Important Formulas

and Units
Chapter 1: Electric Charges and Fields

1.  SI unit of electric charge is Coulomb (C).  

12.  Electric flux is φ = E ⋅ A = EAcosθ .
2.  If a system consists of n charges, namely, q1 , q2 , q3 , qn the
,  
total charge of the system will be qtotal = q1 + q2 + q3 +  + qn . 13.  Dipole moment is p = q × 2a.
3.  Quantization of charge states that 14.  Electric field on axial line of electric dipole is
q = ne ,  2kpr
Ep = .
    where n = ±1, ± 2 , ±3,… is an integer and e is equal to the (r 2 − a2 )2
charge on an electron. 15.  Electric field on equatorials line of electrical dipole is
4.  The magnitude F of the electrostatic force exerted by one kp
point charge q1 on another point charge q2 is E= .
(r + a2 )3 / 2
2
  
 q q Torque on dipole placed in uniform electric field is τ = p × E.
F = k 1 2 2 rˆ.
r q
16.  Linear charge density: λ = .
5.  If the charges are placed in a medium other than vacuum l
with absolute permittivity e, then force between them is q
given by relation 17.  Surface charge density: σ = .
S
 q q  q
F = k 1 3 2 r. 18.  Volume charge density: ρ = .
r V
6.  The numerical value of e0 = 8.854 × 10–12 C2/Nm2 and 19.  Gauss’s law is expressed as following:
1/4pe0 = 9 × 109 Nm2/C2.   q
7.  The force exerted on charge q2 due to charge q1 is equal in ∫S E ⋅ ds = ε 0 .
F(electric flux ) = 
magnitude but opposite in direction to the force exerted
on charge q1 on charge q2: 20.  Electric field due to infinitely long straight uniformly
  charged wire:
F12 = − F21.  λ
E= .
8.  Principle of superposition of force states that net force on 2πε 0 r
a charge is 21.  Field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet:
    
F 1, net = F 12 + F 13 + F 14 +  + F 1n . σ
E= .
 2ε 0
9.  Electric field E at point P due to the charged object is
 22.  Electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical
 F shell:
E=
q0 (i) For point outside the shell:
10. Mathematically electric field is for a charge q is represen­  1 q
E= × 2.
ted as 4πε 0 r
 1 q1 
E1 = ⋅  r, (ii) For a point on surface of shell:
4πε 0 r 2
 σ
E= .
11.  The total
 electric
 field due to system of charges is ε0
E = E1 + E2 +  + E n.
(iii) For a point inside the shell: Zero.

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 2 Important Formulas and Units

Chapter 2 : Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance

1.  SI unit of electric potential difference is volts (V) (i.e., joule/   8. Mathematical expression for polarization is P = χ eE ,
coulomb). where χ e is a constant known as electrical susceptibility
2.  The small work done in displacing the charge by dr from of the dielectric medium.
point P toward the source charge against the force F is   9. When a dielectric is inserted between the plates fully
expressed as follows: occupying the region between the two plates, then the
Work done = Force × Displacement dielectric gets polarized and the electric field in the region
  between the plates reduces to
or it is mathematically expressed as dW = F ⋅ dr .
σ − σp
3.  The net potential of n charges is E=
n
ε0
1 n qi
VNet = ∑ Vi = ∑ ,   and the mathematical expression for capacitance is
i =1 4πε 0 i =1 ri
 here qi is the value of the ith charge and ri is the radial
w K ε0 A
C= .
distance of the given point from the ith charge. d
4.  The relation between the electric field and electric 10.  Formula for potential energy of a charged capacitor is
potential is expressed as
∂V 1
Es = − , U = CV 2 .
∂s 2
where s is perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces. 11.  The equivalent capacitance, with the same total charge
5.  Potential energy of a system of two charges in an external q and applied potential difference V as the combination, is
field is given as C eq = C1 + C2 + C3 .
qq
U = q1V (r1 ) + q2V (r2 ) 1 2 . 12.  The equivalent capacitance of n capacitors connected
4πε 0r12 in series is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the
6.  The potential energy of dipole placed in external field is individual capacitances, which is expressed as
U(θ ) = pE (cosθ0 − cosθ1).
1 1 1 1 1
7.  Any conductor that has practically infinite supply of = + + + + .
C eq C1 C2 C3 Cn
electrons
  to nullify any practical electric field, that is,
Enet = Eext + Ein = 0.

Chapter 3: Current Electricity

1.  Current is expressed as 1

R ∝ l and R ∝
dq A
I= . l l
dt Therefore, R ∝ or R = ρ ,
A A
2.  By integration, the charge that passes through the plane in
a time interval extending from 0 to t is given by Where r is a constant of proportionality known as resistivity
of the conductor.
t
q = ∫ dq = ∫ I dt . 7.  The SI unit of resistivity is ohm-meter (symbolically it is
0 written as Ω m.)
3.  SI unit for current is coulomb per second (C/s) or ampere (A):
8.  The reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor is known as
1 ampere = 1 A = 1 coulomb per second = 1 C/s. conductivity and is represented by the symbol σ = 1/ρ
and it is measured per Ω / m.
4.  Ohm’s law is mathematically expressed as 9.  If the velocity of ith electron at any instant of time is vi, then
V ∝I Average velocity of all electrons = 0
   
V = R. v1+v 2 +v 3 +....+vN
=0
N
 here R = V I is a constant of proportionality and is known
w
1 N
as the resistance of the conductor. ∑ vi = 0
N i =1
5.  SI unit of resistance is ohm (symbolically it is written as Ω.)
6.  The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its 10.  The expression for the drift velocity is
length (l) and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional  eE 
area (A). Mathematically this can be written as vd = −   τ .
 m

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 Important Formulas and Units 3

11.  The expression for the mobility of conductor is 16.  When a number of resistors are placed in series, the
v resultant current is:
µ= d .
E I = I1 +I2 + I3+….
The SI unit of mobility is m2/Vs and is always positive. 17.  Expression for the effective resistance, Reff , of a parallel
12.  For conductors, the resistivity is expressed mathema­ section of a circuit:
tically as
1 1 1 1
ρ − ρ0 = ρ0α (T − T0 ), = + + .
Reff R1 R2 R3
where T0 is a selected reference temperature and r0 is the 18.  The current in a circuit is equal to the emf divided by the
resistivity at that temperature. Usually, T0 = 293 K (room total resistance of the circuit:
temperature), for which ρ0 = 1.69 × 10 −8. Ωm for copper.
ε
13.  Power is the rate of doing work, which is expressed as I= .
R+r
U 19.  Internal resistance of a cell:
, P=
t r1r2
r0 = .
where P is the power delivered when an amount of energy r1 + r2
U is transformed in a time interval t.
20.  In a Wheatstone bridge, four resistances P, Q, R, and X are
14.  SI unit of power is the watt (W); 1 W = 1 joule per connected to form a quadrilateral; Resistances P and Q are
second = 1 J/s. known resistances called ratio arms, R is a variable resistance,
15.  The power delivered to the charge passing through the and X is unknown resistance. For a balanced bridge,
power supply can be expressed as
P R
= .
P = εI Q X

Chapter 4: Moving Charges and Magnetism

   8. When two infinitely long parallel conductors carrying currents

1. The magnetic force ( Fm )on a charge q moving with velocity
 I1 and I2 are placed a distance r apart, then force on the unit
v in a magnetic field B is given both in magnitude and
direction by
  
Fm = q(v × B ).
2. SI unit of magnetic field is tesla (T).
3. A point charge q (moving with a velocity v and located at r
at a given time t) in presence of both the electric field E (r )
and the magnetic field B(r ). The force on an electric charge
q due to both of them can be written as
   
F = q[E (r ) + v × B(r )] = Felectric + Fmagnetic .
4. The force on a conductor of length l carrying current I and
placed inside a magnetic field of strength B is given by
  
| F |=| Il × B |= BIl sinθ .
5. According to Biot–Savart law, the strength of magnetic
field dB due to a small current element Ids carrying a current
I at a point distant r from the element is directly proportional
to I, ds, sin q and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance (r2) where q is the angle between ds and r.
 µ Ids × rˆ
dB = 0
4π r 2
6. Magnetic Field on the axis of a circular current loop at a
distance z from the center of the loop of radius R carrying
current I is given by
µ0 IR 2
Bloop =
2 ( z + R 2 )3 / 2
2
7. Ampere’s circuital law mathematically expressed as
 
∫ B .dl = µ0I .
length of a conductor due to the other conductor is given by
µ0 2I1I2
F= .
4π r
  9. When an electric current flows in a closed loop of wire,
placed in a uniform magnetic field, the magnetic forces
produce a torque which is given by
τ = NIAB cosθ ,
where N is the number of turns of the coil, A is the cross-
sectional area, I is the current flowing in the coil, and q is the
angle between the coil and the direction of magnetic field.

10. Magnetic dipole moment is denoted by M and
expressed as

 
M = m(2 l ),
where m is pole strength of the magnetic dipole.
11. SI unit of magnetic dipole moment is ampere-meter2 (Am2).
12. When an electric current flows in a closed loop of wire,
placed in a uniform magnetic field, the magnetic forces
produce a torque which tends to rotate the loop so that area
of the loop is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic
field. A current loop of area A carrying current I behaves as a
magnetic dipole having magnetic dipole moment.
M = IA.
13. An electron moving around the central nucleus has a
magnetic moment, which is given by
e
µl = l,
2m
where l is the magnitude of the angular momentum of
the circulating electron about the central nucleus.

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 4 Important Formulas and Units

Chapter 5: Magnetism and Matter

1.  Magnetic field due to a bar magnet is 5.  Magnetic susceptibility is given by
µ 2m
B= 0 3 . M
4π r χ= .

  H
Potential energy of the bar magnet = −m ⋅ B , where m is mag­
netic moment and B is the strength of the magnetic field.  agnetic susceptibility has no units. It can be proved that
M
2.  If B is intensity of Earth’s total magnetic field, then the µ = µ0 (1+ χ ) so that µr = 1+ χ is the analog of dielectric
horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field is given constant in electrostatics and is known as relative mag-
by H = BE cos I Also, the vertical component of Earth’s netic permeability. It is a dimensionless quantity.
V 6.  SI unit of magnetic permeability is tesla meter/ampere
magnetic field is given by V = BE sin I . Therefore, tan I = .
H (Tm/A).
3.  If M is the strength of the magnetizing field, then magnetic
induction is given by 7.  If m0 is the absolute permeability of free space, then the
relative permeability of a medium is given by
B = µ0 (H + M ),
µ
  where H is the magnetic intensity and is equal to the µr = .
µ0
degree to which a material can be magnetized by a
magnetic field. 8. Curie’s law mathematically expressed as
4.  Magnetization M is a vector quantity and its SI unit is A/m, 1
it is expressed as M = m/V. χ∝
T
5.  SI unit of strength of magnetizing field is ampere/meter or
(A/m) and that of magnetic induction is tesla (T) or weber/
meter2 (Wb/m2). χ T = constant.

Chapter 6 : Electromagnetic Induction

1.  The magnetic flux is denoted by F, which is
mathematically expressed as
F = BAcos q,
 here B is the magnetic field, A is the surface area, and q
w ε = −L  
is the angle between magnetic field and normal to the sur­
face area.
2.  Unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb).
3.  Faraday’s second law is mathematically expressed as
dφ
ε=− . 11.  The coefficient of mutual induction or simply mutual
dt
4.  Motional emf, is expressed as ε = −Blv.
5.  Rate of work done on a loop (also called thermal energy) as
it is pulled from the magnetic field is given by
2 2 2
B Lv
P = Fv = . to the induced emf produced in one coil, when rate of
R
6.  Equation for resistive dissipation:
P = I 2R.
7.  The coefficient of self-induction or simply self-inductance
(L) of a coil is numerically equal to the magnetic flux linked
with it when unit current flows through it:
F = LI
  8. The self-inductance of a coil is also numerically equal to
the induced emf produced in the coil, when the rate of
change of current in the coil is unity.
 dI 
 dt 
  9. SI unit of self-inductance is henry (H).
10.  The inductance per unit length near the center of a long
solenoid is
L
= µ0 N 2 A.
l
inductance (M) of the two coils is numerically equal to the
magnetic flux (F) linked with one coil, when a unit current
flows through the neighboring coil:
F = MI.
12.  The mutual inductance of two coils is numerically equal
change of current is unity in the other coil:
 dI 
ε = −M   .
 dt 
13.  SI unit of mutual inductance is henry (H).
14. Inductors in series: Inductors, like resistors and capacitors,
can be placed in series. Increasing levels of inductance
can be obtained by placing inductors in series.
LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + ⋅⋅⋅ + L N .

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 Important Formulas and Units 5

15.  Inductors in parallel: Decreasing levels of inductance can 17.  When a current is passed through a solenoid of length l
be obtained by placing inductors in parallel. and cross-sectional area A, the energy stored inside it is
given by
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋅⋅⋅ + .
LT L1 L2 L3 LN 1 2
W= B Al .
16.  Energy stored in an inductor is 2 µ0

1
W = LI 2 .
2

Chapter 7 : Alternating Current

1.  The common alternating current varying as sine function The current that flows is I = V / X C . The current increases
of the time is given by with increase in frequency. The current leads the voltage
2π t by p/2 (or the voltage lags behind the current by p/2),
I = I0 sinωt = I0 sin 2πνt = I0 sin which is given by
T
and  π
I = I0 sin  ωt +  .
2π t  2
V = V0 sin 2πνt = V0 sin .
T  π
I = I0 sin  ωt +  .
 ere, I0 and V0 are the maximum or peak values of current
H  2
and voltage, w the angular frequency, ν is the frequency,
and T is the period of the given ac.   6. The opposition offered by a pure inductor or capacitance or
both to the flow of ac through it is called reactance X whose
2.  average or mean value of an ac means the average value of
unit is ohm (Ω) and the dimensional formula is ML2  T –3A–2.
given ac over a half cycle:
Reactance is of two types: (a) Inductive reactance X L = Lω
1/ 2
and (b) Capacitive reactance X C = 1/ Cω .
∫ Idt 2I 0   7. Reciprocal of reactance to known as susceptance:
Iave = 0
1/ 2 = = 0.637I0 ;
π 1
∫ dt S= .
0 X
Vave = 0.637V0 .   8. Total opposition offered by an ac circuit to flow through
3.  The rms value of an ac is defined as circuit is called its impedance, Z. Its SI unit is ohm and the
T dimensional formula is ML2T –3A–2. For a circuit having a
∫ I dt current of 1 A,
2

(I0 )2 I
(Irms )2 = 0 T = ⇒ Irms = 0 ; Z = X 2 + R 2 = ( X L − X C )2 + R 2 .
2 2
∫ dt
0
  9. Reciprocal of impedance is known as admittance:
V 1
Vrms = 0 . Y=
2 Z .
4.  For a pure resistive circuit, the current and voltage are in The SI unit of admittance is siemen (S).
same phase, and the current is given by I = I0sin wt. Also, 10.  Let a voltage V = V0sin wt be applied across an ac and
V V consequently a current I = I0sin (wt – f) flows through
I=
or Irms = rms . circuit. Then, the instantaneous power is VI = V0I0sin wt sin
R R
(wt – f) and its value varies with time.
For pure inductive circuit, the inductance offers some
opposition toward the flow of ac. It is known as inductive 11.  Average power over a full cycle of ac:
reactance, which is expessed as X L = 2π vL = Lω . Thus, a 1
pure inductance does not oppose flow of dc (w = 0) but Pave = VrmsIrms cos φ = V0I0 cos φ ,
2
oppose flow of ac. The current that flows is I = V / X L . The
current decreases with increase in frequency. The current where VrmsIrms is the apparent or virtual power and
lags behind the voltage by p/2 (or the voltage leads the VrmsIrms cos φ is called the true power. The term cos f is
current by p/2), which is given by known as power factor of the given circuit. Thus,
 π R True power
I = I0 sin  ωt −  . cos φ = = Power factor = .
 2 2 Apparent power
5.  For a pure capacitive circuit, the capacitive reactance is
given by 12.  For a pure resistive circuit, V and I are in phase, that is,
1 1 φ = 0° and therefore, cos f = 1 and the average power is
XC = Ω= Ω. VrmsIrms .
Cω C 2πν

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 6 Important Formulas and Units

13.  For a pure inductive or a pure capacitive circuit, the The phase difference between Erms and Irms is f. Irms can
current and voltage differ in phase by p/2 (where p/2 is be resolved into two components: Irms cos φ and Irms sinφ
zero) and the average power is zero.
17.  For an ideal transformer,
14.  For a series LCR circuit,
E0 es Vs Ns Ip
E = E 0 sin E0 sinwt and I = sin(ωt − φ ), = = = = k,
z ep Vp Np Is
where
2
where k is the transformation ratio. For a step-up trans­
 1  X XL − X C former, k > 1, but for a step-down transformer, k < 1. In a
Z = R2 +  ωL −  and tanφ = = .
 ωC  R R transformer, input emf and output emf differ in phase by
p radian. (Subscripts s and p refer to secondary and pri­
For XL > XC, the current lags voltage; For XL < XC, the cur­
mary, respectively.)
rent leads voltage; For XL = XC, the current and the voltage
are in phase. If X L = X C ⇒ ω 0 = 1/ LC , that is, the natural 18.  The efficiency of a transformer is given by
frequency of the circuit is equal to the applied frequency,
then the circuit is said to be in resonance output power VsIs
η= = .
15.  Q = ω L / R or 1/ ω RC is termed as quality factor of a circuit. input power VpIp
It determines the sharpness of resonance. Higher the
value of Q, sharper is the resonance. (Subscripts s and p refer to secondary and primary, respec­
tivey.) For an ideal transformer, h = 100% or 1. However,
16.  Average power is given by for a practical transformer, h ≈ 85−90%.
Pave = ErmsIrms cos φ

Chapter 8 : Electromagnetic Waves

1.  Displacement current is given by   d FB   Ampere − Maxwell 


d FE
(d) ∫ B ⋅ dl = µ 0  IC + ε 0 
dt   circuital law 
Id = ε 0 ,
dt
where e0 is the absolute permittivity of free space. 4.  The speed of electromagnetic wave is given by the
relation
2.  Following four equations are called Maxwell’s equation,
which describe the laws of electromagnetism: 1
c= ( wave speed).
  q µ0 ε 0
(a)  ∫ E ⋅ ds = ε 0 (Gauss’s law in electrostatics) 5.  The amplitudes of the electric and magnetic fields in an
  electromagnetic wave have the relation
(b)  ∫ B ⋅ ds = 0 (Gauss ’ s law in magnetism)
E
  dF  Faraday ’ s law of  = c (magnitude ratio).
∫ B ⋅ dl = − dt B
(c)   electromagnetic induction B

Chapter 9 : Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

5. Refractive index n of a medium is given by

1. A reflected ray deviates by an angle δ = π − 2θ .
2.  Focal length of a spherical mirror of radius of curvature R is Speed of light in vacuum c
n= = .
f = R/2. Speed of light in the material v
3.  If the height of the object is ho and the height of the image   6. Snell’s law relates the angle of refraction q2 to the angle of
is hi, lateral magnification is given by incidence q1 by
hi v n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2 .
m= =− ,
ho u hi ho
  7. Apparent depth hi of an object is given by = .
  where v and u are the image and object distances. nr ni
4.  The mirror equation is   8. The critical angle for total internal reflection is given by
1 1 1 n2
= + . sinθ c = where n1 > n2 .
f v u n1

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 Important Formulas and Units 7

  9. The equation for a spherical refracting surface of radius of

curvature R is 17.  For a thin prism, δ = (n − 1) A.
n2 n1 n2 − n1 18.  Cauchy’s relation for chromatic dispersion by a prism is
− = .
v u R given by
10. Lateral magnification of a spherical refracting surface is B
given by n = A+ .
λ2
h n ×v
m= i = 1 . 19.  The intensity of scattered light is related to the
ho n2 × u
wavelength of the light as
11.  The lens formula is
1
1 1 1 I∝ .
− = , λ4
v u f
20.  Angular magnification of a magnifying glass is
12.  The lens maker’s formula is
θ ’  1 1
1  n2   1 1  M= ≈  −  N,
= −1 − , θ  f v
f  n1   R1 R2 
where N is the distance from the eye to the near point.
13.  The power P of a lens of focal length f is given by
21.  For a compound microscope, linear magnification is
1 given by
P= .
f (meter ) −L D
M= × .
14.  The total magnification m of the combination of lenses fo fe
will be equal to the product of the magnification of
−I fe −fo
individual lenses. That is, 22.  For a refracting telescope, M = = .
I fo fe
m = m1 × m2 × m2 × .
23. For a telescope, if the image forms at the least distance of
15.  Angle of deviation of a prism is δ = i + e − A. distinct vision,
16.  Angle of minimum deviation of a prism is
fo  fe 
sin[(δ min + A)/ 2] M=−  1+  .
n= . fe  D 
sin( A/2)

Chapter 10 : Wave Optics

1.  The wavelengths of light in two media are proportional to  1 

the speeds of light in those media; that is 5.  For low-speed Doppler’s effect : ν = ν0  1− β + β 2  ( where β << 1)
 1 2  2 
ν = ν0  1− β + β  ( where β << 1)
λ1 v1  2 
= ,
λ2 v 2 ∆λ
  6. Astronomical Doppler’s effect: v = c (radial speed of light source, v
2.  Snell’s law of refraction: n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2 . λ0
∆λ
3.  The fractional change in frequency ∆ν ν due to the v= c (radial speed of light source, v << c ) , where the difference
λ0
Doppler’s effect is given by ∆λ is the wavelength Doppler’s shift of the light source.
  7. The relation between phase difference f and path
∆ν −v
= − radial , difference of x of two waves is
ν c
where vradial is the component of the source velocity (rela­ 2π
φ= x.
tive to the observer) along the line joining the observer to λ
the source.
  8. Constructive interference will result whenever the
4.  Doppler’s effect formula in another form: When the
 distances traveled by the waves are the same or differ by
direction of v is directly away from the source, then
any integer number of wavelengths. If this difference is
1− β denoted by x,
ν = ν0 ,
1+ β x = nλ , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…
where ν 0 represents the proper frequency of the source   9. Destructive interference will take place whenever the
(frequency that is measured by an observer in the rest
distances traveled by the waves differ by any odd integer
frame of the source), ν represents the frequency
 detected
number of half-wavelengths. That is,
by an observer moving with velocity v relative  to that
rest frame, and β = v/c . When the direction of v is directly
 1
toward the source, we must change the signs in front of x =  n +  λ , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…
 2
both β symbols.

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 8 Important Formulas and Units

10.  In Young’s double-slit experiment, the condition for bright where d is the least distance between the two objects so
fringes is given by that their diffraction images are just resolved.
d sinθ = mλ , for m = 0 , 1, 2,… 15.  For a microscope,
where d is the slit width. For dark fringes, 1 2 µ sinθ
= ,
d 1.22λ
 1
d sinθ =  m +  λ , for m = 0 , 1, 2,…
 2 where q is the semi-vertical angle of the cone in which
rays of light from an object enter the objective lens of the
11.  If D is the distance between the slits and the screen, the microscope m is the refractive index of the medium, and λ
fringe width is given by is the wavelength of the light used to observe the objects.
λD 16.  For a telescope,
∆y = y m+1 − y m =
.
d 1 D
12.  Given the phase difference f between the waves at the = .
θ 1.22λ
screen, the intensity of the interference pattern is given by
φ 17.  If the transmission axis of an analyzer is oriented at an
I = 4 I0 cos2 . angle q relative to the transmission axis of the polarizer,
2
Malus’ Law is given by
where I0 is the uniform intensity on the screen when one
of the slits is covered up. I = I0 cos2θ ,
13.  The condition to obtain minima in a single-slit diffraction
pattern is Where I0 is the average intensity of the light entering the
analyzer.
a sinθ = mλ , for m = 0 ,1, 2,… ,
18.  Brewster’s angle qB is given by
where a is the slit width and q is the angle to the central
axis. n2
θB = tan−1 ,
14.  By Rayleigh’s criterion, two objects that are barely n1
resolvable must have an angular separation qR given by
  where n1 is the refractive index of the medium through
λ which the incident and reflected rays travel and n2 is the
θR = 1.22 ,
d refractive index of the medium from which the light reflects.

Chapter 11 : Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

1.  Energy of a photon of light of frequency ν is given by  
E = hν ,
where h is the Planck’s constant.
2.  In photoelectric emission, the kinetic energy of the most  
energetic electrons is given by
7. The relativistic formula for total energy of a particle is
E 2 = p2c 2 + m02c 4 .
8. The be Broglie wavelength of the matter wave associated
with a particle of momentum p is

K max = eV0 , h
λ=
p
where V0 is the stopping potential.
3.  Einstein’s photoelectric equation is   9. The de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron
accelerated through a potential difference of V volts is
hν = K max + φ0
Where f0 is the work function of the metal surface.  1.225 
λ=  nm.
4.  It can also be written as  V 
1 2
mvmax = hν − hν 0 . 10.  Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that the
2
uncertainty in the position of a particle, ∆x is related to
where ν0 is the threshold frequency. the uncertainty in its momentum ∆p by
5.  Momentum of a photon is
h
E hν h ∆x ∆p ≥  , where  = .
= p= = . 2π
c c λ
6.  Momentum of a particle of rest mass m0 traveling at
velocity v is
m0v
p= .
1− v 2 /c 2

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 Important Formulas and Units 9

Chapter 12 : Atoms

1.  The Rydberg’s formula is given by the relation 5.  Angular momentum of an electron in a stationary orbit is
given by
1  1 1 nh
= RH  2 − 2  . L = mvr = .
λ 2 n  2π
2.  Orbital radius of the electron in a hydrogen atom is 6.  Frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted by an electron
e 2 is given by
r= .
4πε 0 mv 2 hν = Einitial − E final .
3.  Potential energy of electron in orbit around the nucleus is 7.  Radius of the nth orbit in an atomic number Z is
−e 2
U= . n2
4πε 0 r rn = (5.29 × 10 −11 m) , n = 1, 2, 3, .
Z
4.  The wavelength of the spectra emitted by hydrogen is
8.  Energy of an electron in the nth orbit of an atom having
given by
atomic number Z is
1  1 1
= RH  2 − 2  . Z2
λ  n1 n2  En = −(13.6 eV ) , n = 1, 2, 3, . 
n2

Chapter 13 : Nuclei

1.  Nuclei are made up of protons and neutrons. The number
of protons in a nucleus (called the atomic number or
proton number of the nucleus) is represented by the
symbol Z; the number of neutrons (the neutron number) is
represented by the symbol N. The total number of neutrons
and protons in a nucleus is called its mass number A; thus
A = Z + N.
2.  Effective radius of Nuclide is given by
r = r0 A1/3 ,
  in which A is the mass number and r0 ≈ 1.2 fm.
3.  Atomic masses are often reported in atomic mass units, a
system in which the atomic mass of neutral 12C is defined to
be exactly 12 u, where 1 u = 1.660 538 86 × 10–27 kg.
4.  If the total mass of the participants in a nuclear reaction
changes by an amount ∆m, there is an energy release or
absorption given by the equation Q = –∆mc2. As we shall
now see, nuclear energies are often reported in multiples of
1 MeV. Thus, a convenient conversion between mass units
and energy units is provided by the following equation:
mass energy Mc2 of a nucleus is less than the total mass
energy ∑(mc 2 ) of its individual protons and neutrons. The
difference between these two energies is called the binding
energy of the nucleus:
∆Ebe = ∑(mc 2 ) − Mc 2 (binding energy ).
7.  A better measure is the binding energy per nucleon ∆Eben,
which is the ratio of the binding energy ∆Eben of a nucleus
to the number A of nucleons in that nucleus:
∆Ebe
∆Eben = (binding energy per nucleon).
A
8.  Radioactive decay is given by
N = N0 e − λ t ,
in which N0 is the number of radioactive nuclei in the
sample at t = 0 and N is the number remaining at any sub­
sequent time t.
9.  An alternative form of the law of radioactive decay:

c2 = 931.494013 MeV/u.
5.  Albert Einstein was able to show that when mass converts
to energy, the change in energy, ΔE, is related to the change
in rest mass, Δm, by the following equation, now called the
Einstein equation.
∆E = ∆mc 2
where c is the velocity of light, 3.00 × 108 m s–1.
6.  The mass M of a nucleus is less than the total mass Σ m of
its individual protons and neutrons. That means that the
R = λN ,
 here R and the number of radioactive nuclei N that have
w
not yet undergone decay must be evaluated at the same
instant. The total decay rate R of a sample of one or more
radionuclides is called the activity of that sample. The SI
unit for activity is the becquerel, named for Henri Bec­
querel, the discoverer of radioactivity:
1 becquerel = 1 Bq = 1 decay per second.

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 10 Important Formulas and Units

10.  An older unit, the curie, is still in common use: 12.  the probability of decay of a given nucleus is

1curie = 1Ci = 3.7 × 1010 Bq. N0 − N

= 1− e − λt .
11.  The half life T ½ of a radionucleide is expressed as N0

ln 2
T1/2 = = τ ln 2.
λ

Chapter 14 : Semiconductor Electronics :Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits

1.  Mathematically, electrical conductivity is defined as the collector–emitter voltage (VCE) is known as input
reciprocal of the resistivity of the material. That is, σ = 1/σ. resistance. The mathematical expression for the input
2.  The number of free electrons (in the conduction band) and resistance is
 ∆V 
holes (in the valence band) are equal in case of intrinsic ri =  BE 
semiconductors. Mathematically, this is expressed as  ∆IB  V CE

ne = nh = ni , where ne, nh are the number densities 10.  The ratio of the change in collector–emitter voltage
of electrons and holes and ni is the intrinsic carrier (ΔVCE) to the resulting change in the collector current
concentration (i.e. electrons or holes). (ΔIC) at constant base current (IB) is known as output
3.  The movement of holes constitutes the hole current (Ih) resistance. The mathematical expression for the output
and the movement of electrons constitutes the electron resistance is ΔCIΔ
current (Ie). The total current I which flows through the  ∆V 
semiconductor when an electric field is applied, is I = Ie + Ih ro =  CE 
 ∆IC  IB
4.  In p-type semiconductors, holes are the majority carriers
and electrons are the minority carriers. For p-type 11.  The mathematical expression for the current amplification
semiconductors, we have nh >> ne. factor is
5.  In some semiconductors, such as gallium arsenide or  ∆I 
βac =  C 
indium phosphide, the energy can be emitted as a photon  ∆IB  V CE
of energy at wavelength hν
12.  Mathematically, the dc current gain is expressed by
c c hc
λ= = = . IC
v E g /h E g βdc =
IB
7.  The emitter current (IE) is equal to the sum of the 13.  Mathematically, the small signal voltage gain is written as
base current (IB) and the collector current (IC), and is
mathematically written as IE = IB + IC ∆Vo
Av =
∆Vi
8.  To obtain the input characteristics when the transistor is in
active state, the collector– emitter voltage VCE is kept large 14.  The power gain (Ap) of an amplifier is defined as the
enough so that the base–collector junction is reverse- product of the voltage and current gains. Mathematically,
biased. The relation between the input and output voltage it is expressed as
is VCE = VCB + VBE .
9.  The ratio of change in the base–emitter voltage (ΔVBE) to Ap = Av × βac
the resulting change in the base current (ΔIB) at constant

Chapter 15 : Communication Systems

1. If the signals are digital, they are rectangular in shape.
They can be expressed as a superposition of sinusoidal
waves of frequencies nν 0 , where n = 1, 2, 3,… and ν 0 is the
frequency of the rectangular waves.
2. If N is the electron density (per cubic meter) of an
ionospheric layer, its critical frequency is given by
3.  Let the transmitting antenna be at a height hT and the
distance to the horizon, d – also known as the radio horizon
of the transmitting antenna – then becomes
d = 2RhT
where R is the radius of the Earth.

νc = 9 N .

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 Important Formulas and Units 11

4.  The maximum line-of-sight distance dM between the   where c(t) is the strength of the signal, which can be a
transmitting and receiving antennas is given by voltage or a current, Ac is its amplitude, wc is the angular
frequency, and f is the initial phase.
dM = 2RhT + 2RhR , 7.  In amplitude modulation (AM), the amplitude of the carrier
wave, Ac, is modulated by the information signal. Let this
  Where hR is the height of the receiving antenna.
modulating signal be represented by
5.  The power radiated from a linear antenna of length l obeys
the relation m(t ) = Am sinω mt
2
l   with Am being the signal’s amplitude and wm its angular
P ∝  .
 λ frequency.
  Therefore, for a given antenna length, the power radiated 8.  The sideband frequency is represented as
increases with decrease in λ, which corresponds to increase
ω SB = ω c ± ω m .
in frequency.
6.  The high-frequency carrier wave used to transmit 9.  The modulation index is represented as
information can be represented as
Amax − Amin
µ= .
c (t ) = Ac sin(ω ct + φ ), Amax + Amin

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