to the basic tempo’. The duration of the rubato varies, but the
variation takes place simultaneously in both melody and accompaniment (Kallberg, 2004:
243). However, this form of rubato should not skew the time taken for the performance, as
rubato should not only comprise of stealing time (accelerando), but giving back (ritardando)
as well. The use of accelerando and ritardando heightens drama noticeably. Accelerando can
be used when ideas are repeated more intensely, or unexpectedly to arouse a more passionate
effect. Ritardando is more common in passages that suggests longing and melancholy, and is
often used regardless of indication by the composer, with notated ornamentation, approaching
fermatas, transitions or when ending a passage or phrase (Gunn, 2015, 138). Where one part
of a phrase is quickened, another should slacken in proportion, in order not to disturb the
general pulse; the duration of the phrase played with rubato should thus remain the same if
played in strict time throughout (Taylor, 1897: 73). This ‘older’ concept of rubato still
The second, described by his pupil Wilhelm von Lenz is the rhythmic variation
occurring in the melodic lines while the accompaniment remains rhythmically constant
(Eigeldinger, 1986: 49), is similar to Mozart’s style of rubato as accounted in his letter from
and ‘mainstream’ performances were alike in the way that the performers employed tempo
moments. The only distinction was the historically-informed performers kept a solid rhythm
in the left hand bass, which matches the described style of Chopin’s rubato (Ornoy 2006,
237). Coined as metrical rubato by Costa, this old bel canto type of rubato is comparable to
an opera singer retarding and accelerating at almost every moment while the orchestral
This latter form of rubato inevitably leads to the discussion of Dislocation, which is
the art of playing one hand after the other. There is much evidence of the practice of
47). The melody-notes may be struck an instant after the bass, which gives it a softer effect;
dislocation should be done only at beginning of phrases, important notes and strong beats.
The delay should be minimal to make it ‘hardly noticeable for the uninitiated’ (Brée, 1902:
73). When properly executed, dislocation serves to emphasise or de-emphasise the affected
melody note(s), not necessarily to bend the rhythm of the melody. This practice is now met
with criticism, as it was possibly the ‘apogee of expressiveness’ in the 19th century that has
extent his recording was influenced by historical practices. Not all instances will be
highlighted due to the word limit and possibility of repetition. All tempo markings are
measured by tapping on a digital metronome, and verified with the timings on the recordings.
The tempos are also an approximate value due to the amount of rubato used in the music.
The performance started with a commanding forte, where the corresponding dynamics
was found in the first English edition based on the revised autograph edition which is
currently lost. Austbø fluctuates the tempo significantly at the opening phrase, with a
stretched first bar at = 40, picking up the tempo to = 60 at the second bar and ending it
with a ritardando to almost = 18. There is also a slight tenuto on the first quaver beat of the
second bar, where emphasis is given due to an elongated rhythmical value. Austbø then
compensates this alteration by shortening the value of the preceding quaver. The dotted
minim rest was also marginally shortened before the accompaniment enters in bar 4.
In the following table I have tabulated the tempi directions by tapping the tempo on a
digital metronome for the first reading, and divided the time taken to play the various
passages by the number of beats for the second reading. All metronome readings are in dotted
1 Allegretto 60 52 (56)
72 meno mosso 50 51
84 tempo primo 62 55
The bracketed readings were taken by omitting the last bar(s) of the section due to the
amount of ritardando applied, by doing so we see the average tempi would then be slightly
closer to the tapped tempi. There is a general contour for the tempo relationships marked by
Chopin, and Austbø choice of tempo follows Chopin’s tempo directions to a certain extent.
The exceptions happen at the first poco più mosso section beginning at bar 35 where the
tempo is kept from the previous section without any significant change, and the tempo primo
at the coda where he took a significantly slower tempo as compared to the tempo in the first
section.
Christiani categorised tempo terms into five fundamental degrees: very slow, slow,
moderate, fast and very fast; the lower threshold for fast being Allegro, and Andante for
moderate (1885, 261). With Allegretto being the diminutive of Allegro, ‘moderately fast’
Allegretto it would be too fast when counting in dotted crotchets and to slow when counting
direction, instead of an absolute value. In late eighteenth century, Allegretto was understood
to be a somewhat fast tempo, without showing any sign of hurry (Fallows 2001, 382). Austbø
captured the depiction of a boat song relatively well, as with other convincing recordings of
performances, with tempos ranging from Arrau (Chopin, 2011) at = 55 to Cortot (Chopin,
I have measured the tempo for the first section in the following ways: Tapping the
pulse on a digital metronome per dotted crotchet, per dotted minim, and mapping the time
taken to play 2-bar and 4-bar melodies. The methods produced varied results. The first
method showed an unsteady pulse varying from = 40 to 65. This is result is somewhat
supported by the third method, where the time taken to play each sub-phrase differs by 3 to
15%. The second showed a more steady pulse of = 24 to 30, which in turn accords to the
Austbø is constantly applying rubato possibly in a bigger context, which matches the
types of rubato described earlier, albeit with his own modifications. The rubato is applied to
the elaborated accompaniment notes within the dotted minim, so the listener is still grounded
by the bass note struck on every 1st and 3rd beat of the bar. The underlying accompaniment
thus appears to be kept at a steady pulse, preserving the character of the Barcarolle.
The occurrences of rubato is also evident when trills are present in the melody. The
the rhythmic values that were notated, while altering marginally the rhythmic values at
certain moments. For example, this build up before the extended authentic cadence (figure 3)
The semiquaver beats (boxed) in the melody in bars 28 and 29 are slightly lengthened,
sounding almost like a triplet. Also, the semiquaver beats (circled) in the accompaniment are
played faster than notated, which gives an impression that the right hand chord is held longer
than usual. The accelerando in the semiquavers is then compensated by a ritardando in the
preceding beat.
Figure 4: Bar 26, rubato in trill.
In bar 26, a ritardando is gradually applied during the execution of the trill, in an
attempt to increase the build-up in tension before the leap to the appoggiatura in bar 27. This
The cautious use of metrical rubato must be observed from bar 51 due to the
i. The ostinato rhythm in the left hand has been in place from bar 39.
ii. The chordal texture in the right hand augments the above mentioned rhythm.
iii. The first quaver beat(s) in the left hand is doubled by an octave.
The above reasons are contributing to the impression of an accent on every first beat, for
which in Austbø’s case, is further exaggerated with his augmentation of every first quaver in
each beat. When metrical rubato is applied too often it disrupts the line, making the music
sound fragmented. There are a few instances where Austbø stretches the first quaver of every
moments (build up before cadences) with the accompaniment pulse being steady, there is
significant distortion in the rhythmical values, especially of the left hand. Metrical rubato as
discussed earlier is usually applied more often to the melody notes, and in Austbø’s
There are two occurrences of fermata in Chopin’s Barcarolle, with almost similar
When rubato (accelerando and ritardando) is used sparingly at the suitable times,
with correct spacing within the notes, it augments the tension already created harmonically by
the composer. In this section the fermata on the semiquaver rest, which is an expression of
surprise or astonishment, further emphasises the tension (Gunn, 2015: 138). In bar 32 Austbø
applied slight accelerando to the first half of the bar, and ritardando in the second half; in bar
92 the effect is amplified by extending the accelerando until the more substantial ritardando
in the last quaver and semiquaver beat. Austbø clearly demonstrated understanding of the
notes are subtle enough to not be noticeable upon the first hearing, yet sufficient to produce
the effect of softening the melody note. The first example of dislocation happens in the first
phrase, on the highest notes of the phrase (circled in the diagram: D#, F# and G#, B), which
observes the dynamic markings of the phrase. The subsequent images highlights other
Austbø’s use of appropriate dynamics allowed him to soften and de-emphasise the
melody notes in the first two examples (figures 8 and 9), and emphasise the melody notes in
melody notes should coincide with the beat, his recordings suggests that he employed
dislocation at several other moments with obvious delays (Brée 1902, 73; Costa 2012, 73).
From his recording of his Ballade Venitienne (Barcarola) (Chopin, 1992), the first beat is
always displaced, and the descending figuration is also displaced, and to a certain extent
arpeggiated. In his recording of Chopin’s Nocturne (ibid.), the dislocation also happens far
Figure 12: Nocturne in D-flat Major, Op. 27 No. 2, dislocated melody notes
According to Chopin’s pupil Carl Mikuli, Chopin firmly opposed to the practice of
appeggiation of chords; unlike Brahms who arpeggiated most chords when he played
according to witnesses (Rosen 1995, 413). These practices appear to be popular with pianists
born in the latter half of the 19th century including Alfred Cortot, Myra Hess, Sergei
Rachmaninoff and Ernö Dohnanyi (Costa 2012, 47). In the final tempo primo section,
Austbø’s arpeggiation is apparent in the octave bass notes, along the different elements of
Conclusion
There are many other aspects of historically informed practice that were not discussed
due to the focus on tempo and tempo rubato. These include, and is not limited to: rhetorical
decorations before or on the beat, doubling of bass notes and interpretation of the extra-
metric groupings (septuplets and quintuplets in bars 78-80). Along with the evolution of the
piano, these performances practices have also changed over time, and what we practice today
may be radically different with the norms in the common practice period.
with an equal part of ritardando. Metrical rubato is also applied to a certain extent, however
differing to 19th century practices at some points, where it occurs more in the left hand
accompaniment than the stated right hand melody. Austbø’s application of dislocation were
rather inconspicuous but adequate to serve the purpose of ‘softening’ the melody notes.
description of dislocation, than Leschetizky’s own practices as heard from his recordings.
Although there might be external influences affecting the performance, for example the
acoustics of the recording location (recording was made in Østsiden Church) and the state of
the instrument, from the observations and analyses made through the essay we can conclude
that to a large extent, Austbø has taken into account the performance practices current at the
time of composition.