THE MOVEMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN SOILS

bY
D. CRONEY, R.Sc.(Eng.)

SYNOPSIS
Moisture plays a particularly important role in
the soil mechanics of shallow foundations, because
of the comparatively large seasonal changes occur-
ring in the moisture condition of the soil close to the
earth’s surface. In particular, methods of estimating
the changes which occur in the moisture condition
when soil is paved are required in the design of
roads and airfields.
This article discusses the fundamental factors
which give rise to moisture movements in soil and,
on the basis of this discussion, methods are outlined
for estimating the moisture distribution with depth
beneath impervious pavements under equilibrium
conditions. Differences in the soil moisture suction
(or reduced pressure at which water is retained in
the soil structure) provide the “ potential ” causing
water to move within a soil mass. The movements
which occur can only be expressed in terms of
moisture content if the relationship between soil
moisture suction and moisture content for the soil
is known. The nature of this relationship and the
manner in which it can be used to estimate equi-
librium moisture distributions are discussed in rela-
tion to incompressible, partially compressible, and
fully compressible soils.
Some experimental confirmation of the theories
involved has been obtained from laboratory and
field investigations at present in progress.
L’humiditB joue un rBle particulibrement impor-
tant dans la mecanique des sols des fondations peu
profondes, L cause des changements saisonniers
d’mie ampleur relativement grande, qui se pro-
duisent dans l’humiditk du sol juste au-dessous de la
En particulier, pour l’6tude des
surface du terrain.
routes et des a&odromes, on a besoin d’un moyen
d’6valuer l’ampleur des changements d’humiditb
lorsque le sol est pourvu d’un rev&tement.
Cet article traite des facteurs fondamentaux qui
donnent lieu aux mouvements de l’humidit6 dam le
sol ; sur la base de cette discussion, l’auteur donne
une indication des m&hodes pour Bvaluer la rkparti-
tion de l’humidit6 it une profondeur donnBe au-
dessous des rev&tements impermbables dans des
conditions d’bquilibre. Les diffBrences dans la
suction d’humiditk du sol (c’est-A-dire la basse
pression g laquelle la structure du sol peut retenir
l’eau) donnent lieu au “ potentiel ” qui provoque des
mouvements de l’eau dans le sol. Ces mouvements
ne pourront &tre exprim& en termes de teneur en eau
que si le rapport entre la suction et la teneur en eau
du sol est connu. L’auteur discute le caractbre de ce
rapport et la mani&re dans laquelle on peut s’en
servir pour dvaluer ces r&partitions Bquilibres
d’humidit6 par rapport aux sols incompressibles.
partiellement compressibles, et entibrement com-
pressibles.
Les theories en cause ont re$u certaines confirma-
tions exp6rimentales par suite des recherches en
laboratoire et en chantier qui sont en tours.

INTRODUCTION
Since the moisture condition of soil close to the surface is subject to large variations, the
influence which moisture has on the mechanical properties of soil is of considerable importance
in soil mechanics applied to shallow foundations. In particular, the road engineer requires
to know what changes are likely to take place in the moisture condition beneath a road
surface, and what effect these changes will have on the stability of the pavement.
It is usual engineering practice to assess the moisture condition of soil, and the effect
which moisture has on soil properties, in terms of the moisture content expressed as a per-
centage of the dry weight. This is perhaps unfortunate since a difference of moisture content
does not provide the “ potential ” causing water to move in soil. Not only may two soils
in contact be in a state of moisture equilibrium when they have different moisture contents,
but it is possible that adjacent parts of the same soil may be at appreciably different moisture
contents without any transfer of moisture occurring.
The more fundamental property of soil water, which is the primary cause of moisture
movements in the liquid phase, is soil moisture suction. This is defined as the reduction of
pressure (below atmospheric pressure) present in the soil water, which arises from the forces
by which the moisture is retained in the soil structure. If a change of moisture content occurs
at any point in a mass of soil initially in a state of moisture equilibrium, the soil moisture
suction at that point is changed, and moisture movements occur throughout the soil until a
new condition of suction equilibrium is established. The changes of moisture content which
will occur during the redistribution process can only be estimated if the relationships between
* suction and moisture content for the soil or soils comprising the soil mass are known.
1
2 D. CRONEY

During the last few years an investigation has been in progress at the Road Research
Laboratory into the suction properties of soils and the relationship between suction and
moisture content. The primary object of the work is to enable an estimate to be made of
the moisture distribution with depth reached in the soil beneath impervious road and airfield
pavements, and hence to assess the changes which will occur when uncovered soil is paved.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL MOISTURE

Soil moisture is usually classified in terms of, (a) gravitational water which moves towards
the water-table under the action of gravity, (b) ground water, contained below the level of
the water-table, and, (c) held water which is retained above the water-table after all move-
ment of gravitational water has ceased. The water-table is defined as the level in the soil
at which the soil water is at atmospheric pressure, and it corresponds therefore to the
equilibrium level to which water would rise in a borehole put down in the soil.
Below the water-table the ‘pressure of the water contained in the soil pores increases
linearly with depth, in the same manner as the pressure increases below a free-water surface.
Above the water-table the pressure decreases, and the pore-water pressure (measured from
atmospheric pressure as zero) is negative. In soil which is in a state of moisture equilibrium,
i.e. in which there is no tendency for water to move up from, or down to, the water-table,
the pore-water pressure decreases linearly with height above the water-table, the pressure
x feet above the water-table being less than atmospheric pressure by an amount equivalent
to a head of x feet of water.
The surface tension and adsorptive forces by which water is held in the soil above the
water-table are responsible for the reduction of pressure. These forces give rise to what may
be termed the moisture suction, or more briefly the suction characteristics of the soil. It is
these characteristics which largely determine the way in which water distributes itself in soil
above the water-table. Other factors which may be of importance under certain conditions
are temperature gradients, and the effect which such gradients have on the vapour pressure
of soil water.

SOIL MOISTURE SUCTION

Because the pressure of the water contained in a small sample of soil removed from above
the water-table is less than atmospheric pressure, the sample will absorb moisture if it is
placed& contact with free-water. The soil suction is the difference between the pressure
of the water in the sample and atmospheric pressure.
The presence of soil suction can be de-
tected, and for suctions less than 1 atmos-
phere the magnitude can be determined, by
the apparatus shown in Fig. 1. A small
water-filled reservoir is connected to a hori-
zontal flow tube,eo that changes in the volume
Water- filled nrcrvoir
of water contained in the system can be
detected by observing the movement of the
water meniscus in the flow tube. The upper
surface of the reservoir consists of a flat sin-
tered glass membrane, the pores of which are
Water mcnixus
sufficiently small to prevent air from entering
the system, whilst allowing the passage of
water. When a sample of soil is placed on the
membrane the water meniscus moves towards
the reservoir, indicating that water is being
Method of measuring soil suction drawn into the soil. If 3 vacuum pump is
4 D. CRONEY

suction is increased *fold in a field of ng, so that with a sample 5 centimetres above the
water-table, and a field of S,OOOg,suctions of the order of 25,000 centimetres of water (~W4.4)
can be obtained.
Above $F 4.5, indirect methods are used, the simplest of which is the vacuum desiccator.
This method involves the relationship between suction and relative humidity already men-
tioned. The relative humidity of the atmosphere, in vapour equilibrium with many aqueous
solutions, has been related accurately to the concentration of the solutions. This provides
a ready means of obtaining a known humidity within an enclosure. Sulphuric acid solutions
can ,be conveniently used to give humidities corresponding to the suction range pF 4.5 to
pF 7. The sample under test is suspended in an enclosure containing acid of the required
concentration, and moisture transfer occurs in the vapour phase until the sample is in suction
equilibrium with the humidity of the acid. Evacuation to a pressure approximating to the
vapour pressure of the acid accelerates the transfer process.
Although the relationship between suction and moisture content is broadly similar for all
porous materials, there are important differences associated with the particular physical
characteristics of each material. These differences are best appreciated by considering the
relationship between suction and moisture content for the four groups into which the materials
with which the civil engineer is concerned can be classified. These are, (1) materials of rigid
structure, such as chalk, plaster, cement products, etc., (2) incompressible soils, such as clean
sands and gravels, (3) saturated compressible soils, such as heavy claysj and, (4) partially
compressible soils such as sandy and silty clays.
Materials of rigid structure. Fig. 2 shows the suction/moisture-content relationships for
samples of soft chalk and hard chalk, between saturation at zero suction and oven-dryness.
The difference between the saturation moisture contents of the two samples reflects the
effect of consolidation pressure during the formation of the chalk beds.
For both samples, as the suction applied to the initially saturated material is increased,
no appreciable change in moisture content occurs until a suction of about PF 2.8 is reached,
when the water menisci at the surface of the material break down allowing air to enter. A
steady decrease of moisture-content occurs as the suction is further increased until the samples
are virtually dry at pF 4.5. The suction at which air first enters the structure is rather lower
for the soft chalk than for the hard variety, confirming the difference between the average
pore size of the two materials. At suctions above pF 3.6 the curves are practically identical
for both samples. In this range the whole of the water present is probably contained in the
“ breathing ” channels perforating the shell-like material of which the chalk is constituted.
The size of these channels would be unaffected by the consolidation process, and similar
curves would therefore be expected for both materials in this range.
For both samples of chalk there is a marked hysteresis between the curves corresponding
to the wetting and drying conditions. This hysteresis probably arises from the degree of
control which the smaller pores exert on the suction at which the larger pores release their
water as the suction is increased. Thus water is retained in large pores, during the drying
process, at suctions much greater than those at which the same pores will re-fill during the
wetting process.
As a result of the hysteresis there is no unique relationship between suction and moisture
content. For the soft chalk, at a suction of pF 3 the moisture content would lie between
16.4 and 25 per cent, the actual value depending on the the previous moisture history of
the material. If the range over which the suction varies is limited, the hysteresis is smaller.
For the soft chalk (Fig. 2), the loop ABCD represents the limiting moisture content condition
whenthe suction varies between the limits pF 3 and PF 3.5.
Fig. 3 shows the relationship between suction and moisture content for samples of plaster
of Paris made to different water/plaster ratios. Drying curves only are shown (saturation
to air-dryness), and the suction is in this instance expressed on a linear scale. The effect
of the water/plaster ratio on the pore size of the mix is reflected in, (a) the increase of
 MOVEMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN SOILS 5

saturation moisture content, and, (b) the decrease in the suction at which air enters the
structure, both of which.occur as the water/plaster ratio is increased.
Incom$ressible soils. Since the volume of an incompressible soil is not affected by changes
of moisture content, the suction/moisture-content relationship for a sample of such a soil is
similar to that for a material of rigid structure. Consideration of the incompressible soil
Fig. 2

Soft chalk s==

/
20
MOISTURE CONTENT-pa cm,

Relationships between suction and moisture

content for samples of hard and soft chalk

case is, however, complicated by the fact that for each soil there is a family of relationships
corresponding to different dry densities of the soil.
As the dry density of the soil is increased, the satura.tion moisture content decreases and
the size of the pores decreases. The general effect of increasing the dry density, therefore,
on the suction/moisture-content relationship is similar to that of decreasing the water/plaster
ratio as shown in Fig. 3. A complete study of the suction characteristics of incompressible
soils has not yet been carried out at the Road Research Laboratory. Fig. 4 shows wetting
and drying curves for a well graded sand at one dry density. The grading of the sand is
shown inset on the figure.
*
 Fig. 3 Fig. 4

Porconta e
by wig It

Wettino curve

I
IO
I 0

I *
0 IO 20 JO 40 - 50 60
MOISTURE CONTENT-per cent

Above : Relationship between suction and moisture content

for three mixes of plaster of Paris-drying condition

Right : Relationship between suction and moisture content 2 4 b 8 IO 12. I4

for samples of sand at a dry density of 133 lb&u. ft. MOISTURE CONTENT-p cent
 MOVEMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN SOILS 7

Comjwessible soils. The relationship between suction and moisture content for com-
pressible soils is more complex. Since such soils swell and shrink with changing moisture
content, the relationship between suction and moisture content does not represent a constant
condition of dry density. A continuous increase in the dry density occurs as the suction is
increased from zero, at least until the shrinkage limit is reached. Furthermore, during the
drying process some relative re-orientation of the particles is likely to occur so that the soil
does not revert, on re-wetting, to its original density. These points can be seen more clearly
from Fig. 5, which shows the results of a series of tests carried out on a heavy clay soil, at the
Road Research Laboratory.
An “ undisturbed ” sample of the soil was allowed to become wetter on a suction plate
operating at approximately pF 0.8. The suction was then increased in stages to pF 7
(oven-dryness), to give the drying curve A. The soil was then wetted progressively to
PF 0.5, to give the wetting curve B. The difference between the two curves A and B is not
solely attributable to hysteresis ; the difference between the moisture contents at J~F O-8
indicates the extent of re-packing of the particles induced by the drying process. Curve C
shows the next drying cycle, $F 0.5 to oven-dryness. The subsequent wetting curve
followed the first wetting curve, B, almost exactly. Curves B and C therefore form a closed
hysteresis loop, suggesting that once the intense consolidation pressure associated with oven-
drying has been applied to the soil, any subsequent increase of moisture content, unaccom-
panied by mechanical disturbance, causes the particles to move apart without any material
modification to their arrangement. This concept is compatible with the plate-like form
attributed to the clay particles. The hysteresis between the limited curves B and C, which
is relatively smaller than that between the corresponding curves for incompressible soils,
cannot in this case be due to differences in the suctions at which the pores fill or lose their
moisture, since over the greater part of the moisture range the heavy clay soil would be
saturated. It is more likely associated with the resistanceSto deformation that the soil struc-
ture offers during the wetting and shrinking process.

Fig. 5

6 Cloy content 55 per cent

Curve A, 0

5 curve c. A

MOISTURE CONTENT-per cent

Relationship between suction and moisture content for disturbed and

undisturbed samples of a heavy clay soil
8 D. CRONEY

The small hysteresis loop on the initial drying curve A was obtained (using another
sample of the same soil) when the suction was decreased to $F 0.8 by stages, after a suction
of $F 2.9 had been reached on the drying curve. The fact that this loop is closed indicates
that no re-orientation of the particles resulted from the increase of the suction to pF 2.9.
This raises the question of what suction is required to modify the particle packing. The most
likely possibility is that no material modification takes place until the suction. in the soil
water exceeds the maximum suction experienced during the geological history of the soil.
This point could be investigated further by subjecting the soil to suction cycles of increasing
amplitude, and establishing at what maximum suction the loop just failed to close. In
practice protracted tests of this type are difficult to conduct with accuracy, owing to errors
introduced by loss of weight during repeated handling of the sample. Some confirmation
of this pre-consolidation theory is provided by the drying curve D obtained on the same soil.
For this test the soil &as initially slurried to a high moisture content, the object being com-
pletely to destroy the structure of the clay. The suction applied to the soil was then pro-
gressively increased and the corresponding decrease of moisture content observed. The
coincidence of the two curves A and D for suctions exceeding +F 4.4, indicates that at this
suction the structure created in the slurried soil, by the drying process, is similar to that of
undisturbed natural soil. The point at which the two curves meet would appear to indicate
the maximum suction the soil moisture had reached during its history as a result of over-
burden and water-table conditions.
Partially compressible soils. Between the incompressible and fully compressible soil types
there is a range of soils which are normally not saturated, but which exhibit some shrinkage
when the moisture content is reduced. Such soils can be referred to as partially compressible.
When the suction is increased in an initially saturated, partially compressible soil, the
structure remains saturated over a limited range of suctions but the moisture content falls
owing to shrinkage. Air enters the soil at a suction depending mainly on the clay content
of the soil, but some shrinkage continues to occur as the suction is increased. The general
characteristics of the complete relationship are therefore intermediate between those of a
fully compressible, saturated soil, and an incompressible soil. Fig. 6 shows the relationship
for a sandy soil with a low clay content (grading inset on the figure). This relationship applies
t one condition of dry density. Owing to the low clay content any re-orientation of the clay
frqaction during drying is insufficient to prevent closure of the loop on subsequent re-wetting.

SOIL SUCTION AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF MOISTURE IN SOIL

If the suction at any point in a soil initially in a state of moisture equilibrium is changed,
water will redistribute itself until a new equilibrium condition is established. Even in a
homogeneous soil, an equilibrium moisture condition may not mean a uniform moisture
content. The previous discussion of the suction characteristics of soils has shown that if one
part of the soil reaches equilibrium as a result of an increase in moisture content, it may have
a lower equilibrium moisture content than an adjacent part of the soil which has reached
equilibrium from the drying condition. A small moisture gradient will also be present owing
to the mass of the water itself.
In the field the moisture in exposed soil is never in a state of true equilibrium. Rain water
absorbed into the soil by the suction forces is subsequently partially or wholly removed, as a
result of vapour transfer between the soil and the atmosphere, or by transpiration from
vegetation. Both of these processes create suction gradients within the soil itself. If,
how ver, the soil is covered by an impervious surfacing which can be regarded as having an
*lmJ te area, an equilibrium moisture distribution will be reached. This distribution will be
determined in general by the suction properties of the soil and the position of the water-table.
Further, if the moisture distribution at the time when the soil is covered is known, the extent
to which the moisture content of the soil will change after covering can be estimated. Methods
which are being developed at the Road Research tiboratory for calculating the equilibrium
 MOVEMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN SOILS 9
moisture distribution in soils under an infinite impermeable surfacing are discussed in detail
in the next section of the article. The extent to which the conclusions can be applied directly
to roads and airfields is considered later.
Fig. 6

Percentoqe
by weiqht
Clay (smaller than 0.002 mm) II
Slit(0.002 -O.Ob mm.) 18
Fme sohd (O.Ob -0.2mm) 9
Medfum sand (0.2-O.bmmJ 42
Coanc sand (O.b- 2-O mm.) 20

/
Wetting CWVQ
(oven-dryness
b saturation)

MOISTURE CONTENT-p ccnl

Relationship between suction and moisture content

for a sandy soil having a small clay content

THE ESTIMATION OF THE EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE DISTRIBUTION

WITH DEPTH UNDER AN INFINITE IMPERVIOUS PAVEMENT

For materials of rigid structure, or for incompressible soils, the problem is simplified by the
fact that no part of the overburden pressure is carried by the pore water. Below the water-
table the material is saturated and, assuming uniform density conditions, the moisture
content is constant with depth.
At a height x centimetres above the water-table the equilibrium suction is x centimetres
of water, and the equilibrium pF of the material is loglOx. Hence the moisture content at
any height above the water-table can be read directly from the appropriate suction/moisture-
content relationship. Suction curves of the type shown in Figs 2 and 4, which represent the
limiting conditions for the material fluctuating in moisture content between saturation and
oven-dryness, could only be used, however, to give limiting moisture distributions between
which the equilibrium distribution beneath an impervious surface would lie. Curves A and
 10 D. CRONEY

B of Fig. 7 show limiting moisture distributions calculated in this manner for the soil referred
to in Fig. 4, and for a water-table at a depth of 4 feet.
The actual equilibrium moisture distribution reached under an impervious surface would
depend, in practice, on the moisture conditions prevailing at the time when the soil was
‘covered. During winter, under the climatic conditions of Great Britain, the presence of
gravitational water is likely to increase the moisture content in the upper layers of unsaturated
Fig. 7
MOISTURE CONTENT -per t
2 4 b a 12 14

dlrtrlbutlon for watcr- dlrtributton for water-

table 4ft down - soil table 4 ft down - soil
covered when moisture covered when moisture
distribution as Curve 0) distribution 01 Curve C)

Water-table

Moisture distribution curves for incompressible soil

soils to a value equivalent to a condition close to saturation. If, therefore, the surface is
covered during winter, the suction/moisture-content relationship followed by the soil will be
represented closely by the drying curve from saturation. If the soil referred to in Fig. 7
were covered when the moisture distribution was as curve C, the equilibrium distribution
reached would be given by curve A. During summer the extent to which the upper layers
of uncovered soil dry out depends on the air temperature and humidity conditions ; a state
approximating to oven-dryness could never be reached except perhaps in the extreme surface.
If the soil is surfaced under dry summer conditions the soil will become wetter, but the
moisture contents reached in the upper soil layers will be less than those for the same soil
surfaced in winter. Referring again to Fig. 7, suppose the moisture distribution in the
uncovered soil in summer were given by curve D. On covering the surface, each horizon of
 MOVEMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN SOILS 11

the sod would become wetter along a different wetting curve of the suction/moisture-content
relationship, depending on the extent to which the soil had dried along the drying curve.
From a family of wetting curves, each originating from a different point on the drying curve
of suction/moisture-content relationship (saturation to oven-dryness), and a knowledge of
the actual distribution of moisture with depth at the time of surfacing, the equilibrium
moisture distribution under the surfacing can be obtained. Since a family of wetfing curves
can be drawn with reasonable accuracy if one experimentally determined curve is available,
the complexity of the problem of estimating the equilibrium distribution is reduced. Curve
E on Fig. 7 shows the equilibrium moisture distribution calculated in this manner for the
soil wetting from the moisture condition represented by curve D. The conclusion is, there-
fore, that if an incompressible soil is covered in winter, it will become drier until the moisture
distribution corresponds to the upper limiting value corresponding to the prevailing water-
table condition. Under summer conditions, any part of the soil which has a moisture content
lower than that given by the lower limiting moisture distribution will become wetter, to reach
a value given by that distribution. The moisture content of any part of the soil which has
not dried to the lower limiting moisture distribution will become wetter only to a limited
extent.
The problem of estimating the equilibrium moisture distribution in saturated clays under
an impervious surfacing of infinite extent, is complicated because the over-burden in such
soils is carried by the soil water and not by the solids. The moisture content in any zone
depends therefore both on the suction properties of the soil and on the overburden above the
zone. If the moisture content at any point in the soil is known, the suction associated with
this moisture content can be obtained directly from the suction/moisture-content relationship.
The actual pressure in the soil water is the algebraic sum of this suction and the pressure
imposed by the overburden. As in the incompressible soil, the resultant pressure (positive
or negative) is, under equilibrium conditions, determined by the position of the water-table.
The moisture under an impervious surface will therefore adjust itself until the algebraic sum
of the suction at every point and the corresponding overburden pressure is equal to the
equilibrium pore-water pressure, as determined by the position of the water-table. This
condition can be expressed by the equation :-
P-s=u . . . . . . . . . . . (I)
where P denotes the pressure due to overburden ;
S ,, the suction (expressed as a positive quantity) corresponding to the moisture
content at the point under consideration (as deduced from the suction/
moisture-content relationship) ; and
21 the pore-water pressure determined by the position of the water-table.
This equatio:, which corresponds to the consolidation equation a, = 0, - ~4,enables a new
interpretation to be made of the significance of the effective pressure +, in relation to the
normal pressure 0,. At the water-table, the suction of the soil is exactly neutralized by the
over-burden pressure ; above the water-table there is a residual negative pore-water pressure,
and below the water-table there is a residual positive pore-water pressure.
The manner in which equation (1) is used to obtain the equilibrium moisture distribution
is discussed in detail in another article (Croney, Lewis, and Coleman, 1950). Since the over-
burden pressure P is a function of the moisture content of the soil, a successive approximation
method must be used to obtain the distribution. The moisture content is first considered to
be constant with depth, at an average value chosen from a preliminary inspection of the
suction/moisture-content relationship. Using this value of moisture content, the bulk density
of the soil is calculated and used to give a first approximation for P at each depth in the
soil. Using equation (1) the suction at each depth is calculated and hence the moisture
content of the soil. This procedure gives a first approximation to the moisture distribution
which is sufficiently accurate for most purposes. If required a second approximation can be
12 D. CRONEY

made, using the moisture distribution obtained, to calculate more accurately the overburden
pressure acting at each level and hence a more accurate picture of the moisture distribution
itself. Since any superimposed load increases the value of P by a fixed amount at every
level in the soil, equation (1) can also be used to determine the effect which surface loading
has on the equilibrium moisture distribution in saturated clay soils.
As for incompressible soils, the final moisture distribution in a saturated clay must depend
to some extent on the moisture conditions at the time when the surface is covered, since the
previous moisture history of the soil determines which suction/moisture-content curve should
be used in arriving at the distribution. During the geological period when the overburden
was in the process of formation, it is probable that the suction/moisture-content relationship
for the heavy clay, referred to in Fig. 5, followed a drying curve such as curve D to a point X,
corresponding to the minimum moisture content and maximum suction attained by the soil.
During the removal of the overburden by subsequent geological processes the clay would take
up moisture, following a wetting curve such as curve F shown chain-dotted on Fig. 5.
Neglecting the effect of surface moisture changes, the condition of the soil in the ground
tiould therefore be represented by the curve F, and a theoretical moisture distribution based
on curve F can be deduced for any position of the water-table, using the method already
discussed. Curve a of Fig. 8 shows this distribution for the water-table at a depth of 4 feet.
Assuming that the water-table was raised to the surface the distribution would move to the
right to give curve b, which would thus represent the wettest condition which could be
present in the soil. In practice this condition would never be realized during the short
period of one winter, and curve d represents a more probable winter moisture distribution,
Once the soil had wetted it would not return to the theoretical moisture distribution on sealing
the surface, since the soil would dry along a suction curve to the right of the curve along which
it wetted, i.e. it would dry along a curve of the type A on Fig. 5, the actual curve depending
on the point reached on the wetting curve F, before drying commenced. By drawing a family
of such drying curves it is possible to estimate the extent of the drying out which would occur
for any given initial moisture distribution. Curves c and e in Fig. 8 show equilibrium distri-
butions obtained in this manner for the initial distributions b and d. (No attempt has been
made to draw a family of drying curves on Fig. 5.)
During summer the upper few feet of the soil dry out owing to evaporation and transpiration
from vegetation, to give a moisture distribution of the type shown by curve f of Fig. 8.
During the drying process the suction condition of the soil would be represented by a family
of drying curves of the type already discussed, the actual curve followed by the soil at a given
depth depending on the extent to which the soil at that depth had previously wetted along
curve F of Fig. 5. On sealing the surface and thereby preventing evaporation, the soil would
re-wet following a family of wetting curves, of which curve E of Fig. 5 is an example. Since
these wetting curves would all re-join the main wetting curve F, it follows that the soil would,
on sealing, become wetter again to reach the theoretical distribution curve a of Fig. 8. If,
however, during the drying process any part of the soil reached a moisture content lower
than that represented by the point X on Fig. 5, some modification of the particle packing
would have occurred in that part of the soil, which would prevent complete re-wetting to the
curve A.
The conclusion is that if a compressible soil is covered in winter with an impermeable
surface of infinite extent, when the moisture content of the surface soil is above the theoretical
equilibrium value, the moisture content will decrease only to a limited extent, the final
equilibrium being above the theoretical value. If, on the other hand, the soil is covered in
summer when the moisture content is low, wetting to the theoretical equilibrium will occur.
Increasing the overburden on a saturated clay has an effect on the equilibrium moisture
distribution similar to lowering the water-table. If the surface load is increased by n lb. per
square foot, without any change of water-table level, the moisture content of the soil must
decrease so that the suction at every point is increased by II lb. per square foot. Hence
 MOVEMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN SOILS 13
Fig. 8

MOISTURE CONTENT-per cent

L
f Curve c
Equillbriun moisture
dtstrtbutlon for soter-
7 . .a A,. . _~.I

Moisture distribution curves for saturated compressible soil

the addition of the surface surcharge has the same effect on the moisture distribution as
lowering the water-table a distance of ~~162.5feet.
The change of volume which accompanies any change in the moisture distribution in a
saturated clay, can be deduced from the initial and final moisture distribution curves. The
change of volume per unit volume (W/V) which accompanies any change of moisture content
can be readily determined. This quantity can be integrated over any finite depth of soil to
give the total volume change occurring within that depth.
A method of calculating the equilibrium moisture distribution in unsaturated partially
compressible soils, i.e. the case intermediate between the incompressible soil and the saturated
clay, is at present being developed at the Road Research Laboratory. In this case the over-
burden is carried partly by the pore water and partly by the soil particles, the former fraction
decreasing as the soil becomes drier. From the progress of the work to date, it appears that
the fraction of the overburden carried by the soil water can be deduced from the shrinkage
characteristics of the soil. For soils of this type, therefore, the volume/moisture-content
relationship is required in addition to the suction/moisture-content relationship. Possible
methods of studying these relationships simultaneously are under review.
If the fraction u of the overburden carried by the pore water can be deduced in this
manner, equation (I) can be expressed in a more general form :-
S--s=U . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
This equation will then be applicable to all soils, since, for the incompressible soil a = 0 and
equation (2) becomes -s = u, the relationship which in effect was used in the previous
discussion of the distribution of moisture in incompressible soils. In a saturated clay a =,l,
and equation (2) reverts to equation (1) used in the analysis of the case for saturated clays.
**
14 D. CRONEY

MOISTURE DISTRIBUTION IN NON-UNIFORM SOILS

Soil deposits are seldom, if ever, uniform either with depth or area. Whilst it is possible
from suction tests carried out on the surface soil to estimate the equilibrium moisture content
in the surface, the change of moisture content with depth is likely to be influenced by varia-
tions in the soil type. In soils which are not uniform with depth, the equilibrium moisture
distribution can be estimated from a number of suction tests carried out on samples taken
from different depths.
The possibility of relating the suction properties of soils to soil type and density is being
investigated at the Road Research Laboratory. If a reliable basis for a correlation of this
kind can be found it should be possible to estimate the equilibrium moisture content beneath
an impermeable surface and the equilibrium moisture distribution with depth, from the
results of tests simpler and more quickly carried out than the suction/moisture-content
determination.
For cohesive soils, a preliminary investigation has been made into the possibility of basing
equilibrium moisture contents in undisturbed soils solely on the results of the index tests.
Since the suction properties of soils are affected by the geological and chemical history of the
soil as well as by mechanical disturbance, a unique relationship between these properties and
the liquid and plastic limits would not be expected. However, for many clay soils there does
appear to be a correlation between the amount of water which the undisturbed soil will hold
at a given suction, and the liquid and plastic limits of the soil. The suction properties of a
number of clay soils obtained from southern England have been determined, and the amount
of water held in the soil (in the wetting condition) has been expressed, in terms of the index
test results, by a family of curves each of which corresponds to a suction between pF zero
and pF 3. Fig. 9 (a) shows a typical curve for PF 2. The scatter of the points may in part
be attributable to the experimental techniques used for determining the suction relation-
ships for the soils. These techniques have since been considerably improved. The scatter
is too great to be accounted for wholly in this manner. The geological factors already
mentioned are probably partly responsible for some of the discrepancies. If the equilibrium
Figs 9
(a) (b)
40 MOISTURE CONTENT-per cent
1 0 IO 20 30 40 50
I I
COIlCrete

a depth
n
4 40
,o

60 I I
I
I I/ P I

Water- table 01 -
oppror aft
MOISTURE CONTENT-per cent 80

Relationship between moisture content Measured change in moisture content

of clay soils at pF2 and lipd and plas- with depth, beneath concrete road,
tic limits (soils wetting) compared with distributions estimated
from the change in liquid and plastic
limits with depth
 MOVEMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN SOILS 15
suction at different depths in the soil is calculated using the methods already discussed, and
the liquid or plastic limits of the soil at those depths are known, a family of curves of the
type shown in Fig. 9 (a) can be used to determine the equilibrium moisture distribution.
Fig. 9 (b) shows the actual measured distribution of moisture beneath an impervious surface,
and the distributions calculated in the above manner from both the liquid and the plastic
limit profiles. The distribution based on the plastic limit agrees more closely with the
experimental results than does that deduced from liquid limits.
A great deal more research would, of course, be required to ascertain to which soils curves
of the type shown in Fig. 9 (a) are applicable before the curves could be used with confidence
in practice.

APPLICATION OF THE EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE DISTRIBUTION

CONCEPT TO ROADS AND AIRFIELDS

The methods outlined in this article can be used to estimate the moisture content beneath
road or airfield pavements if :-
(a) The surfacing is impervious to water in the liquid and vapour phases.
(b) The moisture transfer between the soil and the atmosphere, which occurs at the
boundary of the covered area, has a negligible effect on the moisture distribution
beneath the pavement (i.e. if the pavement can be regarded effectively as having
an infinite area).
A concrete or bituminous surfacing will normally fulfil the first of these conditions.
Whether or not the second is fulfilled will depend primarily on the prevailing climatic con-
ditions. At the boundary of the road or airfield, if the uncovered soil at a given depth is
drier or wetter than that at the same depth under the pavement, suction and vapour pressure
gradients will cause water to move into or out of the subgrade, preventing the attainment
of a true equilibrium distribution. In Great Britain, where seasonal fluctuations of moisture
content affect only the top few feet of soil and where water-table conditions are generally
high, the influence of boundary effects on the moisture distribution beneath pavements is
small. During prolonged periods of drought, however, moisture conditions near the edges of
roads may be affected sufficiently to cause settlement and cracking of roads constructed on
clay subgrades.
Under desert conditions, where the water-table may be at a very considerable depth and
where the soil is naturally very dry, an equilibrium moisture distribution of the type just dis-
cussed would never be realized under a road, the width of which might represent only a negli-
gible fraction of the depth of the water-table. Under such conditions, temperature gradients
and the associated movements of water in the vapour phase are likely to play a more im-
portant part in determining the moisture content beneath the pavement than the hydrostatic
suction gradients just considered.
It is difficult to say, without experimental evidence, to what extent the moisture distri-
bution beneath structures can be estimated using these methods under other climatic
conditions. To obtain this evidence the Road Research Laboratory is encouraging, in the
British Colonies and elsewhere, field studies into the moisture distribution under covered
and uncovered areas of soil and the seasonal changes which occur in these distributions.

EFFECT OF VEGETATION ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF MOISTURE IN SOIL

The suction exerted by the roots of vegetation can have a considerable effect on the
moisture distribution under pavements. Under normal conditions the water removed by
vegetation is replaced by rainfall. If, however, the supply of rainfall is removed, e.g. as a
result of prolonged drought or due to paving of the soil round the vegetation, the roots are
capable of extracting moisture until the suction of the soil rises to a value exceeding $F 4.
This may mean a considerable reduction of moisture content, accompanied by shrinkage if
the soil is compressible. During drought the hair roots through which the water is extracted
 16 D. CRONEY: MOVEMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN SOILS

develop rapidly under structures on account of the comparative availability of the water.
Rapid changes of soil moisture content result, and, in the case of a road, the riding qualities may
be affected. When heavy clays are dried by trees to a moisture content lower than that pre-
viously reached in the soil, the soil will not re-assume its initial moisture condition after
removal of the trees, and some permanent settlement results. The wetting process after the
removal of vegetation is necessarily slow, since the complicated root structure by which the
moisture is removed is not available to assist the wetting process.

EXPERIMENTS TO INVESTIGATE THE DISTRIBUTION OF MOISTURE IN SOILS

Three approaches are being used at the Road Research Laboratory to verify the moisture
dist,ribution theories outlined in this article :-
(1) During the investigation of several road foundation failures on clay subgrades, the
moisture distribution with depth has been studied by boring and sampling. Suction tests
have been carried out on undisturbed samples taken from beneath the road surface. The
moisture content beneath the pavement has generally been found to agree closely with the
value calculated for the water-table and surcharge conditions. Where the soil has been
reasonably uniform with depth, there has been satisfactory agreement between the actual
and estimated moisture distributions with depth.
(2) A programme of research is in hand in which the seasonal variations in moisture
content are being measured, both beneath paved areas and in adjacent uncovered soil. In
addition to moisture content it is proposed to record changes in pore-water pressure and soil
temperature at different depths. Experiments with plaster of Paris moisture gauges (Croney,
Coleman, and Currer, 1951) carried out in connexion with this investigation, have shown that
such gauges are suitable for measuring suctions between $F 2.5 and PF 4, but they do not
provide a reliable method of measuring changes of soil moisture content.
(3) Experiments with clay blocks have been in progress for some time at the Laboratory.
The blocks, approximately 12 inches square and 18 inches deep, were excavated from a depth
of about 20 feet. They are being allowed to become wetter in a bed of sand with a water-table
2 feet below the upper surface. Changes of pore-water pressure are being observed by
tensionmeters at different points in the blocks, and, in the case of one block, swelling is being
measured by dial gauges. The suction properties of each block have been studied in-
dependently.
After approximately 15 months the blocks are approaching an equilibrium condition.
Preliminary measurements of the moisture distribution with depth indicate that the clay
has become wetter by an average of 4 to 5 per cent of moisture content, and that the equi-
librium moisture distributions are likely to be in reasonably close agreement with those
predicted from the theory relating to saturated clay soils.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The work described in this article was carried out at the Road Research Laboratory of the
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research as part of the programme of the Road
Research Board. The article is published by permission of the Director of Road Research.
The Author’s thanks are due to Mr D. J. Maclean, head of the Soils Section of the Road
Research Laboratory, and to Mr J. D. Coleman who has been closely associated with the work.

REFERENCES
CRONEY, D., and COLEMAN, J. D., 1948. Soil thermodynamics applied to the movement of moisture in road
foundations. Proc. 7th Int. Congr. Appl. Mech. 3 : 163-177.
CRONEY, D., LEWIS, W. A., and COLEMAN, J. D., 1950. Calculation of the moisture distribution beneath
structures. Civ. Engg. (L.) 45 (524) : 103-106.
CRONEY, D., COLEMAN, J. D., and CURRER, E. W. H., 1951. The electrical resistance method of measuring
soil moisture. Bvit. J. Appl. Phys., 2 (4) : 85-91.
SCHOFIELD, R. K.. 1935. The pF of the water in soil. Trans. 3rd Int. Congv. Soil. Sci. 2 : 37-S.