SEWERAGE TREATMENT PLANT

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY IV
COURSE WORK REPORT
GROUP MEMBERS

MUHAMMAD KHAIRUL NAHAR BIN KASSIM (B13BE0015) 860722-23-5777

MUHAMMAD FAUZAN BIN ROSLLI (B13BE0018) 910404-08-6019
NUR MAIZATUL ADHA BINTI MU’ALIS (B13BE0027) 910621-01-5890
NURFATIN FAHANA BINTI RUSZALI (B13BE0031) 900512-05-5042
NUR SYAZHIRAH BINTI MOHD FADEL (B13BE0028) 910615-14-6026
MARDHIAH BINTI MAT NAWI (B13BE0012) 911209-11-5210

SUBJECT
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY IV (SBEC 3112)

COURSE
Bachelor of Science in Construction

YEAR
3 SBEC – 2014/2015

Submission:

LECTURER
PN. FUZIAH BINTI

DEPARTMENT OF QUANTITY SURVEYING

FACULTY OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIASKUDAI JOHOR
 PREFACE

ConstructionTechnology IVcourse has provided some insight to the construction

students about their role on the working field. The subject provides space for students to
study more deeply for constructing a structure. Various technology in construction industry
have been discovered, enhancing the stability and strength of upcoming structures. These
discoveries and new technologies are essential to be known by a student in order for them to
survive and excel as a professional construction individual.

Our part on this coursework is to conduct a case study on sewerage treatment plant.
Basically, sewerage treatment plant is being constructed due to the rapid development and the
increasing number of citizens in Malaysia. In these case study, the early stage was quite
difficult for us to know the types and design that used in sewerage treatment plant but we
were lucky enough having given extra time to complete assignments byPn.
FuziahBintiIsmail.

Our project title for the case studyis CadanganMembinabangunankedaidanpejabat di

atas Lot 3311 dan 3312 Taman Seri CempakaJalanJunid, Mukim Bandar, Daerah Muar,
Johor DarulTakzim.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
SEWERAGE SYSTEM ---------------------------------------------------------------- 9
1.1 TYPE OF SEWERAGE SYSTEM. --------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
1.2 SANITARY SEWERAGE SYSTEM ------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
1.3 STORM SEWERAGE SYSTEM ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
1.4 COMBINED SEWER ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
1.5 MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 12
1.5.1 Sewer Pipe------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 12
1.5.2 Pipe Material Selection -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12
1.5.3 Manhole --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13
1.5.4 Bedding --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13
1.6 DESIGN OF SEWERAGE SYSTEM ----------------------------------------------------------------- 13
1.6.1 Stage Design --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
1.6.2 Planning Sewerage System (Network Sewer) --------------------------------------------------- 14
1.6.3 Provision Of Painting Designs----------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
1.6.4 Structural Design Of Sewer Pipe-------------------------------------------------------------------- 14

2 SEWERAGE TREATMENT PLANT -------------------------------------- 16

2.1 SEWAGE MEANING ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
2.2 PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL SEWAGE ---------------------------------------------- 16
2.3 OBJECTIVES OF SEWAGE TREATMENT.-------------------------------------------------------- 16
2.4 HISTORY AND THE EVOLUTION OF SEWAGE TREATMENT ----------------------------- 17
2.5 PROCESS AND FUNCTIONAL OF SEWERAGE TREATMENT PLANT -------------------- 17
2.6 MAIN ELEMENTS OF SEWERAGE TREATMENT PLANT ------------------------------------ 19
2.6.1 Screen Chamber ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
2.6.2 Grit Chamber -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
2.6.3 Grease Chamber----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
2.6.4 Aeration tank--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27
2.6.5 Sedimentation Tank ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 29
2.6.6 Disinfection Tank --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 33
2.6.7 Sludge Holding Tank (Dewatering) ---------------------------------------------------------------- 37
2.6.8 Sludge Drying Bed ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 42
2.6.9 Sludge storage area ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 44

3 CASE STUDY ------------------------------------------------------------------- 46

3.1 INTRODUCTION---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 46
3.2 PARTIES INVOLVE ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 47
3.3 CRITERIA FOR SELECTING THE STRUCTURE ------------------------------------------------ 48
3.3.1 What is Precast Concrete? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 48

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3.4 DESIGN CRITERIA ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 50
3.4.1 Collection System -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 50
3.5 TREATMENT PLANT STRUCTURES -------------------------------------------------------------- 52
3.6 FOUNDATION SYSTEM USING GROUND IMPROVEMENT--------------------------------- 52
3.6.1 Conforming Foundation System -------------------------------------------------------------------- 52
3.6.2 Performance Criteria ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53
3.6.3 Alternative Foundation System---------------------------------------------------------------------- 53
3.7 DESIGN OF GROUND IMPROVEMENT FOUNDATION SYSTEM -------------------------- 53
3.7.1 Design of Vibro Concrete Columns ---------------------------------------------------------------- 53
3.7.2 Design of Cement Columns -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53
3.7.3 Design of Vibro Stone Columns -------------------------------------------------------------------- 54
3.8 EXECUTION --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 54
3.8.1 Execution of Vibro Concrete Columns ------------------------------------------------------------ 54
3.8.2 Execution of Cement Columns ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 55
3.8.3 Execution of Vibro Stone Columns ---------------------------------------------------------------- 55
3.9 CIVIL AND STRUCTURE ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 55
3.9.1 General ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 55
3.9.2 Flat Roof -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 56
3.9.3 Benefits and uses---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 56
3.10 PRELIMINARY TREATMENT ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 56
3.10.1 Screening ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 56
3.10.2 Fine screen ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 57
3.10.3 Comminuting devices ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 58
3.10.4 Disposal of screenings --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 59
3.10.5 Grit removal ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 59
3.10.6 Pretreatment ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 61
3.11 PRIMARY TREATMENT ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 62
3.11.1 Tank type, size and shape ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 63
3.11.2 Circular tanks -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 63
3.12 SECONDARY TREATMENT ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
3.12.1 Trickling filter ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
3.12.2 Activated Sludge Process ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 69
3.13 DISINFECTION------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 76
3.13.1 Chlorine dioxide as a disinfectant ------------------------------------------------------------------ 76
3.13.2 Chemistry of chlorination----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 77
3.14 SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL ---------------------------------------------------------- 77
3.14.1 Thickening------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 77
3.14.2 Mechanical thickener ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 77

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 3.14.3 Flotation thickener -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 78
3.14.4 Digestion -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 78
3.14.5 Conditioning --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 80
3.14.6 Dewatering ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 80
3.15 CONSTRUCTION PROBLEM AND SOLUTION ------------------------------------------------- 82
3.15.1 Introduction to Construction Problem ------------------------------------------------------------- 82
3.15.2 Installation of steel sheet pile imperfect ----------------------------------------------------------- 82
3.15.3 (a) Problem ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 82
3.15.4 (b) Solution ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 84
3.16 SAFETY ISSUES AT WORK -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 86
3.16.1 (a) Problem ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 86
3.16.2 (b) Solution ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 87
3.17 DELAY IN CONCRETE WORK ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 87
3.17.1 (a) Problem ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 87
3.17.2 (b) Solution ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 89
3.1 PHOTOGRAPH OF THE CONSTRUCTION ------------------------------------------------------- 91
3.1.1 Introduction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 91

CHAPTER 4 --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 93
APPENDIX & REFERENCES----------------------------------------------------- 93
References 93
Books 93
Internet 93
3.1 Appendix -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 94

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List of Figure

Figure 1 Sanitary Sewerage System...................................................................................................... 10

Figure 2 Storm Sewerage System ......................................................................................................... 10
Figure 3 Combined Sewerage System .................................................................................................. 10
Figure 4 flow chart of wastewater treatment......................................................................................... 18
Figure 5 Process of wastewater treatment............................................................................................. 18
Figure 6 Example and Longitudinal Section of Double Channel Grit Collector .................................. 21
Figure 7Aerated Grit Chamber ............................................................................................................. 22
Figure 8 Air Movement in Aerated Grit Chamber ................................................................................ 22
Figure 9Free Vortex System, Teacup ................................................................................................... 24
Figure 10Typical Diffused Aeration Tank ............................................................................................ 28
Figure 11 Mechanical Aeration Tank ................................................................................................... 29
Figure 12 Circular Horizontal Flow Clarifier ....................................................................................... 30
Figure 13 Types of clarifier : (a) Circular Solids Contact Clarifier, (b) Parallel Inclined Plates in a
Circular Clarifier an (c) Tube Settlers in a Rectangular Clarifier ......................................................... 32
Figure 14 Stacked or Two-Tray Clarifier : (a) Series Flow and (b) Parallel Flow ............................... 33
Figure 15 Cylinder-Mounted Chlorinator ............................................................................................ 34
Figure 16 Ultraviolet Water Purifier ..................................................................................................... 36
Figure 17 Continuous Flow, Solid-bowl Centrifuge for Sludge Dewatering ....................................... 38
Figure 18 Schematic of Typical Solid-bowl Centrifuge ....................................................................... 38
Figure 19 Rotary Vacuum Filter ........................................................................................................... 39
Figure 20 Plate-and-Press Filter Press .................................................................................................. 40
Figure 21 Belt Filter Press .................................................................................................................... 41
Figure 22 3 Basic Stages of Belt Filter Press ........................................................................................ 41
Figure 23 Sludge Drying Bed ............................................................................................................... 42
Figure 24 Sludge Storage ...................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 25 BioSolid Storage Tank.......................................................................................................... 48
Figure 26 Circular Precast Concrete Tank ............................................................................................ 49
Figure 27 Details of typical raft and distribution layer seating on CC/VCC foundation scheme for
tanks ...................................................................................................................................................... 54
Figure 28 ) Brush‐cleaned disk screen b) Brush‐cleaned drum screen. .............................................. 58
Figure 29 Plan And Cross Sectional Views Of A Comminuter. ........................................................... 59
Figure 30 cross section of the two weirs a) sutro weir and b) proportional flow weir ......................... 60
Figure 31 Typical circular sedimentation tank...................................................................................... 64
Figure 32 A cutaway view of a trickling filter ...................................................................................... 65
Figure 33 High rate trickling filter flow sheets with recirculation patterns which is a single-stage
filters ..................................................................................................................................................... 66
Figure 34 Under drain blocks for trickling filters ................................................................................. 68
Figure 35 Flow diagram plusoxygen demand and supply for conventional activated sludge process . 70
Figure 36 Flow diagram plus oxygen demand and supply for complete mix activated sludge process 71
Figure 37 Flow diagram plus oxygen demand and supply for step aeration activated sludge process . 72
Figure 38 Flow sheet for contact stabilization tank ............................................................................. 73
Figure 39 Flow sheet for extended aeration tank .................................................................................. 73
Figure 40 Cross section of an activated sludge aeration tank with diffuser .......................................... 74

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Figure 41 Mechanical aerators a) surface aerator b) simplex cone c) turbine aerator .......................... 75
Figure 42 Schematic of a mechanical thickener ................................................................................... 77
Figure 43 Schematic of two-stage digestion process ............................................................................ 78
Figure 44 Sludge is placed on the beds in 8 to 12‐in layer and allowed to dry. After drying the sludge
is removed and disposed in a landfill, or ground for use as a fertilizer ................................................ 81
Figure 45 Plan and section of a typical sludge drying bed ................................................................... 81
Figure 46 Interlocking for steel sheet pile ............................................................................................ 83
Figure 47 Correct installation of interlocking for steel sheet pile ......................................................... 83
Figure 48 Steel sheet pile ...................................................................................................................... 84
Figure 49 Excavator with bucket excavate ........................................................................................... 85
Figure 50 Machinery for Install steel sheet pile .................................................................................... 85
Figure 51 Depth Excavation Area ( follow drawing )........................................................................... 86
Figure 52 Use a Stair to climb up ......................................................................................................... 87
Figure 53 Concrete bucket for mobile crane ......................................................................................... 88
Figure 54Mobile Crane ......................................................................................................................... 88
Figure 55 Lorry Concrete Pump ........................................................................................................... 89
Figure 56 Process In Concrete Pump Lorry .......................................................................................... 90
Figure 57 For Industrial Area................................................................................................................ 91
Figure 58 For Commercial / Residental Area ....................................................................................... 92

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 INTRODUCTION

Sewerage system is one of the important infrastructure that include in construction

industry. Sewerage system is the combination of the sewerage structure such as pipe jointing,
material that used for collect the wastage, transfer and pump to the sewerage treatment plant.
Waste water is the solid waste generated by a household or produced by any premis when
occupied as a residence. For example food waste, paper, card board, plastic, textiles, leather,
wood, glass, metal such as aluminium cans and others.

An efisien sewerage system it can bring waste water to the sewerage treatment plant
without any problem.This is important because sewerage system is directly to the health of
population and the environment. In general, process of sewerage treatment system can
divided into 2 section which is collection works and disposal works. To ensure the health of
population and environmental is guaranteed, this two section must function properly. If
sewerage system is poorly manage, it may causes problem to the people activities in the dirty
environment and may affected to the water pollution. Therefore, society increasingly aware
that wastewater released into rivers through the sewage system should be treated well to
ensure a clean water supply is not contaminated.

Indah Water KonsortiumSdnBhd (IWK) is responsible for all works that relate with
sewerage systems in Malaysia. In process of designing the sewerage system, the most
important thing is able to function effectively and economically in the cost of build. When
design the sewerage system, it must include safety factor that state in specification. Besides
that, IWK is responsible to ensure all the services is running well that required by the local
authority. IWK also should always be alert on the possibility of leakage at sewerage system.

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 CHAPTER 1

SEWERAGE SYSTEM

1.1 TYPE OF SEWERAGE SYSTEM.

There are three type of sewerage systems that commonly used in Malaysia which is
Sanitary Sewer, Storm Sewer and Combined Sewer. Each type of sewerage systems have
different function and the selection of sewerage system is depend on the suitability of the area
and situation.

1.2 SANITARY SEWERAGE SYSTEM

Sanitary sewer is designed for transporting the waste water form residential area,
commercial area and industrial area that are equipped with the sewerage systems. Sanitary
sewer is the underground sewerage drain that carries waste water from residential or
industrial areas to the sewerage treatment plant.

Household wastage is divided into two which is light waste and heavy waste.
Example of light waste is bath water and wash water while for heavy waste is fecal waste.
Storm water and surface runoff water are not allowed into the sanitary sewer.

9
 Figure 1 Sanitary Sewerage System
1.3 STORM SEWERAGE SYSTEM

Storm sewer is designed to bring storm water and surface runoff water during rain fall.

Figure 2 Storm Sewerage System

1.4 COMBINED SEWER

In most of the old town, sewerage system used is combined sewer where the sanitary
sewer is combined with storm sewer. Water that is carried by sewer was in a large quantity,
so the treatment plant built must be able to accommodate a lot of capacity. If the treatment
plant is not able to accommodate large capacity, storage pool will be used.

Figure 3 Combined Sewerage System

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 Combined sewer system will drain all waste from sanitary fittings and surface water
from roofs of residential area, industrial area and commercial areas through drain then to a
public sewer. All waste water and polluted water will be discharged directly into the
treatment plant to treat the water before draining out into the river or sea. Waste water and
polluted water are very important to be treated before being released into river or sea because
the water contains high content of bacteria that can threaten human health and environment.

If waste water and polluted water not be treated, then we will might see a polluted
environment even in a river or sea. The supply of clean water resources will become limited
due to polluted environment and might give a huge impact to human as well.

Combine sewer system is the easiest process because they use only a pipe and this
system should have large capacity because waste water and polluted water will flow to the
treatment plant using this pipe. If the size of pipe is small, it is likely face fiscal waste
problem and cannot be treated also lead to a clogged sewage pipes either in house, factory or
shop. If culverts size is small, it will cause rain water cannot be discharged into river and may
cause floods in low-lying areas. The sanitation problem also will affect public perception of
our country and may reduce the interest of foreign investors to invest in our country.

If you look the situation at a rainy day, the water capacity in this type of sewer system
will easily full despite their large size. It‘s happen because the lacks of pumps to
accelerate/speed up the production of water process from pipe joint. This pump is needed to
help speed up the production of water process from pipe to treatment plant. This cycle will
able to reduce the probability to facing flood in low-lying areas.

Although from the point of rough view this pipe maybe costly but in fact, these
systems consume a very low cost because it uses only one pipe and do not use a lot of pipe.
In construction industry, this pipeline system give a lot of benefit because the system is very
easy to construct include only one drain pipe and use a large diameter sewer.

Besides being able to provide a low cost, this system also has disadvantages. The
system is rarely used in Malaysia because the country has a cycle of rainfall throughout the
year which may cause the water in the pipe capacity increased dramatically, this is because
the joint pipe may not be able to accommodate the capacity given. Rain water and waste

11
water will made plant treatment not be able to accommodate a lotand if Malaysia wanted to
use this system, the government or other authorities should provide a large treatment plants to
accommodate plenty of water also prepare a larger size of composite pipes to support
supplies during monsoon season.

1.5 MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS

Comprehensive sewerage system is a combination of various type of components and each

part have an important role. These include pipelines, manhole and bedding.

1.5.1 Sewer Pipe

Generally vitrified clay pipe (VCP) is chosen depend on the sewerage system unless
they found other suitable types of pipes. VCP pipes are available in any diameter range from
100mm to 375mm and the lengths between 0.6m to 1.27m. VCP type also has a rubber band
at the connection pipe. The purpose of the rubber band is to prevent water from entering the
sewer system. In addition, VCP pipe needs intensive care during the installation. This is
because the pipe is fragile.

There are several factors must be considerduring the selection process of sewerage, which is:
1. Life expectancy of pipe
2. Record of previous pipe
3. High corrosion resistance on the inside and outside of the pipe
4. High resistance to outdoor activities such as impact, shear and so on
5. Easy to install
6. Low cost

1.5.2 Pipe Material Selection

Uses of material for pipes can be divided into two categories primary pipe material
and material for internal plumbing system. The selection of pipe depends on economic factor,
ease to install and use.

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Economic factor:
1. Aspects of material prices
2. Cost of installation
3. Cost of maintenance
4. Spare parts for other installations such in the selection criteria include technical aspects
such as soil conditions, water chemical, pressure required, plumbers skills and soil load.

1.5.3 Manhole
Manhole is a chamber built along the channel between the sewerage system. This is to
provide facilitate of maintenance works, inspection and so on. Usually manhole is
constructed at the end of pipe, the pipe size and slope of sewer. The maximum distance
between manholes is less than 100m while the minimum depth is 1.20m from the ground.
Manhole is construct from precast concrete with concrete pavement in its vicinity. Usually
internal manhole should be applied with epoxy coating to prevent corrosion by sulfide gas. If
inner chamber is not protected properly from erosion of sulfide gases, maintenance and
inspection must be made from time to another time. Meanwhile, the stairs made from
stainless steel should be provide to the manhole in order to facilitate maintenance and
inspection. In addition, manhole covers should be closed for public safety. The manhole
cover should be made of ductile or cast iron with minimum thickness of 600mm.

1.5.4 Bedding
The lining is provided to protect the sewerage pipe from external loads being on it.
Therefore, the structure of lining layer construction process should be carried out properly so
the flat layer of padding structure and strong can be provided. Other than that, the risk of
damage to sewerage pipes can be reduced.

1.6 DESIGN OF SEWERAGE SYSTEM

Design of sewerage system consists of two levels, namely design stage and design
drawing state.

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1.6.1 Stage Design
6 main processes that need to be done during design stage of waste water reticulation
system. Among these are :
1. Planning sewerage system
2. Develop a plan of sewerage
3. Determination of population equivalent area
4. Determination of peak flow rate of sewage, type and size of sewer
5. Determination of the velocity of waste water in sewerage system
6. Determine the level of in flow and out flow between connections on sewer pipes.

1.6.2 Planning Sewerage System (Network Sewer)

Sewerage system network planning stage is important in determine the effectiveness
of a sewerage system. 4 factors to be taken for a sewerage system, among these are :
1. Pipe culverts must be placed in a designated area in the plan.
2. Need to get approval from specific authorities before any construction work is carried
out.
3. Minimum distance between plumbing and sewer pipes are 3m horizontal and 1m
vertical. This is because to avoid waste water flowing out from plumbing into sewerage
pipe.

1.6.3 Provision Of Painting Designs

Process to be carried out are :

1. Provision of sewerage plan (Sewage Layout Plan). The aim is to show the direction flow
of sewage, manhole network position and sewer
2. Preparation of detail drawings such as manhole, manhole covers, bedding and so on.

1.6.4 Structural Design Of Sewer Pipe

Sewer is a major factor contribute to the infiltration and in flow problem in sewer
systems. Among the factors that caused the problem is sewer pipe diameter, pipe length, the
strength of pipe and bedding land use.

14
 There are three types of defects that commonly happen is shear fractures, fractures of
the transverse and longitudinal cracks. shear fractures usually occur in the central part of the
sewer pipe, while the longitudinal cracking occurs at the top of the sewer pipe.

15
 CHAPTER 2

2 SEWERAGE TREATMENT PLANT

2.1 SEWAGE MEANING

Sewage is a mixture of waste and excrement are removed from the building or
residence. Sewage flows into the removed streams. Therefore, the wastewater must be treated
to ensure a clean environment. Features - physical, chemical, biological sewage that can be
detrimental to the health hazards of life.

2.2 PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL SEWAGE

Sewage sludge usually have features that are quite different depending on the source
and composition of the waste water that is whether it is shaped or mixed with domestic waste
water industry has done sewage early.

Content of heavy metals, organic compounds hazardous chemicals, nitrates and others
a factor that needs to be reviewed in the interest of the environment if the disposal of sludge
is for agricultural purposes or fill.

2.3 OBJECTIVES OF SEWAGE TREATMENT.

With the growing number of people, this will put pressure on the environment,
threaten water resources and this shows that the problem of human waste requires proper
management.

Since the early 1900s, the evolution of sewage treatment to modern sewage treatment
plants to produce high quality effluent that can be discharged to a safe. More recent
developments in sewage treatment has been to improve the reliability and efficiency of the

16
sewage treatment system. This is to meet the standards and reducing the area used for the
treatment works by accelerating the normal treatment rates under controlled conditions.
However, sewage treatment systems are still focused on the removal of floating materials,
biodegradable organic treatment and removal of pathogenic organism.

2.4 HISTORY AND THE EVOLUTION OF SEWAGE TREATMENT

Basic sewer systems were used for waste removal in ancient Mesopotamia, where
vertical shafts carried the waste away into cesspools. Similar systems existed in the Indus
Valley civilization in modern day India.

Modern sewage systems were first built in the mid-nineteenth century as a reaction to
the exacerbation of sanitary conditions brought on by heavy industrialization and
urbanization.

Due to the contaminated water supply, cholera outbreaks occurred in London, killing
tens of thousands of people and when the smell of untreated human waste in the River
Thames became smelly and construction of a vast underground sewage system for the safe
removal of waste.

2.5 PROCESS AND FUNCTIONAL OF SEWERAGE TREATMENT PLANT

Sewerage treatment is the process of removing contaminants from waste water and
household sewage, both runoff, domestic, commercial and institutional such as factory. It
includes physical, chemical and biological processes to remove physical ,chemical and
biological contaminants. Figure 4 shown the flow chart of wastewater treatment.

17
 Figure 4 flow chart of wastewater treatment

The objective of sewerage treatment plant is to produce an environmentally safe fluid

waste stream (or treated effluent) and a solid waste (or treated sludge) suitable for disposal or
reuse (usually as farm fertilizer). Using advanced technology it is now possible to re-use
sewage effluent for drinking water.

Figure 5 Process of wastewater treatment

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2.6 MAIN ELEMENTS OF SEWERAGE TREATMENT PLANT

Primary treatment usually includes the removal of large solids from the wastewater
via physical settling or filtration. The first step in primary treatment is screening.

Secondary treatment typically removes the smaller solids and particles remaining in
the wastewater through fine filtration aided by the use of membranes or through the use of
microbes, which utilize organics as an energy source. Energetic techniques may also be
employed in tandem with biological techniques in the secondary phase to break up the size of
particles thus increasing their surface area and rate of consumption by the microbes present.
A common first step in the secondary treatment process is to send the waste to an aeration
tank.

Tertiary treatment involves the disinfection of the wastewater through chemical or

energetic means. Increasing the number of steps in a wastewater treatment process may
insure higher quality of effluent; however employing additional technologies may incur
increased costs of construction, operation, and maintenance.

2.6.1 Screen Chamber

Screen chamber is the first element in primary treatment, which is the first step in the
wastewater treatment process. This step removes all sorts of refuse that has arrived with the
wastewater such as plastic, branches, rags, and metals. The screening process is used
primarily to present the clogging and interference of the following wastewater treatment
processes.

2.6.1.1 Primary Course Screen Chamber

Course screens are used primarily as protective devices and therefore are used as the
first treatment unit. Common types of course screen include bar racks, coarse woven-wire
screens and comminutors. A screen composed of parallel bars is called a bar rack.While
movable screens are cleaned continuously while in operation. Centrifugal screens utilize the
rotating screens that separate effluent and solids are concentrated.

2.6.1.2 Secondary Fine Screen Chamber

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 It is usually mechanically cleaned. The main purpose of fine screen chamber is to
provide pre-treatment or primary treatment. Fine screen consists of fixed, movable and
centrifugal screens. The fixed screens are permanently set in vertical, inclined or horizontal
position and must be cleaned by rakes, teeth or brushes. While movable screens are cleaned
continuously while in operation. Centrifugal screens utilize the rotating screens that separate
effluent and solids are concentrated.

2.6.2 Grit Chamber

A grit chamber allows pieces of rock, metal, bone, and even egg shells, which are denser
than organic materials, to settle out of the waste stream. Removal of grit prevents damage to
machinery through abrasion or clogging.

Functions of grit chamber as follow :

 to protect moving mechanical equipment and pumps from unnecessary wear and
abrasion.

 to prevent clogging in pipes and heavy deposits in channels.

 to prevent cementing effects on the bottom of sludge digesters and primary

sedimentation tanks.

 to reduce accumulation of inert material in aeration basins and sludge digesters.

2.6.2.1 Velocity Controlled Grit Channel

The velocity-controlled grit channel is a long and narrow sedimentation basin in which
the velocity is controlled. In certain design, to control the velocity is by using multiple
channels. A more economical arrangement and better velocity control is achieved by the use
of control sections at the outlet end of the channel. Figure 2 below shows the example plan
and longitudinal section of double channel grit collector.

The control sections consists of sutro weir, proportional weir, parabolic flume shaped,
parshall flume and others. These sections maintain constant velocity in the channel at a wide
range of flows. It is also help in easy flow measurement.

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 Figure 6 Example and Longitudinal Section of Double Channel Grit Collector

The grit channel may be manually operated cleaned or mechanically operated cleaned.
The manually cleaned usually used at small plant. The channel have hoppers at the bottom for
grit storage and are normally drained for manual removal of grit.

While the mechanically cleaned, grit channel utilizes the grit collection mechanism
and move to a sump and then removed to a storage area.

2.6.2.2 Aerated Grit Chamber

Aerated grit chamber are widely used in a medium and large size treatment plant. It is
similar to standard spiral flow aeration tanks. Below are examples of advantages in using
aerated grit chamber compare to velocity controlled grit channel:

 It is can be used for chemical addition, mixing and flocculation ahead of primary
treatment.

 Minimal head loss occurs through the chamber.

 Grease removal may be achieved if skimming is provided.

 Reduction in odors as wastewater is freshened by the air.

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 To settle the grit, the air rated is adjusted which is to create a velocity near the bottom.
The air rated is adjusted from a diffused compressed air which is created by the spiral current
within the basin. Air is introduces in the grit chamber along one side causing a perpendicular
spiral velocity pattern to flow through the basin. Heavy particles are accelerated and diverged
from the streamlines, dropping to the bottom of the basin. The lighter organic particles are
removed with the roll and eventually out of the basin.

Figure 7Aerated Grit Chamber

Figure 8 Air Movement in Aerated Grit Chamber

Figure shows how aerated grit chamber work. To design an aerated grit chamber, these
factors has to be considered :

 Type of grit and other solids.

22
  Detention time.

 Air supply.

 Inlet and outlet structures.

 Dead spaces.

 Tank geometry.

 Baffle arrangement.

2.6.2.3 Vortex Type Grit Chamber

There are two types under vortex type grit chamber which is gravitational or swirl -
flow and centrifugal vortex induced grit separator.

 Gravitational or Swirl-Flow

The Eutek free vortex grit removal unit, or Teacup solids classifier is characterized by
a dominant, strong free vortex caused by centrifugal and gravitational forces and secondary
boundary layer velocities to separate and classify in-organic solids from organic solids and
water. Figure shows clearly the free vortex system.

The unit consists of a cylindrical section on top of a conical section. The influent
enters tangentially around the upper midsection of this cylinder. The degritted effluent exits
through the opening at the center of the top of the unit and the discharge may be under
gravity or pressurized. Grit is removed through the opening in the bottom of the conical
section. The primary force for grit removal isderived from the strong free vortex similar to
that of a hydrocyclone.

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 Figure 9Free Vortex System, Teacup

 Centrifugal Vortex Induced Grit Separator

The Pista or other grit separators operate on the vortex principle. The unit has
a cylindrical section on top of a conical section with a central grit hopper at the
bottom. The influent is surface fed tangentially into the upper chamber and follows
a 270-degree path before going out of the chamber.

The rotating turbine maintains constant flow velocity. The rotating action of
the turbine blades produces a toroidal flow path for grit particles. The adjustable
pitch blades also promote separation organics from the grit.

The grit is propelled to the floor sufficiently in one revolution so as not to be

within the influence of the outlet of the chamber. The flow continues to move
circumferentially, and the grit is propelled along the bottom towards the center
while lighter organics are lifted and carried in the effluent. The grit moves inward
and drops into the center of the storage hopper. The grit is removed or lifted from
the hopper by an air pump or a turbo grit removal pump.

24
2.6.3 Grease Chamber

Grease chamber is a chamber located next after the grit chamber. Main function of
grease chamber is to remove fat and grease. Besides that, it is to protect moving mechanical
equipment and pumps from unnecessary wear and abrasion and to prevent clogging in pipes.

2.6.3.1 Skimming Chamber

A chamber that arrange floating matter rises and remains on the surface of the waste
water until removed. While the liquid flows out continuously through deep outlets or under
partitions, curtain walls or deep scum.

The design of skimming chamber is straightforward where it is arranged for

downward or horizontal flow. The simplest efficient arrangement is a relatively long and
shallow chamber with inlets and outlets designed to secure uniform horizontal through flow,
with a minimum disturbance of the scum layer. Most skimming chamber are rectangular or
circular and provide for a detention period of 1 to 15 minutes. The outlet, which is
submerged.is sited at the opposite end to the inlet, and at a lower elevation to assist in
flotation and to remove any solids that may settle.

2.6.3.2 Circular Grease Separator

This type of separator recovers dispersed grease and oil from waste water by means of
flotation by the aeration of the liquid with very fine bubbles in an aeration chamber of special
design. The grease separator is usually constructed in the form of a truncated cone having a
maximum capacity of 50 m3 and units in parallel are used for flows in excess of this. The
effluent is retained within the separator for a period varying between 5 - 20 minutes.
depending on the type and quantity of oil/grease present and also on the degree of removal
required.

Aeration of the liquid is carried out by a turbo aerator and air is drawn through the
body of the aerator and dispelled towards the bottom of the central chamber as very fine
bubbles. Aeration takes place within a central chamber and rising currents are created from
the aeration causing circular flow throughout the separator tank. The outlet from the tank is
positioned near the base of the chamber and the extracted grease accumulates as a floating

25
scum on the top of the tank which is skimmed by a rotating surface scraper and transported to
a collection hopper.

2.6.3.3 Circular Grit/Grease Separator

In this type of unit both grease and grit are removed. The principle for grease removal
is similar to that implied in the pista grease separator. The diameter of the unit is 3 - 8 m and
it‘s liquid depth at the centre is 3 -5 m. It is again equipped with a submerged turbo aerator
which introduces very fine bubbles to the liquid. Water is introduced tangentially into the
central. submerged, cylindrical baffle which surrounds the turbo aerator and it is removed
through a submerged opening in the tank wall.

The lower tapered zone of the unit forms a hopper with an angle of approximately 450
in which settled grit accumulates in a similar fashion to a vortex grit separator. Settled grit
slides on the sloped surface towards the recovery point of the bottom of the unit. This
movement is aided by a sweeping velocity greater than 0.15 mIs produced by a mixer. Grit is
removed from the bottom of the hopper by means of air lift pumps. The floating grease on the
surface is removed by low speed rotating scraper assemblies or by a surface scraper to a
collection hopper.

2.6.3.4 Aerated Skimming Chambers

Aerated skimming chambers are used in the treatment of domestic and municipal
sewage where the proportions of floating grease are unusually high and removal of most of it
before sedimentation could simplify the arrangements for skimming the larger chamber. The
aeration and skimming chamber is an elongated rectangular, trough shaped chamber with a
relatively large surface area.

Turbulence is confined to an inner aeration zone from which the floating foam and
scum pass through adequate but not large openings to the stilling zones at either side where
heavier solids are freed and sink to the bottom. These leave the chamber with the effluent of

26
skimmed sewage which is taken off from the bottom at the far end in such a way that all
sludge and silt is scoured through.

Foam and scum are taken off manually or mechanically from the stilled zone to small
decanting chamber for ultimate disposal. Detention is about 3 minutes for peak flow for the
aeration chamber and the air consumption is about 180 litres of air/m3 of sewage.

2.6.3.5 Rectangular Grit/Grease Separator

The rectangular grit/grease separator is a chamber in which grease and grit removal is
carried out and is similar in concept to the aerated grit chamber in which spiral flow
conditions are produced by the injection of compressed air into the chamber. They are
suitable for large flows and units can be arranged in series with modules of 4 metres width.

The spiral flow in the chamber is initiated by the incoming sewage entering
tangentially at the base of the chamber and is maintained by the air lift effect of a row of
diffusers mounted close to the opposite longitudinal wall. This produces a slow horizontal
forward flow in the tank along with a transverse spiral flow.

Water is recovered at the far end of the tank through a wide submerged opening in the
wall, passing through a downstream weir to maintain the water level constant. Grit settles out
and is carried into collecting hoppers below the air diffusers. Grit is automatically extracted
by either an air lift system extracting grit from individual hoppers or by means of a
reciprocating travelling bridge with a mounted air lift pump. In each case the grit is deposited
in a grit channel at the side of the unit for disposal or classification.

Flotation of the grease takes place in a calm zone separated from the aerated zone by
means of a scum baffle with slotted plates. The grease floating on the surface of this calm
zone is scraped towards the end of the unit by a chain scraper or a scraper fitted to the
travelling bridge.

2.6.4 Aeration tank

27
 The main purpose of an aeration tank is to facilitate the biological treatment of
wastewater by pumping or inducing air into it. Function of biological waste treatment is to
maintain a high population level of microbes which is called MLSS (Mixed Liquor
Suspended Solids). These liquid is passed on to the clarifier tank, where the microbes are
made to settle at the bottom. The settled microbes are recycled back to the aeration tank. Thus
they are retained for a long period within the system.

2.6.4.1 Fine bubble diffusers aeration tank

Fine bubble diffusers are a pollution control technology used to aerate wastewater
for sewage treatment. Fine bubble diffusers produce a plethora of very small air bubbles
which rise slowly from the floor of a wastewater treatment plant or sewage treatment plant
aeration tank and provide substantial and efficient mass transfer of oxygen to the water. The
oxygen, combined with the food source, sewage, allows the bacteria to produce enzymes
which help break down the waste so that it can settle in the secondary clarifiers or be filtered
by membranes. A fine bubble diffuser is commonly manufactured in various forms: tube,
disc, plate, and dome.

Figure 10Typical Diffused Aeration Tank

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2.6.4.2 Mechanical Aeration Tanks

The mechanical aerators consist of submerged or partly sub-merged impellers that are
attached to motors mounted on a float or on fixed structures. The oxygen is entrained from
the atmosphere. The mechanical aerators fall into two major groups; aerator with vertical axis
and aerators with horizontal axis.

Figure 11 Mechanical Aeration Tank

2.6.5 Sedimentation Tank

Sewage is allowed to pass slowly through large tanks, commonly called "primary
clarifiers" or "primary sedimentation tanks―. The main purpose of the primary stage is to
produce a generally homogeneous liquid capable of being treated biologically and a sludge
that can be separately treated or processed .

Final clarifier is clarification, which is a solids-separation process that results in the

removal of biological floc from the liquid stream. During the subsequent thickening process,
sludge particles are conveyed to the bottom of the tank, resulting in a concentrated underflow
(RAS). In underloaded and critically loaded clarifiers, the RAS solids concentration is a
function of the recycle ratio. A secondary function is to store sludge during peak flow
periods. If the clarifier fails in either of these functions, the performance of the biological
process may be affected. As well, because of solids carryover, the effluent may not meet
specified discharge limits.

29
 2.6.5.1 Horizontal Flow

The velocity gradients are predominantly in the horizontal direction. There are various
shape of horizontal flow clarifiers such as rectangular, square and circular. These shape
depends on size on installation, local site condition, regulation and others. Figure 9 shows the
example of circular horizontal flow clarifier.

Figure 12 Circular Horizontal Flow Clarifier

2.6.5.2 Solids Contact

The solids contact clarifiers utilize the principle of solids contact. It has better
hydraulic performance and have reduced detention time for equivalent solids removal in
horizontal flow clarifiers.

30
 Solids contact clarifiers are efficiently used for chemical flocculant suspensions.
These units are not suitable for biological sludges because long sludge-holding times may
create undersirable septic conditions.

2.6.5.3 Inclined Surface

The inclined surfaces basins utilize inclined trays to divide the depth into shallower
sections. Thus, the depth of fall of particles (and therefore the settling time) is significantly
reduced. There are two design of incline surface clarifiers :

 Tube settlers

The clarifier is constructed using thin-wall tubes. These tubes are circular, square,
hexagonal or any geometric shape and are installed in an inclined position within a basin. The
incoming flow enters these tubes and flows upward. The solids settle on the inside of the
tubes and slide down into a hopper.

 Parallel plate separators

This clarifier has parallel trays covering the entire tank. The operational principles for
parallel plate separators are the same as those for the tube settlers. Figure 10 shows the clear
of circular solids contact clarifier, parallel inclined plates and tube settlers in a rectangular
clarifier.

31
 Figure 13 Types of clarifier : (a) Circular Solids Contact Clarifier, (b) Parallel Inclined
Plates in a Circular Clarifier an (c) Tube Settlers in a Rectangular Clarifier

2.6.5.4 Stacked Or Two Tray

The two-tray basins are series flow or parallel flow. If it is a series flow, the influent
enters the lower tray, goes up into the second tray on the far end and travels in the opposite
direction. The effluent exits from the upper tray. The sludge is collected by the hopper.
Baffles straighten the flow paths and minimize turbulence at the influent point in the lower
tray and at the turnaround on the top tray.

While in parallel flow unit, the influent flow enters both the upper and lower trays at
the same end and travels longitudinally. Influent baffles straighten the flow path and
minimize the turbulence. Effluent is removes by longitudinal launders. Chain and flight
collectors are used for sludge collection and removal. Figure shows the stacked or two-tray
clarifier which is series flow and parallel flow.

32
 Figure 14 Stacked or Two-Tray Clarifier : (a) Series Flow and (b) Parallel Flow

2.6.5.5 Proprietary Systems

There are many of types of clarifier under this proprietary systems. Some are effective
and others are not. The systems is fully depending on specific manufacturers. Engineers
should carefully evaluate the effectiveness of the systems through testing and discussions.

2.6.6 Disinfection Tank

The purpose of disinfection in the treatment of wastewater is to substantially reduce the

number of microorganisms in the water to be discharged back into the environment. The
effectiveness of disinfection depends on the quality of the water being treated (e.g.,
cloudiness, pH, etc.), the type of disinfection being used, the disinfectant dosage
(concentration and time), and other environmental variables. Cloudy water will be treated less
successfully since solid matter can shield organisms, especially from ultraviolet light or if
contact times are low.

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 2.6.6.1 Chlorination (Gas)

At normal pressures, elemental chlorine is a toxic, yellow-green gas, and is liquid at

high pressures.Chlorine is very effective for removing almost all microbial pathogens and is
appropriate as both a primary and secondary disinfectant.Chlorine is a dangerous gas that is
lethal at concentrations as low as 0.1 percent air by volume.

Chlorine gas is released from a liquid chlorine cylinder by a pressure reducing and flow
control valve operating at a pressure less than atmospheric. The gas is led to an injector in the
water supply pipe where highly pressurized water is passed through a venturi orifice creating
a vacuum that draws the chlorine into the water stream. Adequate mixing and contact time
must be provided after injection to ensure complete disinfection of pathogens. It may be
necessary to control the pH of the water.

A basic system consists of a chlorine cylinder, a cylinder-mounted chlorine gas vacuum

regulator, a chlorine gas injector, and a contact tank or pipe. (See Diagram A.) Prudence
and/or state regulations would require that a second cylinder and gas regulator be provided
with a changeover valve to ensure continuity of disinfection. Additional safety and control
features may be required. A gas chlorinator should be installed in a room or chamber with
direct emergency access to outside air and fitted with an exhaust fan ventilation system.
Federal and state safety regulations must be observed. If not onsite, self contained breathing
apparatus and a chlorine cylinder repair kit should be available within a reasonable time
frame and/or distance.

Figure 15Cylinder-Mounted Chlorinator

34
2.6.6.2 Ultraviolet Light (UV)

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is generated by a special lamp. When it penetrates the cell
wall of an organism, the cell‘s genetic material is disrupted and the cell is unable to
reproduce.UV radiation effectively destroys bacteria and viruses. As with ozone, a secondary
disinfectant must beused to prevent regrowth of microorganisms. UV radiation can be
attractive as a primary disinfectantfor small systems because:

• it is readily available,

• it produces no known toxic residuals,

• it requires short contact times, and

• the equipment is easy to operate and maintain.

UV radiation may not inactivate Giardia lamblia or Cryptosporidium cysts, and

should be used only by groundwater systems not directly influenced by surface water—where
there is virtually no risk of protozoan cyst contamination. UV radiation is unsuitable for
water with high levels of suspended solids, turbidity, color, or soluble organic matter. These
materials can react with or absorb the UV radiation, reducing the disinfection performance.

The effectiveness of UV radiation disinfection depends on the energy dose absorbed

by the organism, measured as the product of the lamp‘s intensity (the rate at which photons
are delivered to the target) and the time of exposure. If the energy dosage is not high enough,
the organism‘s genetic material might only be damaged instead of destroyed. To provide a
safety factor, the dosage should be higher than needed to meet disinfection requirements.UV
lamps and a reactor (See Diagram B).No chemical oxidant required; therefore,
microorganisms can be killed without generating by-products of chemical oxidation or
halogenation.

35
 Figure 16 Ultraviolet Water Purifier

2.6.6.3 Chlorine Dioxide

Chlorine Dioxide is mainly used for the disinfection of water systems but is being utilised for
surface disinfection in CIP. It is produced by mixing under controlled conditions:

 Chlorine with chlorite

 Acid with hypochlorite and chlorite
 Acid with chlorite
 Or using a stabilised form of chlorine dioxide with a low pH acid activator

All of the above methods must be done by using a specialised dosing system with safety
precautions built in. The main advantages that chlorine dioxide has in the treatment of water
systems are:

 Broad spectrum of activity at low concentrations

 Rapid microbiological killing action
 Dosing is reliably and automatically controlled
 It does not readily react with organics to form ecotoxic and bioaccumulative by-
products
 It is much less tainting than chlorine

36
  It is approved for potable water use (0.5mg/ltr causes no objectionable taste, whereas
the same concentration of chlorine would). It will typically be used at 0.3mg/ltr in
water treatment.

2.6.7 Sludge Holding Tank (Dewatering)

2.6.7.1 Drying Lagoons

Sludge lagoons are an economical method for sludge dewatering where sufficient land
is available. They are similar to drying beds because the sludge is periodically removed and
the lagoon refilled. Sludge must be stabilized to reduce odor problems.

Sludge-drying lagoons consist of shallow earthen basins. Earthen dykes (0.7-1.4 m

high) enclose the sludge lagoon. Sludge 0.7-0.14 m in depth is applied. The supernatant is
decanted from the surface and returned to the plant. The sludge liquid is allowed to
evaporate. Sludge drying time depends on the climatic conditions and the depth of sludge
application. Generally, 3-6 months are required to reach 20-40 percent solids in the sludge
cake. Solids capture in drying lagoons is 90-100 percent. Sludge cake is removed by the
mechanical equipment.

The suggested solids-loading rates for drying lagoons are 37 kg/m3.yr of lagoon capacity.
Some designers provide a lagoon capacity of 0.3-0.4 m2/capita for primary and secondary
sludge. The proper design of sludge-drying lagoons requires a consideration of the following
factors:

 Climate

 Subsoil permability

 Sludge chractericstic

 Lagoon depth

 Area management practices

37
2.6.7.2 Centrifugal Dewatering

Figure 17 Continuous Flow, Solid-bowl Centrifuge for Sludge Dewatering

Figure 18 Schematic of Typical Solid-bowl Centrifuge

The centrifuge uses centrifugal force to speed up the sedimentation rate of sludge
solids. Sludge dewatering can be achieved by solid-bowl and basket centrifuges. In a typical
unit, the conditioned sludge is pumped into a horizontal or cylindrical ‗bowl‘ rotating at
1600-2000 rpm. The solids are spun to the outside of the bowl where there are scraped out by
a screw conveyor.

38
 The liquid, or ‗concentrate‘, is returned to the wastewater treatment plant for treatment.
The centrifuging process is comparable to the vacuum filtration in cost and performance.
Centrifuges are compact and entirely enclosed (which may reduce odor), require small space,
and can handle sludge that might otherwise plug filter cloth. The disadvantages include
complexity of maintenance, abrasion problems, and centrate high in suspended solids.

2.6.7.3 Rotary Vacuum Filter

Figure 19 Rotary Vacuum Filter

Rotary vacuum filter as shown in figure 15 are widely used for dewatering of both raw
and digested sludge. Vacuum filters consist of cylindrical drum covered with cloth or natural
or synthetic fabric. The drum remains partly submerged in a vat of sludge and rotates slowly.
An internal vacuum that is maintained inside the drum draws the sludge to the filter medium,
and water is withdrawn from the sludge.

The cake-drying zone represents where 40-60 percent of the drum surface and
terminates at the cake discharge zone where the cake is removed. In a drum-type rotary
vacuum filter, the sludge cake is scraped off. Compressed air may be blown through the
media to release the cake prior to scrapping. In belt –type rotary vacuum filters, the covering
or media belt leaves the drum, and sludge cake is released by use of two stainless steel coils
arranged around the drum.

39
 2.6.7.4 Plate-And-Frame Filter Press

Figure 20 Plate-and-Press Filter Press

Plate-and-frame filter press as shown in figure 16 also known as filter presses or

recessed plate pressure filters. Typical installation of plate-and-frame presses is shown in
Figure 16. These consist of round or rectangular recessed plates that, when pressed together,
form hollow chambers. On the face of each individual plate is mounted a filter septum. In a
fixed-volume filter press, the sludge is pumped under high pressure into the chamber. The
water passes through the septum while the solids retained and form a cake on the surface of
the septum. The sludge filling operation takes 20-30 minutes.

The pressure at this point is generally the designed maximum and is maintained for 1
hour to 4 hour period. During this time, more filtrate is removed, and the desired cake solids
level is reached. The filter is then mechanically opened, and the dewatered cake drops from
the chamber onto a conveyor belt for removal. Cake breaker usually required to break up the
rigid cake into conveyable form.

40
2.6.7.5 Belt Filter Press

Figure 21 Belt Filter Press

Figure 22 3 Basic Stages of Belt Filter Press

Belt filter presses employ single or double moving belts to continuously dewater
sludges through one or more stages of dewatering. All belt press filtration processes include
three basic operational stages: chemical conditioning of the feed sludge; gravity drainage to a
non-fluid consistency; shear and compression dewatering of the drained sludge. When

41
dewatering a 50:50 mixture of anaerobically digested primary and waste activated sludge, a
belt filter press will typically produce a cake solids concentration in the 18-23 percent range.

2.6.8 Sludge Drying Bed

This is basically a thermal drying process where thermal energy is provided to the
sludge to evaporate water. The process of drying sludge reduces volume of the product,
making its storage, transportation, packaging and retail easier.

This process of drying sludge comprises of two methods- direct and indirect.
However, these days the indirect thermal drying is becoming more popular as a means of
decreasing sludge volume by removing the moisture content and attaining a dry solids
content of 90%. The process reduces the environmental impact and produces a stabilized dry
granular product that is easy to store, and deliver and suitable for agricultural use.

Figure 23 Sludge Drying Bed

Dried or treated sludge offers a wide range of applications, mainly including

agricultural land application. When the drying is completed to produce biosolids, these
biosolids act as a fertilizer for crop harvesting. The organic nitrogen and phosphorous found
in biosolids are used quite efficiently by crops as these plant nutrients are released slowly
throughout the growing season. This allows the crop to absorb these nutrients as the crop
grows.

Besides the application of crop harvesting, the treated sludge can also be used as top
dressing on golf course fairways, soil conditioner for construction of parks, and other athletic
fields, a soil substitute in final landfill cover, etc

42
2.6.8.1 Sand Type Sludge Drying Beds

Conventional sand drying beds are the most extensively used types of Sludge Drying
Bed. It is often applied for small and medium sized facilities but however for bigger capacity,
alternative means of dewatering sludge should be used instead. In large community with
dense population, cost involved in regenerating the sands and later removal of sludge cake
means that use of sand drying beds is not suitable in the long run.

Normal operation of the system involved sludge being placed on a bed layer and then
allowed for drying to take place by either water draining through the mass and supporting
sand bed or evaporation from the surface. Since water drains through, having an advanced
drainage system is a must. The drying bed is typically partitioned into small individual units
measuring 20 ft wide by 20 to 100 ft in lengths. Concrete bund wall is also necessary if you
have intention to cover the beds.

After the sludge has been dried, the moisture level is usually left to about 60 percent.
Compared to mechanical sludge dryers, this is considered far more efficient on removal of
water. However, the only setback to the system is that sand drying beds will need large open
space area and away from residential population to avoid foul odor complaint. There is also
another type of system whereby it employs the use of greenhouse setup and the advantages of
this are that weather is not a restriction and this can located anywhere since the odor
generation can be contained.

Cost and efficiency measured on the system is based on calculated sludge bed loadings
required on a per capita basis or either way, it can be determined by weight measurement
required per square foot in a year. With wider area and more individual bed units, this will
mean more dewatering of sludge can be carried out. The generated dried sludge can either be
disposed of in a landfill or better still used as a soil conditioner.

43
2.6.9 Sludge storage area

Final or ultimate disposal of sludge, which cannot be reused, is by landfilling or

incineration. Since sludge for landfilling usually contains heavy metals or toxic chemicals,
lining of the landfill with clay or plastic liner may be required to prevent contamination of
groundwater. Incineration of sludge is by a multiple hearth furnace or fluidised bed furnace.
Energy input is required to dry the sludge before combustion is self-sustaining. Combustion
flue gases usually need treatment to meet air pollution control standards. Investment and
operating costs are high.

The main function to be ensured by storage is the equalisation between a continuously

entering sludge flow (production) and a discontinuously exiting one. A more uniform
composition for mixtures of different batches and the possibility of isolating different batches
could also be achieved, thus guaranteeing a more constant quality and facilitating analytical
controls.

The elimination of differences between input and output is particularly important in

the case of agricultural use as this practice is subjected to a great variability in time
depending on cultivation type and weather conditions. Consequently, sufficient sludge
storage capacity must be provided when unfavourable conditions occur. Although certain
short-term storage possibilities are available within the waste water treatment system
(clarifiers, aeration tanks, etc.) and the sludge treatment system (thickeners, digesters, etc.),
sludge storage is generally accomplished by separate facilities: they can be internal to the
waste water treatment plant itself or external when a centralized sludge treatment platform
serving several plants is planned.

The selection of the most suitable method of storage basically depends on whether the
sludge is in the liquid or dewatered state, i.e. it depends on its dry matter content. In addition,
knowledge of the sludge‘s physical consistency, through its rheological characterisation, is of
great help when defining what kind of installation to choose.

44
Figure 24 Sludge Storage

45
 CHAPTER 3

3 CASE STUDY

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Case study involves the construction of a sewerage treatment plant, which is located
on lot 3311 & 3312 Taman Sri Cempaka, JalanJunid, Mukim Bandar, daerah Muar, Johor
DarulTakzim for TentuanSawitWarisanSdn at Maharani town. Bhd. This constructions
project has been start from 10 August 2008 and fully completed at 22 January 2010. This
sewerage treatment plant is a private project and not a government project that has been
develop by KhidmatHijauSdn. Bhd.

MUAR TOWN

SITE
LOCATION

SITE
LOCATION

46
 Overall base area involved in this construction of the sewage plant is comprised of
2727 square feet and also include a buffer zone of about 2317 square feet including road
reserves for the site. The base area is suitable for construction activities and has a good soil
conditions for the construction of the sewage plant. The person responsible for managing the
construction project is Mr. MohdRosdi bin Kasdi acting as site engineer for the construction.
He was assigned by the owner to build a sewage plant as planned and according to a
predetermined plan.

The construction of the sewage plant on the lot Taman Sri Cempaka is the
construction of complete and overall which includes M & E room, toilet, control room,
inspection chamber, coarse screen chamber, influent pump sump, secondary fine screen
chamber, grit chamber, by-pass channel grease chamber, grease chamber, aeration tanks,
sedimentation tanks, sludge holding tank, chlorodination chamber, 'V' notch measurement
chamber, sand drying bed dry cake and storage area.

For the M & E specification, the equipment included are air blower, influent pump,
fine bubble diffuser, sludge pump and coarse bubble diffuser. For process and
instrumentation, equipment including raw sewage pump, air blower, sludge pump, air
diffuser for aeration tank and air diffuser for sludge holding tank. The construction site is
equipped with compound lighting. Depth of excavation for the construction of the sewage
plant is 4575 mm equivalent to 4.58m according to plan drawings provided numbered WYE
3006 / SW / 09 / SW-04. According to SMM (Standard Measurement Method) 4.58m depth
is located between 4m but not exceeding 6m for excavation work.

3.2 PARTIES INVOLVE

Every construction project should and must have parties that involved to handle the
construction process. As well as this sewage treatment plant construction, which have
involves many parties such as owner, contractors, project manager and others to make sure all
process run well.

47
3.3 CRITERIA FOR SELECTING THE STRUCTURE

3.3.1 What is Precast Concrete?

Precast concrete tanks feature a construction concrete made with a reusable mold, or
―form‖, and cured in a controlled environment. The final precast concrete tank product is then
transported to the construction site and lifted or fitted into place. By contrast, standard ―cast
in place‖ concrete is cast and cured on site.

Modern uses for precast concrete include the manufacture of landscaping walls,
security walls and urban soundproofing panels. Precast concrete methods are also used to
manufacture a wide variety of holding tanks – for fire protection reservoirs, potable water
tanks, golf course irrigation tanks and precast concrete tanks for wastewater treatment plants
and facilities.

.Why Precast Concrete Tanks Vs. Cast In Place Concrete?

The precast concrete tank design is generally considered by engineers and designers to be
superior to cast in place concrete tanks for a number of reasons:

 Precast Concrete is Generally Stronger than Cast in Place Concrete

 Precast Concrete is Generally More Durable than Cast In Place Concrete
 Precast Concrete is More Resistant to Development of Stress Fractures
 Precast Concrete Construction Methods Take Less Time than Cast In Place Methods

Figure 25BioSolid Storage Tank

48
 Never had a structural problem with one of its precast concrete tanks for wastewater
treatment plants or components, using precast concrete tanks and construction methods.

We want to stress that the design and the sealant used in our precast concrete tanks is
environmentally friendly. Environmental regulatory agencies allow the precast concrete tanks
to be built for potable water storage, as well as for biosolids storage. The sealant on all of our
precast concrete tanks carries up to a 20 year warranty by the sealant manufacturer.

Primarily, uses precast concrete manufacturing processes to produce precast concrete

tanks and components for WWTP, or Wastewater Treatment Plants. Among the types of
precast tanks designed and manufactured the following:

 Precast Concrete Equalization Tanks

 Precast Concrete Tanks for Biosolids Storage
 Precast Concrete Tanks for Potable Water
 Precast Concrete Tanks for CSO (Combined Sewer Overflow)
 WWTP Aeration Tanks from Precast Concrete
 Industrial Holding Tanks from Precast Concrete
 Precast Concrete Tanks Membrane Bioreactor Treatment Systems
 Sequencing Batch Reactor Tanks from Precast Concrete

Figure 26 Circular Precast Concrete Tank

49
Highly recommends the use of precast concrete construction methods, but we are able to
perform either precast concrete OR cast in place methods with a high level of quality and
expertise.

3.4 DESIGN CRITERIA

3.4.1 Collection System

The following standards apply to conventional collection systems consisting of gravity
sewers with standard pump or lift stations. The use of low-pressure sewers may be allowed as
an alternative on a case-by-case basis.

Inflow - No new sewage collection systems will be approved by MassDEP, which allow for
the introduction of rainwater, surface drainage, sump pump discharges, non-contact cooling
water or any other source of inflow.

Overflows - Overflows from sewage collection systems shall not be permitted.

Design Flows - New sewage collection systems at small-scale installations shall be designed
on the basis of the sewage flow estimates previously developed. An appropriate allowance for
infiltration shall be added to this flow when sewers are installed in areas of high ground
water. An allowance of 200-500 gpd/inch diam/mile of sewer is suggested under these
circumstances.

Minimum Diameter - No gravity sewer shall be less than six inches (15 cm) in diameter. No
building sewer shall be less than 4 inches (10 cm) in diameter. Gravity sewers within a
municipally owned right-of-way shall be a minimum of 8 inches (20 cm) in diameter.

Depth of Cover - Sewers should be designed to be deep enough to drain basement fixtures
(where feasible) and to prevent freezing. Insulation may be required for sewers that cannot be
placed at depths greater than 4 feet (1.22 m).

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Minimum Velocities - All sewers shall be designed and constructed to yield a velocity when
flowing full of not less than 2.0 feet per second (0.61 m/s) based on ―Manning‘s‖ formula.
An ―n‖ value of 0.013 constant with depth shall be used for all pipes constructed of materials
other than PVC. An ―n‖ value of 0.011 shall be used for PVC pipe. The following minimum
slopes shall be used:

Maximum Velocities - Velocities greater than 12 feet per second (3.7 m/s) shall not be
allowed under any flow conditions.

Alignment - Sewers shall be laid with uniform slope and straight alignment between
manholes. When a sewer joins one of a larger diameter, the connection shall be made at a
manhole. The invert of the larger sewer shall be lowered sufficiently to maintain the same
energy gradient. The standard is to match pipe crowns.

Pipe Materials - Sewers shall be constructed of SDR - 35 PVC, ductile iron, reinforced
concrete or other material approved by MassDEP. All sewers shall be designed to prevent
damage from superimposed loads. All sewer piping located beneath any street, roadway,
driveway or passageway upon which vehicular traffic could occur, should be designed for H-
20 Loading.

Material Strength - Proper allowance for loads on the sewer shall be made based upon the
width and depth of trench. When standard strength sewer pipe is not sufficient, the additional
strength needed shall be obtained using extra strength pipe appropriate bedding or
encasement. Sewers greater than 20 feet in depth shall be constructed of SDR – 80 PVC or
Schedule 40 ductile iron pipe or equivalent.

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Leakage Testing - The method of joining pipes and the materials used shall be included in
the specifications. Sewer joints shall be designed to minimize leakage and to prevent the
entrance of roots. Allowable infiltration or exfiltration shall not exceed 200 gpd/inch
diam/mile of sewer (0.19 m3/day/cm diam/km). Leakage tests shall be specified in the
specifications and may include water or low pressure air testing. Such tests shall be
performed with a minimum positive head of 2 feet (0.61 m) above the water table. Proof of
leakage testing shall be required for the final hydraulic clear water test of the WWTF.

3.5 TREATMENT PLANT STRUCTURES

The treatment plant has 12 nos of Sequential Batch Reactor (SBR) tanks and
associated process tanks. The SBR tanks are major process tanks in the entire plant and were
designed as twin tanks made up of reinforced concrete (total 6 nos. of twin tanks separated by
25mm gap). The dimension of each twin tank is approximately 90m x 60m x 7m high. One of
the twin tank (SBR 1&2) has additional 2 floors on top of the tank to accommodate
administration offices and storage area for process equipment. Other associated process tanks
and ancillaries structures include Pump Station, Sludge Holding Tanks, Anaerobic Digester,
Gas Storage Tanks, Centralized Sludge Storage, Effluent Disinfection

3.6 FOUNDATION SYSTEM USING GROUND IMPROVEMENT

3.6.1 Conforming Foundation System

The conforming foundation system specified precast RC spun piles driven to over
30m depth but this was later found to present a few undesirable construction limitations such
as noise pollution during pile driving; and transportation and storage of pre-cast piles on a
congested site; relatively long construction time; as well as relatively high cost. Pile wastage
was also needed to be properly taken care of.

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3.6.2 Performance Criteria
The foundation system was required to carry SBR tank loads from 96 kPa to 126 kPa
with the total settlement of the structure required to be less than 75mm and differential
settlement to be less than 1:360. Other lighter structures had similar settlement criteria.

3.6.3 Alternative Foundation System

As an alternative design and build proposal by the Specialist Contractor, various
ground improvement techniques i.e. Vibro Concrete Column (VCC), Cement Columns (CC)
and Vibro Stone Columns (VSC) were instituted to support tank structures and ancillary
structures. The design concept of ground treatment requires the weak superficial deposits to
be treated such that the structures are founded on raft sitting on improved soil. The design
intention was to found all the heavier structures on CC and lighter structures on VSC. Within
the garbage area, VCC was utilised since soil mixing will be inappropriate. The raft ensures
that the superstructure loadings are distributed evenly onto the soil and column matrix.
Details of distribution layer and concrete raft (e.g. SBR tanks) are presented in Figure 2.

3.7 DESIGN OF GROUND IMPROVEMENT FOUNDATION SYSTEM

3.7.1 Design of Vibro Concrete Columns

The diameter of Vibro Concrete Columns (VCC) was about 0.6m with working loads
of 35tons. Typical spacing of columns ranged between 1.8m c/c and 1.6m c/c to support
foundation loads between 96kPa and 126kPa, respectively. The depth of columns was up to
14m. The VCC was designed to achieve an insitu Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS)
of around 10MPa.

3.7.2 Design of Cement Columns

Cement Columns (CC) consists of mechanically mixed cement grout with in-situ soil
forming a ―column-like‖ element of 0.8m diameter. The columns were designed to carry
working loads of 30 tons. Typical spacing of columns ranged between 1.7m c/c and 1.5m c/c
to support foundation loads of 90kPa and 110kPa, respectively. The depth of columns was up
to 9m. The CC was designed to achieve 1MPa UCS strength.

53
3.7.3 Design of Vibro Stone Columns
Vibro Stone Columns (VSC) were designed to support lighter structures; e.g. Gas
Storage Tanks and Sludge Holding Tanks, Utility Trench as well as RC retaining wall along
the perimeter of sewage plant. The diameter of Vibro Stone Columns was 1.0m. The
foundation loads of the structures varied between 40kPa and 70kPa and the typical spacing
under these loadings ranged between 2.2m c/c and 1.8m c/c. The Vibro Stone Columns under
the perimeter RC retaining wall were designed as settlement reducing elements. The column
spacing varied between 1.4m c/c and 1.8m c/c and the area was surcharged prior to
construction of the RC wall.

Figure 27Details of typical raft and distribution layer seating on CC/VCC foundation
scheme for tanks
3.8 EXECUTION
Vibro Stone Columns and Vibro Concrete Columns were constructed using Vibro
Replacement method (BS EN 14731:2005; Yee &Raju (2007)). Cement Columns were
executed in the same manner as Deep Soil Mixing method (BS EN 14679:2005).

3.8.1 Execution of Vibro Concrete Columns

Vibro Concrete Columns were installed using custom-built Vibro Replacement
machines where no water jetting is required. Concrete was fed using a skip to the top of
vibrator and transferred through a special delivery tube attached to the vibrator directly into
the ground. This method uses a pure displacement process where no soil or garbage was
removed. After reaching the desired depth, the vibrator was pulled up slightly and the

54
concrete was discharged to fill the cavity. During re-penetration the concrete was compacted.
The method successfully installed the columns without removal of the existing garbage.

3.8.2 Execution of Cement Columns

Cement Columns were constructed using hydraulic boring rig mounted with high
revolution turn-table. The mixing process used 3 level mixing blades, rotating at 60 to 70
revolution/ minutes. Cement grout was injected into the soil during penetration at a pressure
of 60 bars which also assisted the penetration of the mixing blades. When the designed depth
was reached, mixing blades were maintained at the termination level for a few minutes to
ensure homogeneity of column was achieved. Then the mixing blades were lifted at a fixed
speed. The penetration and the withdrawal speed were controlled to achieve the required
cement content and blade rotation number more than 400/m. (M. Topolnicki, 2004).

3.8.3 Execution of Vibro Stone Columns

Vibro Stone Columns were formed using Top-Feed Wet Method. The method is
extensively used in Malaysia as described in Yee &Raju (2007) and will not be repeated here.

3.9 CIVIL AND STRUCTURE

3.9.1 General
Civil and structural components of the packaged plants shall be designed by a Qualified
Professional Engineer. The design shall be based on appropriate calculations, design
methodologies and relevant standards to best engineering practice. The structures and
construction of packaged plants shall be:
 stable, able to bear and resist all loads and stresses resulting from handling,
installation, construction and use, including operation and maintenance throughout
their serviceable life span. These shall take into account of water pressures, static and
dynamic forces being induced by equipment and desludging,
 able to prevent likelihood of damage from superimposed loads or normal ground
movement;
 resistant against corrosion, chemical and biological attack from wastewater, sludge,
air and gas components and against temperature changes as appropriate;

55
  durable, watertight and able to retain structural integrity including alignment,
orientation, levelling and function properly with normal maintenance over their
serviceable life span.

3.9.2 Flat Roof

A flat roof is a roof which is almost level in contrast to the many types of sloped roofs.
The slope of a roof is properly known as its pitchand flat roofs have up to approximately
10°.Flat roofs are an ancient form mostly used in arid climates and allow the roof space to be
used as a living space or a living roof

3.9.3 Benefits and uses

A flat roof is the most cost-efficient roof shape as all room space can be used fully
(below and above the roof). Having a smaller surface area, flat roofs require less material and
are usually stronger than pitched roofs. This style roof allows provide ample space solar
panelsor outdoor recreational use such as roof gardens. Applying a
tough waterproofing membrane forms the ideal substrate for green roofplanting schemes.

Flat roofs are the best material of choice on a very large size building. Installing a
pitched roof on such a building is not recommended, because it will be a lot more difficult,
costly and will require special engineering to accommodate the additional structural weight,
as well as rooftop HVAC equipment and drainage.

Flat roofs can offer great convenience in cases when large HVAC equipment needs to
be installed. It can go straight on the rooftop, instead of being installed on the ground. Flat
roofs offer great potential for large-scale solar PV installations, as they are typically not
shaded and get great sun exposure throughout the day.

3.10 PRELIMINARY TREATMENT

Preliminary treatment of sewage includes screening, grinding and grit removal.

3.10.1 Screening

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 The first unit operation encountered in sewage treatment plants is the
filteringoperation or screening. A screen is a device with openings, generally of uniform size,
used to retain coarse sewage solids. The screening element may consist of parallel bars, rods
or wires, grating, wire mesh, or perforated plate, and the openings may be of any shape,
generally circular or rectangular slots. A screen composed of parallel bars or rods is called a
rack or a bar screen. The material removed by the screening devices is known as screenings
or rakings. According to the method of cleaning, racks and screens are designated as hand
cleaned or mechanically cleaned. According to the size of openings, screens are designated as
coarse, or fine.

3.10.2 Fine screen

These are mechanically cleaned devices using a medium of perforated plate, woven
wire
cloth, or closely placed bars through which the sewage flows. The openings are usually 3/16
in or less. One variety of fine screens used is the drum type. In this screen the filter medium
is a cylinder, furnished with a mechanical means of rotation, and with self‐cleaning devices.
The drum is approximately 1/3 to 2/3 submerged in the sewage. The liquid passes through the
screen and flows out at one end. The solids which are removed from the liquid are raised
above the liquid level as the drum rotates and are removed by brushes, scrapers, and/or a
backwash. The backwash may utilize water, air, or steam.

Another variety of fine screen is the disk‐type screen. These screens consist of a
round flat platerevolving on an axis inclined 100 to 250 from the vertical. The sewage flows
through the lower two‐thirds of the plate. As the plate rotates, the retained solids are brought
above the liquid where brushes remove them for disposal. Commonly a motor is used to
provide the rotation. Head loss through fine screens may be obtained from manufacturers‘
rating tables or may be calculated by formula.

57
 Figure 28 ) Brush‐cleaned disk screen b) Brush‐cleaned drum screen.

3.10.3 Comminuting devices

A comminuting device is a mechanically cleaned screen which incorporates a cutting

mechanism that cuts the retained material without removal from the sewage flow. This tends
to reduce odors, flies, and unsightliness often found around sewage screenings handled by
other means. A comminuting device has a submerged revolving drum with openings varying
from ¼ to 3/8 in. Coarse material is cut by cutting teeth and shear bars at the revolving drum
which passes through a stationary cutting comb. The comminuted solids then pass, with
sewage liquor, out of the bottom opening and back into the downstream channel. This
requires a special volute‐shaped basin to give proper hydraulic conditions for satisfactory
operation. The basin shape makes its installation more expensive. A comminuting device is
often used in locations where the removal of screenings would be difficult such as in a very
deep pit.

58
 Figure 29 Plan And Cross Sectional Views Of A Comminuter.

3.10.4 Disposal of screenings

Large variation is reported in the volume of screenings removed permillion gallons of

sewage. The factors affecting the quantity of screenings are as follows:

1. Clear opening between bars

2. Percentage of combined sewers in the tributary system
3. Character of industrial waste treated, and
4. Habits of tributary population

Incineration has been found to be a satisfactory means of screenings

disposal.Screenings grinders have been used for disposal of screenings. The material is
reduced in size and returned to the raw sewage. The grinders are located near the source of
screenings to be processed. Grinders used are the hammer‐mill type or the disintegrator type.
A comminuting device is not a substitute for a grinder. Screenings from a grinder are usually
disposed of as raw sludge.Another method of disposing of screenings is by burial. If this
method is chosen, suitable and sufficient area must be available.

3.10.5 Grit removal

Minute pieces of mineral matter like sand, and gravel, and materials that are not of
mineral origin like coffee grounds, seeds, and similar material constitute grit. Grit in sewage
has two characteristics:

59
 1. They are non‐putrescible
2. they have subsiding velocities substantially greaterthan those of organic putrescible
solids.

Grit chambers are located downstream of screen chambers. The purpose of a grit chamber is
threefold:
1. The protection of moving mechanical equipment from abrasion and accompanying
abnormal wear
2. The reduction of pipe clogging caused by deposition of grit particles or heavy sludge
in pipesand channels, particularly at changes in direction of conduit
3. Reduction of frequency of digesterand settling tank cleaning required as a result of
excessive accumulation of grit in these units.

There are two types of grit chambers: horizontal flow and aerated. In the horizontal flow
type, the flow passes through the chamber in a horizontal direction. A constant velocity of
flow through the grit chamber must be maintained at 1 ft./sec for all depths of flow in order to
prevent settling of organic solids. This is accompanied by means of providing a sutro weir or
a proportional flow weir.
a) sutro weir b) proportional flow weir

Figure 30 cross section of the two weirs a) sutro weir and b) proportional flow weir

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 The aerated type consists of a spiral‐flow aeration tank, the spiral velocity being
controlled by the dimensions and the quantity of air supplied to the unit. The detention
provided is 3 minutes at the maximum flow rate.

The grit solids are raked by a rotating mechanism to a sump at the side of the tank,
from which they are moved by a reciprocating rake mechanism. The quantities of grit vary
from one location to another depending on the type of sewerage system, the characteristics of
the drainage area, the condition of the sewers, the frequency of street sanding, the type of
industrial wastes, the number of garbage grinders served, and the proximity and use of sandy
bathing beaches. There is a wide range in the quantity of grit varying from 1/3 ft3 to 24 ft3
per million gallon of sewage treated. Because of the wide variation, a factor of safety must be
used in calculations concerning the actual storage, handling, or disposal of the grit.

Common method of grit disposal is as fill, covered if necessary to prevent

objectionable conditions. Gritalso is incinerated with sludge. In coastal cities grit and
screenings are barged to sea and dumped. Generally the grit must be washed before removal.

3.10.6 Pretreatment

Pretreatment is used to remove material such as grease and scum, from sewage
prior to primary sedimentation to improve treatability. Pretreatment may include skimming,
grease traps, pre‐aeration and flotation.

A skimming tank is a chamber so arranged that floating matter rises and remains on
the surface until removed while the liquid flows out continuously through deep outlets. This
may be accomplished in a separate tank or combined with primary sedimentation. The object
is to separate the lighter floating substances from sewage. The material removed includes oil,
grease, soap , pieces of cork, and vegetable debris and fruit skins.

Grease traps are small skimming tanks. They are situated close to the source of grease,
which may be an industry, a house sewer, or a small treatment plant. The inlet is situated just
below the surface andthe outlet at the bottom. Detention times of 10 to 30 min are used. They
must be cleaned periodically.

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 Pre‐aeration of sewage prior to primary sedimentation, if practiced, is classified as
pretreatment. The objective of pre aerating sewage is to improve treatability and to control
odor. Detention times of preaeration tanks range from 10 to 45 min. Tank depths are
generally 15 ft and air requirements range from 0.1 to 0.4 ft3/gal of sewage

3.11 PRIMARY TREATMENT

Primary treatment consists of settling the sewage in a sedimentation tank. Whenever a

liquidcontaining solids in suspension is placed in a relatively quiescent state, those solids
having a higher specific gravity than the liquid will tend to settle, and those with lower
specific gravity will tend to rise. These principles are utilized in the design of sedimentation
tanks. The objective of treatment by sedimentation is to reduce the suspended solids content
by removing readily settle able solids and floating material.

Efficiently designed and operated primary sedimentation tanks should remove from 50
to 65% of SS and 25 to 40% of BOD. Sedimentation tanks are normally designed on the basis
of a surface‐loading rate at the average rate of flow, expressed as gallons/day/ft2 of
horizontal area. The effect of surface‐loading rate and detention time on SS removal varies
widely depending on the character of the sewage, proportion of settleable solids,
concentration of solids, and other factors. When the area of the tank has been established, the
detention period in the tank is governed by water depth.

Surface settling rates not followed by secondary treatment shall not exceed 600 gallons
per day per square foot (gpd/ft2) for design flow of 1 mgd or less. Higher rates may be
permitted for larger plants. Normally, primary detention tanks are designed to provide 90 to
150 min of detention based on the average rate of sewage flow. Weir loadings should not
exceed 10,000 gallons/linear ft/day for plants designed for average flows of 1 MGD or less.
For plants designed for higher flows, the weir loading rate can be increased up to a maximum
of 15,000 gallons/linear ft/day. Weir rates have been found to have less effect on efficiencies
of removal than over flow rates. A minimum water depth of 7 ft it is recommended.

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3.11.1 Tank type, size and shape

Sedimentation tanks are designed as circulartanks with mechanical cleaning

mechanism. The selection of the shape is governed by the size of the installation, by rules and
regulations of permitting authorities, by local site conditions and the estimate of cost.

3.11.2 Circular tanks

The diameter of round tanks varies from 10 to 180 ft with no single factorinfluencing
the selection other than the size of the plant. The side wall depth varies from 7 to 14 ft. Floors
are deepest at the center and slope radially upwards to the tank walls at a rate of 1 in per ft.
The slope facilitates sludge withdrawal and drainage of the tank.

A suspended circular aluminum baffle at a short distance from the tank wall forms an
annular space into which the sewage is distributed in a tangential direction. The sewage flows
spirally around the tank and underneath the baffle, the clarified liquid being skimmed off
over weirs on both sides of a centrally located weir trough. Grease and scum are confined to
the surface of the annular space. Intervals of pumping the sludge vary from once in 30 min to
once in 12 hours depending upon the volume to be pumped and the plant operating schedules

The volume of sludge produced depends upon:

1. Characteristics of the raw sewage
2. Period of sedimentation
3. Conditions of the deposited solids, and
4. Period between sludge‐removal operations.

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 Figure 31 Typical circular sedimentation tank

3.12 SECONDARY TREATMENT

Secondary treatment of sewage involves biological processes that convert the finely divided
anddissolved organic matter into flocculent settleable solids that can be removed in
sedimentation tanks.

The common biological processes are :

1. Trickling filter
2. Activated sludge

3.12.1 Trickling filter

A trickling filter, considered as attached growth system, consists of a bed withhighly

permeable media to which microorganisms are attached and through which sewage is
percolated. The filter media usually consists of, rocks, varying in size from 1 to 4 in. in
diameter. The depth of rock with each particular design, usually from 3 to 8 ft; an average
depth is 6 ft. Trickling filters employing a plastic media have been built with depths of 30 to
40 ft. The filter bed is usually circular, and the sewage is distributed over the top of the bed
by a rotary distributor. Each filter has an under drain system for collecting the treated effluent
and any biological solids that have become detached from the media. The under drain system

64
has two functions where one as a collecting unit for the effluent and the other as a porous
structure through air can circulate.

Figure 32 A cutaway view of a trickling filter

The trickling process depends on biochemical oxidation of complex organic matter in

the sewage. Soonafter a filter is placed in operation, the surface of the media becomes coated
with zooglea , a viscous jelly‐like substance containing bacteria and other biota. Under
favorable conditions the zooglea absorbs and utilize suspended, colloidal, and dissolved
organic matter from the sewage which passes in a relatively thin film over its surface.
Eventually population equilibrium is reached. As biota die, they, together with the more or
less partly decomposed organic matter, are discharged from the filter. This discharge is
termed sloughing. The sloughing may occur periodically or continuously. Secondary settling
is provided to retain the settleable solids sloughed from the filter

Trickling filters are expected to remove 70 to 80 % of BOD. They predominate in

smaller plants. Theyhave the ability to recover from shock loads and to provide good
performance with a minimum of skilled technical supervision. They are classified by
hydraulic or organic loading as high rate and low rate. The hydraulic loading is the total
volume of liquid, including recirculation, per day per square unit of the filter area.

A low rate filter is also called a standard‐rate or a conventional rate filter and is
relatively simple deviceand is highly dependable, producing a consistent effluent quality with
varying influent strength. A large population of nitrifying bacteria is prevalent. Head loss
through the filter may be 5 to 10 ft. Odors are a common problem, especially if the sewage is

65
 stale or septic. Nuisance causing filter flies (Psychoda) may breed in the filters unless control
measures are employe

Filter effluent or final effluent is re‐circulated in high rate filters resulting in higher organic
loadings.Flow diagrams for various high rate trickling filter configurations are shown below

Figure 33 High rate trickling filter flow sheets with recirculation patterns which is a
single-stage filters

Recirculation of filter effluent around the filter results in the return of viable organisms
and improvestreatment efficiency. Recirculation also aids in preventing ponding in the filter
and in reducing thenuisance due to odors and psychoda flies.

3.12.1.1 Physical facilities

Factors that must be considered in the design of trickling filters include :

1. The type and dosing characteristic of the distribution system
2. The type of filter media to be used
3. The configuration of the under drainage system
4. Provision for adequate ventilation
5. The design of the adequate settling tanks.

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3.12.1.2 Distribution systems

The common arrangement of distribution system is to provide two ormore of rotary

arms. They are mounted on a pivot in the center of the filter and revolve in a horizontal plane.
The arms are hollow and contain nozzles through which the sewage is discharged over the
filter bed. The distributor assembly is driven by the dynamic reaction of the sewage
discharging from the nozzles or by an electric motor. The speed of revolution normally is 1
revolution in 10 minutes or less. Clearance of 6 to 9 in should be allowed between the bottom
of the distributor arm and the top of the bed. Nozzles are spaced unevenly so that greater flow
per unit of length is achieved at the periphery than at the center. The head loss through the
distributor will be in the range of 2 to 5 ft.

Dozing tanks providing intermittent operation or recirculation by pumping may be

employed to ensurethat the minimum flow will be adequate to rotate the distributor and
discharge the sewage from all nozzles.

Fixed‐nozzle distribution system is also in use. It consists of a series of spray nozzles

located at thepoints of equilateral triangles covering the filter bed. A system of pipes placed
in the filter distributes the sewage uniformly to the nozzles. Special nozzles having a flat
spray pattern are used.

3.12.1.3 Filter media

The ideal filter media should have high surface area per unit of volume, shouldbe low in
cost, has a high durability, and does not clog easily. The most suitable material is crushed
rockorgravel graded to a uniform size of 1 to 3 in. Other materials such as slag, cinders, or
hard coal have also been used. Stones less than 1 in diameter must be avoided as they do not
provide sufficient pore space between the stones for free flow of sewage and sloughed solids.
Plugging of the media and pondinginside the filter will occur.

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 3.12.1.4 Under drains

Under drains are part of the collection in a trickling filter. The collection systemconsists
of filter floor, collection channel, and under drains. The under drains are specially designed
vitrified‐clay blocks with slotted tops that admit the sewage and support the media. The under
drains are laid directly on the filter floor, which are sloped to the collection channel at a 1 to 2
percent gradient. Under drains may be open at both ends to facilitate easy inspection and
flushing in the event of clogging. They also ventilate the floor, providing air for
microorganisms that live in the filter slime.

Figure 34Under drain blocks for trickling filters

3.12.1.5 Ventilation

Natural ventilation occurs by gravity within the filter and it is consideredadequate if the
trickling filter is properly designed, constructed, and operated. Forced ventilation is practiced
at a rate of 1 ft3 per ft2 of filter area in deep or heavily loaded filters. During periods
ofextremelycoldtemperatures the air flow must be restricted to 0.1 ft3 per ft2 in order to
prevent freezing of the filter.

Filters should be designed such that the entire media can be flooded with sewage and
then drainedwithout causing any overflows. Flooding is an effective method for flushing a
filter to correct ponding and to control filter fly larvae.

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3.12.2 Activated Sludge Process

Activated sludge is defined as sludge floc produced in a raw or settledsewage by the

growth of zoogleal bacteria and other organisms in the presence of dissolved oxygen, and
accumulated in sufficient concentration by returning floc previously formed. This is
considered as a disperse growth system.

Activated sludge process is defined as a biological sewage treatment process in which a

mixture of sewage and activated sludge is agitated and aerated. The activated sludge is
subsequently separated from the treated sewage (mixed liquor) by sedimentation, and wasted
or returned to the process as needed. The treated sewage overflows the weir of the settling
tank in which separation from the sludge takes place.

Activated sludge flocs are composed of a synthetic gelatinous matrix in which filamentous
and
unicellular bacteria are imbedded, and on which protozoa and some metazoan crawl and feed.
Activated sludge differs from other sludge in appearance, physical characteristics, and
biological
composition. Good activated sludge has a distinctive musty, earthy odor while in circulation
in the aeration basin. It is a light brown, flocculants precipitate that settles rapidly in its
mother liquor, leaving a supernatant liquid that is clear, colorless, odorless and, sparkling

The advantages of this process are producing a clear, sparkling and, non‐putrescible
effluent, freedomfrom offensive odors during operation, removing more than 90 % of BOD
and SS, relatively low installation cost, some commercial value in the sludge and, the
requirement of hydraulic head and surface area for the plant is less. The disadvantages
include uncertainty concerning the results to be expected under all conditions, sensitivity to
changes in the quality of the influent, high cost of operation, the necessity for constant skilled
attendance, and difficulty in dewatering and disposing of the large volume of sludge
proposed.

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The effluent from the activated sludge process is normally clear, odorless, sparkling, high in
dissolvedoxygen, and low in BOD.

The conventional activated sludge process together with the six modifications are listed
below and they are described as below :

1. Conventional activated sludge process

2. Complete –mix activated process
3. Tapered aeration activated sludge process
4. Step –aeration activated sludge process
5. Modified‐aeration activated sludge process
6. Contact stabilization activated sludge process
7. Extended aeration activated sludge process

3.12.2.1 Conventional activated sludge process

Figure 35 Flow diagram plusoxygen demand and supply for conventional activated
sludge process

The aeration basin is a long rectangular tank with air diffusers on one side of the tank
bottom to provideaeration and mixing. Settled sewage and return activated sludge enter the
head of the tank, get aerated for about 6 hours and flow down its length in a spiral flow
pattern. Constant aeration is provided by diffused air or mechanical means. During this
period, adsorption, flocculation, and oxidation of the organic matter take place. The mixed
liquor is settled in the activated‐sludge settling tank, and sludge is returned at a rate of
approximately 25 to 50 percent of the influent flow rate

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3.12.2.2 Complete‐mix activated process

Figure 36 Flow diagram plus oxygen demand and supply for complete mix activated
sludge process

The settled sewage influent and the return sludge flow are introduced at several points
in the aerationtank from a central channel. The mixed liquor is aerated as it passes from the
central channel to the effluent channels at both sides of the aeration tank. The aeration tank
effluent is collected and settled in the activated sludge settling tank. The organic load on the
aeration tank and the oxygen demand are uniform from one end to the other. As the mixed
liquor passes across the aeration tank from the influent ports to the effluent channel, it is
completely mixed by diffused or mechanical aeration.

3.12.2.3 Tapered aeration activated sludge process

The objective of tapered aeration is to match thequantity of air supplied to the demand
exerted by the microorganisms, as the liquor traverses the aeration tank. Thus only the
arrangement of the diffusers and the amount of air consumed are affected in this process. At
the inlet of the aeration tank where fresh settled sewage and return activated sludge first come
in contact, the oxygen demand is very high. The diffusers are spaced close together to
achieve a high oxygenation rate and thus satisfy the demand. As the mixed liquor traverses
the tank, synthesis of new cells occurs, increasing the number of microorganisms and
decreasing the concentration of available food. This results in a lower food/microorganism
(U) ratio and a lowering of the oxygen demand. The spacing of diffusers is increased toward
the tank outlet, to reduce the oxygenation rate. This results in two advantageswhich is

71
lowering of aeration cost and avoidance of over aeration creating inhibition of growth of
nitrifying organisms.

3.12.2.4 Step aeration activated sludge process

In this process, the settled sewage is introduced at several points in the aeration tank to
equalize the U ratio, thus lowering the peak oxygen demand.

Figure 37 Flow diagram plus oxygen demand and supply for step aeration activated
sludge process

The aeration tank is subdivided into four or more parallel channels through the use of
baffles. Each channel comprises a separate step, and the several steps are linked together in
series. Return activated sludge enters the first step of the aeration tank along with a portion of
the settled sewage. The piping is so arranged that an increment of sewage is introduced into
the aeration tank at each step. Flexibility of operation is an advantage in this process. Other
advantages are soluble organics removal in a short period and better utilization of the oxygen
Supplied.

3.12.2.5 Modified aeration activated sludge process

The flow diagram for this process is similar to that of conventional process except that
this process uses shorter aeration times and a high food to microorganism ratio. The sludge
has poor settling characteristics and the effluent contains high suspended solids

72
3.12.2.6 Contact stabilization activated sludge process

Figure 38 Flow sheet for contact stabilization tank

This process contains two aeration tanks which isone for aerating the mixture of settled
sewage and return sludge for a period of 30 to 90 min called the contact tank and the other is
a separate aeration tank to aerate the return sludge from the final clarifier for 3 to 6 hours
called stabilization tank. BOD removal occurs by adsorption in the contact tank and by
absorption in stabilization tank. A portion of the return sludge is wasted prior to recycle to
maintain a constant mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS) concentration. The
aeration tank volume requirements are approximately 50 % of conventional process. By
converting an existing conventional plant in to a contact stabilization plant with minor
modification to piping, the plant capacity can be even doubled with a little additional cost.
This process is excellent for treating sewage not containing industrial wastes.

3.12.2.7 Extended aeration activated sludge process

Figure 39 Flow sheet for extended aeration tank

73
 This process operates in the endogenous phase of the growth curve, which
necessitates a low organic loading and long aeration time of 24 hr or greater. Hence it is
applicable to small treatment plant less than 1‐mgd capacity. The process is stable and can
accept variable loading. Final settling tanks are designed for a long detention time and a low
overflow rate varying from 200 to 600 gpd/ft2. The process is extensively used for
prefabricated package plants. Primary sedimentation is omitted and separate sludge wasting is
generally not provided

3.12.2.8 Aeration devices

There are two methods of providing aeration, one is dispersing diffused airand the
other is using mechanical means. In diffused aeration, bubble air diffusers are used and
theyare set at a depth of 8 ft or more to provide adequate oxygen transfer and deep mixing.
The diffusersare made of hallow porous stainless steel tubes 1 – 2 ft in length or hallow
porous disks about 6 in. indiameter. The individual diffusers are attached along a submerged
air header about 10 ft in lengthattached to an air supply hanger pipe which is designed with
rotating joints. Figure IV.9 shows a cross section of an aeration tank with fine bubble diffuser
system.

Figure 40 Cross section of an activated sludge aeration tank with diffuser

74
 Mechanical aerators are of vertical draft‐tube type. Flow through the draft tube is
induced by a motordriven propeller, cone or other rotary device. These aerators are designed
for installation in 14 to 30 ft2, hexagonal, or square tanks 8 to 18 ft deep.

Figure 41 Mechanical aerators a) surface aerator b) simplex cone c) turbine aerator

75
3.13 DISINFECTION

Disinfection of treatment plant effluent involves specialized treatment for the

destruction of harmful (pathogenic) and otherwise objectionable organisms. Disinfection has
been practiced for destruction of pathogenic organisms, more particularly, bacteria of
intestinal origin. The survival time of pathogenic organisms depends upon temperature, pH,
oxygen and nutrient supply, dilution, competition with other organisms, resistance to toxic
influences, ability to form spores, and others. Disinfection does not necessarily imply
sterilization (complete destruction) of all living organisms. Elemental chlorine is commonly
employed in municipal treatment applications. Wastewater disinfection is also practiced by
the application of heat, irradiation by ultraviolet rays, and oxidants such as halogens, and
ozone etc.

Chlorine is shipped in liquid form, in pressurized steel cylinders ranging in size from
100 lb to 1 ton. One volume of chlorine liquid yields 450 volumes of chlorine vapor. The
moist gas is corrosive and so all piping and dosing equipment must be nonmetal or resistant
to corrosion.

Chlorine gas is drawn from the pressurized cylinder through a solution feeder which
controls the rate of application. The injector, in a solution feed chlorinator, dissolves the gas
into the feed water. The concentrated solution is then applied to the process water.

3.13.1 Chlorine dioxide as a disinfectant

Chlorine dioxide may be produced from sodium chlorite and acid; from sodium
chlorite and gaseous chlorine, or from sodium hypochlorite. After production, chlorine
dioxide is fed through PVC pipe using a diaphragm pump. Safety features such as chlorine
gas detectors, floor drains, and emergency gas masks should be available at the generation
and application site. The major advantage of chlorine dioxide is in its use as a residual
disinfectant. It does not produce measurable quantities of by‐products such as
trihalomethanes, because it does not react with many chlorine‐demanding substances. Other
advantages of chlorine dioxide include algae destruction such as iron and manganese
removal, and residual and general disinfection properties.

76
3.13.2 Chemistry of chlorination

Chlorine is used in the form of free chlorine or as hypochlorite. In either form it acts
as a potent oxidizing agent and often dissipates itself in side reactions so rapidly that little
disinfection isaccomplished until amounts in excess of the chlorine demand have been added.

3.14 SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL

Sludge treatment includes the following treatment processes: thickening, digestion,

conditioning,and dewatering.

3.14.1 Thickening

Waste activated sludge or mixture of primary and waste activated sludge are subjected
to thickening. The aim of thickening is volume reduction. If a sludge is thickened from 1 to 4
percent solids, the volume will be reduced to 25 percent of the original volume. Mechanical
(gravity) and dissolved‐air flotation thickeners are commonly used to thicken sludge.

3.14.2 Mechanical thickener

Dilute raw primary or waste activated sludge is fed into the thickening tank
continuously. Thickening tank is similar to a circular clarifier. Schematic of mechanical.

Figure 42 Schematic of a mechanical thickener

77
3.14.3 Flotation thickener

These are used normally with waste activated sludge. It will produce a sludge with
approximately 4 percent solids.

3.14.4 Digestion

Digestion is classified as anaerobic and aerobic. Although anaerobic digestion has

been practiced for over a century, aerobic process has been growing in popularity for use.

3.14.4.1 Anaerobic digestion

Anaerobic digestion is classified as conventional or standard rate and high rate.

Conventional digestion is carried out either as a single stage or two stage process.
Schematic of a conventional digester in single-stage process

Figure 43 Schematic of two-stage digestion process

The sludge is normally heated by means of coils located within the tank or an external
heatexchanger. In single stage, the functions of digestion, thickening, and supernatant
formation arecarried out simultaneously.

78
 Due to the stratification and the lack of mixing, the volume of a standard‐rate single
stage digester is not more than 50 percent utilized. Recognizing these limitations, most
conventional digesters are operated as two stage digesters.

In the two‐stage process, the first tank is used for digestion. It is heated and equipped
with mixing facilities. The second tank is used for storage and concentration of digested
sludge and for formation of clear supernatant. Tanks may have fixed roof or floating covers.
Tanks are usually circular and the diameter varies from 20 to 115 ft. Water depth should be
minimum 25 ft at the center.

3.14.4.2 Aerobic digestion

Aerobic digesters are used to treat only waste activated sludge, mixtures of waste activated
sludge or trickling filter sludge and primary sludge.

Advantages of aerobic digestion are:

(1) lower BOD concentrations in supernatant liquor
(2) production of an odorless, humus‐like, biologically stable end product
(3) production of sludge with good dewatering
Characteristics
(4) recovery of basic fertilizer values
(5)fewer operational problems
(6) lowercapital cost.

The disadvantages are :

(1) higher power cost
(2) the useful by‐product, methane gas, is not recovered.

Aerobic digestion is similar to activated sludge process. As the supply of available

substrate (food) is depleted, the microorganisms will begin to consume their own protoplasm
to obtain energy for cell maintenance. When this occurs the microorganisms are said to be in
the endogenous phase or auto oxidation phase.

79
 Factors that must be considered in designing aerobic digesters include hydraulic
residential time,process loading criteria, oxygen requirements, energy requirements for
mixing, environmentalconditions, and process operation. Hydraulic residence time varies
from 10 to 12 days. Volatilesolids removal ranges from 45 to 75 percent. Solids loading
ranges from 0.1 to 0.2 ft3/day. Oxygen requirement for complete oxidation of BOD varies
from 1.7 to 1.9 lb/lb of cell tissue destroyed. If mechanical aerators are used for mixing, horse
power required is 0.5 to 1.0 hp/1,000 ft3 volume of the tank. In air mixing, air requirement is
between 20 and 30 ft3/min/1,000 ft3 of tank volume. The system may perform poorly if the
temperature and pH fall below 200C and 5.5 respectively. The pH should be checked
periodically and necessary adjustment made if necessary.

3.14.5 Conditioning

is performed for the purpose of improving its dewatering

characteristics. Addition of chemicals and heat treatment are the methods most commonly
used.Elutriation, a physical washing operation, is employed to reduce the chemical
requirement. Thechemical dosage required is determined in the laboratory by filter‐leaf test.
Common chemicalsused are Cao and FeCl2.

3.14.6 Dewatering

Methods used for dewatering sludge include spreading on drying beds. The choice
methods depends on the characteristics ofthe sludge, the method of final disposal, the
availability of land, and the economics involved.

80
3.14.6.1 Drying beds

Figure 44 Sludge is placed on the beds in 8 to 12‐in layer and allowed to dry. After
drying the sludge is removed and disposed in a landfill, or ground for use as a fertilizer

Figure 45 Plan and section of a typical sludge drying bed

The sand layer should be from 9 to 12 in deep. Sand should have uniformity
coefficient of less than 4.0 and an effective size of 0.3 to 0.75 mm. Piping to the beds must be
designed for a velocity of 2.5 ft/sec. The moisture content of the sludge is approximately 60
% after 10 to 15 days of drying under favorable conditions

81
3.15 CONSTRUCTION PROBLEM AND SOLUTION

3.15.1 Introduction to Construction Problem

There is a problem faced by construction company ,KhidmatHijauSdnBhd in the

construction of the sewerage treatment plant. According to Mr. MohdRosdi B Kasdi (site
engineer) method they use is that if the occurrence of the problem, he will notify the project
manager ( project department ) as soon as possible so that this problem does not persist in
turn interfere with the construction work. This is for clearing the problems faced
immediately. For example, if there are problems after the excavation work for the foundation
pad for sewerage treatment plant, the problem should be resolved soon because they are
dealing with unpredictable weather. If the work was interrupted and the rainy season this time
will result in a excavation place was filled with water and they need to pump the water out.

3.15.2 Installation of steel sheet pile imperfect

3.15.3 (a) Problem

In early work, steel sheet pile should be installed because it involves the excavation of
the quadrangular deep. Appropriate methods and commonly used by the company is using
steel sheet pile. However, installation of steel sheet pile imperfect result of soil will fall
through the space between the steel sheet pile which is improperly installed. When the steel
sheet pile installed does not enter into interlocking with each other, there will be a resulting
cavity land will fall through space. The other is more of a problem when the surface water or
ground water, water will pass through the space between the steel sheet pile and fell to the
pad foundation. If the reinforcement bar has been installed on the pad foundation, workers
had to clean up and dispose of soil that fell on the working surface of the pad foundation

82
 Figure 46 Interlocking for steel sheet pile

https://www.google.com.my/search?q=masalah+pembinaan+sewage+treatment+pla
nt&biw=1033&bih=616&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=_QSRVOOYGMS6uA
T2goCACQ&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ#tbm=isch&q=pemasangan+steel+sheetling+tida
k+betul

Figure 47 Correct installation of interlocking for steel sheet pile

https://www.google.com.my/search?q=masalah+pembinaan+sewage+treatment+plant&biw
=1033&bih=616&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=_QSRVOOYGMS6uAT2goCACQ&ve
d=0CAYQ_AUoAQ#tbm=isch&q=pemasangan+steel+sheetling+tidak+betul

When the steel sheet pile installed

correctly, the interlocking edges
need to be logged in drains
perfectly interlocking with each
other

83
 Figure 48 Steel sheet pile

https://www.google.com.my/search?q=masalah+pembinaan+sewage+treatment+plant&biw
=1033&bih=616&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=_QSRVOOYGMS6uAT2goCACQ&ve
d=0CAYQ_AUoAQ#tbm=isch&q=pemasangan+steel+sheetling+tidak+betul

If interlocking is not installed

properly, the water from the
surface or the soil will fall through
space.

3.15.4 (b) Solution

To overcome the problem, they find this problem occurs due to improper use of
machinery during the installation of this steel sheet pile. During the installation of steel sheet
pile, the contractor may be directed to carry out this work has used excavator used for
excavate work. By using the bucket for excavate, they press steel sheet pile into the ground.
This resulted in strong pressure from the excavator .This causes the bending steel sheet pile in
the middle and the end surface of the first admitted causing interlocking protruding from its
foundation. They have ordered the machine that has changed with the excavator with
hydraulic tongs at the end of which it is a special machinery to be used during the installation
of the steel sheet pile can plant steel sheet pile at a depth of less than 5:00 meters

84
 Excavator with wrong bucket . This
bucket is for excavation work and
not for install steel sheet pile

Figure 49 Excavator with bucket excavate

https://www.google.com.my/search?q=masalah+pembinaan+sewage+treatment+plant&biw
=1033&bih=616&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=_QSRVOOYGMS6uAT2goCACQ&v
ed=0CAYQ_AUoAQ#tbm=isch&q=pemasangan+steel+sheetling+tidak+betul

Figure 50 Machinery for Install steel sheet pile

https://www.google.com.my/search?q=masalah+pembinaan+sewage+treatment+plant&biw
=1033&bih=616&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=_QSRVOOYGMS6uAT2goCACQ&ve
d=0CAYQ_AUoAQ#tbm=isch&q=pemasangan+steel+sheetling+tidak+betul

Excavator with wright bucket . This

bucket is for install steel sheet pile
( tongs bucket )

85
3.16 SAFETY ISSUES AT WORK

3.16.1 (a) Problem

Excavation work is done at a depth of exceeding than 4.00 meters and not exceeding
than 6:00 meters. This involves excavation in great risk if no high security control. According
to the site engineer when steel sheet pile already installed and excavation for foundation pad
is completed, employees will be working in the area for the installation of steel, formwork
and concrete. When the rest time or employees want to rise to the surface, they do not use a
ladder or platform that provided but climbed through the iron in steel sheet pile or use the
excavator bucket to ride to surface. As a result there among workers who climbed use on
stainless steel sheet pile fall causing injury and cause them not to come to work tomorrow.
They also frequently sued by main contractor safety department consequences of not
complying with the safety instructions. This resulted in a progress payment that they receive
less than the actual amount due to the cut of the sued worn

Figure 51 Depth Excavation Area ( follow drawing )

KHIDMAT HIJAU SDN BHD / DRAWING STP WYE 3006 / SW /09 /SW / 04

86
3.16.2 (b) Solution
In this work, the company must provide either a safety officer either safety officer or
safety supervisor for their work. Before starting work (before 8:00 am) workers must attend
tool box meeting and here the safety must notify the safety instructions that must be observed
by all employees. If the worker work at deep area, if the worker want to climb to the top
they must use stairs provided at the place. Enforcement should be conducted for those who
do not obey the rules, fines or deductions will apply.

Figure 52 Use a Stair to climb up

https://www.google.com.my/search?q=masalah+pembinaan+sewage+treatment+plant&biw
=1033&bih=616&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=_QSRVOOYGMS6uAT2goCACQ&ve
d=0CAYQ_AUoAQ#tbm=isch&q=steel+sheet+piling

Stairs for
3.17 DELAY IN CONCRETE WORK
workers use
3.17.1 (a) Problem
This problem often occurs when the concrete work carried out in large quantities.
Usually the work activities that involve the use of concrete in large quantities is pad footing,
wall and slab. Mobile crane was used only one as an existing open only for a mobile crane
unloading only. Concrete bucket for a mobile crane can only accommodate approximately
0.60m³ in one time. This resulted in ready mix another lorry had to wait long. In addition, the
concrete should be poured and cannot be more than 2 hours after leaving the batching plant.

87
 Concrete
bucket for
mobile
crane
Figure 53 Concrete bucket for mobile crane
https://www.google.com.my/search?q=mobile+crane&biw=1033&bih=616&source=lnms&
tbm=isch&sa=x&ei=hvsrvlhsiswwuas_9yk4bg&ved=0cayq_auoaq#tbm=isch&q=mobile+cr
ane+do+concrete+work+in+malaysia

Figure 54Mobile Crane

https://www.google.com.my/search?q=mobile+crane&biw=1033&bih=616&source=lnms&
tbm=isch&sa=x&ei=hvsrvlhsiswwuas_9yk4bg&ved=0cayq_auoaq#tbm=isch&q=mobile+cr
ane+do+concrete+work+in+malaysia

88
3.17.2 (b) Solution
To avoid delays in concrete work, the election machinery is essential. Mobile crane
are suitable for lifting work and concrete work that quantity is not too much. If using a
mobile crane, concrete in the bucket should be exhausted before can be refilled with the
concrete . For this construction, concrete pump suitable for ready mix lorry , the lorry should
not wait too long. Concrete should only be poured into the bucket of concrete and the
concrete at the same time will continue to be pumped into concrete place. This activities
continue until the concrete work done. It also concrete work should be planned with care.

Among them are:

• Inspection is necessary before concrete work in governance supervisor with the authorities
or Consultant
• The quantity touched off right
• Arrange delivery schedules with ready mix truck or ready mix supplier.
• Set the working tools and enough workers
• Inform all involved concrete date and time will do
If the above are not properly ascertained, likely problems will occur work and the work will
get stuck or cannot be created or late

Figure 55 Lorry Concrete Pump

https://www.google.com.my/search?q=mobile+crane&biw=1033&bih=616&source=lnms&
tbm=isch&sa=x&ei=hvsrvlhsiswwuas_9yk4bg&ved=0cayq_auoaq#tbm=isch&q=mobile+cr
ane+do+concrete+work+in+malaysia

89
 Figure 56 Process In Concrete Pump Lorry
https://www.google.com.my/search?q=mobile+crane&biw=1033&bih=616&source=lnms&
tbm=isch&sa=x&ei=hvsrvlhsiswwuas_9yk4bg&ved=0cayq_auoaq#tbm=isch&q=mobile+cr
ane+do+concrete+work+in+malaysia

Readymix lorry pour

concrete to concrete
pump lorry bucket , then
the concrete will pump to
the place

90
3.1 PHOTOGRAPH OF THE CONSTRUCTION

3.1.1 Introduction
We are unable to obtain a picture of progress of work at the construction site from this
company. What we have obtained from the site engineer and the company is construction
drawing. KhidmatHijau SDN BHD is specialist contractor to design and built the sewerage
treatment plant .

Although we did not obtain construction drawings sewerage treatment plant but the
company has given us some knowledge about the selection criteria for the construction of
sewerage treatment plan area industrial area and residental area / commercial area

For the case study we are doing this, sewerage treatment plant construction area is for
commercial purposes area.

Figure 57For Industrial Area

KHIDMAT HIJAU SDN BHD / DESIGN AND BUILT TYPE STP

91
 Figure 58For Commercial / Residental Area
KHIDMAT HIJAU SDN BHD / DESIGN AND BUILT TYPE STP

This construction site select this type

of sewerage treatment plant

92
 CHAPTER 4

APPENDIX & REFERENCES

References
Books
Qasim, S. R. (1999) Wastewater Treatment Plants; Planning, Design and Operation. United
States of America, CRC Press LLC.

Sastry, S. A., Hashim, M. A. And Agamuthu, P. (1995) Waste Treatment Plants. New Delhi,
Narosa Publishing House.

Tchobanoglous, G. (1979) Wastewater Engineering; Treatment Disposal Reuse. New York,

McGraw-Hill Book Company

Water Environment Federation, American Society of Civil Engineers and Environmental &
Water Resources Institute (2010) Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants. New
York, McGraw-Hill Book Company

Internet
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-
KANPUR/wasteWater/Lecture%2022.htm[Accessed 20 November 2014]

http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wsd/data_searches/field_sampling_manual/field_man_pdfs/effl_m
eas.pdf [Accessed 20 November 2014]

http://cgi.tu-harburg.de/~awwweb/wbt/emwater/lessons/lesson_c1/lm_pg_1436.html
[Accessed 20 November 2014]

http://www.hazenandsawyer.com [Accessed 20 November 2014]

https://www.epa.ie/pubs/advice/water/wastewater/EPA_water_treatment_manual_preliminar
y.pdf [Accessed 20 November 2014]

93
http://www.gatewaycoalition.org/files/Webbased_Environmental/gateway/ce442/pri/05.html
[Accessed 20 November 2014]

http://www.stowa-selectedtechnologies.nl [Accessed 20 November 2014]

http://www.siemens.com [Accessed 20 November 2014]

3.1 Appendix
Drawing of sewerage treatment plant.

94
95
1