Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Chapter 3.
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
Topics to cover:
1) Introduction 4) Magnetic Materials
2) Conductors 5) Core Losses
3) Dielectrics 6) Circuit Model of Magnetic Cores
Introduction
This chapter discusses briefly the electric and magnetic properties of materials and their
behavior in electromagnetic fields. Since most of the electromagnetic devices we are going
to investigate in this subject are made of magnetic materials, the magnetic properties of
materials, including the magnetic hysteresis loops, magnetization curves, core losses, and
circuit model of a magnetic core, will be discussed in detail.
can move from one to another with only a small change in energy. Insulators or dielectrics
are materials with a completely filled upper band, so conduction could not normally occur
because of the existence of a large energy gap to the next higher band. If the energy gap of
the forbidden region is relatively small, small amounts of external energy may be sufficient
to excite the electrons in the filled upper band to jump into the next band, causing
conduction. Such materials are semiconductors.
2
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
may wander from one atom to another in a random manner. The atoms, on the average,
remain electrically neutral, and there is no net drift motion of electrons. When an external
electric field is applied on a conductor, an organized motion of the conduction electrons will
result, producing an electric current. The average drift velocity of the electrons is very low
(on the order of 10-4 or 10-3 m/s) even for very good conductors because they collide with the
atoms in the course of their motion, dissipating part of their kinetic energy as heat. Even
with the drift motion of conduction electrons, a conductor remains electrically neutral.
Electric forces prevent excess electrons from accumulating at any point in a conductor.
Consider the steady motion of one kind of charge carriers, each of charge q (which is
negative for electrons), across an element of surface ∆s with a velocity u. If N is the number
of charge carriers per unit volume, then in time ∆t each charge carrier moves a distance u∆t,
and the amount of charge carrier passing through the surface ∆s is
∆Q = Nqu • a n ∆s∆t (C)
∆s=an∆s.
It can be justified analytically that for most conducting materials the average drift
velocity is directly proportional to the applied external electric field strength. For metalic
conductors we write
u = −µ e E (m/s)
where µe is the electron mobility measured in (m2/Vs). The electron mobility for copper is
3.2×10-3 (m2/Vs). It is 1.4×10-4 (m2/Vs) for aluminum and 5.2×10-3 (m2/Vs) for silver.
Therefore, we obtain the point form of Ohm's law:
J = − ρe µe E = σE (A/m2)
where ρe=−Ne is the charge density of the drifting electrons, and σ=−ρeµe a macroscopic
constitutive parameter of the medium known as conductivity. The SI unit for conductivity
is ampere per volt-meter (A/Vm) or siemens per meter (S/m). The reciprocal of conductivity
is known as resistivity in ohm-meters (Ωm).
In the physical world we have an abundance of "good conductors" such as silver, copper,
gold, and aluminum, whose conductivities are of the order of 107 (S/m). There are super-
conducting materials whose conductivities are essentially infinite (in excess of 1020 S/m) at
3
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
Resistance Calculation
Consider a piece of homogeneous material of conductivity σ, length l, and uniform cross
section A, as shown below. Within the conductor, J=σE, where both J and E are in the
direction of current flow. The potential difference or voltage between terminals 1 and 2 is
V12 = El
or E = V12 l
and the total current is
I = ∫ J • dA = JA = σEA
A
σA
= V
l 12
V12
or I=
R
l
where R=
σA
is the resistance between two terminals. The unit for resistance is Ohms (Ω). The
reciprocal of resistance is defined as conductance or G=1/R. The unit for conductance is
siemens (S) or (Ω-1). This equation can be applied directly to uniform cross sectioned
bodies operating at low frequencies.
4
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
Example:
A metal hemisphere of radius Re, buried with its flat face lying in the surface of the ground,
is used as an earthing electrode. It may be assumed that a current flowing to earth spreads
out uniformly and radially from the electrode for a great distance. Show that, as the
distance for which this is true tends to infinity, the resistance between the electrode and
earth tends to the limiting value ρ/2πRe, where ρ is the resistivity of the earth.
Solution:
To determine the total resistance between the metallic cap and earth (at ∞) we can sum
the incremental resistances of the thin hemispherical caps (extending from Re to ∞). First,
choose a hemispherical cap of thichness dr, and the incremental resistance of the cap is
dr
dR = ρ , where A = 2πr 2
A
Therefore, the total resistance
∞ ∞
ρ dr ρ 1
R=
2π ∫R r 2 = 2π − r
Re
ρ
=
2πR e
as required.
5
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
thus transmitted from the electric field to the atoms in thermal vibration. The Joule's law
states that for a given volume Vc the total electric power converted into heat is
P = ∫ E • Jdv
Vc
P = ∫ Edl ∫ JdA = VI
l A
P = I 2R
This is an expression for power dissipation in a resistor of resistance R.
6
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
The molecules of some dielectrics possess permanent dipole moments, even in the
absence of an external polarizing field. Such molecules usually consist of two or more
dissimilar atoms and are called polar molecules, in contrast to nonpolar molecules, which
do not have permanent dipole moments. An example is the water molecule H2O, which
consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The atoms do not arrange themselves
in a manner that makes the molecule have a zero dipole moment; that is, the hydrogen
atoms do not lie exactly on diametrically opposite sides of the oxygen atom.
The dipole moments of polar molecules are of the order of 10−30 (Cm). When there is no
external field, the individual dipoles in a polar dielectric are randomly oriented, producing
no net dipole moment macroscopically. An applied electric field will exert a torque on the
individual dipoles and tend to align them with the field in a manner similar to that shown in
the figure above.
Some dielectric materials can exhibit a permanent dipole moment even in the absence of
an externally applied electric field. Such materials are called electrets. Electrets can be
made by heating (softening) certain waxes or plastics and placing them in an electric field.
The polarized molecules in these materials tend to align with the applied field and to be
frozen in their new positions after they return to normal temperatures. Permanent
polarization remains without an external electric field. Electrets are the electrical
equivalents of permanent magnets; they have found important applications in high fidelity
electret microphones.
7
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
Physt = ∫ E • dD
When the electric hysteresis of a dielectric is ignored and the dielectric properties are
regarded as isotropic and linear, the polarization is directly proportional to the electric field
strength, and the proportionality constant is independent of the direction of the field. We
write
D = εE
where the coefficient ε=εrεo is the absolute permittivity (often simply called permittivity),
and εr a dimensionless quantity known as the relative permittivity or the dielectric
constant.
8
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
In the absence of an external magnetic field the magnetic dipoles of the atoms of most
materials (except permanent magnets) have random orientations, resulting in no net
magnetic moment. The application of an external magnetic field cause both an alignment of
magnetic moments of the spinning electrons and an induced magnetic moment due to a
charge in orbital motion of electrons. To obtain a formula for determining the quantitative
change in the magnetic flux density caused by the presence of a magnetic material, we let
mk be the magnetic dipole moment of an atom. If there are n atoms per unit volume, we
define a magnetization vector, M, as
n∆v
∑m
k =1
k
M = lim (A/m)
∆v → 0 ∆v
which is the volume density of magnetic dipole moment.
Since each spinning electron can be regarded
as a small current loop, a volume density of
magnetic dipole moment can be equivalent to a
volume current density and a surface current
density as qualitatively illustrated in the diagram
on the right hand side. Analytically, such an
equivalence can be expressed as
Jm = ∇ × M (A/m2)
and J ms = M × a n (A/m)
Magnetic Permeability
In a magnetized material, the magnetic flux density B has two components contributed
respectively by the external magnetic field and the magnetization:
B = µo ( H + M )
When the magnetic properties of the medium are linear and isotropic, the magnetization is
directly proportional to the magnetic field strength:
M = χm H
where χm is a dimensionless quantity known as the magnetic susceptibility.
9
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
Therefore,
B = µo (1 + χ m )H
or B = µo µr H = µH
where µr = 1 + χ m is another dimensionless quantity known as the relative permeability,
and µ = µo µr the absolute permeability (or sometimes just permeability). The SI unit for
10
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
diamagnetic materials (bismuth, copper, lead, mercury, germanium, silver, gold, diamond)
is of the order of −10-5.
Diamagnetism arises mainly from the orbital motion of the electrons within an atom and
is present in all materials. In most materials it is too weak to be of any practical
importance. The diamagnetic effect is masked in paramagnetic and ferromagnetic
materials. Diamagnetic materials exhibit no permanent magnetism, and the induced
magnetic moment disappears when the applied field is withdrawn.
In the atoms of more than one third of the known elements, the electrons are not
arranged symmetrically, so that they do possess a net magnetic moment. An externally
applied magnetic field, in addition to causing a very weak diamagnetic effect, tends to align
the molecular magnetic moments in the direction of the applied field, thus increasing the
magnetic flux density. The macroscopic effect is, then, equivalent to that of a positive
magnetization that is described by a positive magnetic susceptibility. The alignment process
is, however, impeded by the forces of random thermal vibrations. There is little coherent
interaction, and the increase in magnetic flux density is quite small. Materials with this
behavior are said to be paramagnetic. Paramagnetic materials generally have very small
positive values of magnetic susceptibility, of the order of 10-5 for aluminum, magnesium,
titanium, and tungsten.
Paramagnetism arises mainly from the magnetic dipole moments of the spinning
electrons. The alignment forces, acting upon molecular dipoles by the applied field, are
counteracted by the deranging effects of thermal agitation. Unlike diamagnetism, which is
essentially independent of temperature, the paramagnetic effect is temperature dependent,
being stronger at lower temperatures where there is less thermal collision.
While the atoms of many elements have net magnetic moments, the arrangement of the
atoms in most materials is such that the magnetic moment of one atom is canceled out by
that of an oppositely directed (antiparallel) near neighbor. It is only five of the elements
that the atoms are arranged with their magnetic moments in parallel so that they
supplement, rather than cancel, one another. These five elements are known as
ferromagnetic (to be further explained later in this section) elements. They are iron, nickel,
cobalt, dysprosium, and gadolinium; the last two are metals of the rare earths and have
limited industrial application. A number of alloys of these five elements, which include
nonferromagnetic elements in their composition, also possess the property of
ferromagnetism.
11
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
12
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
applied field will also occur. For example, if an applied field is reduced to zero at point P2,
the B-H relationship will not follow the solid curve P2P1O, but will go down from P2 to P'2,
along the lines of the broken curve in the figure. This phenomenon of magnetization
lagging behind the field producing it is called magnetic hysteresis, which is derived from a
Greek word meaning "to lag". As the applied field becomes even much stronger (past P2 to
P3), domain wall motion and domain rotation will cause essentially a total alignment of the
microscopic magnetic moments with the applied field, at which point the magnetic material
is said to have reached saturation. The curve OP1P2P3 on the B-H plane is called the
normal magnetization curve.
If the applied magnetic field is reduced to
zero from the value at P3, the magnetic flux
density does not go to zero but assumes the value
at Br. This value is called the residual or
remanent flux density (in Wb/m2 or T) and is
dependent on the maximum applied field
strength. The existence of a remanent flux
density in a ferromagnetic material makes
permanent magnets possible.
Hysteresis loops in the B-H plane for
To make the magnetic flux density of a ferromagnetic material.
specimen zero, it is necessary to apply a
magnetic field strength Hc in the opposite direction. This required Hc is called coercive
force, but a more appropriate name is coercive field strength (in A/m). Like Br, Hc also
depends on the maximum value of the applied magnetic field strength.
The hysteresis loops shown in the above
diagram are known as the major loops. A
minor loop (as depicted in the diagram on the
right hand side) would appear if a smaller
higher harmonic field is superimposed upon the
fundamental excitation field causing an extra
reversal of magnetization.
It is evident from the diagram above that the
B-H relationship for a ferromagnetic material is
nonlinear. Hence, if we write B = µH, the Minor hysteresis loop
13
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
14
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
more, whereas that for soft materials is usually 50 (A/m) or less. The diagram below shows
the demagnetization curves (part of the hysteresis loop in the fourth quadrant).
As indicated before, ferromagnetism is the result of strong coupling effects between the
magnetic dipole moments of the atoms in a domain. Figure (a) in the diagram below depicts
the atomic spin structure of a ferromagnetic material. When the temperature of a
ferromagnetic material is raised to such an extent that the thermal energy exceeds the
coupling energy, the magnetized domains become disorganized. Above this critical
temperature, known as the curie temperature, a ferromagnetic material behaves like a
paramagnetic substance. Hence, when a permanent magnet is heated above its curie
temperature it loses its magnetization. The curie temperature of most ferromagnetic
materials lies between a few hundred to a thousand degrees Celsius, that of iron being
770oC.
Some elements, such as chromium and manganese, which are close to ferromagnetic
elements in atomic number and are neighbors of iron in the periodic table, also have strong
coupling forces between the atomic magnetic dipole moments; but their coupling forces
produce antiparallel alignments of electron spins, as illustrated in Figure (b) in the diagram
15
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
below. The spins alternate in direction from atom to atom and result in no net magnetic
moment. A material possessing this property is said to be antiferromagnetic.
Antiferromagnetism is also temperature dependent. When an antiferromagnetic material is
heated above its curie temperature, the spin directions suddenly become random, and the
material becomes paramagnetic.
There is another class of magnetic materials that exhibit a
behavior between ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism.
Here quantum mechanical effects make the directions of the
magnetic moments in the ordered spin structure alternate and
the magnitudes unequal, resulting in a net nonzero magnetic
moment, as depicted in Figure (c) in the diagram on the right
hand side. These materials are said to be ferrimagnetic.
Because of the partial cancellation, the maximum magnetic
flux density attained in a ferrimagnetic substance is
substantially lower than that in a ferromagnetic specimen. Schematic atomic spin
structures for (a) ferro-
Typically, it is about 0.3 Wb/m2, approximately one-tenth that magnetic, (b) antiferro-
for ferromagnetic substances. magnetic, and (c) ferri-
magnetic materials.
Ferrites are a subgroup of ferrimagnetic material. One type
of ferrites, called magnetic spinels, crystallize in a complicated spinel structure and have
the formula XO-Fe2O3, where X denotes a divalent metallic ion such as Fe, Co, Ni, Mn, Mg,
Zn, Cd, etc. These are ceramiclike compounds with very low conductivities (for instance,
10-4 to 1 (S/m) compared with 107 (S/m) for iron). Low conductivity limits eddy-current
losses at high frequencies. Hence ferrites find extensive uses in such high-frequency and
microwave applications as cores for FM antennas, high-frequency transformers, and phase
shifters. Ferrite material also has broad applications in computer magnetic-core and
magnetic-disk memory devices. Other ferrites include magnetic-oxide garnets, of which
yttrium-iron-garnet ("YIG," Y3Fe5O12) is typical. Garnets are used in microwave multiport
junctions. Following diagrams show the hysteresis loops of materials commonly used as the
magnetic cores of high frequency inductors/transformers and recording media, respectively.
Ferrites are anisotropic in the presence of a magnetic field. This means that H and B
vectors in ferrites generally have different directions, and permeability is a tensor. The
relation between the components of H and B can be represented in a matrix form similar to
that between the components of D and E in an anisotropic dielectric medium.
16
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
Core Losses
Core losses occur in magnetic cores of
ferromagnetic materials under alternating
magnetic field excitations. The diagram
below plots the alternating core losses of M-
36, 0.356 mm steel sheet against the
excitation frequency. In this section, we will
discuss the mechanisms and prediction of
alternating core losses.
As the external magnetic field varies at a
very low rate periodically, as mentioned Hysteresis loops of a soft ferrite at
different temperatures
earlier, due to the effects of magnetic domain
wall motion the B-H relationship is a
hysteresis loop. The area enclosed by the loop
is a power loss known as the hysteresis loss,
and can be calculated by
Example:
A B-H loop for a type of electric steel sheet
is shown in the diagram below. Determine
approximately the hysteresis loss per cycle in
a torus of 300 mm mean diameter and a
square cross section of 50×50 mm. Alternating core loss of M36, 0.356 mm
steel sheetat different excitation frequencies
17
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
Solution:
The are of each square in the diagram represents
(0.1 T) × (25 A/m) = 2.5 (Wb/m2) × (A/m) = 2.5 VsA/m3 = 2.5 J/m3
If a square that is more than half within the loop is regarded as totally enclosed, and one
that is more than half outside is disregarded, then the area of the loop is
2 × 43 × 2.5 = 215 J/m3
The volume of the torus is
0.052 × 0.3π = 2.36 × 10-3 m3
Energy loss in the torus per cycle is thus
2.36 × 10-3 × 215 = 0.507 J
When the excitation field varies quickly, by the Faraday's law, an electromotive fore
(emf) and hence a current will be induced in the conductor linking the field. Since most
ferromagnetic materials are also conductors, eddy currents will be induced as the excitation
field varies, and hence a power loss known as eddy current loss will be caused by the
induced eddy currents. The resultant B-H or λ-i loop will be fatter due to the effect of eddy
currents, as illustrated in the diagram below.
Under a sinusoidal magnetic excitation, the average eddy current loss in a magnetic core
can be expressed by
18
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
( )
2
Peddy = Ce fB p (W/kg)
where Ce is a constant determined by the nature of the ferromagnetic material and the
dimensions of the core.
Since the eddy current loss is caused by the
induced eddy currents in a magnetic core., an
effective way to reduce the eddy current loss is
to increase the resistivity of the material. This
can be achieved by adding Si in steel.
However, too much silicon would make the
steel brittle. Commonly used electrical steels
contain 3% silicon.
Another effective way to reduce the eddy
current loss is to use laminations of electrical Relationship between flux linkage and
excitation current when eddy current is
steels. These electrical steel sheets are coated included (dashed line loop), where the
with electric insulation, which breaks the eddy solid line loop is the pure hysteresis
obtained by dc excitation
current path, as illustrated in the diagram
below.
The above formulation for eddy current loss is obtained under the assumption of global
eddy current as illustrated schematically in figure (a) of the following diagram. This is
incorrect for materials with magnetic domains. When the excitation field varies, the domain
walls move accordingly and local eddy currents are induced by the fluctuation of the local
flux density caused by the domain wall motion as illustrated in figure (b) of the diagram
below. The total eddy current caused by the local eddy currents is in general higher than
19
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
that predicted by the formulation under the global eddy current assumption. The difference
is known as the excess loss. Since it is very difficult to calculate the total average eddy
current loss analytically, by statistical analysis, it was postulated that for most soft magnetic
materials under a sinusoidal magnetic field excitation, the excess loss can be predicted by
( )
3/ 2
Pex = Cex fB p (W/kg)
H H Ms Ms Ms
(a) (b)
Eddy currents, (a) classical model, and (b) domain model
0.045 B=1T
0.040
Pex/Freq
0.035
0.030
0.025 Peddy/Freq
0.020
0.015
0.010 Physt/Freq
0.005
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Frequency (Hz)
Separation of alternating core loss of Lycore-140 at B=1 T
20
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
21
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
Exercises
1. A dc voltage of 6 (V) applied to the ends of 1 (km) of a conducting wire of 0.5
(mm) radius results in a current of 1/6 (A). Find
(a) the conductivity of the wire,
(b) the electric field intensity in the wire, and
(c) the power dissipated in the wire.
(Answer: (a) 109/9π Sm-1 (b) 6×10-3 Vm-1 (c) 1 W)
2. A conducting material of uniform thickness h and conductivity σ has the shape of a
quarter of a flat circular washer, with inner radius a and outer radius b, as shown
below. Determine the resistance between the end faces.
π
(Answer: R = Ω)
2σh ln(b a )
3. For the coaxial cable shown, the voltage across the insulation layer is 100kV.
Determine the leakage current for 1km of cable length, flowing from the inner to
the outer conductor. The resistivity of the insulator, ρ, is 1013 Ωm
(Answer: 27.3µA)
outer conductor
inner conductor
insulator
2mm
2cm
Problem 2 Problem 3
22
Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
4. Show that the hysteresis energy loss per unit volume per cycle due to an AC excitation in
an iron ring is equal to the area of the B-H loop, i.e.
∫ HdB
The hysteresis loop for a certain iron ring is drawn in terms the flux linkage λ of the
excitation coil and the excitation current im to the following scales
on the excitation current im axis: 1 cm = 500 A
on the flux linkage λ axis: 1 cm = 100 µWb
The area of the hysteresis loop is 50 cm2 and the excitation frequency is 50 Hz. Calculate
the hysteresis power loss of the ring.
Answer: 125 W
23