PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1]

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1.1 Understanding Physics

1. The word physics comes from the Latin word, ‘physikos’ meaning the science of natural things.
2. Physics is the branch of science concerned with the study of __________________and properties
of matter and energy.
3. The study was divided into separated fields; heat, the properties of matter, light, sound, wave,
electricity, magnetism, mechanics, nuclear physics etc.
4. In physics, there is the need to make careful observations, precise and accurate measurements.
5. Understanding natural phenomena and observing everyday objects such as a table, a mirror etc
and discuss how they are related to physics concepts has always been a central aim of physics.
6. The roots of all science are firmly based in experiment. Of course, mastering scientific skills
applying scientific knowledge must be the important thing to learn physics.

Importance of physics

1. There is a close relationship between the study of physics and other sciences, including
astronomy, biology, chemistry and geology.
2. There is a close connection between physics and the practical developments in engineering,
medicine and technology.
3. The application of fundamental laws and theories has enabled engineers and scientists to put
satellites into orbit, receive information from space probes, and improve telecommunications.
4. Physics improves the quality of life, i.e. many home appliances function through the operation of
principles of physics.

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1.2 Physical Quantities

1.2.1 Base Quantities

1. Measurement is the process of ________________________ of quantity using a
__________________ with a standard scale.
2. A physical quantities is a quantity that can be measured.be measured.
3. Quantities that cannot be measured are non-physical quantities.
4. Physical quantities are categorized into ________________band _________________
5. Base quantities is ______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
6. Every physical quantity is expressed as a numerical value in a particular unit of measurement.
Example:
Length of meter rule = 100 cm
Numerical Unit of
Physical quantity
value measurement

7. In 1960, an international conference in Paris had agreed to fix an international system of base units
for base quantities throughout the world. It is called the SI unit (Le Systeme International d’Unites).
8. Table below shows five base units and their corresponding physical quantities.

Base quantities SI base units

Name Symbol Name Symbol

Length l meter m
Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second s
Electric current I ampere A
Temperature T kelvin K

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1.2.2 Derived quantities

1. Derived quantities are physical quantities __________________________ by multiplication or

division or both. The unit for a derived quantity is known as a derived unit.
2. Table below lists some common derived quantities and their units.

Derived quantities Formula Derived units

Special
Name Symbol Units
name

Area A Length x breadth m x m = m2 -

Volume V Length x breadth x height m x m x m = m3 -

displacement m
Velocity v = m s-1 -
time taken s
change in velocity ms 1
Acceleration a = m s-2 -
time taken s
mass kg
Density ρ = kgm-3 -
volume m3
kg x m s-2 = kg m s-
Force F Mass x acceleration 2 Newton

kg x m s-1 = kg m s-
momentum p Mass x velocity 1 -

kg m s-2 x m = kg
Work W Force x displacement -
m2 s-2
work J
Power P = J s-1 Watt, W
time taken s

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1.2.3 Prefixes

1. A prefix is a group of letters placed at the beginning of a word to modify its meaning. The SI allows
other units to be created from standard or base units by using prefixes, which act as multipliers.
2. We use prefixes _________________ the expression of ____________________l numerical values
of physical quantities. Prefixes are usually used to express some physical quantities that are either
very big or very small.
Prefix Symbol Power/factor
Tera T 1012
Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Kilo k 103
Deci d 10-1
centi c 10-2
Milli m 10-3
micro µ 10-6
nano n 10-9
Pico p 10-12

Note A prefix is written in front of the symbol for the unit without a space. For example, kilowatt is
written kW.
A space is used between symbols in derived units. For example, Newton meter is written N m.

12.4 Scientific Notation/ Standard Form

1. Scientific notation/standard form is a method of expressing very large or very small numbers.
2. Standard form is written in the form of A x 10n where 1 ≤ A < 10 and n is an integer.
3. Example 1:
Value Value in standard form
234 000 000 2.34 x 108
500 5 x 102
0.000 000 03478 3.478 x 10-8

4. Example 2:
A yellow light of wavelength 0.000 000 58 m travels at a speed of 300 000 000 m s-1. Express the
value in scientific notation.
0.000 000 58 m = 5.8 x 10-7
300 000 000 m s-1 = 3.0 x 108 m s-1

5. Work example – text book page 7

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1.2.6 Expressing Derived Quantities and Their Units in Terms of Base Quantities
and Base Units.

1. Derived quantities and their units can be separated into their respective base quantities and base
units. Sometimes, the derived unit shows the relationship between the derived quantity and the base
quantity. For example;
(a) the unit of speed is meter per second or m s-1, which is in terms of the base units meter and
second.
(b) the unit of area is square meter or m2, which is a multiple of the base unit meter.

Example
Derive the units for the following physical quantities.
(a) Velocity
(b) Acceleration
(c) Density

Solution
Unit [Displacement]
(a) Unit [Velocity] =
Unit [Time]
m
=
s
= m s-1 (derived unit of velocity)

Unit [Change in velocity]

(b) Unit [Acceleration] =
Unit [Time]
1
ms
=
s
= m s-2 (derived unit of acceleration)

(c) Unit [Density] =

kg
=
m3
= kg m-3 (derived unit of density)

Solving Problems Involving Conversion of Units

1. Convert the unit of area in m2 to cm2
1m = 100 cm
2
1m = (100 cm)2
= 10 000 cm2
= 1 x 104 cm2
2. Convert the unit of volume in mm3 to m3
1 mm = 0.001
= 1 x 10-3 m
1 mm3 = (1 x 10-3 m )3
= 1 x 10-9 m3
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3. Express the unit of density 1.05 g cm-3 in the unit kg m-3.

1g = 0.001 kg or 1.0 x 10-3 kg
1 cm = 0.01 m or 1.0 x 10-2 m
1.05 g cm-3 = 1.05 x (1 x 10-3 kg) x (1 x 10-2 m)-3
= 1.05 x 103 kg m-3

72km
4. 72 km h-1 =
1h
72x10 3 m
=
1x60x60s
= 20 ms-1

5. Complete the table below with standard form and convert the unit
Standard form
Quantity Convert to unit
Scientific notation

1) 0.000 000 18 Ts

(µs)

2) 0.2341 mg
(Mg)

3) 3 854 000 Gm
(km)

4) 7 530 nA (mA)

5) 5 K (pK)

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1.3 Scalar and Vector Quantities

1. A scalar quantity is a quantity which has only __________________

2. A vector quantity has both _______________ and ________________
3. Table below shows examples of scalar quantities and vector quantities.

Scalar Quantity Vector Quantity Scalar Quantity Vector Quantity

Distance Displacement Temperature Pressure

Speed Velocity Time Impulse
Mass Weight Electric current Acceleration
Energy Momentum Power Deceleration

1.4 Understanding Measurement

Using Appropriate Instrument to Measure

1. We frequently need to make measurements for physical quantities by using standard measuring
instruments.
2. Choosing an appropriate instrument to measure a physical quantity is important to ensure that the
measurements are accurate.

Measurement of length
Metre rule
1. To measure length from a few cm up to 1 m.
2. Precautions to be taken when using a ruler:
(a) ensure that the object is in contact with the ruler to avoid inaccurate readings.
(b) avoid parallax errors
(c) avoid zero error and end error.
3. For example: A ruler is to determine the diameter of the wire.
Solution

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Vernier Calipers
1. A vernier caliper is used to measure an object with dimensions up to 120 mm/12 cm.
2. Vernier calipers can be used to measure thickness, diameter of a wire and depth of
o a liquid.
3. Figure 1.1 shows the vernier calipers

Figure 1.1

(a) Vernier calipers have two scale;

- main scale
- vernier scale
(b) The inside jaws are used to measure internal diameters.
(c) The outside jaws are used to measure external diameters and thickness.
(d) The
he tail is used to measure depths.
(e) The screw clamp may be used to ensure that the vernier scale does not move while you take
the reading.
4. The main scale is marked in divisions of 1 mm.
5. The vernier scale is marked in divisions of 0.1 mm.
6. The vernier caliper has an accuracy of 0.1 mm or 0.01 cm.
7. Principle of vernier calipers.
(a) The vernier scale is divided into ten equal division.
(b) The length of this 10 divisions are equal to 0.9 cm.
(c) Hence 1 mark on the vernier scale is equal to 0.09 cm.
(d) Figure 1.1 shows, the difference
ifference between the sizes of one division on the main scale and one
division on the vernier scale is;
0.1 – 0.09 = 0.01 cm
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Figure 1.1
8. How to read the vernier calipers.
(a) to measure with a vernier caliper, slide the vernier scale along the main scale until the object is
held firmly between the jaws of the caliper.

Figure 1.2

(b) read the main scale before ‘0’ mark on the vernier scale.
(c) take the vernier scale reading that lines up with any main scale reading.
(d) figure 1.2 shows,
The main scale reading = 34.0 mm
The vernier scale reading = 0.6 mm
Therefore the reading is = 34.0 mm + 0.6 mm
= 34.6 mm.

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9. What is the reading of the vernier calipers below.

(a)

30.0 + 0.1 = 30.1 mm/3.01 cm

(b)

8.0mm + 0.1mm = 8.1 mm/0.81 cm

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(c)

12.1 mm + 0.7 mm = 12.8 mm

10. Before we used the vernier calipers, we need to check for zero error in order to obtain accurate
readings.
11. When the jaws are closed and the ‘0’ mark on the main scale is exactly in line with the ‘0’ mark
on the vernier scale there is no zero error as shown in figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3

12. Positive zero error occurs if the ‘0’ mark on the vernier scale is to the right of the ‘0’ mark on the
main scale as shown in figure 1.4.

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Figure 1.4

The positive zero error as shown in figure 1.4 is +0.4 mm/ +0.04 cm.
To eliminate the zero error;
Correct reading = (Caliper reading) – (+zero error)
The reading in figure 1.2 above must be corrected by subtracting +0.04 cm to the reading.
Correct reading = 34.6 mm – (+0.4 mm)
= 34.2 mm

13. Negative zero error occurs if the ‘0’ mark on the vernier scale is to the left of the ‘0’ mark on the
main scale as shown in figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5

The negative zero error as shown in figure 1.5 is – 0.2 mm/ - 0.02 cm.
To eliminate the negative zero error;
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Correct reading = Caliper reading – zero error

The reading in figure 1.2 above must be corrected by subtracting - 0.2 cm to the reading.

Correct reading = 34.6 mm – (- 0.2 mm)

= 34.8 mm

Micrometer Screw Gauge

1. A micrometer screw gauge is used to measure very small thickness and diameters ranging between
0.10 mm up to 25.00 mm.
2. The micrometer screw gauge can be used to measure diameter of wires and thicknesses sheet of
paper to an accuracy of 0.01 mm
mm.
3. Figure 1.1 shows the micrometer screw gauge.

Figure 1.1

(a) The micrometer scale comprises;

- main scale marked on the sleeve
- thimble scale/vernier scale marked on the thimble.
(b) The
he object that is to be measured is placed between the jaws.
(c) The thimble is turned until its jaw touches the object.
(d) The ratchet knob ________________________________ by making a click sound when the
micrometer is ready to be read.
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4. Principle of the micrometer screw gauge.

(a) The main scale is marked in divisions of 0.5 mm.

(b) One division on the thimble scale is equal to 0.01 mm.

5. How to read the micrometer screw gauge.

(a) In order to measure an object, the object is placed between the jaws and the thimble is
rotated using the ratchet until the object is secured until 3 clicks sound is heard.

Figure 1.2
(b) Read the main scale marking just before the thimble.
(c) Find the vernier scale marking where the horizontal reference line of the main scale is in
line with the graduation mark on the thimble scale.
(d) Figure 1.2 shows,
The main scale reading = 7.5 mm
The vernier scale reading = 0.38 mm
Therefore the reading is = 7.5 mm + 0.38 mm
= 7.88 mm

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6. What is the reading of the micrometer screw gauge below;

(a)

Figure 1.3
7.5 mm + 0.22 = 7.72 mm

(b)

Figure 1.4
3.5 mm + 0.46 mm = 3.96 mm/0.396 cm

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(c)

Figure 1.5
5.5 mm + 0.30 mm = 5.80 mm

7. Before we used the micrometer screw gauge, we need to check for zero error in order to obtain
accurate readings.

8. When the jaws are fully closed and the ‘0’ mark on the thimble scale is exactly in line with the
horizontal reference line there is no zero error.

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Figure 1.6

9. Positif zero error occurs (figure 1.6), when the horizontal reference line is in the positive side of
the ‘0’ mark on the thimble scale.
The positive zero error as shown in figure 1.6 is + 0.04 mm.
To eliminate the positive zero error;
Correct reading = (Micrometer reading) – (+zero error)
The reading in figure 1.2 above must be corrected by subtracting +0.04 cm to the reading.

Correct reading = 7.88 mm – (+0.04 mm)

= 7.84 mm

Figure 1.7

10. Negative zero error occurs if the horizontal reference line on the main scale is below the ‘0’ mark
of the thimble scale.

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Figure 1.7

The negative zero error as shown in figure 1.7 is - 0.03 mm

To eliminate the negative zero error;

Correct reading = (Micrometer reading) – (- zero error)
The reading in figure 1.2 above must be cor
corrected by subtracting - 0.03 cm to the reading,
reading
Correct reading = 7.88 mm – (- 0.03 mm)
= 7.91 mm

11. Some others measuring instruments:

Analogue Stopwatch Digital Stopwatch Thermometer Miliammeter

Measuring Tape Measuring Cylinder Beaker

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Consistency and Accuracy

1. Physical quantities involve measurements. No measurement is exact. Every measurement is an

estimation of the actual value.
2. When we measure a physical quantity, we need to consider its magnitude and then choose a suitable
instrument and also measurement should be done with considering consistency, accuracy and
sensitivity.
3. To see the distinction between consistency and accuracy, we can consider of gunshots fired at a
target board.

(a) (b)
Figure 1.11

4. The drawings in figure 1.11, which show the distribution of gunshots fired at a target board.
5. The shots in figure 1.11
1 (a) are clustered together and hence the distribution of the shots is
consistent.
6. The consistency of a measuring instrument is its
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
7. The shot in figure 1.11 (b) is the most accurate
accurate shot. The bulls eye in the centre of the target
represent the actual value.
8. Accuracy of a measurement is
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________ _____________________
_____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________ _________________
9. An accurate instrumentt is able to give readings ______
_____________
___ to or ______________ to the actual
value of a quantity.
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Sensitivity

1. Sensitivity of an instrument is its __________________________________ in the quantity to be

measured. The smaller the change which can be measured by the instrument, the more sensitive the
instrument.
2. A ruler can measure reading accurate to 0.1 cm. A pair of vernier calipers is more sensitive because
it can measure reading accurate to 0.01 cm. However, a micrometer screw gauge is the most
sensitive of the three instruments because it can measure readings accurate to 0.001 cm.
3. Table 1.3 shows the accuracy and sensitivity of each measuring instrument.

Measuring instrument Accuracy Sensitivity

Ruler 1 mm/0.1 cm Low
Vernier caliper 0.1 mm/0.01 cm Moderate
Micrometer screw gauge 0.01 mm/0.001 cm High
Table 1.3
4. Figure 1.12 shows the sensitivity of different types of ammeter.

Figure 1.12

5. Figure 1.13, shows the sensitivity of different types of stopwatch.

Figure 1.13

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Errors in Measurements
1. An error is a __________________ between the __________________ of a quantity and the
__________________ in measurement.
2. In scientific research, a measurement which is 100% accurate is impossible. All measurements are
value of approximation only. In other words, it is a matter of how close the measurement is to
actual value. This is because errors exist in all measurements.
3. There are two main type of error in measurements;
(i) ___________________
(ii) ___________________
4. Systematic errors may be due to;
(a) _____________________ of instrument which makes the instrument defective.
(b) _________________ of the instrument, which means the pointer of the instrument does not
return to zero when not in use.
(c) A problem which persists throughout the experiment such as repeated error in reaction time
and wrong assumption.
(d) Systematic errors will lead to decrease in accuracy
5. Random errors occur due to;
(a) _______________________ of the observer when making a measurement
(b) _______________________ when reading a scale
(c) _______________________ such as the temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, refraction,
magnetic field or gravity.
(d) __________________ ( instrument does not respond / indicate insignificant or small
change )
(e) __________________ ( applying excessive pressure when turning a micrometer screw
gauge )
6. Figure 1.14 shows the observer’s eye at three different positions. Parallax errors will be giving
inaccurate readings.

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Figure 1.14

Techniques to Reduce Errors in Measurements

1. Errors in measurements must be reduced as much as possible to increase the accuracy.

2. Choosing an appropriate measuring instrument can reduce errors.
3. Repeat the measurements a number of times and find the average.
4. Before using an instrument, check whether there is any zero error or not. If zero error is present,
adjust the pointer to zero before taking any measurements.

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1.5 Analysing scientific investigations

1. The following processes are involved in scientific investigations.

(a) A scientific investigation begins with _____________. When observing we come out some
questions. (i.e : hearing, smelling, touching, tasting, seeing)
(b) Making _____________ is a early assessment or explanation that is carried out to answer
the question raised. Inference is an early conclusion to what we observed.
(c) Form a ______________ which is the statement of relationship between the manipulated
variable and the responding variable we would expect.
(d) _______ has to be stated so that all the investigating effort is centered on the main subject.
(e) Identify all the ______________ ;
(i) _____________ variable is a quantity we manipulate / variable which causes other
secondary variables to _______________
(ii) _______________ variable is the _____________ which is _________
___________________ variable and is measured experimentally.
(iii) ________ variable is the quantity that ________________ throughout the
experiment.

(f) Apparatus / Materials needed to be listed according its specification example measuring
instrument to ensure the success the experiment.
(g) Procedure is the sequence of action or operation in order to carry out the experiment
according to the instructions given.
(h) Observation is the listing and tabulation of all data obtained in the experiment.
(i) Analysing of data can be carried out by plotting the graph, followed by the interpretation of
graph or calculation to obtain the required value.
(j) Discussion needs to be stated to find out whether the result obtained support the stated
hypothesis. Precautions of the experiment can be suggested to overcome the weakness, to
reduce the experimental error or to improve the result of the experiment.
(k) A conclusion is stated concerning the result of the experiment (is written in accordance with
the aim of the experiment and based on graph). By comparing with the aim stated, this will
determine whether the hypothesis is accepted or rejected.

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2. Example : A simple pendulum

(a) Inference : When the length of a simple pendulum increases, the period of oscillation also
increases. // The period of pendulum is affected by the length of the thread.
(b) Hypothesis : The longer the length of a simple pendulum, the longer will be the period of
oscillation//
(c) Aim : To find the relationship between the length of a simple pendulum and the period
of oscillation.
(d) Variable :
(i) Manipulated variable : Length, l
(ii) Responding variable : Period, T.
(iii) Fixed variable : Mass of pendulum bob. m
(e) Materials : Retort stand, pendulum bob, thread, metre rule, stop watch.
(f) Figure

thread
Retort
stand

bob

(g) Procedure :
(i) Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure above.// A small brass or bob was attached to
the thread. The thread was held by a clamp of a the retort stand.
(ii) The length of the thread , l was measured by a metre rule, starting with 90.0 cm. The
bob of the pendulum was displaced and released.
(iii) The time for 20 complete oscillations, t was taken using the stop watch. Calculate the
t
period of oscillation by using, T = .
20
(iv) The experiment was repeated using different lengths such as 80.0 cm, 70.0 cm, 60.0
cm, 50.0 cm and 40.0 cm.

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(h) Observation / Tabulate data

Length of Time taken for 10 Period of T2
string, l / cm oscillation, t (s) oscillation (s2 )
t1 t2 Average, t t
T = (s)
20
40.0 25.2 25.1 25.2 1.26 1.59
50.0 28.1 28.2 28.2 1.41 1.99
60.0 31.0 31.0 31.0 1.55 2.40
70.0 33.5 33.6 33.6 1.68 2.82
80.0 35.7 35.9 35.8 1.79 3.20
90.0 38.2 37.9 38.1 1.91 3.65

Notes :
- Symbols and their respective units should be written in the table
- A readings of length of string should be written in one decimal place. This is because the
metre rule used to measure the length of string can measure accuracy to 0.1 cm
- All sets of readings recorded must be consistent. For example, all reading
time taken, t are recorded in one decimal place.
Average values for t are taken to minimize errors
• If the time taken for 20 oscillations is 38.1 s,
t 38.1
• Then the period of oscillation, T = = = 1.91 s
20 20
T2 = (1.91)2 = 3.65 s2

(i) Analysing : Plotting the graph

T2
T2 (s2) against l (cm)
(s2 )
x
x
x
x
x

l (cm)

Notes :
(i) Plotting the graph - The graph should be labeled by a heading.
(ii) All axes should be labeled with quantities and their respective units.

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(iii) The manipulated variable (l) should be plotted on the x-axis while the responding
variable (T2 ) should be plotted on the y-axis
(iv) Odd scales such as 1:3, 1:7 , 1:9 0r 1 :11should avoided in plotting graph.
(v) Make sure that the transference of data from the table to the graph is accurate.
(vi) Draw the best straight line - the line that passes through most of the points plotted
such that is balanced by the number of points above and below the straight line.
(vii) make sure that the size of the graph is large enough, which is, not less than half the
size of the graph paper or (> 8 cm x 10 cm).
(viii) The triangle drawn to calculate the gradient of the graph should not be less than half
size of the graph drawn or ( .> 6 cm x 8 cm )
(ix) Calculate the gradient using the formula
(x) Put the unit

(j) Discussion / Precaution of the experiment / to improve the

accuracy.
(i) The bob of the pendulum was displaced with a small angle
(ii) The amplitude of the oscillation of a simple pendulum is small.
(iii) The simple pendulum oscillate in a vertical plane only.
(iv) Switch off the fan to reduce the air resistance

(k) Conclusion
The length of simple pendulum is directly proportional to the
square of the period of oscillation // T2 is directly proportional to l (the straight line graph
passing through the origin)

Prepared by:
En Adnan Shamsudin
Dip Sc (UiTM), BSc (UTM), Dip Edu (UTM)

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