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________________________________________________________________
A Project Report
On
“THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES”
Submitted By
________________________________________________________________
October, 2016
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Last but not least we would like to thank Prof. Udaykumar Nikam who has
taught & guided us the Project Report writing.
October 2016
Acharya Sampada (01)
Datwani Devesh()
Gopalkar Sameed ()
Chauhan Yogesh ()
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ABSTRACT
Today, I.C. Engines are widely used in automobile industries. The working of
I.C. Engines can be related to the thermodynamic cycle which is developed in
the 19th century. These concepts form the core principles of modern I.C.
engines. Thermodynamic cycles were hypothesized to convert heat energy into
mechanical work; four types of cycles are explained in the project report.
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_______________________________________________________________
CERTIFICATE
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CONTENTS
________________________________________________________
Title Page........................................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgement..............................................................................................3
Abstract...............................................................................................................4
Certificate............................................................................................................5
1. Carnot Cycle..................................................................................................7
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History
1.3 Assumptions
1.4 Working
1.5 Limitations
3. The Diesel.....................................................................................................17
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Working
3.3 Actual Diesel Cycle
3.4 Advantages of Engines Working on Diesel Cycle
3.5 Disadvantages of Diesel Engines
3.6 Applications
Bibliography....................................................................................................
References....................................................................................................... 23
Glossary.......................................................................................................... 24
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1. THE CARNOT CYCLE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 HISTORY
1.3 ASSUMPTIONS
The working of the engine is idealized with the following assumptions:
a) The working substance for the Carnot engine is a perfect gas.
b) The piston movement in the cylinder is frictionless.
c) The walls of the cylinder and the piston are considered perfectly
insulated.
d) The cylinder head is so arranged that it is partially a very good conductor
of heat and partially a perfect insulator.
e) The heat supply and the heat rejection are at constant temperatures.
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1.4 WORKING
Figure 1.4.1
The Carnot cycle when acting as a heat engine consists of the following steps:
In this case ∆ =
The behaviour of a Carnot engine or refrigerator is best understood by using
a temperature-entropy diagram (TS diagram), in which the thermodynamic state
is specified by a point on a graph with entropy (S) as the horizontal axis and
temperature (T) as the vertical axis. For a simple closed system (control mass
analysis), any point on the graph will represent a particular state of the system.
A thermodynamic process will consist of a curve connecting an initial state (A)
and a final state (B). The area under the curve will be =
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Figure 1.4.2
Figure 1.4.3
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Figure 1.4.4
1.5 LIMITATIONS
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2. THE OTTO CYCLE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 ASSUMPTIONS
Just like the Carnot cycle, the working of the engine is idealized with the
following assumptions:
a) The working substance for the Carnot engine is a perfect gas.
b) The piston movement in the cylinder is frictionless.
c) The walls of the cylinder and the piston are considered perfectly
insulated.
d) The cylinder head is so arranged that it is partially a very good conductor
of heat and partially a perfect insulator.
e) The heat supply and the heat rejection are at constant temperatures
2.3 WORKING
Figure 2.3.1
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An Otto cycle consists of four processes:
In this process, the piston moves from bottom dead centre (BDC) to top dead
centre (TDC) position. Air undergoes reversible adiabatic (isentropic)
compression. We know that compression is a process in which volume
decreases and pressure increases. Hence, in this process, volume of air
decreases from V1 to V2 and pressure increases from p1 to p2. Temperature
increases from T1 to T2. As this an isentropic process, entropy remains constant
(i.e., s1=s2). Refer p-V and T-s diagrams for better understanding. (Figure 2.3.2
and Figure 2.3.3)
Process 2-3 is isochoric (constant volume) heat addition process. Here, piston
remains at top dead centre for a moment. Heat is added at constant volume (V2
= V3) from an external heat source. Temperature increases from T2 to T3,
pressure increases from p2 to p3 and entropy increases from s2 to s3.
In this process,
where,
m → Mass
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position. Here, pressure decreases from p3 to p4, volume rises from v3 to v4,
temperature falls from T3 to T4 and entropy remains constant (s3=s4). (Refer P-v
and T-s Diagrams in Figure 2.3.2 and Figure 2.3.3).
The piston rests at BDC for a moment and heat is rejected at constant volume
(V4=V1). In this process, pressure falls from p4 to p1, temperature decreases
from T4 to T1 and entropy falls from s4 to s1.
Figure 2.3.2
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Figure 2.3.3
The quantity V1/V2 is called the compression ratio (r) . In terms of compression
ratio, the efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle is:
Figure 2.4.1
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• High efficiency and can be controlled by changing compression ratio.
• 100 % efficiency cannot be achieved as it would violate 2nd principle of
thermodynamics.
• Otto cycle by itself has no real world use as it is theorized on ideal
conditions.
• Quasi-Static process do
• Source of heat reservoir is not defined.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
P qin T
2 3
qin
3
P=const
Isentro
pic 2
4
4
Isentropi qout
c qout 1
v=const
v s
(a) P-v 17
(b) T-s
Figure 3.1.1
3.2 WORKING
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4. Process 4-1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection
In this process, heat is rejected at constant volume (V4 = V1). Pressure decreases
from P4 to P1, temperature decreases from T4 to T1 and entropy decreases from
s4 to s1.
Heat rejected in process 4-1 is given by
Qout = mCv(T4 − T1) kJ ………… (ii)
where,
m → Mass of air in kg
Cv → Specific heat at constant volume in kJ/kgK
T2 → Temperature at point 2 in K
T3 → Temperature at point 3 in K
For a good understanding of every process, refer the p-V and T-s diagrams in
Figure 3.1.1
Air-standard Efficiency of Diesel Cycle:
Air-standard efficiency (or thermal efficiency) of diesel cycle is given by:
ΗTh=ηDiesel=HeatAdded–HeatRejected / HeatAdded×100%
Diesel=Qin−Qout/ Qin×100%
From equations (i) and (ii)
ηDiesel=mCp(T3–T2)–mCV(T4–T1)mCp(T3–T2)×100%
ηDiesel=(1−mCV(T4−T1)mCp(T3−T2))×100%
ηDiesel=(1−CV(T4−T1)Cp(T3−T2))×100%
ηDiesel=(1−1γ(T4−T1)(T3−T2))×100%(Since,CpCV=γ⇒CVCp=1γ)
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Figure 3.3.1
The main advantage of diesel engine is the inexpensive fuel. Then the cost
difference between diesel fuel and petrol reaches the 20% level even the owners
of expensive cars start to save. The fuel efficiency of diesel engines is 36% and
higher. The efficiency of petrol-powered engine is only 25% that means that the
diesel engine wastes less fuel than the petrol-powered engine.
Tough diesel engines are more efficient, the pollution produced by diesel
engines are 8-9 times more than that of petrol engines. This makes the diesel
engines counterproductive.
3.6 APPLICATIONS
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4 THE DUAL CYCLE
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The dual combustion cycle (also known as the limited pressure or mixed cycle,
Trinkler cycle, Seiliger cycle or Sabathe cycle) is a thermal cycle that is a
combination of the Otto cycle and the Diesel cycle, first introduced by Russian-
German engineer Gustav Trinkler. Heat is added partly at constant volume and
partly at constant pressure, the advantage of which is that more time is available
for the fuel to completely combust. Because of lagging characteristics of fuel
this cycle is invariably used for diesel and hot spot ignition engines. It consists
of two adiabatic and two constant volumes and one constant pressure process.
Efficiency lies between Otto and diesel cycle The P-V diagram is given below
(Figure 4.1.1)
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Figure 4.1.1
4.2 WORKING
where:
r = compression ratio V1/V2
r = ratio of the burning period volumes V4/V3 (= T4/T3)
g = adiabatic index of compression/expansion (1.4 for air)
4.3 APPLICATIONS
Dual cycles have very little applications as they cannot be used in real world
situations. However, some modern engines do use the principle of dual
cycles.
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REFERENCES
________________________________________________________
Wikipedia.org/
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GLOSSARY
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ADIABATIC:
Relating to or denoting a process or condition in which heat does not enter or leave the
system concerned.
HEAT:
The quality of being hot; high temperature.
ISENTROPIC:
Having equal entropy.
ISOCHORIC PROCESS:
An isochoric process, also called a constant-volume process, is volumetric process, or an
isometric process, is a thermodynamic process during which the volume of the closed system
undergoing such a process remains constant.
PRESSURE:
Continuous physical force exerted on or against an object by something in contact with it.
PROCESS:
A natural series of changes.
REVERSIBLE:
Capable of being reversed so that the previous state is restored.
THERMODYNAMICS:
The branch of physical science that deals with the relations between heat and other forms of
energy (such as mechanical, electrical, or chemical energy), and, by extension, of the
relationships between all forms of energy.
VOLUME:
The amount of space that a substance or object occupies, or that is enclosed within a
container.
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