Solving Mathematical Problems A Personal Perspective agree Terence Tao Department of Mathematics, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095 OXFORDContents Preface to the frst edition Profoceto the second edition Strategies in problem solving Examples in number theory ‘amples in algebra and analysis Evcidean geometry Analytic geometry ‘Sundey examples References Index BSsee. 01Preface to the first edition rocks an ancient Greck philcsopher, sid: “Thashereloe, aches she vio you cf he nv formsof ‘Reso bees eto fe own dzone she awakens tbe ind ad potest tet be ng lou eo es she ais ‘Chins andignorance wi ave by th Buc ut like mathematics because is ‘Mathematica poblam, oe ples, ae important to eel ratheratis| (ike elving rea ie problems), jst a ables, stores, end anecdotes are Important othe young in understanding eal ie Matherateal probes sre sized” mathematics where an elegant sction has already been Fond by someone ela, ofcourse), the question is sipped ofall super ‘ousiew and posed in an intresting sn (hope) thought rowing ‘ay. I mathemati sikened to prospecting for geld, slsinga geod ath CGratcalproblers akin roa “ideand week” course in gold peespeting: Ser are gen nugget to Bnd, ard you knew what i loks ke, that ‘ut there someuber, dace otto haed eo reac, hae es nesting ‘thin your capitis, and you have conwenindy bee goer the ight “suipenen es data to get i may be hide in 3 ct pce it ‘ol gue ingen ster than cig to reac 5 In this book T shall sve sled problems from various levels and beaches of atest Seared problems ("nda an addtional evel dificult, citer because some higher athena or sme clever think ate ete doused uestion (°*) ae sme ut reer gre. Sere problems have adaibonal exercises atthe cod tat ean be teived in similar marser of involve a situla pice of mathematics ‘While solving these probes, Il er 0 demonstrate some rcs of he teade when problem soling, Two of the main weapons~expeince aod Tenowlege ave nt ey to put int a book dey have tobe apie over tine. Bot these ace roany sper tke tha tae les mew lees, There are ware of king sta prublen that make teaser wo Bed 2 feasible ack lon. There ar systematic ways of seducing a problem neo saccively ‘Smplrsub-prolens. But, onthe other ard, solving the peoblem is mat ‘retything. To rear tothe rl nogge ales, ep-itng the neigh tourhood with ulldcers chase chan dong a careful survey, a bit of logy, and sal amount of digging A ation shold be slaty thor undercandtle, and hopetly hve» touch egal ate ont dine Tanti hr ie pom eso ince ravening mont o sn equaton by txeok cordate does not have the same tate of victory as tworine ectr solutions ‘Asan example of cegacs, here sombre in Balidcan “his net ith onefinee could be aacked by coorinae geemecy. Try te dose fr few minutes (hows, den look 2 th selon: Poor. Call che tangle ABC. Now et P be the inteecion of the rerpeodcule biserote uf AB and AC, Baise Pi on the AB baton, ALT = (PB, Because Pi on the AC beeen, IAP| = |PCL. Comboring "he own HE = [PC Buc his means tha bast bee the BC bet, evar al dew bisector cre eancrent (Incident, Pte ican of ABC) o "he fllowing reduced dsgram shows why 1AP| = [PH if Ps on the AR erpecicuat beer: congruent tangles wil pllt off ie. cp ‘This kind of soltion—and the sarge way tat cbvinw fet: mesh wo form a noeeo obvious facts part ofthe besy of mathematics hope thar yeu eo will appreciate thi beauty, Acknowledgements Thanks to Peres O'Ullocn, Vern Teelibs, and Lenny Np for their di a0 cera pec of ata for us. Ween alo tram the noestion sore, by labeling the anges, 8, and 180° —p, bur thi ugly and uneyeametreal eke probably beter to keep che old netstin, bu being an mid hat etpty = 180 ‘Write down what you know ia the notation sles draw a dager. Pung everthing conn er paper hepsi re ways (2) youbae an cay tefernce ber ons (by the papers god dingo state a when yu ar stock; (6) the physical act of writing down of what you knew cam rigger new Ingpetion and connections Be careful, though, of writing superiour miei, ani donee over load your paper wich minutiae, one comptemine en biglght tho foes which you think willbe mest wef and put more questionable, redundant or crazy ideas im another pt of your scat paper, Here ate some éqtatons and inequalities one ch ert from ut eagle estion: + (hysica consents) 8, y.8> Oyandb 2 ds wecan also assumed > 0 without Ios of geretaiy * (um of anges in ingle) 6+ y = 180": «(ie rae) —ay/sina = B/sin = (b+ sins + (cosine re) = thd? + (64d)? 20 ab + dco ees + area formule) ¢ = (1/206 ~ dbsiny = (1/2Mb— dN + din = 6b ta) snas 9 fierons formula) = os = b 4 ds — bye — by where 6 = (-O+h+ +d) isthe senipesnecer, + (ian inequainy b+ 4 < b-bd.Mary fe las ay ono ca oii Bu een Siiclenacte pn elec om elo Te Spain ch mor uh ana ees SSISGEI cin tear eis Rt ene ers es {pecans br spc gor os = 07 So Seng Tov fn yl Seca cowe so draws pte Taschen uel fo nt ua ieee pu Sor emo al ee Modify the problem slighty. Thee are many ways to vaty 2 peblee fnxo one which may be ese to del ithe (2) Consider yes cate of the probly such a exer or deereate (by Sve simpifio version ofthe peat, (©) Formate a cance which would imply the problem, and ty > rove tha fs. (a) Derive some cemequence of the problem, and ey to prove tha fest (©) Reformulate the problem (eg ake the contrapostive, prove by con= veadicton, or ty Some substton). (0 Examine selutions of ilar problems. (Generalize the problem. ‘This is unealwhen you cannot even pet stared ena problem, becuse ing fora simpler related probly sometimes reveals the way to £0.00 the rain problem Silay, considering exe cases and solving the prob [em ith ddtonal sesumpions can alo shed light the general solution. ‘a be warned at spel cases ae, by ther ature, epeil, and sore ele ‘ant rechnigue cou conceivably apply te them and ye hate abolutely no tlt in elving the general care. Tis ters to happen wher the special ‘ase foo spel Start with mode ateureiens fey, bees then you re etching as only as possible vo the spi ofthe probes Siegen peter g In Problers 1.1, we can ty a special case such at d = 0. in hs ‘ase we need © find the side length ofan eulateral tangle of een Fn this easy i is a standard mater to compute the answer, which is 1/314 indicates thatthe general answer should aaa ivelve square coot o fourth oot, but doesnot etherwisesugart lw to go shout the problem. Consideration of sina poblans draws ite a wel ‘escep one ets further evidence thet 3 png algebraic attack what esi ‘Moly the problem sigacandy. tn thie more ageresive type of strategy, we perform major modifications eo » problem sachs recy ing dar, swapping the data with the abject, ce neting the jective (cee tying to disprove a statement ater than prowe 8). Baskally, we try topush the pele unt it breaks, and then ey eb dey where he beak down occured this idence wha the key components of te data ares ‘well a where the main dffeuly wil i. These execs can alia elf tn _etng an instinctive fel of wha aeaegcs ae ily to work, ane! which ‘nes ar ily fa {in egaed ro our particular question, one could place the triangle with a uacinlaera, cle, Net ack lp chr: the problem ist ets exe ‘complicated. Bat onthe otberhand,onecanscethatene dees not ell need 2 angen the qustion, bret the dimension ofthe tare, We donot tealy need to know the pit of the rangle. So bere farther conf ton dat we sould eoncentateen the sides and anges 1 06yenP7) nd not on cootdinategeomenry c ilar approaches, ‘We couk! ome some objectives for exile rend of working otal the sides nd ange cou werk ou us the ides, fr example ux the tne can neice that by the cosine and sre ey, he angles ofthe tng ‘ill be determined anyon. Soi only nccet tosole fe the ies. But we know tha he sides have ents B~ by and bd, s0 weeny red ‘oid wha bs w Bich the probes, ‘We can also omit sme dat, ike the arithmetic difrece d, bur then ‘ye seem to haye sevetal psstble solutions, and no enogh dts co seve {he problem. Salary, omting the ates # will ot lave cuoush data to lich a soliion. (Servetines one can peril ei data, for instance, by only specifying thar che area larger oe sller than sore threshold ta; but iss geting complete. Stick with te simple options fist) Reversal ofthe problem wapping data wih objet) lead ome inter ‘sng ideas though, Suppase you ha a ingle with artnet dfleence 4 and you wanted to shrink ie (or whatever) wel the area besos f ‘One could imaine our tangle sinking and detoeing, ile preserving, ‘he arithmetic ference of the sides. Srlaey, ne could conser all ngs with xed are, and mld the wang ino one withthe sides in the correc athe progision. Thee ete cul werk inthe long ‘aa | will solve tis question by anothee approach. Da vot fret huheareagemsensairg ‘hata qution can be soled in moe than one way and no parieslar wy ‘an relly be judged the abslute baw. ‘rovers about our question. Data isheret be wed, so oe sho pick up he data and play with it Can ie produce more meaningful data? ‘Als, proving eal esl could be bene later on when eying oore ‘hemi esl or 0 Bind the antwes However small he resi donot foe (ptt could have bearing ler on, Besides vs you src do you are suck Ina Evaluate. problem ke the trang question, this asic is nt a8 ‘uu Buon an ty. For example, outa eal sto sole fc b. This ‘pers on the so parameters d and f. In ether words, bis relly fare ‘ore b= H(i this natn looks out of place a3 geome quetion, then that i only because geemery tec to fore the Functions depend fence cf bjs For example, Hero's orn pves an explore rcs A inten ofthe deo and in ther words, expres the fare ‘ion A(s.b,c) Now we can prove sore mines about this function bd, suck a Bde) = BCmeyt) because an aichmete progression fan eqivaleneanthnetic pogresson wit inverted acme fren), or be) = kid) (his doe by aig the langle chars 1b Bit) by B. We could even try die ‘malaations, for insane: setting = 1 ord = 1, and also provide 3 2910 Check the fal anor. Howeve, in thi rable these went tly give minor advamages and we wll ot use then here ‘Simply exploit dat, and reach tata goals Now e Have setup notation and have afew equations, we should seicsly lock 3 asin ‘ur tactical goals thc we have exablsbed. In rmple problems hee se usally stndaed ways of dow the (For exiripe alte spliicotion is usualy cscssed thoroughly in high schoo evel extbock,) Genel, this partis the longest and mest fcuk pst ofthe problem howeven once can void pting lost fone remeraber she ewan theorems the data and tow they cun keused and ost imporsandy the objective. rs ls a good ‘dea ronotappl any en technique or method blindly, aco this abead ‘nd ce where ae cond hope sich technique to take ome this ean low fone to sve enarinous amen of tn: by elisivating unpeofabe dee ‘ons of qiy before sinking lus of efor in them, and conversely to Bethe moet promising directions priory Ts Problem 11, we are already concentrating on Heros frat, We «an use this o ata cur acl goal of selva fo b Aral we have alveady noted da he ine and eine rules ca detetine oy ay once bis lenown. As further evdene tha this pongo be a ep foreard no that Herons formula nvlurs d and tin eeence, it aes all ur dat we have aleeady incorporated the fact abouthe sides bengin erimetic progression Shecpesnertiemiee 7 into eur notten). Anway, Herons formula in terms of fb becomes PEE m NEI) which we ca simplify BH b— 2906 428) _ 322 4) Te a "Now we have toselbe for b. The ight hands isa pelo nb (este ig and a8 constr), ad in fcr itis a quadratic nb, New quads ‘an be solved en: if we put clear denominators and pu evsrthing os the les hand side we get Wt — 12db* 162 = 0 sing the quad formule, 5a check, we ean verify dt whan = © this ogres wth eu pecvcus semputstion of 6= 2148/3". Once we onpute the side bb to, the evaluation ofthe angles 7. ten fellows fo the csi ews a wwearedene!‘Ther svt in od numbers, her wnt, hance or deat Wain Shakespear, Te May Wines of Winn [Number theory may nor necessary be divin, but i til hasan aca of smysique about it. Unite algeba, which basa is backbone che avs ef ‘manipulating equstion, umber theory seems to drive i eet fo {router udkeoss. Take, for example, Lagrange’ theorem (st ores {tured by Fermat that every peaive tnager is a sa of four erect suse eg. 30 = 4 384274 1). Algebetaly, we are lung abowt an fexcemely simple equation. bur lxcause we are resid wo the imtger the rules of algebe fai The resi infrieingly innocent loans ‘experimentation shows hati dees ee to work, tt fle ro explanation why Indes, Lagrange’ theorems canner be cal proved by the element. aty means covered in this hooks eeseuron its Cena es oe Smethitg snr need, “Other roblems, thong, are nc deep. Here are some simple expe, allioelving 2 narra mbes ns (2) rrabwayehas the same bs dipt as ith power. {b) isa rile of 9 fn ony the sum ols digits ia relief 8 (6) (Wikonseheoer) (1)! +1 fa mile of if and only if isa prone mer, (a) ica positive odd number, then 1424 ris vile by 1 (6) There are exactly four nurses that are digs long allowing for padding by neres) and whic are exaty the sme last dit as theit Squat. For instance the four tece-igt mers wih ths pooper art (000, 001,425, and 876 ‘These statemene can all be proved hy elementary number eheorys all solve around the boti ies of modular aritmetic, which pes You the power of algebra but limited wo a fnite umber of integer: cider tally, tying to solve the last assertion (e) ean eventually led the notion of pais, whichis sre of an infitednessionl form of modulae sethoetie10 Reanpesnantertes asic number theory a leone backwater of mathemati. Buc che applications thar str fom the baie eonceps of Sater: and dv Inj ave amazingly diverse and powerful. The concept of divs leads tury Gat of prime, which moves eg the detailed mata of factor Jnaion and then one ofthe jewels of rathematic in te last part ofthe Previous conury the prime number thecrem,whichean predic the ruber Of primes les than a gen nul 10 4 good degre of axuracy. Mar ‘while comer of ieeer operations lends sel to modules aricmes, (hich can be generalize rma eabvet ofthe integer to the alga of ite _roupe ings ai Fld, an! leas to algebraic nur tory, whe the concep of munker fe expanded irc estinal sud eens of eben Tel and complex mimes Nursber theory i 4 Tanaroenta corner stone which supports sree chunk of matheracs. And, ous fanee, Before we begin looking at pres, ler ws review sme basic notation. Antara ober i «postive integer (we wll noe corsiderO natural number) The sof natal numbers willbe denoted as N.A prime munber ‘Sa natural pumber with exactly ew ftom el and 1; we dene comer 10 be prime. Two maorl numbers and 1 ate coprine tei only conumon facto ie. “The notation ‘=~ y mod’, which we read as “+ equals y med lo, means that x andy diller by 2 mile of m, th for intense 15°~ 65 (ood 10). The noxarion (nod ny signs that we are wel in a moder aritmene where the alu m has bee dened wth Oy thus for instance modular anthinedc (od 10) the avi in which 100. Tha, fr mtanae, we Have 65 = 15-4 10 +104 104-104 1 154040404040 = 15 (rod 10) Modhbae anthmte ako ae fers fecan standard axthnetic in that inequalities do mo ext, and that all numbers ae nese. For example, 7/2 # 3.5 tod 5), but eather 72m 12/2 = 6 (mod) Beemer 7 = 12 otvedS). Way ses strange to divide inthis round-about way, buts facto ca fd that thete iso cea cancadcoon,alebough soo divisions are legal, jst 1s ivistn-by ar i egal within the traditional feld of eal sumber [Asa general ele divson is OK ifthe denerimtoe is coprime withthe rood 21 Digits “We mentioned above that one can lars semething shout a muber (in paricular, whether iis dvsbe by 9) by sung allt digs. La ghar ‘mathemati tins ct that this opeaton is pot paul important 2 oe (ic as proven far more efecve ro study numbers det, eather than via their dig expansion), fut ik quite popula in ete! machen sc and has even been given mystical connetatons by some! Geral, Sige suming appears ely ofen in mathematics competition problems, Such ashi one. Prost 2.1 (Taylor 1989, p. 7). Show taramongany 18 conecutve three-digit suber there sat eas ane which evs by the sm of ideas. | ‘Thisisa frite problem: there ae only $00 o 30 thei nuers 50 theorctialy we coud evalte te problem manually. Buel ue fe ‘anseve urslves come wore Fist ofall the objective looks ite wei! ‘we want the number to ke divisible by the um of eiges. Let ut Be wte down the objecine as a matical formula, so that we cas manipate itrure coy. A three ig nunter ean be writen nde form abe here .byc are the digits; we are wen ale toa coraion with abs note thet abeyo = 1005 +106 4 cy but abe an bm If we use the seancand oration lew dante the aterent that a divides by, we now want to selve (eb eben 0 where abo ar the digits of ene of the 18 gen consecitive numbers. Can ‘we reduce, simplify or sxmhow rake usable this equation? Is perabl, buxieis moe srmplifable vo anyhing balay deen ea wal eatin conmeeing fy ade de) In fac (1) a weno ng oan ate, even afer one subsites 1008 # 106 +c for abi. Takes hal st she selene ae of 0) 400, 102, 108,150,111, 12,114, 117,120,126. 990,999, ‘They sem tobe haphazard and random. However, they do scem t0oscie fen esaugh so that ary ran of 18 conecutive ure shel have ene And what is she significance ofthe 18 anyony? Assuring ie nt a rd hereing, (perhaps only 13 consecutive numbers age esd, but the 18 is thereto throw you off the ack) why have IF? Femay occu to ome tat the sums of digits of a number ate rather related tothe mmber 9 (en ‘umber has ce same renin ses digi sum upon diving by 9) and 18's related 9, so shere could be a veg comestic. Silly cnveciive rumbers an sity do noc mi. T seers that we have to reformulate the question ce propote relied ene to have «hope of sling ietampons Now tha we are onthe lockout for anything elate to the mamber 3, we should notice thot most rmbers which actualy do sat (1) are males (F 9,oFat lest miles of 3. In fet there a Only thee exceponn cn the lis above (100, 110, nd 112) and pracy allo the wukepe of 3 satay (1) So insead frying to pore For any 18 consecive number atleast one solves (D)- icc, re could ty someting ke Forany 18 consecutive nubers, here fsa maliple of which volves (2). “This route scems to "break the ix" between our dats (18 conseative ‘numbers and the obese a marber satin) because 1Beomsecutve ‘numbers always contain 2 multiple of 9 (in fact they contin wo sth ‘muiples, aed fem munercal evidence, ard che heuristic properties of the number 9 iesems che mules of 9 ety (1). This ‘stepping store” sppccach ithe Best way to reconcile two unfeledly sextemente "Now thi parelar stepping stone [considering mules of 9) dose wor, bt bi of extra work is needed to ever ll te cans acl beter to ase mali of 18 ‘Wena | "ere ri ag fl +18 consacusive numbees will always conmin exit oe mip of 18, ‘but they would conain twe multiples of 9, Ie seems neater, and tore appropsian, use mulls of TB than tose rtiples of 9, After al we use mulls oF 9 ro selve the prcblem, te question woul oly need 5 consecutive numbers iatad of TE + lshould be easier co prove (1) for multiples of 1 than for mulls of, since multiples of 18 are nothing moce dan pei case of lila of 9 Indeed sens cut that mulpes oF 9 o nat anys werk (conser for instance 999), but multiples 18 ll, we sal se Anyway, experimentation shows that miples of 18 stm to work. But ‘why? Take, for example, 216, which isa mile of 18. The sum ef igs '9,and9 divides 216 beens 18 dvds 26, To conde: anotheexarrple {882 sa multiple of 18, andthe sum fag i 8. Hence B82 i bviowsly Avis yin ig sum. Messing area with few mere examples shows that the sm of digits of a multiple of 18 i alwaye 8 or 18, which divides 2 os ‘he engin] number amos by defal. Ac with these guesses pro soon follow: Proos. Within the 18 consecutive numbers, ene must be a uipe of 18, say abe, Because abeye a multiple of 92s wel, a + +c masthen ‘up of: (Remeber the disbiliey ue fer 9 A names dite by 9 fond ony iit digit um indivi by 9, Became a4 b+ e anges between 1 and 27, 4-4 bc must be 9,18, 027.27 ely occers wen ae = 995, thats nota multiple of 18, Hence e bc or 18 and soetbtei. But 18lbey9 by dfniion so} clabeyoasdesed. Remember that with questions ivolving tings ke digits + dive approach is nce ustally the answer. A cursberseme frmule shoul be spied iro something more manageable. ln dis cae, the phrce “ore ruber ou of any 18 cersective tubers ts be wes veplaced by“ ‘utile of 18 mus be which was wesker, Bu elitr and mote evant ro de question (which was eleted ro divinity). Irturned out ta good ‘es, though. And remember that with rie pcb the strategies ne not lke shoei higher mathenatis, For example, the orl ebb + aabew was not ested ike piel mathematic (6 appition of neue arith ‘wet ot instead we placed bounds on a4 be 8,18 0627) ht he fac thrall umbers had ony three digits leaving us with the ch siples aber, Siabeo, oF Mero Indeed, we never even had to expand out aber alchrally as 100 + 10b-+ wile chat ray have seemed Uke the legal fist step, ures ot thar i sort of x re hey and does nce make the pele any caer osete A final remark: Ye ues out tat 18 consectve numbers are the least, ‘eres needed wo iste one of then sates (I) Sevenen numbers we ‘conser for natnce the sequen fron 599 to 578.0 wed ‘omurer fr that, nee seme why rotiamatic,} OF comes, ome dees net need to know this ae inorder to wale the peblem Beata ORS gs a Oa Fae | Coen ne aval sameaeeee cera once sera | ‘he palpate id ea erate Bac aids aga! cto and ree ti hn Sen the ca yas 3198, Wace |2earpeinnnarbecy inl (iat Get eter expen fr the sf he fe ber (Resting nese nothin, Tae tne tela acento ge Towle oa Bade) Prontine 22 (Taylor 1989, p. 37). Is hae a power of 2 such thats digs could be rearranged and made xo anather power of2 (No ero ave allowed inthe nding digit for xp, 0032 & oe allowed) “Thissoos ike an unsolvable corsinstion: powers of 2, aed digi aren ‘ing, Thins Beate (2) digit rearrangement has 90 many pasbilitiss (© icis cea to deine individual dps ofa power of, “This prcbubly means that meting sneaky is need “The ft sneaky thing to be done isto se the answer, Grcumstntal vider ti problem froma mathe cormpetition suger that ht ‘snota alan errr question, and v the answer ould protby be’ (Onthe ether hand, some excepscnally ingenious enstcion coud pall lf a clever searangerent of peur rch a cormtracion i probably ‘ot easy to ed. Gas the ensy psons ret. IF yo are right, yo Have Saved alex of tine by ne pursing hard ways If you are wrens Jos were doomed 3 fog haul anja. This does ex mean tht you shuld feeget about a promising but hard way toseve dhe pecblems but her to the a senile look arcund belere plungirg nao deep water.) like ia Peblen 21, the dighs are really sot of 3 red bering. In Prcblem 2.1, we only word to know to things beat the sum of the gts: ist a dvisllty condition 2rd second» te rexnition. We dd rot ‘want to inteduce all the complications ofan exact equation. Ie will peab- ably be much the same her we have simplify the greblemby generalizing the dipt-switching process. From purely logeal viewing, we are warse ‘offkeesine wehvet prove mote: turin es of acy and simpli we ‘ar aining ground (Why burden youelf wth des that cannot be wd? Teil jst bea disiotion) So,ste now have to pick cut he main poperis of power oF? and dig switching ~hopeflly, we will ind peoperds ef ore tht are incompaible With the ether Now kts tackle powers of fist they ae esr to andl lre they are 3, 2,4,8,16,32,64, 128,256,512, 1024,2088, 4096, 8192, 16384, 37768, 65536, 21 om Wl herent very ch you can ay south gts here The a diet ‘ofa power of2 abou een esc for the umber Iya he ete {igi are quite andorsleking Suppse you took the mer 4096 foe lnstance: A og 3 few even gts and een Odi ber. What opprgbingetrangedinssraher owe of?» Could tbe reamanged Jae 200 1525-936 for imac! OF cose et you woul sy Why? aca i or oo big So owe se cenne? Yeo Thre woud te thousands of dein 2°", ond only four dig n 4096. Also rearangieg digs canoe change the teal umber of gi. (Wie down dn facts which cold be of set you poi cer they arene ‘ot sume tha ‘vio face wil vay ping to mind when nde, Even shallowly dg gold histo besearhedand el nto) "Wel wth hist ifort, can we roe wether gecaiing Han? Gor gener’ gution be noe Tsthere a power of? wch hatter is another power cf 2 withhe sre | ‘umber of digs a ha Fist power of 22 Unfeturaely the answer to ths question guickdy sen to bee 2088 and 4056, for Gample. We were to general. (Nete that 2 ye answer 1 ths question docs not secsey yield» “ys answer to the onal problem) Azan, look wo Broblem 2-1 Mardy Iawcring the sur O iit {0f2 muliple of 18 has to bea multiple of” noe suficee to solve the problem: wesleoneededthe fat tha the sum tothe diame [Satmest 27 Ie sory, we have nor found rough face about ou proble tosele ve Yer, we are sll patally succesful bate we hove rested the posses of dp earanging Take the umber 4056 again. The can fenly be rearanged ino aneerlourdigt mer Ard how many four Adige powers of ae there? Only fur1024, 2048, 2096, and 8192. THis isheesus the powers of keep doubling hey can stay inthe sme‘tax bracket for too long. Infact xe can soon see that at mos eu powers (FZ can have the sare numberof digs. (The Ath consecutive power of 2 weudd be 16 umes that ofthe ft, snd hence woul have to have ote figs than the fast power f 2) So what th means that foreach power of 2, thre are at exe tees eer powers of 2 that cou pessbly be dig reartangemests of the orginal power of 2. A patil wctry only thee ce fever suspects lft 0 eliminate for cach power of 2, send ofthe nite ‘nue we had before. Perhaps with abt ofentea wek we can eliminate those suspects well ‘Wehave said that when we witch the digs the ber yen up with asthe sae number of digits asthe erga. Hat the reverse fr fromm ‘tur and this lone peopesty ef dgieswicing wll met acve the probler> on its own This means tha we have generalized oo for ad pushed out ceemreksnnunterteoy too much, Lerus reel ourselves in again. Something ese could be prserved when we switch gts. Let us take «lok at some examples—let us ake 4036 again, sace we have already go cme experience wit this uber ‘The dig switching eesti ae -4059,4096, 4603, 4650, 4906 4960, 6049, 6094, 6408, £490, 6904, 6840, 5046, 904.9406, 9460, 9608, 964, ‘What do they havein common? They have the sme stf digs. That ill ‘very well rod, bu the We of digi not avery eae mathematica ‘ebjet (no any theorems and took use di concep) However, the gm of sige sx more conventional weapon. Aad, wel two nambers have the same st of digits, chen chy have to have the sere Cigie-sum. So we ave anshe: fot of informacion: dig stching pesere the digits Combining this wth our revit eta we have a seplacemert question Istherea power of 2 such that tere another power of wth he same umber of it and the same igus the ins power of 22 ‘Agi this question iste, the cxginal question is tue. New this question es bit esier to cope wih than the orga Heese numberof Aig” and “ig sums are standard ruttbershecry stl. ‘With this sew concepcin mid les leak arthe dit srs the powers Feng or ew question inves them. Wel we Lave Digits 256 13 65,536 25 so w31072 16 hoa 262.144 19 28 a From thi we not that + The digc-sums tend to be gute small Fe nsec, the diisum of 217 fea mere 14, This i setaly a small eof ha hack, cen sal at ‘esa more likely to match than ate big number. (LF 10 people each randomly pick one wedi auber, there eu sncahle (9.596) hence ‘of a match, bu if hey each pick 10 dig numbers, then vere ly 21 os one in milo chance of mth: something about a Jusy 0s the ‘haces of wining the leer.) Bor the sales ofthe names alo tid in picking out pateras so perhaps isnot ll bad ews. + Some digi sums march: for example, 16 and 1024, But ser tha the 2 Fortunately, there ate other robles invlving faponents which er certo handle, Puontehs 2.4 (Tayloc 1989, 7), Find all sehitions of 27-7 = a where mand are ines. 22 cegoen tan This hind of question really neds trial and error to fn the eight track With Diophantine equations, the mao lementary mashed ate modular nthe and facoruation. Modsar arithmetic rrefer the entre oe ‘onto asutabie modulis sometimes costae (eg nod 7), or (med 16) ‘or ometimes variable (moe po) acrorzaton alters the problem ito the fxm (cer (Eeor) = (something ee), where the righ hand ade ‘ouldbes constant (the bot posible res) pie, esquare,orsomething fla tha asa limited choice of factors For example in Probl 23, bath rmethas were considered ery on, but dtcarded in favour of en algcbreie anpecach, which sectually a aceiaton weshnig indie (emnher sweevemaally ex (r—2)? 4 (square. "Now itis best to uy elementary techriges fi, i may save a lor of| dashing about in ices ler, One gy have abendned thet method ad ted analyse the approximate equation Vratare ‘entnoed factions, ells equation, and weuonrelanions. econ be ney thu we wl oo for dhe elegant (lay) way out. ‘Obesining a tefl futeration ie nent tps, excep whe | ‘seven. Then we get ciferenc of to aque ( vit acrtnion in Droghannne equations) Khe so He, where m= m2. Then we can say that 28 and x42, being fctors of 7,musthe ~7, 1, 1,0 7s and further breakup ee ease soon shows ‘here are no sation if we assure mis even Bue that abou tel ss the lacorzstion method con tl ust doesnot el us where the ctl Solutions are and how many of them there ae (Aihoughs we now knoe that ns: be ol) “The modular arithmetic approach nent. The strategy isto we tbe meds lusto get i of one or more of the es For exapie we could wre the eguaton modo x co obtain P47 =0(meds), ‘or roaybe modulo 7,10 984 Bax (wed.inforunaey, dhs methods do noc work wel tall. Bur before we ste tp, there is one more mods to tr. We ted elimnstng the and the ‘xP way can we climnate the 2" ten ntead? Ye, by chewing, sy sod 2. Then we et 047 == nod 25 ‘whan n> Oy and 147=2 (od) tvher = 0. This norton bau as we hase los eine thee of comple. Ba isl does nee work athe teat he pond sede «ould le UorI,su we have nosy eluded any posses, Forest the values of". have w chose diferent rule. Wat th ea ‘oushi—eo resi the vals om the righ saleone now as or 5) modulus 4 sea of 2 PaaS ond In er word hve D+ Se ime) whos on 243 (ma when r= “ TySest ml) when wad os eesise x must be O (med 4) o¢ I (sed 4), pate (3) eine This meass can only be O oF 1A quick chek then shes tht sly» con work, ands must be +301 3 The main dea when saving Diophaine equations of the fox “find al solutions is to cheinate all hur fine numb of psibiice. Th ‘another saxon why de nnd 7) ad (net x} oa ee orks fe they id, hey would here clinic al dhe cae, uli the fod 4) appro which eiinmed al bur handful [Exencist 22. Find the largest postive intge such that 3+ 100 i visible by 10. (Hint use (ied + 10). Get the by wing ‘he fac that n= 10 med 4103), [ Puosuen 2.5 (isis eta. 1563, p74), Prove that for any now | cyave ineper the number 11 2" 34 4d by Saf and nly ifn is nox cle by 8 "his problema oka bit daunting at fest equations ike the above may remind one of Fears stores, whichis norris foritsinsohabily But oor question i rich milder We wis show thot sees mums 1s ors noe divisible by . Une a ect factorization bees, we il have rouse the modules approach. (That show dha 42" hep = © trond 5) for wot dite by 3, and 124-2" 4 24.8 20 co 8) other) econse eae using such sll numbers we can evahste sme of the sales of 1-42" ¢ 3°44" od) manually. The Bestway todo tin ito work ut tea 5,2" mad 8,3 fd Shae 4 fn 5) neil etre acing: mod 5) ee ea eee o ° 4 "Now itis bows shat soe periodicity evant. tn ut 12%, ae areal penode with pri 4. To prove thin congetue, we ea ja le ‘vith the defniton of period “Take, frexanple Saying tha hi evade with perind just cans tha a” * tod 3. artis easy w prove 08 x Icon 5) because 81 = 1 ned 5)earlowanterteer Similarly we can prove 1%, 2%, and 4¥ are peseic with perc 4 ‘This means that 1" 42" + 3°44" is peiodic with petod 4 Tis in turn implies that we anly need t0 prove our qution for m = 0,1,2,3, tecause poricdicty will uke care of all the other cases cfm. But we have already shown the question to be tu in thes cases (act the above table. So we ate done. (By che way, there amore eeentary meted available f we assume tat nt de simply pele up sod eal terme) ‘Whenever ying to prove equation insclving » paramere (in this ase 7) period is always handy as one no lonre neds fo check al ales ‘ofthe paramere to verify the equation. Checking one pene ee 90, 1,2, and 3) will be cute, -Exzhasi2.3. how tat the aquation F131 = 3° baw telaions | ifseand yarcitopes "Now we ttn to trickle problem concen sms of power. Pronk 2.6 (SMa of ol 1962, p 18) (9) Lt hn be gourd ] ‘numbers with odd. Prove tha the sm 184 2" fis die Diez “This quetion bythe way, isa standard exerci Bernoull pebyonsiah (or sone astute applications of dhe Reminder Theeee), at erasing orton ef mathematics hot has aay aplication. Bur widout eee Immer of Berne paloma or te Riemana ¢ fencéon we wile sve ue pli eld ramber theory, Frstof all we know that 42-¢---ta-ean ako be written in he fm n(-+1)/2. Wich form sl we use? The former is more aster, but wales ina dvisbility question (es always en the disor expcd 58 product, cater shan astm) might have ben nfo here was sore nice faroriaton of 14 26-1 which olyed 1} 2-Fo-t mt there not (at least, noe an obvious one) If here wes some way wo elte isl by 14.2 4-4 10 diviny by V4.2 4=-- 4 4 1) then ‘induction mighc bea way go, bu ther dos not we likely eer. Soe will ry the mor 1/2 formation inte 0, using modula arithmetic (ich is the mest exible way to prove ‘hat one mum divides anceber, our objective so show that TD = 0 (mod n+ 9/2). {et wsignore oe the meamenc he i the 4 19/2 Then we ae tying so prove someting of the oem actor 1) x factor 2H(expresion). the to faeces ate copie then our objective is equivalent © proving bedi of actor Dlepressicn) and (aczor2expeson) “szpartly. This should be simpler ro prove: ee easier to prove visilty if the divisors are small. Hut thee Ian annoying in the way. To eal ith that we vl jue break up into ciscy, depending covet is eer ‘or od.” The cases ere quite sila and | wl oly do the ase when ‘ven Inths cate we cam wote = 2 [oxo avd staring at ey nf? ‘erm in he following equatlons—Ie houskeepng things like is help _scloton un smooth) Replacing ll he ns by 2s we have prove Ha Dh bm =0 ae nn + DI, but since m and 2 41a coping, hiss equivalent proving Hatha © (med 2+ 1) and thea bp mF 0 mod mi. {etustace the (od 241) parc fest es ite similar to Problem2.5but isabiceasier, because we know that k sod Using the als 2m 2 isexuivalenvo —1, 29 | sequivalent to ~2, ands, s0 our expression TEED ooo Qa! becomes TDR omit bo 26 OE ed 2a ‘We have done this so shar we ean do seme nice canting is oso CEs equa to 1. Therefore (at = wah. The upshot ofthis that ‘he above sum canbe paws eancclde and (2) wl cancel, 3 sd C3} wil cane, ec leaving 0 ed 2-1), a deied “puiepnnyangnecven opens foment8 2 omegechtan "Now we have to do the (ed m) part thas, we have to show Testo DEE mht Or DEY +m 1) aa = 0 (aed md. ‘Bur we ae werkingmedulow,sosome othe sbove tennscen besinplifd ‘mand 2mare both equivalent w 0 (ed), ane m1 eqavaler 1, 274-2 is equivalent 2, and 10on. So the above uration splifi o TEE Ron DEO ho DE O(ed mt, uc several erms appear twice, rscomhining and itching the 0s) weet 208+ 264 30-4 G19 ed, ‘Now we can almest doth seme thing fo the (nl 2+ case. except there sa sal itch when ns even iso re cn eral te above expresion ae 2A Tn DHL +EDELEDA (med mn. Dts and dedhesame procedure of camellia fore Bain events m= 2p, 3) theresa mide tem, 7, whic does ne cane with anything. fo ‘ther words, ths ease he expesion doesn cllae tO ine, Dur nstend ane vo 29h (med 29). But this, of curse, equal 100, Regards of wheter a sede een, ‘we eve proved that IF 284 38 fs sive by nt I/D ‘nt hapa wlan [Now lee us turn to special type of sue of power’ problem, nay sams of reprocals ‘Prous 27 (Shiarshy eal. 1962, p17). Let p bea prine ramber frcter than 3. Show that the numerator of he (edi) faction YR BH +E is vise by p. For example, when pi the faction is 141/24 1/3-+1/4 = 25/12, andthe numerator cebu diviible by § ‘This question is « "rove that’ usin, nota Fd scx ‘Show there exis? qhesin, soi should nee be compel impossible: However, we hve to prove something abeat a rumeracr Of «reduced faction “net seavehigensily eal with! This numerate vl reed to be transformed Inge something more standard, lean alchnsic expression, wo that wr can ‘manip i beter Aso, he questi doesn jn raed divisily by 4 ping ic neds dvinility by the square of «prime This is sii harder. We weuld Tike te somehow reduce the problem ro mere pine ivi te make the prebersmexe solvable. ‘so ty looking at the shape ofthe queen, we have the fllosing bjetives to hep in in: (3) Express the numerator a 2 mathamatealexpresion 0 hit ween manip (6) Aim o rece th problem fre 22-bit problem to something sip, peshaps a pvsibilty problem. Letustackle (fist Fit ofall wecan get numerator easly, but no the reduced nureater nee. By adéing up the stons under scmeren XO Dds le2e 3x =) =m "New suppose that we can manage to prove ha this numerator is visible by p> Vow does dis help us prove that the reduced ramerstor is a0 vale hy p22 Wel, whe isthe reduced ruerstor? le the xia fumerato after see cancelation with the denominator. Can excel, etry the property of pais? Yes, fa mull ofp i cancelled ar mthiples of p canner be cancelled, because tae denominator icopeine top isprine, and (pT ean be expres esa prvuc of rambers ks than p). Ah This means that we ely need wo prove that the vghlocking,eardonnntster ‘pumeator above is vile by p* This is ete thon the aber manera cause now we have an equation 0 save: BeBe PDE E I Ko PD ee $12 3 xox (p= 2) 0 ad ph, (Aan, we have switched over ro medlar arithmetic, wich i sly the ‘bat way toshow that one nunber divides nother Homes he que ‘evolves moce than ove dvisblty, for example, something involving ll «vio ofa certain number, ether techniques are semtines bones} Although we have get an equation now a ene Our none tax sw simply. What we have now on the lef hand side ions su of indefinite prelude just meas the there ave det do doe in he ‘exprestion) However, we ean rpcese the ifn produces mete ret sch infinite products Pastely the mabers fom tto_p Taleo ‘ether, except fr ene uber, sy, hic is hetweer and Ths «can be expresed ore compactly a8 (iiss legate te divide by ‘modulo pease is copine'o Sono our chective to prove pO @-0!. py = . COM CE DAU PAO oot ph We fcrorize histo get nftata ty Otmnd 6 (Remember thot we are dealiog with modular arthinei, so. that 8 umber tke 1/2 wll be extivalem to ae anger For cong, 12-672 = mod "Now lok a what we have: somthing. ofthe foe (acon tos) ol ph 1c were nt for the modular aime, then we cee euikly sy that ‘one ofthe factors 0. Wich mala rithm, we cen say res he oe ‘hing but we have tobe careful Lucy the fcr, 1) epee top? (because (p~ 1) scoprine wp) vo we cn dive out The uot of hiss that (6) is equivalence tytn Tey pte tp hy =O cmea ph, (Sox tha his looks very silat cur eign question the only ter ‘ec being that weareconsderng the entre ston, nex ja the eater ‘off, Barone eannor just jump fem one frm to anctber without are The shove eampcatons Were nese) "Now we hae reduc’ the question to proving rater benign faking ‘modular arithmetic equation, But where to goon fc here? Pthaps ae cxample will hel. Let us erke these example ab the ene given ithe ‘questions mama, p = 5. We have aytytya Fade ge tat e134 17419 mod25) = 0 (me 25) 5 desired, Bat why dos this work? The nunbers 1, 13,17, nd 19 seem ‘oe random, but "agialy add up te he eight amount. Pape i fluke. Leta ty p= 7. $254 33-437 4 104 41 uned 49) =O mod 49 ‘Ts las the same “fukines” abou i. How docs shi work? Ee noe clear how everything mags to cancel yt mudalo 2. Petipa, heer ‘ng abective (bin mind, we can prove cd psy that et fas pow © eet ph. a Moshi ee it wil ie ws something do. (ses, we can ae soe this (mod p) problem, sere i wo way tat we wil be able to soe the (ned pi problem.) [ean cut that the simpler prem (7) mich ese to work out. For cexanple, when pi Swe have noua Tratata $342 400009 ed 5, while when pe 7 we have 1 3 1 beh (moda tae S243 e6.m7 #24 9444S 6 rod xed 7. 1 4hat 1 220 Rearsinanteteny "Now we have pattern emerging: the reciprocals 4/9, /25.. 1/19 ~1) {vod 9) seem to cover althe ides 2,5 () 1) tod pyecaty oe, For example, in the above equation wich p ~ 7, the numbers 1-44 84 243 + 6 reorcmge form 1+243-44454 6, which v0. Tochecka lengthier example mod 11 yee PASH eat 6454549424847 45410 (mad 2434445 46474849410 imod tt) This tactic, showing thatthe reiprcal numbers can he retvanged inthis ‘orderly fashion, wks cay forte), but does ne gence easly + (mos plead oF foundering aroind tying to Fa sue block ate 2 round hele although itcan be dove if yeu ph hard enough), ts bet to fn a Hock thar more round. So what we hnve to do fad nother proof ofthe face that P4444 o-- + Opel) =O goed py one ‘tha generics at leas parly, to he (ed pt) case NNow it tie to use experience with the ores of problems. For cramp, if we ae fresh fem slung Problem 2.6, we row that sym nec, ae-symmetry ean be expleted, espa so edule oie In the problem of prong (7) we can make the aun rote an symeretec by eplacing p= Uwth “1, p 2 wath 2s do forth oper sod. ‘And now we can pic off ard cancel easly (here is ne idle rem hat oes not pac ol asp ane prime), Can we dete same in (ep) “The answers ‘wort of When we scted the problem (wed p) we pored of 1/1 and 1/9 ~ 0,172, and 1/(p~ 2), aso forth, When ey he ‘some poting in fed, whe we pet won is his, ‘Now this est eck ke a complication rather tbana simplification. But we have gained very important factor of p onthe righthand side, Now, Irsead of having o prove thst, 0 dp) (expression we nowrhave to prove something ke eve?) (0 » expression) = ‘whic is equivalent te proving something of che form expression) = 0 (mes). nother words, we are now ceduced to (mod p)gueton instesd of 3 (ved) question. Now we have achieved objective (b) sven above: educed the gestion vo hat of sills rab, swell wont the Sligh nercase complex “Anis quichly seen that the apparen increase in expression cpleity is jut illutonar, ae the (ep) can gett of heme ser tha (vod 2) can. Now, we only haveco show tht 1 1 1 + bee ar ~ 0108 ix@=0 *Trp=B pa Ax w+ ng ~ Ome?) utp ~ 1 is equivalen to ~1 (mod p), p=2 is equialene to ~2 (ned ph snds0 forth, so she equation res 00 spt botnet Se Tiago ete = 0 (aed. mae ‘This equation is noe too bod exept th the sce om the ech side fends in an obscure spor (at 1/(P ~ 11/2, rather than the mere nara Uke = 1), for example. But we can “double us, making we of the fat2 Reanenruen oso ae (a? =o ogee corn maim Soproringthat (1/714 41/G9-1)) sequal 0 (lp) wouhe ‘quivalento proving the (1 !2)4+--41/Kp- I) isequalto O(a p-The laser ismore desirable because of more spousal format (yesry {snice to keep—unt tea be used oi ll crv antsy, ‘sce wo cancel) Sonow we only have to prove tit 1 tet + pri Otmed. ° ‘o prot the whole question. This i acclly» much bee frmlsion ‘han te orga one volving muerotos and "divi, which ta lox strmger thence harder o peer) than rere vil Sonow we hive achieved all our tel gels and veda he gucston own 10 decent propertions. Bat whese do we go rom bore? Wel the ‘qcsion seers vey cle eae tothe eter pel (7) that we were «onset Bur we aren geingarourd inctles Our current pel (8) il imply the cxginal question wheseas (7) a8 jos ete prob, a silat version ofthe question. Rather han goin arcund in ctl, we are pein ‘round in spirals heading towards clatce, Weave already proved an we prove (8) bythe sme methods? ‘Well we are lic, ecause there were two methods Wesel sve 7): ‘one was the rearanpewent of eeiproeay aid the ther was cancel of pats Cancellation of paieunferumately does et work ab well with (€) asin id with (7), mainly becuse ofthe squares nthe derominsers, hich pede symmty rather than are syne. Ba the yeaa inch promising Take yap. thecannple p= So wecan ese ‘some previous wes 1 Paar ee ened ryt 1 eiatete = P42 44 od 5) =6. ' ‘The way i works when p = $ shows the way for the gener ese, Based on de above exarples it Tooke ke the ridue’‘luses AAA, AM@~1) (0d p) ace just 8 rearrangement of the numbers 1,2,3,-(@— 1) (nod py pecol of tis fact wall be given at the end of this dscuslon, Thus, we cam say thot the tame bers 11/24. 1/(p~ 1) ate jus earangements OF che numbers FF, @— IP Ineaher word Tet pty tet papa ER poo med, ‘This i an easier expression to deal with, because we have removed the rerocaly which are a_muisance when eying eo sum things. To fact, we can now get id of the su alegether, sing the standard formule patent 2 MeeDGn sD) é (whichis easily proven by exoctionh so we have reduc (8 st proving ‘har MHF ovautp And ne can easily show that tis serve when pine greater than 3 (because (p 1p ~ 1/6 ian meer in hase) ‘othr isi. We keep reducing the equation fo simpler and spl for lations, wale jst collapses into mong. A bi of = Tong, Al, bat Somecines i he only way eo esol these vey complied quasars step by-atep rect. "Now forthe prot thartberecgeocals 1/1, 1/2.» 1) (08 p) are ‘permutation of the numbers 1,2, (0 ~ 1) Goel p: This equivalent tosaying that each nonvaro wed (med p) the repeal of en nd ‘only ene nonzero residue (med), which sabi, “Fisncne 25, Legs 2p anlage Show hae 14/2! ‘ox ep (eae Beton pana aay acre, Glows arg oe le cee nae ene pine Teeconanl 2) :2eamhsrnnterte Exerc 2.6 ()- Let pea pine wal bea positive ines mo div (Gat sac cenit bo oem, w coe aa he caving tek Hower the etc tk tft. Lathe a sree of Bigs tat a Ned) when kt p=. Nowe sop the eens (a) (Ue Dl ve) nt Sibert maps) Examples in algebra and analysis Orecametesigethefeling..htthetemhenatal ermaac have indepen xstener a gees othr evn tar they reba than we ae wer even than har ances et Ine on of heat was onal ut teh etch Hes, gut by 5. Dyson ‘Algcha is what most people associate with mathematics. na srs, shi is used. Mathematics s the seady of asec cbt runercal psa ot remercal thrfllew ast of several covey ches ans Ae se Alpebrais about the simplest meaningful thing that can satis the seve ‘fin of mathemati. Thee at ely deaenor so pestle, but hat isencug to make te sytem beauty syometi: My fevourite cbee identiy to pve an cape, PED et UEDA “This means in pare, tha the suey of ee ft few enbes il quar; tor example, 148-427 464-4 12S = 225 15" “There is ors tha one algzbra, eho. Algsbra is the sty of mbes with the eperationsof addon, cubtoction, mlilicatnan, and division ‘Matix alpebr, for example docs mec the sae ut with groups of rae bersinseadof sing just oveOrber gcse weal ines of eperaniens and all kinds of umber’ but they, sometimes sirpesingy tend to have moh ‘ofthe sme properties a8 noel algebra. For example, sgte mtx A ‘an, under special conditions, sty te algebraic equitoe (aay area aaa. Alpebe i the baie foundation ofa aie pt of appli! mathematics. Problems of mechanics, econonscs, chemist, electric, eptinzetce, and so on are answered by algebea and diferent calves, which i tn advanced form ofslgebea In ft, algebra bao iopontane that mest of its secrets have been discevered—to ican he sally pu tte High School curriculum, However, a few gers ean will Ie found here ard there.ean pts ee 3.1 Analysis of functions Analyssisalso best explored ubjct and itis as yeneralasalyeea: ‘seal, analysis the stad of faction and tee properties, Theme complicate he propery he higher the analy Talat loc anae Insnistodying functions ishing spl algebraic propery, or iste ‘one can considera funtion 3) sch hat Fiscootouous, (0) ~ 1, and for n-+1) = fim+fon) focal eal cy apd then ddacing properties of the function. Foe example i thi ease, there is exaeily one function f that obeys the above properties, namely Fe) = U7, we would leave this 96 an enecie. Thee robles are 2 ‘00d vay to en bow zo thik athena, Becsuse ees only one ‘orto pecs of daa that can be we so thare should bes ler daceson ‘i which to go, Iris sor ofa ‘poe mathemnotc’ whee intend of te three doven ancm and couse thease thcoteme, ce nly fo a bandh of saioms' fe ata) to se. And yet tl haw serps Exencc 3.1. Letf be function fem the reals othe reals bey (9). ‘Show that fa) = + forall eal nambers x. (Hine Fst peone oi fo {ower then for rationals then lly fe eal =) Front 3.1 (Grete 1978 p19). (Suppose [is fanxion map ing the peste inugers tothe postive tgp, such ther f sates Foo) > 1 forall postive iuegers Shen tha f(r) fo all postive npc | ‘This equation looks insficint to prove what we wack. Afr ll, ow 4 From (10) we know hat 4) > ff) 11 Wesley lenow that (3) > 3, so we would like wo deduce that (713) = 3, i onde thar weean conclude (/()) 1 = 4 To do that, we wo ket have honda fcr ofthe form ‘in > 3, then fr) > 3 Fhe cae way to do hat {sto put that kin of fact io the induction we are tying to pore Mere rectly, wel show Lesata 3.1, fm > m for alle > m Poor. We induc on + Base case = 1: This is ebviows: we ace given tha fiom iss postive lies, heres fm is ae east ‘Induction case: Assume tat the ken wer for mand we wll 1 prove fm) = 7+ 1 fr all m2 m4 1, Well for any me > m+ 1,se scope stants Ne an we (10) to azn fom) > fl 1) + New fm 1) > Ince fm 1) > by induction hypethes. We can po further sie flor~ 1) = nthe bythe induction bypetesn again {f(r 1)) > me ‘Therlor, fm) > Fon W)-+1 = wt 1, andthe induction Hypothes proved, a we specialize Ler 3.1 the case me cian eur subg: flo) 2n or ll poeivensegers ay "Now what? Well» withallfaoconal equation guetons ence we havea new result, we should jus ply around wath it and try to recombine it wih previous reas. Our ony previous eu i (10) $0-we coh put cut eX ‘uation ino (10). The oly wef eeu we pres fore 02 Mon + 12 foe) +1 wick flows once we replace by fn) in (11). fa ether woe’ Foren > Fo, "his very uf formu: thi means tot fis an increasing fanctcat {ner ebvious fom (10) ii) Ths means tt fn) fn and aly im> nThis means ou ogra equation Foe D> ffon could be reformulated as nt lfm, ‘And his, wth (11), proves what we wanted ‘Pron 32 (Austaian Mathematica Competion 1984 p. 7 ] Suppose fe 8 function om the pose teers which tke ieee ‘vals with he fllowing properties 9 /@=2 (8) Flr) = fondf in for all postive incegers ne and n | | (6) lon) = 0 fe > me Find f(1983) (ith seasons ofcourse [Now we ave find our a pars valve of f. The bust wy isto ty to evaluate all off nor jst /1983)- 1983 i just the year ofthe gumsion anyway.) This i f couse, assuming tere ie only ane sclution off. But lnm in the question isthe fae thar here i nly one posible ve of 1(1983) (thecwise thee would be mote than ene ase and Because of the ordinariness of 1983 we might easonatly conjecture that tere only fone olution tf ‘So, what ae she properties of f2 We know tha (2) = 2. Repeated pplication of (b) yee Fe4) = /Q)/Q) = 4,10) — //O) Indeed, sn easy induction shows that (2) = 2" fog alr So f(s) = when sis power of 2. Perhaps (2) = » forall ging tis ck into (a) (0, and (0) shows thar thik work: ts) ~ x is one selesion of os (0, 1nd (0) Si we think thar thee sexy ene soltion off, then tht ene has tobe it. So we might want to prow the mote gencea, but cence qoesons [The only function from the positive incegers to che integers satisfying ()s] Satie eR re) sates e),(D, and (shen 1) = 1, ad so on. Let us fist ey eo prove FL) = 1 (wh faretional equations we shea ry sll examples fo get Tel ofthe ‘uestin). Well by (2) we know chat f(1) = 2), and we know /2) 2, 01) less an 2 And hy (weg (with = Hand m= 2) 10) =/0f0, adh 2am, "This mens (1) mane equal a deste, ‘We now have 1) = land /(2) = 2. What about (3)? (a) is 30 bel, ann (6) ely gies (3) in ver of eer numbers ike (6) or FS), which ‘abso of ae mach lp) yields 12) < 10) <1) Ina (2) is 2 ad fis 4,50 22 f0)<4, ‘Bur the only integer berween 2 and 4 is 3. Hence (3) mst be 5,corp maitre ‘This gives us aloe: /3) was 3 only Because ie was an ineper (2e ow this ssi to dhe previous question, fon + 1) > /(n)2). Without this restrtien, /(3) could have brea 2-1, of 35, er whaweve, Lat us cee an se this lve more often “We already know /() = le us ty to wor ou (3). Using inthe hope of down whae we did es F3), we pet 19 <1) < 16. Now /( 4. Bar wht abou (6)? Never far 6 is 2 times 3, 90 (6) = [Q)(3) =2 x3 = 6. Therefore, (5) 6 Reeween 4 and 6, and must be 5 Tlinsecrsto be going well we have now worked ext all he values off) upenné Because we sem to be elying on pase rau ro atin the es one, she eneral prt sells eay on induction. Aid because wear st sng ove ovis esl bt eral ren es we petty red Lees 32. fer) = forall POOF. We use song induction. Fist we chek the base cae dees FC) = 1 Yes, we have aleay shown this: Now assume that = 2, fave shar f() = Fra saller dha’, We wast wo shoe fm) = Leoking a a fw examples we wll won ace thar weave ty dive te cons oven ad (Case 1: seven. tts ease we can write m= De for some integer ‘mis ks than mm s0 y stone induction hypothe lw) =v Here flor) = fn) =f ifn) = 2n-= om 2 enced, (Case 2 od. Hane we wee t= 20+ 1 By fh fn) < lind < {(2n42). By song induction (2) = 2nand [ge I} = because bash fn Land 2 ae sales tha m. Now by (b) fn + 2) = Fix 1) = Bont 1) ~ 242,40 ou inequciy Becores 2m < fom) <2n42, and 30 fm) = 20-41 = mi a8 dese So ther ways the induction hypothesis olde. 0 ‘Andsoby strong indvtonf(n) is fered to bem, Soto answer eu question (1983) must he 1983, and thas eae 0) to be a real number, rather tha Just an lges. (ne Gee ty to prove.tat £6) = 3, by comparing (2) with £0") for various Singers 2,2) For ai adtonal hale solve Problem 3.2 with eis ‘assumption ad with a) elaced by (2). [Exancist 3¢ (1986 Incerastional Masberatcal Clymplad, QS). (**) "ind all any) fnetions faking the nén-negasve reals orto the non-negative real uch cha (2) fefonfo) =fee-+3) fo all non-negative x, 95 (H 12)=6, (0) f00) Ofer every 0 <2 <2. (in: The fst condion involves products of vals ofthe funtion, And the oder ewo conons vole a faction avin a value of 20 (oenon 2e0). Noy, what can one sy when a product equals 0?) 32 Polynomials, Maey algebra questions concern polyols of one ee owe viable, so era patae fora bit eal sme define ad rss ceacering the polynomial 2 ponomial of re waable ia fancice 5y fe, of te oem foo) aa by PN Fa aE bb a ae cx tobe mre fomel fev = Dae The as are constants inthis bok they wil always be el aumersh and itis assumed tnt cy rot zero. We cll the degree off| eamdeindptraatantes Folyorss in many velo sty the vals forthe sae of gape tate er ont he on ner ler bot are qt ctu nrertlee Anyay, [es gve 8 pobrtl y ‘three variables if it takes the form Fey FO) Darel", im where theo te (eal) constans, an the suniston uns one all nc negative sd such dot FF 1-e yand tse that st ‘ne ofthe nent dyg satity be}. 9 n, Weagsincall ee degre ef Fe pelyomias of dace? are quadiai, degree 3 ste cb ord sc fot, Me de, he prc eo ere ata all non-zero diy Sf = k++, tem fad tobe homogeneous. Homogeneous palypomtal have the peopesy that F829.) = OFC AD for all y...2ne ts For example, 2p +2) jis a polynomiel of tice varies (x9 ad 2) and hes gre 3. lis no omepeceous Fecause the tw ha a degree of. ‘Apolynenal fof variables said to be faced ine poy Beard 9 fxn) Pletal) Foe yg fund gare then ni oe fctrs off as ely pronen thatch dpe fo Plemia is qual to the su ofthe depres ofthe fates. A polywemil iret fe cann be factored into non rial fairs ‘The roots of » polynomial ftey..%q) are the wales of (a. ye! bic rer a ero vals s that fly.) = 0. Polym of oe variable can have es many root as thir depres in Lc tiple: si complex rors are counted, polynomial of exe vanable sways have ‘sac asmany root aes dagiee For instance, the roots ofa quads elynemial fo) = ax! tc gen hy the wall wn quderse feenaie nb VB ee Ea Cubic ad quaricplynnmik ao have formulae for tei roots but they ate much messiee and not very sel pace, Once one gest gh and higher polynomials, eheve so elerantay formate Ave pelos nial of wo or more variables are even wore spell one hs te ‘umber of oot, 22 Fauna ‘The roots of facor area subset ofthe roots of te oxgial polynomial siicean be aweful pie of information in deeiding whether one polyacmia ver ameter, In particule,» acids (x) iano fl) = 0, becauee aie 3 root of ~ 2 Inpatculag, for say polynomial ts) of one variable and any real mmber tt divides ts)“ /10. [Now let us tackle sme questions inveving pelymonss. ‘Provisn 3.3 (Ausuallan Mathematics Conpaition 1987, p. 13) Let ,by¢ be real numbers uch that at 1 pet 02 ith al denominators noosa, Prove tt aaa BIBS abe on Atti this question looks Tere irl only one pie ofinform ation given there shoul be a stsightlerwardseqeence of logical steps Tending othe reste we want Well, mil ster wo deduce the ascend ‘uation frm the fest ray bet ane Bed kes oF (12) othe fh powers ‘which ges something saeco the esd esl bu with a hele Toe ‘oF meas ter onthe lean! ide. Thete sere to be no ether abit ‘onipuaron, So muck forthe dest proach, (On second glare, the fs equation looks suspect, hike one of the ‘equations that highschool students ae warned not to use becuse ty are us fallacious. This gives is cu fst eal cu she ise equation should resect oy and ¢ quite a bit. Femay be worth reioerpeeting the ‘sat 121 "S commen denomizator sens like a good start. Combiang the three sciprocal on thelefhand side we pt abtbeve 1 ake aa bee and croselkpying we wet abt satbvaetad +Beybet +3obcmabe (14) AC this point one may think ofthe vious inequalities ene could ust bev: Catchy-Schaayaithmese mearpeentie reo, etary 1975, pp 39-34), Thar would no be so bad if, andl were contained 1 beSarpehaetrecanbae ‘posit, but there sno such cones: infact the condition cannot hol! Hab, and cae posite as 1/(a+ b+ o) would ten be smaller than all three reciprocals en te lefehand deo (12). Since (14) is equivalent to (12), ad i algebraically simple (14) co tains no expec), we couk! 1 to dedce (13) fron (14). Again, the die appewsch i not feuble Usually the only oer way to deduce an equation from some others are by proving st imermedioe tsa ‘or by doing some asefl substittin, (There are mare extie aera Ibe, ike considering (12) a8 contour ofthe function (1a) + (17) 4 Go) ~ (1/a-+ b+ and then using ales «o find the shape aed ropes of thar contour, bu ret co ack with the say pions fist) Substitutions do nor seem appropriate: the equations (12) or (14) are simple enough as they ae, and substations would aot make them mich Simpler So we wil ey to gue an proves nteredine res The bee bind of nerd real ie paameeratin, this can be subst direaty ino the desired equation. Ore way perameteing st lve for one ofthe variables, sy . The equation (14 vill nee sole for eas (unless you sre willing ro ere the quadratic formula. The equation (12) ‘cs solve fra, yeu can prene eu gestion by siving fo a Py adc innurvand dedcngaeantenvedate ret (whichncdeslly egfart ‘othe result will ve Below. Bure would have to be wuld vt) Bae al er something es. Failing a paramterizatien, one cou! simpy reas (14) ine a bent fom. Seluaonsof (14) areesseetally the roorof the paloma Les Peseb car ated The best way ode with roots of polyoma ‘stofacorize the plynomol and ee versa). Whacaethe ft? bere ‘we hoo tht (4) oust someow imply (13), we sould he pety coder that cher is some workable fer of (14) th wil edo Sab, a the oe workable form of 2 pyroml i breskup ito factors. Bot Fed cue what they ar, we fae experiment. The polyoma is homenerens so fis facrors shouldbe too. The pelynomialssymnetiso the lactone shod bre symimeties af exch cer. The poycinalscubs so there shoul be + linear factor We should new ey Fare ofthe format bya baases bac, ‘+b~andsoon. (Things ikea 2b might al werk, but ae ver din at ase can eed afer ware| soon appent om te factor theorem) thata +b, ansinaleely bande erorsol the cub oom that iis easy to weit (14 i fctviaable ino ta # BMD che 4, ‘This means that (12) is toe and only either a +6 =, Bo ce e-ha = 0. Substituting cach of thee penile imo Sab does the ck 25, Racor! P42 — Jobe, "HRS ood a ncgeva Ea aa ae 4 48 24 Gos Rane hg ‘to these equation’, but to shew that you! i of Fc equtn io tenn sa enn i “The factorization of elynoiak or impossibly there, fascinating pice of mathematics, Te fllowig quan is serve Bente es Just about every tik inthe hook o da slaon. Prontenc 3.4, (2) Prove tha any polynomial ofthe form f(x) = Ge )Ge~ anya (8 — ag +L where yao ay ae al eS, ‘armotte fetrized nto two neti plyeycach with te cree, “Ths is rather genera savernentitsysfor example that the poor GD DE Lae past 3? aes ‘ome be feted into eter itp polymonak.How can we prove tae. “Wel sppcethat xc facrzaeinen owen il cee obo ia pone Ten = pi ral ens ‘hah thn apc propery esa sro are sae sah Sees hi? We, we coud tay that Fe) sons pote free at {ad =) beat Ss ney much shou pd excep that ey tncof he sane sp. However we ave aot ple fe a 2 ol are pe nes the aes sq oa coin ca {reso Can we te tse Gr) 0 or venage? ‘Wel he nce tcrr ene cam have 0, kee hat makes cece creson 0. (cal, eat ln ccs where hing a0 fet ithe ln hing one anf Rave canteen my wea fector) Ga) #0 wher wey ay kee we have an es pla in foon Wey Fea haan ‘Genin back wo pts) ard gets esl mean that Pladglad =. ‘What does this mean? Very Hie, uns oe remembers that pan g have lnweescoefBirt, and dae the a ineges too. The upho of his thar pt) and g(a) ate both eteer. So we have te integers mul ieeanponger sane te 1, This can only occur whence inepes ae ether both 1 o¢ beth Inshorthend, Pla) = ala) = #1. fora Ses ‘One shold be ite careful wth she: nexation here; we know hat 4) and gay) fr inseance, ze equal eo cach eter, but Pe) and Paz) coud have the sme sgn or the oppo sgn, forall we now ight now We have found, more’ or lees, the wale ol ples osptam. and ‘aay 980.90 each polyswrial spepsed by m pt, But ele ial nly have as many dees of fedoras thei eye, Now py so the deice of pps dhe dager of equ the dere of /,whicns 2 ‘This meats that one of the polynomisis say 9, hats deter of ar est An summary, we havea pelynomil with degree ot mest bt tne fo lie on » gives points. Hepeflly this eam be exleted tos contradiction, which is What wear senching or ‘What do we know abou pelyromil that has degree st mcs 2 Well ‘tkas at mest» roars Do we know anything abour the roto p> Well Ina facto soe roots p areal ects off. What are the rot off ‘There are none! (Well nore oo the eal ine atest) fi always peste (Goes laa east) ad Bene can ave no oe. Tie eae a turn that pcan have no root, Whot docs me when a paloma ht ‘bo roots ie mean hae never crests O, ety it tev changes ign ther words, pis ether alvays pestve or always negative. Ths ves ut fo cscs, but we can save a like i of wock by serving thet ee cane implies the ahr. Indeed if we have one facteriaton f(2) = pent, ne automatically have aneher Fxtovination /62) = (“PUM gh Sort Ps inaysseatve, wean alays ip the facterbation and enlup witha new factornaton where p it aways postive ‘Se without ks of petty we wil ake p 0 be abvays postive. We already know that (a) iether #1 ar 1, aa sen we now tis postive ‘8 well 50 pla) has to be +1 fo all Ard ga) forced to be egal to lad, x0 409) abo +1 fo al. Net what ‘Well, ps) and gee are fered to take on the value of +1 at eas nines, ‘Thiscam be ephrzsed inter of rors, as follows ts) Lael qa) 1 have at lest rors. Bu px) — has sce of att Beate Px) itself hos deg of at most Ths means that te only wt) ps) = Lan Inavere roots if pe) ~1 ha dere exacly , This in tam mses Ut ps) sof degcem ant hence 40) wa of dicen ‘To sum up what we know so far: We hae sasined that fa) = pox. 1 and ¢ are both postive ioeger polyol of depes me ad ta) 46) = 1, or atearaively pia) —1-= gia) ~1 ~ 0, forall New we ‘know the roots of 76) — they ate ce a. They ate te ony rots of U8) ~ 1, Feces pts) ~ Lean ely have roots at st. Tht rears het 22 mime 2 He ae)... a) and simialy (2) — 1 ofthe form 4) ~ 12s abe 0). a, ere rand saresome constant. To find tt meee abot an, ember tht pad gare integer polynomials. The leading coetkint of pa) —1 1a he leading cefFeet of a(e)~ Lig Tht means that rand shave (be iatgere [Now weapply these formulas fo pte) anda) tate ou iia ferrule 103) = piss) sod et Cage) Geen)? 4 (tx — axa). (8a) $Y) Hoe a1. )..be—a)) #1) ation compares two explicely defied polynomials Te bes tins to do now isto compre coef ‘Comparing the 2” coffins we get = 15 and eesine ad re tongues, ee mess thot cher r = a = Tor tar es suppose that r= »= 1- Our plynomil equation i now (a= aN) bead FD, Moran ay). 8-49) +, Wen aptee many eae + Upon expanding and caedlling, this beccmes Bixee ar). tea) =O hich is idiculous it must old fr alls). The case r= = —1 sila, and we are done.Sige. L A hl pri nde [BG The circle must hence nce the pts F, Band A, Now ise so happens thatthe cite tovching she pnts FB, fad A has Das its centre (There 4.1). So by Theorern 42 we have (FG x18q = 1D ond 4c xiBG| = 1DGr 2, where ris he radios of he cir. Anda we are convene ive dhe fst {hae DCI ={DG, our resale proved. “This i the way pre geomeny quesions work: with eemingly bar ‘nou dacs wo go, ad something quite cbocure ro prove, ae wally‘etd pc way to do tA consnetin or emt ight mae it Cl Lok tring hogy eng semen Foren eso aay probien youbadts prove CADC = CADC. you en pone at ARDC ete mtn wih case Dare ct fA) Oro kad prove A= ACh, yscoul eqn poe Set cic » Zane a 8, Cet elncs Orla about ares of ations anges cops es le wal heal tose ad nal hight have egal sro ecaps dhe bse os wg was taled then che set woud aba be hive Ts dees ne ee Yusha cnstoctever posable exenton oth aga yu con ie [arb=1] —> [Rowanquare tentie i rhe) aver | and it now remains to prove the ist implication, We can sce bythe cootdinategeomescy approach tty while dhe given sacs easily reducible to formula, che forma f nor easy reduced to ‘objective, While equal areas may seem to es very nie sa ipl hing to ‘work with, they ate actualy more of hindiane this question cata you ust havea bunch of equal prosucte who terns are eed by ave ‘suations Hot we cn work backwards re ean to pene that donot have equal area | [Fi] [ies ‘or we could ya prool by contaion: [HEE Ue [Rin sRtwcepata | — [Goma [Notice tha with «proof by contradiction, one has more data to begin ith, burch end resis very open-ended nd indie Thi sate is well withoureaker, qualkanveapproac:# would beimpessbletowngle {oom the syminetic solucion becuse all he retangles get unbalreed So lets focus a it moe onthe proof by contradiction med. So suppose that +B sto lanes that ti greater than, but de cot angles somehow manage to hae the sume area. Then we have to prone s ‘conteadition. Wel, what we haveis a rather ig rectangle Ky. What does thar do it fores rectangle Ry, sap to be narrow Infact the horacntl length of Ry is I~, are is Smaller than 6. Theor, Reis ramewee ‘than Ry Because ofthe equal areas retictiom, Ry hast be longer an 2; in the verteal direction. So Rais more creche out than fy. But Pow look at rectangle Re: by sir lg ems be ore “etched out thanrectangle Fa And applying the sane sestonng again tangle Ry mst testi fer oc tha ecargle R.Aac one a mer rch fy ‘rut be hiner and ange than regs, Baie state yi Inger and hse than tc, wha ast And fet sur coma, A imfarcondion oars when ab hoe ee rectangles pt ater and shee, en evetaly one can show estan Re Isto bore gae han el wch wie comme is quetion pod example of how» Pcs a wont a hn saison, hep ind hr ome ing ‘ere ecient tw hn ls Hesiaat Ch alpine SREP nee Satay te Peouten 4.6 (AMOC Conespondence Problem, 1986-1987, Sc Ones] Qh. Let ABCD bea square, and lek Bethe ce withecntc B pang | ‘hough A,andlet ete semicircle nie these with dame AB | Let hes point oo ara et dhe extension of BE sce ctl Eo Prove that ZDAP = ZAR. ! [Now we have to exe cvo angles, Judging by the ack of side lengths ‘nd so on itsems wecan tackle the quest ently by angen Aero, etenseorey ils ar aay very endl cowards angles. Bur these parce anges DAP, ZEAF scm alt emote. We wil ae wet these obscure angles ‘interme of more een” angle so dst we ci hen elt the two angles roeach ater. Tat us take ZDAP fora sta The angle LDAF docs net cont to eny angles, bu ie does canner to cic k The od lite theorem Eel 1, 32) tha he angle a chord sends in acces the same the ane the chord subrendsin the tangent can be ued ere: wean sy thot DAT = ZAPF, wher Pic any point on k which onthe ae of AP containing D. For example, we could say DAF = ZACE. The ZAC, shogh, i alse boring as ZDAP. Bui i an angle subeerded on ice. This eas ‘vis hall de angle subtended by the cent: tht 7 AC angle CADE seems to be a more maisren angle, connected to seta ranges and circles, 0 this is a ily saesfyng reat: CDAP = 4 2ABF "Now we can tackle ZEAF. Ths angle is even more aly than ZDAF, ‘noe dl attached eo enyohing elie, But ie shares its eres wh ethe, ricer anleshke ZDAB, ZEAB, and thelike 0 we can represent ZEAL in (eens of fender nigh for instance os LEAF = BAP ~ ZBAE or perhaps ZFAR = ZDNB~ ZDAK ~ Liat, “The fist equation leaves us with one rater nce angle BAT: and be ligt werse angle ZBAF. The sev formation, however as se cal advantages: ZDAB is 90°, and we have already wovled ent ZDAP Sowere ut ZBAE and ZABF are inthe same wiangle ABE Since we have wricen| both ZDAF and ZEAP ace now wnt in terns of angles fen ABE ts cleat ne to stor Focusing on this tage Wel, ABE is insribed in smite. Tis should remind ene of Thales theorers Thao 4.1, which elles that ZEA = 90" Th es toustee the angles ZABF and ZBAE now, bese he sum ofthcanges fa tingle 13 180. To be precise, we have ZABF + ZEAE + ZBEA = 18(r, hence <2BAE = 90" —"ZABF. Nove we can pla ths buck into cur expression for ZEAF, and get ee = 00" ZABR = 3 ZABF.urine the same expesin we ave fot ZDAF. So we have proved EAE ~ LOAF: Of ce, we wil wae ty trap when pecans ‘ur poof we wool probably downs lang cha ef equates ince “ar aa. Bat when wear loking for a solution, we do nox have tobe 0 feral ‘Rotking out 2DAF ard ZEAF and hoping that they meet somes in bern sno al dt foci if you know what you are deg. As log as one always tis to simplify and connt, chances ave thatthe ill son fall io place (Assuming ofcourse, that ther is ne and oe problems ace not ring opal our I) Analytic geometry ‘The gromereal mind net ocloc bound pemerytaicctnt te dean ane ond tartrate Spree Enley ‘ork of morality ptt cite, plague chance wl be ‘uote degre, ear tings henge ili eshaped oy te Hand ‘Bomar e Beier de Fontenelle, 1729, ac Use des ‘Mathematiques etl Physi rand by FC “This chaprer consis of problems invoing seomeical concepts and objects, But whose solution requires tear from ether branches of math= tematic algebsa,inequlse, sndeson, and 80 on. Ore aie tc that sormeimes wodk very wel sto rewnte the gromctry prob infers of tector in oer (© we the ner of vector aire. Here an cnample otis, Poste 5.1 (Austin Mathematics Compaticn 1987. 13) A regulae polygon with 2 verse insrbed in wc of ads 1 Let [eth se of al posible stint lenge of all ine seen ening he vertices ofthe polygon. What the sum ofthe suave ofthe leet ae Fic ofall ec us give “um ofaqunees the elements o ashore nae, sich as°X bu job sto compute X. Thais whar mig eclled a eaible probleme cis noc ‘prove his oe “is thi’ problem, bie an aston of 2 momber thc could be found, by say a ightorvard application of ttigonometry ar pehaps Pythagoras’ theorem. For cnt wh = wwe ave a square imerted nthe une citc The possible lng ae the side length V2 and the diagonal length 2, s0 X = JT" +22 = 6, Siaely, when = 3, the ony lngth we have he side length, which is, so in thiscaseX = V3" 3. = Sis noc as simple to evalte unless you knoe ‘bunch of sires and cosines sole wsstp stand ty = 6 eae, Te de length 1 the small agonal is V3, and the lug agonal he dame) 42 Hone this case X = 124-V3" 42? = & Finally, we ave the eather ageraace case n= 2, in which case polygon? i at «Games ad70 Sprite suey kez So we have some special eases worked ous ere we have masked de 2 case witha question mack ii afi ‘dodgy fo alk abouts twos polygen ‘This small table doesnot give is too many cues abour what the poeta nsw shouldbe. The fist hing so drew spree probably lee 00d ers to label he verses Fora fied vale of nay 3 een 8) ‘on ould abel he vertices A B,C, ee, br forthe genta mae fol ating to be more omen ab the verte Ay Ay Ay [Now we can make sore nil cbserations and! posi (a) I could make a cifernce if » odor even I extn we have ‘th ong digo comend ith nes when ns even we ave nj) agonal aa when ied we have Ty? agar (©) The answer could alwaysbe an integer. Tiss nota strongconjectar st reser, because wear ang with the very specal square, hexagon, and equate eiange which have square-root type messucrent, Heovee i gies ws bf pe hat te geal ston wld tt be woo nas. (0) We are cumming the squerc of eng, no eth therseves. This mec puts scale resin of pu peeetry and into sali seemety it sggests vectors, or coordinate esmctry, cr perhaps ene Plex mumbers (se are eel all the sme approaches ayn), Ceoedate geemetry wil give 2 sdow-but-stesgy selon imoleng trigonometric sons, bur vectergeemeey ad complex nombre hot lcok promis (ectee geometry can we the de prot and comple ‘numbers can ise the empl exponential. (8) Teisalesse impel oy wo deal wih he problem dec, beetse we arent summing de squares ofthe legs fall agonal, ony a agonal of dsine length Bx we en soon cease te gue ino 2 form whichis more redable roan equation. (Equations ere sl ‘athematict. Notas inspitional se ptares and iens, bu he eae omanpuae. In genera, ene woeld slays enpees the abjecive a sm equation of soire set. Some pessible exceptions though, re in| combinatorics or graph theo.) However, yeu rec yourself whe ‘agonal emanating omasinge pine ofthe pelon, hee dapat veil cover ll the ngs we nee, For example inthis frre, with never we have the four dilferer eng of disgonal Ifyou row street yourel to te upper seid, ‘ich length of diagonals encountered exacy nee the ene | ak LasAaisiArAalae 1A] wiloner the lege we want In ther wr, ‘the answer can be given as an expeasion: IA 4a)* [Aya + [Ay Aale VAsAsE More general, wear tying caput i? +~ tvs where = (n/2) + ifs ever) oF mt = (H+ 1/2) iw ed). $0S:anptepenety Ihave mor exci way of meting the problem: Lee epulc plygon with » vere AA, y A be iacbed na earl of radius 1 Let = (n/2} +1 nee oem iS odd Compute te quactsy X= [Ay asl? se abit inconvenient that the sum 4 43274-- + VA? stops at A, rather than the moe natural Ba es with Problers 28) vee Gout n' from symimety we Have AV Ail = |AyAnsa sl ad so 1 Hm POAADP Male A Atl? + aaa Mesa Note that, when m is even, we will have counted the dlagonal WidasiF 4 roe, We ca iy thi py aed ad the quay [AGN (sine tis eo) fr Sake of ym, to pet OMAP FAA La AuPs as) hea nis od and 4 OWA santas aa 2a when seven the 2comes rom the entra diagonal tem LA Ayo? = 4 sulle by §). rs now natural to introduce the qi. YS VAA +A Aa boot laa cs fd try to compure Y instead of X. The advantages of dog tis are + Queen knows Y, the equaons (16) and {17) wil immediatly + Y basa pres foom than X, and ths is hophily ease wo compute + When computing ¥, we do nr hate oli up into cases whens even coro, wich may sive um some work. | | | pracierety 3,4,6 and ‘We can seve our previous sable ofthe sll cscs ‘eae ¥ in hese cases (or instance, by wing (16) nd (17: oxy ae sa 6 68 682 From thistle one can now conjecture that ¥ = 2 fom (16)ane (17, this would mean dat X= n when edd ard X= n+ 2 when nis ever “Thisis probaly going to be the ight answer, but we sl have to prove fe [Now it stim to use vetor geometry, as ges us a namber of wef tools tomanipulae expressions suchas (18), Beene the are feng fof wxctor a i imply the dot produc: v= of e with el, we ci we Yas Ay) x A HALA) AD + FAL= A) AA where we now think of 4.5 y a8 vetoes eather than pointe We can “hoone the origin of cur cocina stam tobe wherever we wana bt the ‘post lose choice would be to put the origin atthe centre of the cle (Me second bes choice would be to wale A the cri.) An immediate advanog: of pug the origin atthe csntteof the ei tt al the vectors Ais Anhave length fds Ay Ay = Aydin === Ae Tn pat, we cas use vector atheros be (Ay ADAYA = ALA 2A) AE AA AA, and so we can expand out ¥ as Yo = 204A) +12 ~2A)-Ay) ob B=BAY Aa ‘We can gather some res a simplify to Yn de 24, a, bn eb Now we had pursed that Y= 2a, We cin now achieve this gues if we ‘am show dat the vector sum Ay + Ap flys er But thi sche for symmetry the vector ‘pull inal dictions with equal rene 50 the ut res has wo be 0. Alternatively, yo coud say thatthe ceveond of the regular polygon sequal wows cere, Always look fr way to explosgrntin So ¥ = 2 atl sowed he X= ew dd ne iy ttt tppy withthe handwevng ory argue tat Ahem 0. Oneeldsne tienen teagan nee 4 tee cone pot baer nate cape oma ane ek ‘ny be nor tpn write v= Ay roa Now tamorerineg curd the xg by 3E0 Ths salle ners Ae bak tcl dos ot argetie mi Ah 4 Ar Inte le oe erotte ly 36*/n round he origin ett oi: The ony Mecentemeisolve andes Art the Oona ‘Ooecan inch tore sgumtstin amore yal sore ined, ssenim faqs shay he meme cheat ae, orci ae tere of asl ace Bade Dei ae snore the oton peo ee ae tect hep of ero prdte nde theres ef ae Sorina tom he how he nt Peach vee ee Theva down te cee a cr length feo that v=» = 1) Eventually‘once you have saved yu" B > Cor A= D— G, croxting two length ofthe pocl to seach the boy's ott ‘The ache, beng tee mes faster, wl each C when the oy hat ea teneled 2/3 0.667 uit of en So thn approach des not werk the teacher aries fis. Sneaker manceueres are ceded than simply ening away. Aer all people ying to lene pool endfor the edges not forthe comme Let ut tty, for example, to bead the midpoint M of Band C Then the boy ned ‘nly sie 1/2 = 0.5 unt feng, Bur the teaches dacs nx have to un 1: much ether om Ans f > Mise dntanaeof 1 ui The tenes, bring thee times fist, wl ust barely car the hid ashes lining ut of ee pool “The teacher almost lets the boy escape when he hed for the sf the weather was only a fraction sower then the boy would escape. Tit sugasts that ether + the ache’ peed che arest miei nde to sup the boys + theteacher espe athe bares maximum whichallows the boy tcp ‘This complicates mers 4 kt cause the tacher's spend some 10 be cna hfe hee ifthe teacher vas marginal slower, the boy wold Automatically expe if he simply ended forthe ede. Ifthe teacher ae ‘Spnifeanly fase, posible dar the teacher could atl the be, ein ‘loci when the boy movescleckwise, ard so on. Cemaman nse fa to rach verdict we have todo some computation. Wehe boy makes foe an eige the teacher has to ran certnouly js sep even. In eter words he boy forcing the teachers move us by threatening to move ison direction. Being able to conte to seme degre, the enemy mores an be a pert tol Cat we use? ‘Suppo the boy heading wards he midpine M of BC at ul speed ‘The teacher eanaee afford to 60 anything eter than tun towards B and thes towards M.Lfthe teacher ehang decton,or doc snyunges, the boy can hep going and reach ce ede before the ache. Bu the boy dost ‘ot have wo goal he way tothe eige—the treat i erogh to send the teacher running. The upset of ts thac the boy can frce a tation Ike‘his fe swims 2 fll sped and reaches some intermediate point X: ‘The teacher mast be at poine¥ (Y bing sch that [AY] = OXY the seacher en fast enough to move pat ¥ bythe de the boy bas reached 2 aif he has not reached Y yet then the boy can contac all dhe may (WM and escape the teacher So the racer has to goto "Now kat we have iba de boy in at % the teacher being forced to be at ¥. Now is there any veal need to conte alte way tweed BP The threat of bing abe to goto was enough to hep the ther where be sow, but threat and amily are eile things: New that he teaches it ‘sranded ithe AB ede, why docs ot the boy makes dash forthe oppo (CD cg? ey tas half length to reach the eg, ard rb Be tne tine we considered the boy dashing forthe ed the teacher idly place In fae, if Xs uarer-krgsh rls from M, theres shone ‘eoche justo faraway catch the bey So, the by escapes que cy [Bxerckio 5.2. (*)- Suppescr to ear can va snes a ft the Ie canes Now aca he ey ccc capa, (Ee: Do on icine aque of iddeagth 2 wail enter at. Once the leer (See etberetreet rape) Bxercis 5.8 (7) Supp te po! wos dear insta ofsqne Now It eas at te bo ea ct (he ee fo The pot eppante th ecb), Bvt wt it taker woe fer? Ble pce eit be ‘he minum peed the ecru 1 exch the hi? The mete Se eee le eee fining a lore boa (be. designing sce rater oe i es) ad {orca a upper ound (which needs ert st of fo tho ead (One eon al ek he vse prob or Ue are ped Wt ater tekice thin the cetlarprolen) Sundry examples Mathematics semetimes thought ofa great nity, ike te, branching fino several large chunks of athena, wich thence batch of {nwo specialized elds until you reach the very ends of the te, weve you fd dhe Moser and dhe fri Bar its nex easy to asi al of rathensaties nto sch net compart ments: there are slays fizy regions in Lxtween etches ae alo eta ‘es ouside ll the clasical branes. The following questions are wor it ame theory, nce uit corbin ‘orice, and no quite nse pecgrammang. They areata bite fur Ponti 61 (Taylor 1983, p25, Q5). Suppose on a certain thd there are 13 grey, 5 hewn, and 17 einen chameleons Ito cance fons of diferent colour eet, they both ehange tothe tied eel (ep 2 brown and eson pair would beth change to grey) Tis theory time they change colour Is pxsible for ll chameleons 0 evenly brethe sme colour? “The question i a bic open-ended, with he “event in the guesion. “Thisroears chat we have ro decide whether the sr of al ossibe chelcen cour combinations wcluds 4 state where all careless are 3 single ‘olou easily, we should fire ty the posi tha the anawer is NO. I the answer is YES, then there should be 2 specific procedure 0 veach ‘eur objeaive. That sounds more compurationl than mashemascal, and iven thr this question eccured in mathematics tourament there ‘od ground thar tis spt the ight answer. So ews wo prove NO. “To pve this, i probably 4 good ides to krow which sper the proaedurcean reach and which ones i presumably cannot. Once we have ued a pattern, we will hove somthing defiite co prone. As we uit the previous chapters, wo salves problom inmahemates, you uly have to goss tome intermediate est which pli the conlsion but logealyequitalent tot. Althouph frm a lca pct of view ths eaves you with a problem thar may be harder to prove, pragmatic i chenye rove an objective thats nearer to our dat and wouk! concert ur ‘fos ina more defitedirecion. Generalizing da cenlsion tends 0 Femove sopecfiuou information se well» futher bones Fora sinple example ups on a chesboart we have one bishop on ‘he comer (s bishop moves igenaly), aed we Have wo show hat ee ‘ever move cham adjacent corner be ther cthe wo comes net oe. ‘it ested of proving that, we could have peeved che mexe general the bshopmest tay onthe sume celeuraquare” (The chensbourd iw ebeckered) agi tere i more to pow bu tw iis very easy to ee he op ‘ceed each move of the bishop Leepitin teste olor sete terete, ‘bo numberof moves wl ver keve that cleur of square) ‘Anyway, let us have some decet notation fit vee numbers ad eg tions. Atty given time, the ely dats which importa isthe ver ‘of chameleons that are grey, the numer which are brown i the ramber which or crisen- (The seep the problem dows nee permite cher ‘ons to take on any adlional colours) We ean represe tht information ‘ciently by meas ofathreedimenscnal vce haste iil ate of he cameleon (13,15, 17), ad the problem aki we ean reach (45, 0,0), ©, 45,0) 600,45) by ou operation of changing colour The eperaion of charging colour const cf subtracting 1 fom ro of the coordinate snd adding tothe thi oe. So hee we have a vector formation which isactally one way of ataching the problem. (Fora se shack of the proof her era = (1, -1,2,6= (1.2. avd = (2,-1.1). Then the meeting of to chatelere is vepscrcl by sing eve ofthe vector 0 tthe caren tte vector Thee, fry penton tat the system can each rut have a postion year ofthe form (13, 15,17) + la mb-4 nc, wheee ls, and » at inegers Pel ye ned to show is that a member like 45, 0)0) cannot fe repeated it that form. Thisis a imple mater in, sty, Cramer ole, st elena Dhophantine mripdlation) {La sey fora more eegancethed as cuined above: idl pessible ‘colour combinations of the chameeces. Fit of ally che otal amber of shareons must rein the sare This ao oery help i thi ose {albough considering total populatoes can be «pod! idea somes in sini quetors, Second, two diferen colour chameleons “rene to another colour. This merging can be fru on. Wher ay, two uneven coomines of water ate connected atthe base, the levels of water -were into the middle preund. Butte ttl amount of wate cain the sate So.an we sy tht the ‘ofl amcust of clout remains const? Obviously we have wo define ‘total amount of cole’ wo make this ‘cd mathemati Take, 8 an oarple, a grey chameleon aad » crimson chameleon ‘merging into two bene chameleons. If we sy, for example, that grey fs a colour ‘tone’ ef 0, brown hae coleut stow of fy sed ‘timo has a colour score of 2, chen dhe "eal colour is prseried bere Srenyeurees 85 (A0snda2jcininto wo P's) Butts file when trying to merge crise nd brown chamaleen, for example. No pln acres sees, ct ‘ater forall ee (or even wo) possiblities of merging. “The problemis duet the eye anureofthe manceurre ButSo 06 ie "upentiely parally snceshl (ce parila) atenpezpay bea pce ‘of uly succesful appre, (Then again, « mel acne of cues ‘or semething o be toe eubusiasi about either) Think ofthe pritaty colours, re, blue, and green. If yo think of ed light beam comeing swith a greet light Beary we get doubly bright purple bea, that ay ‘ngBur beam, The poimary colours ee fyi, to, Can we sore We this coloured Ligh analogy tocar advarenpe? ‘Well the ony essential efieence sha tn igh, red and geen combine ‘no ant-blu, nor ue. But wait Wecan make Hc equa tat lac bya ‘modular aitmerc approach. Wid this nmin, we ean y looking tour vectors (mod 2) ur vector stars (Uy, 1) and we have to stop fc sing to (0,0), (0,150) 0,01). Unfrrnatel, this does ae er. Bacpow the genic cu ofthe bote: we can try ther ed The modal (ened 3 comes quickly to mind (afer ally there are thee cic colour). [Now we camer ether of cuc two tactic to corqus this probleme + (Vectrappeoach) Our initial vor 13,15, 17) snow (10,2) (ned 3), and invest gan shows thatthe exchanging of clears con ly Kea the sectors (10,2), (1,2 and (12,0), and secon ever Kad to any of cur eee ccs (48,00) (0, 45,0), (00,45), which ene ll equal (©,0,0) (red 3. + oral colour approach) Our old method ofclelting Ya ancunt of colour was to ssign a point score wo each ruler. Now tht we aw about moduli why nor wea meds oie score? Say grey has eee of (O mod 3) browna scereof I Grod 3} anderson score 2 (ne 3, “Ths werk: dhe total point cee must eran conta (becatse hone Of the thee mersing posites will change the tos pst score) it youre). The ttl peter score inialy 13> O-+ 15 x 1-417 » 2 1 (mod 3, wll te pene scores for ur these eectives (45 grey, 5 txcwn, oF 45 erinsen) are ll 0 red 3) Bxercbw Gt, Six anki enter «mse fsa, At reh concert ‘a unas pla athe eacerte while te ther Beene we att, (tte auicace, Whee isthe Let cuter of curate asl oi aces ts i cdr each unica fr te oi ‘voy ote mn? (Hints Oboly no verona tet vey ‘is ce oe cunert so re then cans oct eee exit IM heen posit’. thik wpe thee line al ako ofessence ae a TW Fa fait Sear le. Tie idl eA tin Uae Tema! you base sled) xcrcie 62. Thre srahioppers a aH. Bich sconce (ad fale one) arambcppe he chaser, Pro ha er 1085 5, he ames came Une eating pn tm eee ig wate of siden ea, Now apport yo ae allowed otk ‘valine som fer, ete ch me ome to oe of {be ceca peo ad Joa eve i that the wa ato {hat phe te eae saute othe pw joys ene he ea Hoa tia hte etn Tae init (ro? (Tare a pti gan ton ina square of scent ‘berg mr) ‘hic pe, yo jot a Paonia 62 (7), Alice Bey, and Cal wok the se sees of xa inaroes. For cach examiratiog dere was ene ark of ce atk 9, apd one mark of where, ae sine peaive integer all the examinations Alc hada teal Score of 20, Het etal orf 10, and Carol teal score of 9 Wty ws placed fst in Algebra wh ‘vas placed second in Gece)? ‘here is precios ie information in this question ser that we snow ite rote han the Final cees. And how can ene determine pt scores fram the tral score? But we may, because we have oer da st cr 9 > x (remembering that», and tae knw to be distin). We do not ase much, bur we gn some siplcy: we con say that Betty seceed x pees in Alera. anbyoares Dut forthe caer exams), we till do ne know ich about the various posses For example, in Geemecry, Alice cul score y Bet) and Carly cpeshaps Alice scores» Bety 3, and Carol. Does nything stay ‘ced an ll hse pss? Well—the ttl scone per exam eae the same. No mates ow the 9, and scores are Bade nt, he total ‘score per exam rust always be x+y + 2. Do we krow anying mee about these tos scres? Welle know the the toa son er ll exis §:204 1049 =39, vege. Necty+2)=39, where Ni the rumber of exams. Now we havea forma contain the umber of exams, which we kre Ke abeut beforehand. This should Pere wsefel. But oe lene equation does nor ser: enough. However, we must keep in mind tha Nx, 95 9 > zandthats-ty-be 13, Sur this is enough to pu quite good boas ona ya eLet taclle forexample.zeanset gotoo high, because then andy ll have to pohigh 25 wll, and then x +y-+2 will peobably be ford to go higher tha 1 Tobespecifesywarlest 2 Iyand x wat kant e+ 2,50 Mews tes ern eee ne. ee, ‘hich frees << 3. Now this bound ¢< 5 he bast cine con do whens any fare information, for there ithe corsbination x = sy =,¢— 3. ‘Now kt str todo. Wecan do somthing sila tote above, bound ing ty +1. Bull we ean say about xe hai et lower bound of But this i enough we get Bestyteegeneyel +2, 50, < S. Ain this is the best posible: consider x= 7.y = Se = 1 Foally, we ean pur « bound on 2:2 i a leat Land y at est 2, 30 Taxeyee e424 Lsox = 10, And this isthe best pssille for we hayes = 1,y = 22 = So we know this x < 3,9/< Sand = = 10. Bare can do even beer, Remember chat Bay scored an and to eer scores Se tty ey ‘scored 10, we know dat x caanot be ae high ab 10. Tis would sean ‘hat Betty woud have cored rothing for her other two exam, which Impossible: we know that all the scores ar pve Integers. In fact, ‘cannot eas high 59 either, for Betsy would have ony coughed up 1 mack. forthe ater ve esas this would mean that ene exam scored ttn -againaconuabcion Sowehavet facts = &. Now wecan do some serions limiting: infact seal seen thatthe oly posit for Alice's score is cy all he exer scoring possibilieseannee posibly reach 2 For example 2} ebsatmes 25 843~ 19. ‘So Alice scored vo #5 and 2 y Since Betsy scored an in Algsbrs, Alice st have scored here. We can place hts withthe ther Information we know, ato a table “Bam Alice Beuy Curd Tord Alay os 2 Gemey 2 7 PO ob e P “Tea w 9 ‘Wecan sow sce har Carl must havescoredazin geben, asit isthe only sack emaning ‘We are greg closer to cur geal we knw that ii ther Betsy oF Cara that scored the second-place mark of y t Geometry. But we re sl now one yer Looking at Ale'scclumn ofthe tbl, we have ane piece of infection, rary at y 4a 1x = 20. Recalling thats» y ands 2 8 this ives ts only two seletors:x = By = 4 orn — 7,y = 6 Bur since ra-yee = 15, wecan not haves = 7 andy ~ since that would force +50. Thus we ean only hove = 8,y = 4, which cen — 1 So we have Imad major breaktheough by alsin for sy completly, We can row update oue able Fram Ale Feary Carol Tor Agta 4 8 1 Geomery 82 FB Otee 8 Tol 20099 Anal now ics eaty to seo that Betey a to have scored ¢ = 1 in bth ‘Geometry snd the eser exam and Caro bd ove seedy — 4 in chose ‘exams So the answer was that Carol scored second in Georetysay te Puontin 63 (Taylor 1989, p16, Q.3). Twopeople playa game with ‘aber of choclate made of 60 pics, ina 6» 10 rectangle. The fst perton breaks off «pet of the choclate bar along the grooves ving "he piers and dicards (or eats) the pat he broke of Then the second person bls offaparofhereruining part and discards her par. The [ame conines une ene pice Te. The winner ithe one who estes the eter with the sngle pice (Le. the Last to move). Which person Insc pee winning erate? By dhe way, it easly shown tat any Fite game of kill must have 3 ‘wining (or dawing) tse fr ene othe players, Tiss done by nd tion onthe maximum kag ofthe game. Eve chess has this reteiion, slthough no-ore fas found dhe sae hich most belie i excrete, complicated See there ae no draws he gate, one player mnt ave 2 Perfect winning suategy (a there are rod). Bat who? ist, ket us zeduce the problem from choclate to hlatheratcs, We can sxartby formalsingthe proceso breskingtbebar Anyone who hssbroken ‘chocolate probably knows thatthe only way to break bar of chocolates into ro retanges, ne along some i 28 o paral ectangle Fsenilly ‘wereduce the 610 bar ino smal rectangle with re of the dimensions Uhesame ce igram, where the dotted line ithe cutee tha the ‘ocolte breaks tte bar of equal wd and lee gt, o ual length ard es width, Far isan athe cure Ele the 6 > 10 Ba vl be Iker ico 26 x7 bar ith he 6 3 pie beng dca crete) [Now we ned some notation fo He rectangle peeerably sn numbers How do we describe a rectangle of chocolate ia tas of nurbers? The vies candate scott the legsh aed wide of the er. So ou erga Ine il bea 610 ba, o perhaps (610) in ecto notation. The postion ofthe chose isnt ilevant; cy the sie will be important. Ou ais follemve the other player a (1,1), Our rules? We ean eat of some ofthe ‘Width or some a te lng, though otro 0 ce a nearest, For example, fom (6, 10) har we can mane wo the following postin: 6D ,62) (63-669) 151095210), 105,10 sry ere In shot, we can move horizontally eter vertically downward. The fl lowing dara hts this abstracts teting two of te poole starr eneean reach fone arts wih the (0) posione a0 “y «a, a) Now that we have rice mathematic mal of dae chocolate, we can restate the question atlamstically (but ear dlconly oe “wo players take turns moving 2 point on alte ether an integer nurber of stepsto hele oe aninneger number fee dow The ointeamor pos citer ofthe aes, and states 2 (6, 10). The winner ic | the coe who reaches (1,1). Who ss perfect wong are?) ‘we could have anther formation: “Two players ae rene removing counter rom ewo roa Each player ‘nus temove cours fram ether 2h top row or the boron on Put for both Ar the Bopnning tere re five counters onthe top cow and fin en the bottam row (this epesets the pic (6, 10). The winner ‘ne who takes he st courte. Wh as perfect wining sr) | “Tie formulation has been edi a bby subeting I trom both the ‘tepand bottom row: Irshould ive orgs o syne fails with the {game of Min those people wouldslve the guestem unl now, Bu we cay ‘othe quesion without the knowledge of Ni and elated Gate theory. ‘Now we have notation, and an abstract mathematical mae, What we reed nw i 2 ged gap the probe. The probe i ha he 610 ‘ar asso maay posible. We chou mare with a much sale to cexpenment Let usbve a 23 bart begin with ‘Now the ist player could eae oe ofthe allowing tars hind 13, 2x2, 1 The» 3 bar and the 2% 1 ar ate fnlsh moves ocsseen ere then the acon player could take everything ence the last 1 taguare and win, So the fst payer shuld leave behind 2% 2 square bat Now the sscond players forced to leave behinda 1» 2 or a2 + ba, ation ‘the ft player ost breaks the ersining ba in ball kang the 1 1 Hor, and thesefre winning the gare. So the fie payer ins wth a 233 ban "Not much information i gsined so let sx move on vo anor oxaply say 3% 3 br, Now the fist player has several opin: 123,205,302 sand 3 1, Bat symmetry efetiely elinates the last two ches 1x 3b stupid, because the econd payer cam grub everthing cxcepe te ech sod win But 2» 3 equally bd, beste we have reduce the poblem to ‘tha ofthe ls paragraph Now she cond player uses the ste thar she fast player would have wed in th last paragraph: pt a2 » 2 bars ving ‘the fra player with no choice bro bee fas 2 bar, which escort player then breaks into 11 bar and wins So heft layer lace wid S353 her Wetolved the 3x3 problem by lookingat the 2x3 prob. Thin sugzets ‘induction approach forthe general problem, For exam, suppor: we wantedrofove the 34 problem, and weslieady knew tat ay, the 3, 32,14 and 24 probleme wer all winner forthe fant player, whe 3 3 wav alesse forthe st player Then de strtegy of the fst ployer fo the 34 problem would be wolesve a3 3 aquare wih he seen payer, scan tha iit sure lose forthe een glae. 80 the ttegy forthe rst layer iso leave te second player wth Lass hat ae ste losers forthe ‘one tho has to freak them. Apa why are these burs sure len? Beccine no mane how you break them, sey Become sure winners fe the ster Player. And thse bars are sure nner besuse ae can tek tt tg ‘ue lose for the other player, ar so.on So our strategy mew to Fd all the re winners and sure lowers 15 1 an obvious sre esr forthe one who i stuck with ts not be broken, so the game is ove. 1 Ls are all sure winners (rape then 1) caus the bresker ea lene the othr plays witht sue leery, 1x 1, Row 2 2 sur les, because the beaker mst end up wilh Lx 2a. which sa sure winner fete othe player: Now, we ea ay that 2 bars with n > 2) are sare winner, becavse We ca and the thee Player wit he sure loser, 2% 2. Ando forks We ote hae + Wa xb ina sue loses han a (ith ¢ > Hs» sre winner, because fhe person who breaksaxe should lane the ether player witha For trample, because we have shown that 3x3 iva sure lose then 33, 35,3 6 ec areal sue wines + 4 bis a sure loser only when ll de pose moves fom it ae sure winners for the othe player. For example, 1 4,2» 4,3» 4 and by symmetey 4 3,4%.2,4 1 aeallseloners as we have hows abong, hence 454 muse bea sue lsc Senay ne can continue this psematic method, eventually reaching 6 10. ‘But why de ner we be more mathematical? There should bea paren he sure winners andlaes. Well what are the winner and Jones we nowt 3 fac? The sce wicwets that we worked out alrndy ace 1x2 1x3 19d es aed 2nd ded 205 Bel 3x2 3x4 3x5 Bel aed 4s aS il the scene we have defi B22, 333, and me ‘This is ex convincing evidence hat th ony ule n> ars tha sage ar ond ets esr ws Once we hae te ‘ented sate, we do vc hat oo enough ou cae ‘icicle jane o spa Ramee we wer eve he Srponen wien Once rw lve en ae he shen tas fore a ene oppor te seg wen ll the tin then vo then Se season To eae feat for eae hbo say ge the wher faye sare SS reas tat fer the 6 10 forthe ples tne logs Break the chocolate so thar» 6 6 square i et (a sure loser wo the ‘sccond per. Then whatever the second player does, comer she hat back ntoa square: For example the sco player eaves 264 ate you squae i ack co 24 » 4 bar. Repeae this proc alays eine thee He wh vas emai, at Kt lone | ‘oppenere with the 1» formation aking bares le. ‘This strategy actually works, because whenever he opponent break the scuate eyes 2 nom quate chat ean be easily converted to var again. ‘An because te sizeof the chocolate dereaing the uate comverion ‘must everuall lea 01 1 aquar, And so with «bio em eros snacks we have ended up wih a working step, which what ve wete ser, Anya, this isa standard approach in slving game of kil determine ll winning and Tosig postions, then always move to 4 wirnig position ‘Any decet skill game player ues thn meted, ence cha thy have an imprecive ies of winning and losing peiios, only aveurable and "anf vourabl postions. Afr all, dome wey move yey iro good ‘or ‘bad game because i creates a Tavearable or unfavourable poston? Few players of ches sueced by moving renraly, ot tying to improve their posion.arty eps ] srr TPROsten 64 (Shllarshy ec. 1962, p. 9). Two bothers old a Berd of sheep Each sheep sold for as rnany eublesas the sumber of hep oi aly in the Herd. The money was then died in the fllowing Mares, Firs the elder bresher took 10 rubles, the the yourger bree rok. 10 rubles then the ode tecebr took aneher 10 rable snd 9 on. At the end of the division the younger brother. whose ru i was, fund thar there were fever than 10 roubles le, so he took whit rained “To make the dvsion fat, the elder tober gave the younger his pen Jefe, which was worth an integer number of coubles. How mach was the penkife werk? “The fist reaction shoud ke tat this qustion cers to have nx rug {nfrmation, Second the question does tex toe rigor erengh. Bat ‘cis wrong to give up hope before ary atepe has been made to sl take lok a Problem 62 which had even les snfermation co bn with buco sel be walved. "We shoo start by trying to formate the problem in ers of equation. For this we need sme variables. Fst ofall we noice tat the pric ofthe perce ulimately dependent onthe nuke of sep, wc the cay Indepedere variable here. ts knowing herb of sep deere ‘reything Lev ussuppose thee wetes sheep. Then they alse foes rule, she eal windfall rubles "Now we hae to see how this dion stem weeks. Suppese the mre ‘of ables was 64. Then dhe older brother ook 10, then the younger took 10,sndso on. transpires dha te las four rubles goto the ler eter, not the younger, so the peoblercarnot we here ereaner that pro the data ven the fc hat che younger brother was dhe ls tthe ‘eh, ow can wesay this thera? “To do this mathematilly we need lew of equations and variable | (creugh equtirs to dente the station bu nok enought arouse

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